Earth Systems Science

Lecture 6: Ice age earth

I) Ice Age vs Glaciation

-Periods of global glaciation
-Geographic extent of global glaciation
II) Terrestrial Causes of Ice Age/Glaciation
Volcanism
-particle size of ash plume
-height of ash plume
-water vapor and high acidity gases

1. Ice age and glaciation

The Carbon Cycle

-reduction of carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere (Cause or Effect)
-methane content in the atmosphere

2. Terrestrial Causes of Ice Age/Glaciation

Magnetic Reversals
Plate Tectonics
-origins
-tectonic plate movement
-Snowball Earth

1. Volcanism
2. The carbon cycle
3. Magnetic reversals & plate tectonic

III) Celestial Causes of Ice Ages

Meteorite Impacts

3. Celestial Causes of Ice Ages

Solar Input
-solar constant
-sunspot cycles

1. Meteorite impact

Orbital Parameters (Milankovich Forcing)

-eccentricity, obliquity, precession of the equinoxes
-combined effects on latitudinal distribution of solar insolation

2. Solar input
3. Orbital parameters

Over earths climatic history there are at

least four protracted cold periods (Ice Age)
preserved in the rock/sediment record.

Climatic fluctuations over

timescales ranging from 109 to
1 years. Each successive
column, from left to right, is an
expanded version (by a factor
of 10) of one-tenth of the
previous column (taken from
Kutzbach, 1974).

The higher-frequency climatic

variations are nested within
lower-frequency changes.

Two of these ice ages occurred during the

Precambrian while the more recent
occurred during the Late Paleozoic and
Cenozoic Eras.

Proterozoic tillite and

striated bedrock

Late Paleozoic Dwyka tillite,

South Africa

The inferred cause(s) of a protracted Ice

Age must correspond to time-scales that
occur over millions of years. The inferred
causes of shorter term climatic fluctuations
must correspond to similar time-scales.

The climate record over the

past 1 million years shows at
least 10 glacial-interglacial
cycles. The cause(s) of
glacial-interglacial cycles within
the Cenozoic Ice Age must
address this time-scale of the
change, as well as its apparent
cyclicity.

The earths climate system is ultimately driven by solar radiation, but the
distribution of this energy is controlled by different components within
earths atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, cryosphere and lithosphere.

Solar radiation is distributed over a latitudinal gradient at the top of the

atmosphere. Heat can be transferred or exchanged within the different
components of the earths climate system over different time scales.

Atmospheric CO2, water vapor, and CH4 are important

greenhouse gases that permit short wave radiation to reach the
surface of the earth, but selectively absorb long wave radiation.

The relationship between global temperature and atmospheric CO2 level is

unmistakable as shown by ice core and other paleotemperature proxy data. The
question that ultimately needs to be answered regarding atmospheric CO2
content and global cooling is which comes first the chicken or the egg?

Feedbacks mechanisms, such as albedo, play a major role in driving climate

change. The reflectivity of various surfaces is shown on the chart (right side)
above. The seasonal and annual changes in the earths northern hemisphere
albedo are shown on the image above (100% reflectivity is denoted as 1.0 on the
scale). The two images on the lower right are infrared satellite images of Lake
Tahoe, CA taken during winter (left) versus late spring (right).

Albedo of the Earth:

Present Conditions vs
18,000 Years Ago

Present

18 ka

As the Earths climate began cool

during the last glaciation (25,000 15,000 yr ago) its albedo increased
(shown as white to pale yellow) with
increasing snow and ice cover.
Note that the northern hemisphere
boreal forests (shown as dark
green) have as relatively low albedo
and were replaced with arctic ice
cover and polar vegetation with
higher albedo during full glacial
time. Also increasing aridification
due to relatively lower moisture
holding capacity of air masses led to
reduced vegetation cover and
increasing albedo.

Emitted SO2 gas combines with H2O to form H2SO4 aerosols in the stratosphere.
Aerosols, such as H2SO4, reflect incoming sunlight and reduce the Earths surface
temperature.

Effects of Volcanism on
Climate Change
Volcanic gases have been shown to
be responsible for global cooling
over shorter time scales.
The magnitude and extent of global
cooling depends upon the force of
the eruption, the amount of
particular gases emitted and
location of the eruption.
When volcanic gases and fine dust
reach the stratosphere, they can
produce a wide spread cooling
effect.
The cooling effect tends to 1-2 C
and last only for a few years.

