«2 os sy en @ os) United States Patent Roy et al, EFFICIENT POWER CONVERSION FOR ULTRA LOW VOLTAGE MICRO SCALE, ENERGY TRANSDUCERS, Inventors: Kaushik Roy, West Lafayete, IN (US): Vijay Raghunathan, West Lafayette, IN (US); Chao Lu, West Lafayette, IN (US); Sang Phill Park, West Lafayette, IN (Us) Assignee: Purdue Research Foundation, West Lafayette, IN (US) Notice: Subject to any disclaimer, the term ofthis, patent is extended or adjusted under 38 USC. 154(b) by 600 days. Appl. No. 13/045,441 Filed: Mars 10,2011 Prior Publication Data US 2011/0260536.A1 Oct. 27, 2011 Related US. Application Data Provisional application No, 61/312,557, filed on Mat. 10,2010. Int. Cl. HOM s18 (2006.01) HORM 70 (2006.01) US.CL USEC 363159; 365100 Field of Classitication Seareh, 363/59, 60 sation file for complete search history US00874357482 US 8,743,574 B2 Jun. 3, 2014 (10) Patent No.: 4s) Date of Patent: (56) References Cited US. PATENT DOCUMENTS 6198645 BLY 2001 Kotowski et al a6xs9 1563.35 BL* $2003. Melntyre ta: 307100 Gsi8k02 B2* 42009 Kitagawa a 363159, 781946 B2* 123010 Oyama etal, 363.60 82081064 B2* 102012 Shiwaya 3630 ‘OTHER PUBLICATIONS Tou et al, Jun, 2005, IEEE, 2005 Symposium on VLSI Cireuit Design for Tochnieal Pages, 2008, pp. 3165319." B. 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(74) Attorney, Agent, or Firm (7) ABSTRACT A power converter is provided for an energy harvesting sys- lemofamicro-scale electronic device. Thepowerconverteris configured to transfer electrical energy from an energy trans- ducer to an energy storage device. The power converter llus- tratvely includes a ree topology charge pump. 14 Claims, 14 Drawing Sheets Primary Examiner Faegre Baker Daniels LLP Q uae an Power Converter ». —t ev coal Charge Pump cokers SLL OL | Mes ray eter SL rue oe T T a T Nest iro Seale oto, * =e Applicaton tr rtUS 8,743,574 B2 Page 2 66) References Cited ‘OTHER PUBLICATIONS 4. Kimball tl, Tssues with Low input-voltage boost converter ‘design’, Power Electronics SpeciaistsConference, vol. 3, pp. 2156, 2004 Diekton 3, On-Chiphighvoltage generation in MNOS integrated sires using an improved vollage multiplier lechnigue IEEE 1 Solisiate Cras, VoL SC-11,No. 3. pp. 374878, Jun 1076, F Suetal, "Gate control suatcies fr high eliciency charge pumps", IEEF International Symposium on Cire and Systems (ISCAS). pp. 1907-1910, 2005 PPPan et al, Charge Pump Cireit Design, McGraw sional, Jun 3006, TL Shao, tal, "A mies power management system and maim futpat power’ consol for solar energy harvesting applications”. ‘ACMIEEE Intemational §ymposiumon Low Power Elctoniesand Design USLPED}. pp. 298-305, 2007, Favrat tal, °A hghllicency CMOS voltage doubler”, IEEE J Soli Sate Cteits, 0.33, No. 3,.pp 41016, 1998, I Protas: 1 Yinget al, "Areacient CMOS charge pumps for LCD divers", IEEE 1 Solid State Cis, vol. 38, No. 10, pp. 1721-1725, 2003 (CY. Tai eta, “Ulta-ow voltage power management isu and - Vsource=0.3V ® Vsource=0.28V ~® Vsource=0.33V FIG. 12 Charge pump switching frequency (MHz) 2 2 0 2 © ° a & 2 2 ? (2%) quewenosdu!! yueuno jndyno duind e6sey9US, Patent Jun. 3, 2014 Sheet 13 of 14 US 8,743,574 B2 20-40 60 80, 100 FIG. 13 Charge pump switching frequency (MHz) % oo 89290 89 6 S 6&8 S&S 6 lp (Wn) sso} JUBwIND yIUN joUOD 300US 8,743,574 B2 Sheet 14 of 14 Jun. 3, 2014 US, Patent vl Old (ZHI) Aouanbs.; Buiyoyms diund efueyo OOL og 09 Ov oz 9% 00¢ oor 009 (A€e'0=99NOS/\)9e1 L £€ 0: \)221L mom 008 (Age 0=80uN0SA)Je0Ur] = y= (A8Z'0=89iN0S\)901 | (A8Z'0=8NOSA)JEOUI] == QOOL (Ag'0=99sN0S/\)921 | —e— (AG 0=99sNOSA)JeOUr] = = : 0071 (yn) Jayng ABiaue oyu! JuauNo paysavuey aaloey3US 8,743,574 B2 1 EFFICIENT POWER CONVERSION FOR ULTRA LOW VOLTAGE MICRO SCALE, ENERGY TRANSDUCERS (CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION ‘This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/312,857, filed Mar. 10, 2010, the diselosureof which is expressly incorporated by reference herein. FIELD “The present disclosure relates to an energy harvesting sys- fem, and more particularly 10a charge pump of an enerey barvesting system having a tee topology. BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY