Nguyn l Dirichlet

Trn Nam Dng

Trng H KHTN Tp HCM
(Trch bi ging Cc phng php v k thut chng minh, trnh by ti chng
trnh Gp g ton hc 2010 do HQG Tp.HCM t chc t ngy 25/1-31/1/2010)
Nguyn l Dirichlet dng c in thng c dng chng minh tn ti theo
kiu khng xy dng (non-constructive), tc l bit i tng tn ti nhng khng
ch ra c th.
Nguyn l Dirichlet trong s hc
Trong s hc, nguyn l Dirichlet thng lin quan n cc bi ton chia ht,
nguyn t cng nhau. V d cc bi ton kinh in sau.
V d 1. Chn ra n+1 s t 2n s nguyn dng u tin.
a) Chng minh rng trong cc s c chn, c hai s phn bit x, y
nguyn t cng nhau.
b) Chng minh rng trong cc s c chn, c hai s x > y m x chia ht
cho y.
V d 2. Chng minh rng t n s nguyn bt k lun c th chn ra mt s hoc
mt s s c tng chia ht cho n.
V d 3. (nh l Fermat-Euler v tng hai bnh phng)
Chng minh rng nu p l s nguyn t dng 4k+1 th tn ti cc s nguyn a, b
sao cho p = a2 + b2.
Chng minh. V p c dng 4k+1 nn theo kt qu ca nh l phn u, tn ti
s nguyn N sao cho N2 + 1 chia ht cho p, hay ni cch khc, N 2 -1 (mod p).
Xt cc s dng x + Ny vi x, y l cc s nguyn thuc [0, [ p ]] . C tt c
([ p ] 1) 2 s nh vy. V ([ p ] 1) 2 p nn theo nguyn l Dirichlet, tn ti hai
cp s (x, y) (x, y) sao cho x + Ny x + Ny (mod p). T y suy ra
x x N(y y) (mod p)
=>
(x x)2 N2(y y)2 (mod p)
By gi, nh li rng N2 - 1 (mod p), ta suy ra
(x x)2 - (y y)2 (mod p)

(x x)2 + (y y)2 (mod p)

Cui cng, ch rng 0 < (x x)2 + (y y)2 < 2p ta suy ra iu phi chng minh.

Ngoi k thut kinh in vi chung v th, ta c th s dng mt bin th ca

nguyn l Dirichlet nh sau:
Tnh cht. Nu A, B l cc tp hp tho mn iu kin |A| + |B| > |A B| th
B 0.

Sau y l mt p dng ca tnh cht ny.

V d 4. Chng minh rng nu p l s nguyn t dng 4k+3 th tn ti cc s
nguyn x, y sao cho x2 + y2 + 1 chia ht cho p.
Chng minh. t ri = i2 mod p vi i = 1, 2, , (p-1)/2 v s i = 1 i2 mod p, i = 1,
2, , (p-1)/2 th d dng chng minh c rng r i i mt phn bit v si i mt
phn bit. Hn na, ri v si u thuc {1, 2, , p-1}.
t A = {r1, , r(p-1)/2}, B = {s1, , s(p-1)/2} th |A| = |B| = (p-1)/2 v |A B| p-1.
Xy ra hai trng hp
Trng hp 1. Nu | A B | < p-1 th theo tnh cht nn trn, ta c A B , tc
l tn ti i, j sao cho r i = sj, tng ng vi i2 - 1- j2 (mod p) i2 + j2 + 1
chia ht cho p (pcm).
Trng hp 2. Nu | A B | = p-1 th A B = v nh vy, cc s r 1, r2, , r(p1)/2, s1, s2, , s(p-1)/2 i mt phn bit v ta c
r1 + r2 + + r(p-1)/2 + s1 + s2 + + s(p-1)/2 = 1 + 2 + + p-1 0 (mod p)
iu ny mu thun v theo nh ngha ca ri v si, ta c
r1 + r2 + + r(p-1)/2 + s1 + s2 + + s(p-1)/2 12 + 22 + + [(p-1)/2]2 + (-1-12) +
+ (-1 [(p-1)/2]2) -(p-1)/2 (mod p).
Vy trng hp 2 khng xy ra, v nh th ta ri vo trng hp 1. Ta c iu
phi chng minh.
Ghi ch. L lun A v B v khng B suy ra A c gi l Tam on lun ri.
Bi tp
1. Xt dy s Fibonacci xc nh bi F 1 = F2 = 1, Fn+1 = Fn + Fn-1 vi mi n 2. Chng minh rng
vi mi s nguyn dng m > 1. Tn ti v s s hng ca dy s chia ht cho m.
2. T khong (22n, 23n) chn ra 22n-1+1 s l. Chng minh rng trong cc s c chn, tn ti hai
s m bnh phng mi s khng chia ht cho s cn li.
3. a) Chng minh rng khng tn ti s nguyn dng n sao cho 10n + 1 chia ht cho 2003.
b) Chng minh rng tn ti cc s nguyn dng m, n sao cho 10 m + 10n + 1 chia ht cho 2003.
4. (Vietnam TST 2001) Dy s nguyn dng a1, a2, , an, tho mn iu kin