Mean acidity levels in the Greenland ice core strongly correlates with known volcanic
eruptions. Increased volcanic activity index (based on acidity record) is inversely
related to global temperature.

Paleomagnetism and
Global Cooling
The climate record over the
past 1 million years shows at
least 10 glacial-interglacial
cycles. Based on the data
shown to the left, is it a
reasonable hypothesis to
propose that paleomagnitic
fluctuations cause global
cooling?
Volcanic eruptions that occur near the equator, such as Mt. Pinatubo,
Phillippines, have a greater impact on global cooling because aerosols are
erupted into the atmosphere in both hemispheres. Greatest aerosol
distribution following the Mt. Pinatubo eruption of 1992 is shown in red.

620 Ma

620 Ma
30 Ma
30 Ma

330 Ma

240 Ma

Plate Tectonics and Global

Glaciation
Tectonic plate motions move the
continents and determine the form of
the ocean basins. Paleoclimatologists
have suggested that land must be
located over the polar regions in order
to provide a site for ice accumulation
and corresponding positive feedback
mechanism (e.g., increase in albedo or
uptake in atmospheric CO2) to promote
global glaciation.

330 Ma

240 Ma

Inclination of the earths magnetic field varies with

latitude. It is parallel to the surface over the
equator and vertical over the magnetic poles.
Paleomagnetic inclination can be used to infer
paleo-latitude of igneous rocks and to reconstruct
tectonic plate configurations.

Over earths climatic history there are at least

four protracted cold periods (Ice Age)
preserved in the rock/sediment record.
Two of these ice ages occurred during the
Precambrian while the more recent occurred
during the Late Paleozoic and Cenozoic Eras.

Proterozoic tillite and

striated bedrock

Movement of tectonic plates (including relative movement of continents can explain the
apparent wandering of the paleomagnetic pole over geologic time. Without invoking
plate motions, paleomagnetic evidence preserved in the rock record would require
unique magnetic poles for different aged rock and locations. Apparent motion of the
magnetic pole can be used to reconstruct the relative positions of tectonic plates to
each other.

Late Paleozoic Dwyka tillite,

South Africa

To explain these protracted periods of

global glaciation, paleoclimatologists
require causal mechanisms that extend
over time periods of millions of years.

Dwyka Tillite,
South Africa
Lithified till (tillite) deposited during the Late Paleozoic Era
(Permo-Carboniferous Period) is preserved in South Africa.
Similar Late Paleozoic-aged tillites are preserved in southern
South America, India, Australia and Antarctica.

The modern distribution of late Paleozoic glacial deposits can be understood

within a context of plate tectonics. Plate configurations during the late
Paleozoic placed the present day land masses of southern South America,
Africa, India, Australia and Antarctica over the South Pole, where continental ice
sheets could develop and expand.

Tethyan Seaway

Paleontologic and geologic evidence support the paleomagnetic

reconstructions of the plate configurations during the late Paleozoic and early
Mesozoic Eras. Following the break-up of the super-continent during the
Mesozoic, faunal assemblages underwent divergent evolution and each
continent had its own unique fauna. Closer faunal relationships existed
between continental land masses that remained contiguous for longer time
periods, such as Africa-South America and North America-Eurasia.

Throughout the Mesozoic Era the continental land masses were distributed near the
equator and global climatic conditions were much warmer than during the Cenozoic.
Note that Australia and Antarctica remained isolated from the other continental land
masses over much of Mesozoic and Cenozoic. What impact do you think this had on
the evolution of Australian fauna versus the other continents? Also note how the
continental and ocean basin configurations changed during the Mesozoic.

About 240 M.Y. ago the super-continent Pangaea began to break-up. Note the
latitudinal distribution of the continental land masses and configuration of the ocean
basins. An equatorial current existed along the Tethyan Seaway. Increased sea floor
spreading added CO2 to the atmosphere directly from volcanism, and indirectly by
causing the ocean floor to be more buoyant, which would cause a rise in eustatic sea
level. Reduction in land area reduced chemical weathering (uptake of acidified rain) and
the uptake of atmospheric CO2. Increasing sea water temperatures further adds CO2 to
the atmosphere, as the solubility of CO2 gas is reduced. These positive feedback
mechanisms enhanced global warming during the Mesozoic Era.