Advances in miero-seale and nano-scale integration have resulted in a new class of miniaturized electronie systems, such a8 smart dust sensors, Wireless sensor nodes, and bio= ‘medical implants that enable new application ‘domains. Despite constraints on size and hence battery capacity, these systems are often required to operate for several months or even yeurs without tbe need for batery replacement. This is often due to the expense andor infeasibility of frequent bat- tery replacement, Environmental energy harvesting has temerged as an option to alleviate the energy supply challenge in these systems and 10 improve batten’ lifetime. Eneray harvesting provides self powered system operation, nvironmeotal energy harvesting has been explored and applied at the macro-sealein the context oflagesystems such assolar farms, windmills, and hydro-generators. However, iero-scale energy harvesting subsystem for miniaturized electronic device involves different challenges, For example, the form-foetor constrain in these systems mandates the use of small or miniature energy transducers, As a result, the ‘output voltage of the transducer is typically low, sch as less than IV: For example, miniature single junction photovoliaic (PV) cells and thermo-clectrie generators (LEG) typically prociuce voltages in the range of 0.2V to O.6V. Other energy Sources, such as micro-fucl cells, also produce low voltages Funter, the maximum power outputof miero-sealetransdue- crs is small, often only afew milliwats. As such, the harvest- ing subsystem is designed to extract as much power as pos- sible from the transducer and to transfer he extracted power to the electronic system. Multiple energy transducer modules ‘may be conpeeted in series or in parallel to generate higher ‘output voltage. However, such a stacked arrangement is fim ited due to size, cost, and packaging considerations. ‘One component of a micro-scale energy harvesting sub- system is a power converter that hoosis the output voltage of | the energy transducer to suitable level to enable energy storage in an enengy bufle, such asa rechargeable battery, an ults-capacitor, or another suitable storage device, The power converter is implemented using an inductive boost converter ora charge pump. Boost converters require an external bulky inductor, leading to an increase in system cost and size. Charge pumps include capacitors and metal oxide semicon- «ductor (MOS) switches configured in a single- or multi-stage linear topology. The charge transfer capability of linear charge pimps i subject to degradation when used with ultra low vollage energy transducers none illustrated embodiment of the reseat disclosure, an energy harvesting system is provided fora micro-scale elec+ 2 tronic device, The system includes an energy transducer eon- figured to produce electrical energy. The energy transducer has an output configured to supply a first voltage. The system. also includes an energy storage device configured to store ‘lectrical energy nd a power converter configure to transfer ‘electrical energy Irom the transducer to the energy storage device, The power converierinchudes a change pump coupled between the energy transducer and the energy storage device and a control unit configured to control operation of the ‘charge pump. The charge pump ineludesa fist stage, second Stage, and a third stage, Bach of the first and seoond stages have an output and at least one input coupled tothe output of the transducer so thatthe transducer supplies the fist voliage tothe at least one input ofthe fist and second stages. The ist ‘and second stages of the charge pump provide second aad third voltages at their outputs, respectively, the second and third voltages boing greater than the first voltage. The outputs ‘of the fst and second stages are coupled to first and second inputs of the third stage of the charge purnp aad an output of the third stage supplies a fourth voliage othe energy storage ‘device. The Fourth voltage is greater than the second and third voltages. Ta another illustrated embodiment of the present disclo- sure, a