Apprenticeship to Constructing and Evaluating Scientific Theories

K P Mohanan
In its broadest sense, a theory is a set of general propositions from which we can deduce a set of logical
consequences or rationally justified conclusions. This notion of theory appllies not only to scientific
inquiry, but also to mathematical inquiry, conceptual inquiry, ethical inquiry, and humanistic historical
inquiry. Given below is an example of a rudimentary theory.
Theoretical propositions:
All mammals are vertebrates.
All chimpanzees are mammals.

Logical consequence
Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that all chimpanzees are vertebrates.
To evaluate a theory, we need to first of all check (a) whether what are alleged to be rationally justified
conclusions deduced from the theory are actually rationally justified (i.e., whether the conclusions
actually follow from the theory), and (b) if the conclusions do follow, whether they serve the purpose for
which the theory is constructed.
In science, the purpose of the theory is to provide explanations. A scientific theory has to provide an
integrated explanation for a large body of puzzling phenomena.
To learn to construct explanations, we begin with explanations for each observational generalization, and
then integrate the different explanations into a single explanation. To take an example, we construct an
explanation for the daily cycle of temperature on the earth (an observational generalization of the
correlation between time and temperature.) We also construct an explanation for the yearly cycle of
temperature, which includes the twist that when it is summer in the northern hemisphere, it is winter in
the southern hemisphere, and vice versa. The next step is to integrate the two explanations into a single
unified explanation.
Next, we construct explanations for the following observational generalizations:
Daily cycle of the length of shadows under the sun.
Yearly cycle of the direction of shadows under the sun.
Yearly cycle of the length of days
The daily cycle of the observed position of the sun
The yearly cycle of the observed positions of sunrise and sunset
The daily cycle of the observed positions of stars
The retrograde motion of planets
Foucaults pendulum findings
The observational generalizations listed above constitute the explanandum (what needs to be explained.)
The theoretical propositions (the explanans) that yield the explanation are:
A.
B.
C.
D.

The earth revolves around the sun (in an elliptical orbit.)

While revolving, the earth also rotates around an axis.
There are approximately 365 cycles of rotation for each revolution.
The axis of rotation is slightly tilted to the perpendicular to the plane of revolution.

What students need to learn is how the observational generalizations are deduced from A-D (in
combination with certain propositions of optics and heat), thereby explaining the generalizations, and how
the explanation serves as the basis for an argument for A-D.