By the early Cenozoic (50 M.Y. ago), large continental land masses of North
America and Eurasia had migrated to higher latitudes in the northern hemisphere.
The Antarctic continent was situated over the South Pole, the Indian sub-continent
was impinging upon Asia, and ocean basin configurations were changing, as the
Tethyan Seaway closed and the Antarctic Ocean began to form.

Onset of Cenozoic Cooling

90 Ma

30 Ma

During the Cenozoic Era several important tectonic events occurred that had a
major impact on the onset of the Cenozoic cooling: 1. Following the break-up of
Pangaea North America and Eurasia migrated to high latitudes, 2. Antarctica was
situated over the South Pole, 3. The Circum-Antarctic Current formed with
opening of Drakes Passage, 4. Collision of the Indian Sub-continent with the
Eurasian continent (uplift of the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau), 5. Miocene
marine regression and isolation of the Mediterranean Sea, and 6. Closure of
Isthmus of Panama and creation of the Gulf Stream and existing thermo-haline
circulation pattern.

10

Onset of Cenozoic cooling is likely related to the

poleward migration of North America and Eurasia.
Antarctica becomes isolated over the South Pole
by ~50 Ma BP as Australia moved north. The
southern ocean develops and initiation of Antarctic
Circumpolar Current (ACC). Think about feedback
mechanisms (e.g., albedo, CO2 uptake).

Cenozoic surface water temperature reconstruction (using planktonic foraminifera) of

the Antarctic Ocean. The relative rapid adjustment of circulation systems that followed
tectonic events is the likely cause of the observed, uneven, stepped history of
Cenozoic cooling shown on the upper left.

Onset of Cenozoic Cooling

Onset of Cenozoic Cooling

30 Ma

90 Ma

30 Ma
Present

Drakes Passage

India collides with the Eurasian continent ~35 Ma BP

causing uplift of Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau. Drakes
Passage opens ~30 Ma BP further enhancing the
Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC). The ACC restricts
warm tropical air from reaching Antarctica. Antarctic ice
begins to develop (think about feedback mechanisms
again with ice development, ocean cooling).
Cenozoic surface water temperature reconstruction (using planktonic foraminifera) of
the Antarctic Ocean. The relative rapid adjustment of circulation systems that followed
tectonic events is the likely cause of the observed, uneven, stepped history of
Cenozoic cooling shown on the upper left.

By the Miocene the Antarctic ice sheet is well-developed

(ice-rafted sediment observed at sea level). Marine
regression (40-50 m) in late Miocene caused isolation of
the Mediterranean Sea and Messinian salinity crisis.
Water spilling into basin evaporated and major salt
deposition occurred. Global ocean salinity fell by 6%.
What effect would this have on sea ice production.
Cenozoic surface water temperature reconstruction (using planktonic foraminifera) of
the Antarctic Ocean. The relative rapid adjustment of circulation systems that followed
tectonic events is the likely cause of the observed, uneven, stepped history of
Cenozoic cooling shown on the upper left.

Onset of Cenozoic Cooling

Proterozoic Ice Age

Enigmas
1. global glaciation (evidence of
continental ice sheet deposits widespread).

30 Ma

2. paleomagnetic data is not consistent

with geological data (i.e., Proterozoic
glacial deposits deposited at low latitude
locations and near sea level).
3. Fe-rich rock mixed with glacial
sediment (no oxygen in oceans during
ice sheet development, then rapid
oxygenation).

Present
By about 3 Ma BP the northern hemisphere ice sheets
began to develop (evidence ice-rafted debris in deep sea
deposits). This coincident with the timing of the closure
of the Isthmus of Panama and development of the Gulf
Stream and north Atlantic thermo-haline circulation ,as
well as major mountain building in the northern
hemisphere. How do you think these events are related?
Cenozoic surface water temperature reconstruction (using planktonic foraminifera) of
the Antarctic Ocean. The relative rapid adjustment of circulation systems that followed
tectonic events is the likely cause of the observed, uneven, stepped history of
Cenozoic cooling shown on the upper left.

Modern distribution of Proterozoic glacial deposits and carbon isotope data.

4. Rapid accumulation of warm water

carbonates, immediately following
deglaciation (cap carbonates overlie
glacial deposits).

Hoffman and Schrag, 1999

5. Carbon isotope (13C/12C ratios)

suggest prolonged drop in biological
activity during glaciation.