power converter is provided for an enerzy harvesting system of a micro-scale electronic device, The power eon verter is configured to transfer electrical energy From an ‘energy transducer to an energy stonige device. The power ‘converte ineludes control unit configuredto provideat least ‘one clocking signal, anda charge pump couplet the control unit. The charge pump includes a fist stage, a second stage, ‘ad third stage, The frst stage of the change pump includes first and second inputs, the first input of the fist stage being ‘coupled ta fist plate of a first capacitor through a fist ‘switch, and te second inputot the ist stage being coupled to ‘second, opposite plate ofthe ist capacitor through asecoad ‘witch, the frst plate ofthe fist eapacitor also being coupled ‘oa thind switeh which is also coupled to an output ofthe ist stage. The second stage ofthe charge pump includes frst and second inputs, the first input of the socond stage being ‘coupled toa first plate ofa second capacitor through a fourth switeh, and the second input of the second stage being ‘coupled to a second, opposite plate of the second capacitor through a fifth switeh, the first plate of the second eepacitor also being coupled wo a sixth switch which i also coupled to ‘an output of te second stage. The third stage ofthe charge Pump ineludes first and second inputs, the first input ofthe third stage being coupled toa ist plate ofa third capacitor, tnd the second input of the third stage being coupled to a second, opposite plate of the third captor, the frst plate of the third capacitor also being coupled to a seventh switch whichisalso coupled toanoutput of thethind stage. An output from the energy transducer is coupled tothe first and second inputs of the first and second stages ofthe charge pump aad the outputs of the frst and second stages are coupled fo the first and second inputs, respectively, of the third stage ofthe ‘charge pump. An ouput of the third stage is coupled to the ‘energy storage device, Theat least one clocking signal from the control unit is coupled to the first, second third, fourth, fifth, and sixth switehes to control operation of the charge Pump so that voltages atthe outputs of the first and second Stages are greater than the voltage supplied by the energy transducer and a voltage at the output of the thin stage is treater than the voltages atthe outputs ofthe first and second stages Tn one illustrated embodiment, the second plate ofthe first ‘capacitor is coupled through an eighth switeh to ground, the second plate of the second capacitor is coupled through aUS 8,743,574 B2 a) ninth switch to ground, and the second plate of the third capacitor js coupled through a tenth switel to aroun In an illustrated embodiment, the control uait generates first and second non-overlapping clocking signals. The frst clocking sina is supplied to the firs, it, sith, and eighth switches, and the second clocking signal being supplied tothe second, thind, fourth, seventh, ninth, and tenth switebes to control ‘operation ofthe change primp, Tn yet another ilustated embodiment ofthe present dis: closure, a method for supplying power from an energy trans- {ducer to an energy storage device includes providing a charge pump including fis stage, a second stage, and a third stage; Supplying a voltage source from the energy transducer 10 at Teast one input of the fist and second stages of the charge pump; nd increasing the voltage received from the voltage Source in the first and second stages of the charge pump in parallel, The method also includes supplying output voltages rom the frst snd second stages to first and second inputs of | the third stage of the charge pump: increasing the vollage in the thint stage compared to the output voltages ofthe ist and. 2 second stages; and supplying the increased voltage from the thind stage to the energy storage device. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS ‘Theabove-mentioned and other features and advantages of the invention, and the manner of ataining them, will become ‘more apparent and the disclosure itself will be better under- stood by reference tothe following description taken in eon junction with the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1s an illustrative view of an exemplary energy har- vesting system of the present disclosure: FIG. 2illostrates an exemplary electric model ofa photo voltaic cll, FIG. 3a illustrates exemplary output eurrent ofthe photo- voltaic cell of FIG. 2 as a funtion of output voliages FIG, 3 illustrates exemplary output poser of the photo- voltsic cell of FIG. 2 as a function of output voltages FIG. da illustrates exemplary outpat current ofa thermo= electric yenerator asa function of output voltage: FIG, 4 illustrates exemplary output power of a thermo- leciric generator asa function of output voltage: FIG. Sis schematic view of an exemplary prior at linear charge pump having three stages FIG. 6 illustates exemplary output current ofthe prior art linear charge pump of FIG. 5 as a funetion of an applied switching frequency’ FIG. 7 illustrates a schematic view ofan exemplary non- linear eharge pump of the present disclosure having a tee topology: F1G.Billutrates acomparisonofexemplary outputeurrent ofthe linear charge pump of FIG. Saad the non-linear charge pump of FIG, 73s a function of an applied switching fre- ‘quency FIG. 9a illustrates exemplary charge pump output curent fand control unit current loss as a lunetion of an applied ‘witching frequency’ FIG. 96 ilusiates exemplary effective harvested output current of the charge pump of FIG. 7 as « funetion of an applied switching frequency FIG, 10 illustrates an exemplary power converter of the energy harvesting system of FIG. 1 including a charge pump: FIG. 1 illusirates a comparison of exemplary output cur- rents of the charge pumps of FIGS, Sand 7 as a function of switching frequency and source voltage: FIG. 12 ilustraes an exemplary improvement percentage of the output curent of the charge pump of FIG. 7 over the 4 ‘output curent of the charge pump of FIG. 8 as a fanetion of switching frequency and source voltage; PIG. ABillustrates an exemplary control uniteurrent los of the energy harvest system of IG. Las function of switching frequency; and FIG. 14 illustrates a comparison of exemplary effective harvest output currents ofthe charge pumps of FIOS, Sand 7 as function of switching frequency and source voltae. Corresponding reference characters indicate correspond- ing parts throughout the several views. The exempliications sctout herein illustrate exemplary embodiments ofthe inven jon, and such exemplifications are not to be construed as limiting the scope of the invention in any manner. DETAILED DE RIPTION For the purposes of promoting an understanding of the principles of the present disclosure, reference will now be ‘made tothe embodiments illustrated inthe drawings, which ‘are describe below, The embadiments disclosed below are not intended tobe exhaustive or limit the present system tothe precise form disclosed in the following detailed deseripton, Rather, the embodiments are chosen and deseribed so that ‘others skilled inthe art may utilize their teachings. Therefore, no limitation of the scope of the claimed present system is thereby intended, The presentsystem includes any alterations and further modifications of the illustrated devioes and ‘described methods and further applications of the principles ‘of the present system which woul normally occur 10 one skilled in the at to which the present system relates, Referring initially toFIG. 1, an exemplary energy harvest- ing system 10 is illustrated. Energy harvesting system 10 includes an energy seavenger 12, a power converter 14, an ‘energy buffer 16, anc an application unit 18. Application unit 418 may include any device or system, such as a biomedical device or a wireless sensor node, configured to use energy from energy bufler 16. Energy buller 16 may include 2 rechargeable battery, a capacitor, or another suitable storage ‘device, Pnergy scavenger 12 harvests energy from the envi= ronment to produce a voltage. In the lusiated embodiment, ‘energy scavenger 12 includes at least one energy transducer ‘configured to produce an