1 an+1 an 2001 vi mi n = 1, 2, 3, Chng minh rng tn ti v s cp s p, q sao cho q >

p v aq chia ht cho ap.

Nguyn l Dirichlet trong i s

Trong i s nguyn l Dirichlet c th hin qua tnh cht c bn sau: Nu trn
on [a, b] c n s thc x1, x2, , xn (n 2) th tn ti cc ch s i j sao cho |
xi-xj| (b-a)/(n-1).
x y

. .
V d 5. Gia 7 s thc bt k lun tm c 2 s x v y sao cho 0 1 xy
3
Gi cc s cho l a 1, a2, , a7. Vi mi s thc a, tn ti s thuc khong
(-/2, /2) sao cho a = tg(). Gi s a1 = tg(1), a2 = tg(2), , a7 = tg(7). Theo
tnh cht nu trn, trong 7 s 1, 2, , 7 tn ti hai s c hiu khng vt qu
/6. Gi s hai s ny l v , trong > . Khi

tg ( ) tg ( )

1
tg ( ) tg
.
1 tg ( )tg ( )
6
3

Nh vy cc s x = tg() v y = tg() l cc s cn tm.

nh l Kronecker v s tr mt l mt nh l c nhiu ng dng trong gii tch,
i s, gii tch phc. Di y ta xt chng minh rt s cp ca nh l ny (
dng tng ng)
nh l Kronecker. Nu l s v t th tp hp S ={ {n } | n N*} tr mt
trong [0, 1].
Chng minh. Ta cn chng minh rng vi mi khong (a, b) [0, 1], tn ti s
nguyn dng n sao cho {n} (a, b).
Trc ht, ta tm s nguyn dng N sao cho N > 1/(b-a). By gi xt N+1 s
{}, {2}, , {(N+1)} thuc on [0, 1]. Theo nguyn l Dirichlet, tn ti hai
s {p}, {q} vi 1 p < q N+1 sao cho |{p} {q}| 1/N.
rng {q} {p} = q - [q] - p + [p] = (q-p) - [q] + [p]. Do nu
{q} {p} > 0 th {(q-p)} = {q} {p}, cn nu {q} {p} < 0 th
{(q-p)} = 1 ({q} {p})
Ta xt hai trng hp
Trng hp 1. 1/N > {q} {p} > 0. Khi t k = q p, ta tm c s
nguyn dng k sao cho 0 < {k} < 1/N.

By gi ta gn m l s nguyn dng nh nht sao cho m{k} > a th ta c

(m-1){k} a. Do m{k} a + {k} < a + 1/N < b. Suy ra m{k} (a, b)
[0, 1].
Nhng mk = m[k] + m{k}. Do 0 < m{k} < 1 nn t y ta c {mk} =
m{k}. t n = mk, ta c {n} (a, b) (pcm).
Trng hp 2. 0 > {q} {p} > -1/N. Khi t k = q p, ta tm c s
nguyn dng k sao cho 1 1/N < {k} < 1. t = 1 - {k} th 0 < < 1/N.
Chng minh tng t nh trn, ta tm c s nguyn dng m sao cho m thuc
(1-b, 1-b), tc l
1 b < m(1 - {k}) < 1 a