Plate configurations during the Sturtian Glaciation (730-710 Ma). Annual

surface air temperature reconstruction, assuming reduced solar output (-6%)
and reduced atmospheric CO2 content.

Carbon isotope data suggest that

removal of oceanic carbon by
biological activty was shut down
during the Proterozoic glacial
periods. Modern ocean water is
enriched in 13C because 20% of
carbon entering ocean waters is
removed as organic matter, which
is depleted in 13C because of
isotopic fractionation.

Paul Hoffman and Daniel Schrag at the contact between the

cap carbonates overlying the glacial diamicton in Namibia.

Absence of banded iron deposits

throughout much of the Proterozoic
ice cover is consistent with an
anaerobic ocean.
Dropstones of carbonates clasts
were intermixed with banded iron
formation in the MacKenzie Mts.,
Yukon Territory, Canada.

Hoffman and Schrag, 1999

The extreme climatic events of the Neoproterozoic ice age may have
paved the way the for the Cambrian explosion of life. The body plans of
nearly all living animals appeared in a short interval between 600 and 525
million years ago.

The climate record over the

past 1 million years shows at
least 10 glacial-interglacial
cycles. The inferred cause(s)
to explain Quaternary glacialinterglacial cycles must
reconcile the fact that glacialinterglacial periods occur over
time scales of tens of
thousands of years and have
an apparent cyclicity.

Astronomical Theory of GlacialInterglacial Cycles

-James Croll, a Scottish natural historian first
proposed the hypothesis that changes in the
Earths orbital parameters were the ultimate cause
of glaciation. The Serbian mathematician, Milutin
Milankovitch formalized the theory relating changes
in the Earths orbital parameters to climate change.
-Milankovitch calculated how the orbital changes of
the Earth were related to climate change during the
Quaternary.
-While in captivity during WW II Milankovitch (1941)
further developed his ideas and determined that
particular orbital changes are responsible for
promoting the glacial cycles observed in the
Quaternary sediment record.
Milutin Milankovitch (1879-1958)

Elements of the Earths Orbital Motion

Today
-Earth orbits around the sun in a slightly
elipitcal path. Today the earth is closest to
the sun (perihelion) around January 3rd and
farthest (aphelion) around July 5th. Because
of this elliptical orbit the earth receives
approximately 3.5% more solar radiation
than the mean during perihelion and 3.5%
less than the mean during aphelion.

-The earth is tilted on its rotational axis

23.4 from a plane perpendicular to the
plane of the ecliptic (orbital plane).

-None of these orbital parameters has

remained constant over time because of the
gravitational effects of the sun, moon and
other planets on the earth..

-Although much of Milankovitchs work has been

refined, his contribution to understanding climate
change is significant, as he provided the first
comprehensive analysis of systematic links
between orbital characteristics and global climate.

Eccentricity

-Variation in orbital eccentricity are quasi-periodic with an average period length of

~98,000 years over 5 million years.
-the orbit has varied from almost circular to maximum eccentricity when solar radiation
receipt (outside the earths atmosphere) has varied by 30% between aphelion and
perihelion (e.g., 210,000 years ago).
-Eccentricity variation affects the relative intensities of the seasons and has an
opposite effect in each hemisphere.

Obliquity
Precession

-Variation in axial tilt are periodic with a mean of ~41,000 years.

-the angle of inclination has varied between 22.1 to 24.5 with the most recent
maximum occurring ~100,000 years ago. Inclination angle defines the tropics and the
Arctic and Antarctic Circles.
-Obliquity changes have little effect on radiation reception at the equator, but
increases towards high latitudes.
-Obliquity changes effect both hemispheres the same.

-Variation in the seasonal timing of perihelion and aphelion results from a wobble in
the Earths axis of rotation as it moves around the sun. Precessional changes occur
with a period of ~21,000 years.
-Precession changes determine timing of perihelion and aphelion relative to the
extreme positions the Earth occupies as it revolves around the sun on its elliptical orbit
(Precessional effects are minimal when eccentricity is low (I.e., Earths orbit is
circular).
-Precessional effects on solar radiation reception are opposite for each hemisphere.

Astronomical Theory of Glacial-Interglacial Cycles

-Milankovitch theory states that changes in the Earths orbital parameters result
in temporal changes in insolation, which cause significant changes in global
climate.
- Much of climatic variability of the Quaternary, particularly glacial- interglacial
cycles can be explained by astronomically driven insolation changes at the top
of atmosphere.