unregulated low volte. Ina ilas- trated embodiment, the energy scavenger 12 includes one ot mone of a photovoltaic (PV) cel 20, a fuel cell 22, and 2 thermo-electrie generator (TEG) 24, PV cell20is configured to conver light into electrical energy. Fuel cell 22 is confige ured to.convert energy from a fuel int electrical energy. TEG 24 is configured to convert heat or temperature differences into electrical energy. The fow voltage output from the transducers of energy scavenger 12 is supplied to power converter 14, as ilusrated With Vigor In the iustrated embodiment, Viggay FINES from about 0 V to 04 Y, although other vollages may’ be produced with energy seavenger 12. Power comerter 14 includes a charge pump 26, 126 coupled to and controlled by ‘control unit 28, Ia one embodinseat,cbarge puryp 26, 126 has a high conversion ratio configured to step up the voltage provided by the energy scavenger 12 and to transfer the har- vested charge to energy butfer 16 for use by application unit 1% Control unit 28 provides a switching frequency for diving ‘charge pump 26. In illustrated embodiments, a clock genera- tor 30 in control unit 28s implemented as a ring osillator or an analog voltage controlled oscillator. A non-overlapping block 32 in FIG. 1 provides non-overlapped clock signals ‘and, to reduce the likelihood of reverse curent in charge ump 26, 126, See, for example, non-overlapping clock sig-US 8,743,574 B2 nals and &, illustrated in PIGS, § and 7 where one clock signal is high when the other clock signal is los. In the illustrated embodiment, energy previously stored in energy buffer 16 enables the initial start-up of eharge pump 26, 126. Energy buffer I6alsoservesasa power supply forcontrol unit 28, Referring to FIG, 2,an exemplary non-stacked PV cell 20 is illustrated, PV cell 20 generates photocurrent Ipc that varies with light irradiance. The illustrated model of PV cell 20 includes parasitic serial resistance R, and an equivalent shunt resistance R. The output current snd output voltage of PV coll 20silusteativey I, and V yp respectively. Anexem- plary non-stacked PV cell 20 is Model No. 1-100 available {rom Solar World Inc., the specifications of which are incor- porated herein by reference Exemplary current-voltage (1-V) characteristics (in miero- amps and millivolts) of PV cell 20 are illustrated in FIG. 3a, land exemplary power-voltage characteristics (in mierowatts and millivolts) of PV cell 20are illustrated in FIG. 36. Sim Jated curves 40 are representative ofthe characteristics of PV call 20 hased on the electric mexlel of FIG. 2, and measure- iments 42 are representative of exemplary physicel meastre- xs obtained with an actual PV cell 20-1 FIGS, 3a and 3, measurements 40 are obiained by illuminating PV cell 20 with 2 40-Wart lamp while adjusting a distance between the lamp and PV cell 20to represent variable light conditions, For example, FIGS. 3a and 3h lusirate measured I-V and output power characteristies of PV cell 20 at $04 illuminance (10x), “784 ux, and 1548 lux, Measurements 42 of FIGS, Sa and 3 also illustrate the connection of various resistive lads to PV cell20. Referring io FIG. 3a, the output vollageand eurrentof PV cell 20 illustrate that PV cell 20 behaves at a voltage limited curent source, consistent with th electrical model of PV col 20 strated in FIG. 2. Further, as illustrated in FIGS, ‘3aand 35, the output voltage of PV cell 20s low (less than about 0.42V) even for high irradiance. FIG. 36 plots the ‘output poser of PV col 208 funetion ofthe ouput voltage and shows that, for any given light intensity, there is an ‘optimal PV’ cell voltage where the outpt power is maxi- ied. Further, the power output from PV cell 20 is small (mostly Tess than about 1 mW), ‘Thermoelectric generators 24 (see FIG. 1) illustratively include multiple eouples of p-ypeand mtype thermocketric legs, which output electrical energy by employing the tem perature gradient between a hot surface (for example, the human body) and old surface (for example, the ambient ai). An exemplary TEG 24 is Model No. MPG-DT51 ava table irom Micropel, the specifications