a < m{k} m + 1 < b

a < {m{k}} < b

Cui cng, ta c mk = m[k] + m{k} nn {mk} = {m{k}} nn t n = mk ta
c iu phi chng minh.
Mt tnh hung rt n gin khc ca nguyn l Diriclet li c nhng ng dng rt
hiu qu trong nhiu bi ton chng minh bt ng thc, c bit l cc bt ng
thc c iu kin. l ch sau: Vi m l mt s thc cho trc v n 3 s
thc a1, a2, , an bt k th lun tm c hai s trong cc s ny nm cng mt
pha i vi m.
Gi hai s l x v y th ta c bt ng thc hin nhin sau: (x-m)(y-m) 0, t
xy + m2 m(x+y). Nh vy, ta so snh c hai i lng khng cng bc
vi nhau. Sau y chng ta s xem xt mt s v d p dng.
V d 6. Cho x, y, z l cc s thc dng tho mn iu kin x + y + z + 1 = 4xyz.
Chng minh rng
xy + yz + zx x + y + z.
tng u tin ta ngh n l x l iu kin bng php th

x y 1
4 yz 1

vo bt

ng thc cn chng minh, vit li thnh

x y 1
( x y 1) x y xy
4 xy 1

n y, ng li chng minh hnh thnh. V tri r rng 1 vi mi x, y cn

v phi s 1 nu x, y nm cng pha nhau i vi 1. Nhng iu ny, theo nhn
xt n gin trn ta lun c th chn c.
V d 7. Cho a, b, c l cc s thc khng m. Chng minh rng

(a2 + 2)(b2 + 2)(c2 + 2) 3(a + b + c)2

p dng bt ng thc CBS, ta c
(a + b + c)2 (a2 + 1 + 1)(1 + b 2 + c2) = (a2 + 2)(b2 + c2 + 1). Nh vy ta ch cn
cn chng minh
(b2 + 2)(c2 + 2) 3(b2 + c2 + 1)

(b2 1)(c2 1) 0
iu ny lun c c nu ta chn b2, c2 cng pha nhau i vi 1.
Bi tp
5. Cho a, b, c > 0, x = a + 1/b, y = b + 1/c, z = c + 1/a. Chng minh rng
xy + yz + zx 2(x+y+z)
6. (USA MO 2001) Cho a, b, c l cc s thc khng m tho mn iu kin a 2 + b2 + c2 + abc = 4.
Chng minh rng
0 ab + bc + ca abc 2.
7. Vi i = 1, 2, , 7 cc s a i, bi l cc s thc khng m tho mn iu kin
Chng minh rng tn ti cc ch s i j sao cho |ai aj| + |bi bj| 1.

a i + bi 2.

8. (VMO 1996) Cho x, y, z l cc s thc dng tho mn iu kin xy + yz + zx + xyz = 4.

Chng minh rng
x + y + z xy + yz + zx.
9. Tm s thc k nh nht sao cho xyz + 2 + k[(x-1) 2 + (y-1)2 + (z-1)2] x + y + z vi mi x, y, z
> 0.

Nguyn l Dirichlet trong t hp

T hp l mnh t mu m nht cho cc phng php v k thut chng minh.
V nguyn l Dirichlet khng phi l mt ngoi l. Trong t hp, mt c im
c trng l s bng n t hp ca cc trng hp, v vy, nguyn l Dirichlet
cng vi cc nguyn l khc nh nguyn l cc hn, nguyn l bt bin chnh l
nhng cng c quan trng chng ta nh hng trong bin cc trng hp.
Nguyn l Dirichlet thng c s dng trong cc bi ton th, t mu, cc
bi ton v thi u th thao ( th c hng), quen nhau ( th v hng).
V d 8. Trong mt gii bng chuyn c 8 i tham gia, thi u vng trn 1 lt.
Chng minh rng tm c 4 i A, B, C, D sao cho A thng B, C, D, B thng C,
D v C thng D.

Trong bng chuyn khng c ho, do 8 i thi u vng trn 1 lt th s c tt

c 28 trn thng. Theo nguyn l Dirichlet, tn ti i bng A c t nht 4 trn
thng. Xt 4 i thua A. 4 i ny u vi nhau 6 trn, do tn ti mt i thng
t nht 2 trn (trong s cc trn u gia 4 i ny vi nhau). Gi s l B v C,
D l 2 i thua B. Cui cng, nu C thng D th A, B, C, D l 4 i cn tm, cn
nu D thng C th 4 i cn tm l A, B, D, C.
Bi ton Ramsey l mt trong nhng bi ton kinh in m nhng trng hp c
s ca n rt th v v ph hp vi mc ton s cp.
V d 9. Chng minh rng trong mt nhm 6 ngi bt k c 3 ngi i mt
quen nhau hoc 3 ngi i mt khng quen nhau.
V d 10. Trong mt nhm gm 2n+1 ngi vi mi n ngi tn ti mt ngi
khc n ngi ny quen vi tt c h. Chng minh rng trong nhm ngi ny c 1
ngi quen vi tt c mi ngi.
Ta chng minh rng trong nhm ngi ny c n+1 ngi i mt quen nhau. R
rng c 2 ngi quan nhau v nu nh c k ngi i mt quen nhau (trong k
n) th tn ti mt ngi khc trong s h quen vi k ngi ny. T suy ra tn
ti n+1 ngi i mt quen nhau A1, A2, , An+1.
Xt n ngi cn li. Theo iu kin,tn ti mt ngi Ai quen vi tt c n ngi
ny. Nhng khi Ai quen vi tt c mi ngi.
B quyt thnh cng ca nguyn l Dirichlet chnh l k thut xy chung v
to th. Trong nhiu bi ton, chung l g, th l g kh r rng, nhng trong
nhiu bi ton, xy chung v to th l c mt s tinh t. Ta phi bit chn cc
thnh phn chnh v hng n mc tiu.
V d 11. Cc s t 1 n 200 c chia thnh 50 tp hp. Chng minh rng
trong mt cc tp hp c ba s l di 3 cnh ca mt tam gic.
Thot nhn bi ton c v kh ri. Nhng nu rng vi 0 < a < b < c th iu
kin cn v a, b, c l di ba cnh ca mt tam gic l a + b > c th bi
ton tr nn n gin hn. R rng nu ch xt cc s t 100 n 200 th ba s bt
k u l di 3 cnh ca 1 tam gic (a + b 100 + 101 = 201 > c). T ch
cn xt 101 con th l cc s t 100 n 200 ri p dng nguyn l Dirichlet cho
50 ci chung tp hp l xong. y, r rng cc s t 1 n 99 ch c tc dng
gy nhiu.
V d 12. Trn bn c quc t c 8 qun xe, i mt khng n nhau. Chng minh
rng trong cc khong cch i mt gia cc qun xe, c hai khong cch bng