of which are incorpo rated by reference herein. FIGS. 4a and 46 illustrated exem- plary current and output power values as function of voltage Tor various temperature differences AT llustraively 1 Kelvin (K), 2K, 3K, and 4 K) across TEG 24. The output power varies asa function of output voltage for different AT, as ilustrate in PIG. 4b. Inthe illustrated embodiment, the ‘output voltage of TEG 24is in the range of OV to about 0.6.V fand the maximum power output is around 0.25 mW, Referring to FIG. 8, an exemplary prior aet charge pump 26 js illustrated. Charge pump 26 is illustatively a three-stage Jinear charge pump 26 having an ideal voltage sep up ratio of ourto-one, Le, a fourstimes step-up of the input voltage. Linear charge pump 26 is configured to transler harvested current from an uli low voltage energy scavenger 12 t0 energy buffer 16. During each clock eyel, the charge pro- vided from a previous stage of charge pomp 26 is stored.on a Capacitor ia the current stage and is then transferred {0 & subsequent stage. For example, the charge provided from Stage 1 is stored on capacitor C, of Stage 2 before being 6 transferred to Stage 3. At the final stage (illustraively Stage 3) the harvested charge from energy scavenger 12is dumped into energy bulfer 16 for storage. ach slage of charge pump 26 includes several switches controlled with the switching frequency provided with eon- trol unit 28, The switches ilustnitively comprise metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) transistors or MOSFETs. See, for ‘example, switehes S, through S,. of FIG. 5. Switches through S; areillstratively comprised of two MOS transis tors. Fach MOS transistor of switches, through So ineludes sasource, drain, und gate and is configured to switeh oa upon the voltage atthe gate exceeding a threshold value. The non= ‘overlapping switching frequencies and @, produced with ‘control unit 28 are illustratively provided atthe gate of each [MOS transistor to switeh the tansistors on and of. ‘The average output current from 3-stage linear charge pump 26 is represented as no Sans * $l Ya) a ‘wherein Leno isthe average output current of three-stage Tinea charge pump 26, £8 the switching frquency pro- Vide with contol unit 28,Q,, is the average oulpt charge transfered to eneray bute 16°C isthe capacitance ofeapaci- 10FC), Vin sth input voltage provides with scavenger 12, and Vg the voltage of energy baer 16, In one embod tment, ch eapacitor Cy, Cy i the sme size and hs as the same capacitance C "Equation (1) is derived based on the assumption that com- plete charge sharing is guaranteed within each clockeyee. In ‘ther words, Equation (1) assumes thatthe charge provided at ‘each node (N,, Nz, Na) is completely transferrable to the subsequent stage o butler within one period ofthe switching frequency. Equation (1) reveals linea relationship between, the charge pump ourput curent Tep.o and switching fre- ‘quency Tuy. when the capacitor (C), scavenger voltage (Vero) and eneray buffer voltage (Ving) are constant. As ‘hissed in FIG. 6, when te clock switching requency fy, islow, the output current lero varies linearly with the applied ‘lock frequency fy. However, when the switching frequency {increases beyond a certain threshold value, the change staring becomes incomplete due to saturation of the output current cp, Teintrface frequency between complete and incomplete charge sharing i llstrated asthe "Koce fe= ‘quency Hence, the lincar relationship between output cr Fent Tey. o and switching frequency f., does not hold beyond the knee frequency due to saturation ofthe output eurrent lenge ‘Charge sharing allows change o be reistbuted berween stages ornodes of charge pump 26. For example, whea to ‘apacitrs having diferent voltages are connected in paallel through switch, charge flows from the high-voltage capaci- tortobe low volage capacitor ual both capacitors reach the same voltage. The time eid to complete thecargerdise tebution processisbasedoa the charge sharing path. Assoc, the knoe frequency is determines based ona time constant of the change sharing path. Referring to charge pump 