nhau. Khong cch gia hai qun xe bng khong cch gia tm cc vung m
qun cc qun xe ng.
Trc ht ta m hnh ho bi ton. rng khong cch gia (p, q) v (m, n)
bng (p-m)2 + (q-n)2. Ta cn chng minh rng nu p1, p2, , p8 l mt hon v ca
(1, 2, 3, , 8) th tn ti cc tp ch s {m, n} {p, q} sao cho (m-n)2 + (pm-pn)2 =
(p-q)2 + (pp pq)2.
8 qun xe to ra 28 khong cch. Nhng nu ta tm 2 khong cch bng nhau gia
c 28 qun xe ny th ta s gp kh khn. Ta gii hn trong vic tm cc cp ch s
dng {n, n+1}. C 7 cp nh vy. Khi , ta ch cn tm n m sao cho (pn+1-pn)2 =
(pm+1-pm)2. V 1 pi 8 nu (pn+1-pn)2 ch c th l 1 trong 7 gi tr 12, 22, , 72. V
th ch c th xy ra hai trng hp.
Trng hp 1. Tn ti n m sao cho (pn+1-pn)2 = (pm+1-pm)2. Khi cc cp qun xe
ti (n, pn), (n+1, pn+1) v (m, pm), (m+1, pm+1) l cc cp xe cn tm.
Trng hp 2. Cc s (pn+1-pn)2 i mt phn bit. Khi tn ti n sao cho
(pn+1-pn)2 = 4.
Lc ny, xoay hng thnh ct, ta li i n vic hoc tn ti n m sao cho (qn+1qn)2 = (qm+1-qm)2 hoc tn ti k sao cho (q k+1-qk)2 = 22. Trong trng hp th nht,
bi ton c gii quyt tng t nh trng hp 1 trn. Trong trng hp th
hai, cc qun xe ti (n, pn), (n+1, pn+1) v (qk+1,k+1), (qk, k) l cc cp xe cn tm.
Bi tp
10. Cc s 1, 2, 3, , 100 c th l thnh vin ca 12 cp s nhn no c khng?
11. Trong mt a gic li c cha khng t hn m 2+1 im nguyn. Chng minh rng trong a
gic li ny tm c m+1 im nguyn cng nm trn mt ng thng.
12. Chng minh rng trong 9 ngi bt k, hoc c 3 ngi i mt quen nhau, hoc c 4 ngi
i mt khng quen nhau.
13. Chn ra 69 s nguyn dng t tp hp E = {1, 2, , 100}. Chng minh rng tn ti 4 s
a < b < c < d trong 4 s c chn sao cho a + b + c = d. Kt lun bi ton cn ng khng nu ta
thay 69 bng 68?
14. Cc vung ca bng 100 x 100 c t bng 4 mu sao cho trn mi hng v trn mi ct
c ng 25 c cng mt mu. Chng minh rng tn ti 2 dng v 2 ct sao cho bn nm
giao ca chng c t khc mu.

Nguyn l Dirichlet trong hnh hc

Trong hnh hc, nguyn l Dirichlet thng c s dng trong cc bi ton lin
quan n di cnh, din tch, ln ca gc, cc bi ton trn li nguyn.
y chng ti ch gii hn trong vic gii thiu mt ng dng p ca nguyn l
Dirichlet v chng hnh trong hnh hc v mt s bi tp.
nh l Minkowsky l mt v d rt th v v ng dng ca hnh hc trong l
thuyt s. Chng ta bt u t mt kt qu rt n gin nhng hu ch
B 1. Trn mt phng cho hnh F c din tch ln hn 1. Khi tn ti hai
im A, B thuc F, sao cho vc t AB c ta nguyn.
Chng minh: Li nguyn ct hnh G thnh cc mu nh. Chng cc mu ny ln
nhau, do tng din tch ca cc mu ln hn 1, nn c t nht 2 mu c im
chung (y chnh l mt bin th ca nguyn l Dirichlet). Gi A, B l hai im
nguyn thu ng vi im chung ny th A, B l hai im cn tm.
B 2. (B Minkowsky) Trn mt phng cho hnh li F nhn gc ta lm
tm i xng v c din tch ln hn 4. Khi n cha mt im nguyn khc gc
ta .
Chng minh: Xt php v t tm O, t s 1/2 , bin F thnh G. Do G c din tch
ln hn 1 nn theo b 1, tn ti hai im A, B thuc G sao cho vc-t AB c
to nguyn. Gi A l im i xng vi A qua O. Do hnh G i xng qua gc
to nn A thuc G. Do G li nn trung im M ca AB thuc G. Gi N l im
i xng ca O qua M th N thuc F v ON = AB, suy ra N l im nguyn khc
O (pcm).
nh l 3. (nh l Minkowsky) Cho a, b, c l cc s nguyn, trong a > 0 v
ac - b2 = 1. Khi phng trnh ax2 + 2bxy + cy2 = 1 c nghim nguyn.
Bi tp
14. Vi gi tr no ca n tn ti n im M 1, M2, , Mn sao cho tt c cc gc M iMjMk u khng
t?
15. Cho 9 im nm trong hnh vung cnh 1. Chng minh rng tn ti mt tam gic c nh ti
cc im cho c din tch khng vt qu 1/8.