26 01 F1G. 5, when the voltage aeross capacitor Cy is higher than the voltage aeross Ca. and switch S, is closed, charge from capacitor C, will transfer to capacitor C, unil the voliaze scross capacitors C, and C, ae the same. “The hace frequency isan itrinse propery of a charge pump and is determined bythe time constant of charge shar- ing paths within the charge pump, Thre-siage linear chargeUS 8,743,574 B2 7 pump 26 includes three charge sharing paths. The first charge sharing path is Formed by 8, and C, the second charge shar- ing path i formed by S, and C,, and the third charge sharing pathis formed byS, and, The ime constant iilustatvely based on the on-resistanes ofthe MOS transistors of charge pump 26, as described herein, ‘The MOS transistors in charge pump 26 are modeled as voliage-conirolled siitches with noa-negligible on-resis- tance. The on-resistance of the MOS transistor is represented 6 [¥er= Yor Yr) Porro Foe \wherwin R, isthe resistance of the conducting path formed between the source and drain when the MOS transistor is switched “on.” isthe surface mobility ofthe tuasistor, Cj. is thecapacitance perunit area of gate oxide, W is thechannel ‘with ofthe transistor, Lis the ehannel length of the transis- tor, Vesisthegateto sourcevoltage, V ysis the drain to source voltage, Vz is the threshold voltage required atthe gate to switch the transistor “on” (Le, to eneate a conducting path between thedrain and source ofthe MOS transistor). Vis the agate voltage, V. isthe source voltage, and Vy isthe drain Voltage. The sum of Vs¢Vd affects the time eoastant of the charge sharing path configured to set the knee frequency of | charge pump 26 Tn the illustrated embodiment, linear charge pump 26 of FIG, 5 has « minimum on-ressiance R,, beeause the gate voltage (V,) ofeach switch (Le. transistor utilizes the feed- ing voltage back from the energy buffer 16, as described herein. As a consequence, the minimized on-sistance R,, improves the charge transfer capability of charge pump 26 FG. s, From Equation (2), reduction in threshold voltage (Vz) results in 8 smaller on-resistance R,, a6 well 3s enhanced charge transfer capability. However, leakage current increases with the sealing down of threshold voltage. In some eases, leakage current inereases exponentially when the threshold voltage is sealed down. Bquation (2) also reveals that heconduction resistance R,., diminishes with a decrease ia the combined transistor source voltage and drain voltage (V,+V;)). The source voltage, drain voltage, and combined source and drain voltage (V+) before charge sharing is summarized in Table 1 for each charge sharing path TABLE L The largest time constant, or largest V+V, of the charge sharing paths of change puryp 26 limits the knee frequency of | the entire charge pump 26. For the three-stage Tinear charge pump 26, the largest Vs4V is given by Veg 2V einen 8 illustrated in Table 1. As a consequence, the charge sharing path formed with S, and C, bounds the maximum switching frequency fy of linear charge pump 26 for complete charge sharing Referring to FIG. 7, another exemplary charge pump 126 ‘of the present disclosure is illstrated. Charge pump 126 is illustratively a non-linear, three-stage charge pump having 2 teoe topology. As with charge pump 26 of FIG. 8, charge pump 126 is « fourtimes pump configured to step-up the input voltage by a factor of four In the illustrated embodi- rent, change pimp 126 has improved change transfer capa bility as compared with charge pump 26 of FIG. 5, as described herein, In one embodiment, the tree topology ‘design of charge pump 126s configured to providea reduced ‘charge sharing time, thereby leading to an improved charge transfer capability Charge pump 126 illustatvely inchedes two front-end stages (CP, and CP,) and a back-end stage (CP. ). In contrast ‘withthe linar three-stage configuration of charge pump 26 of FIG, 8, the outputs of front-end stages CP, and CP, ate peo vided directly to the back-end stage CP, Frontend stages CP, and CP operate to double the input voltage (Vy pe) aad back-end stage CP, operates t0 double the already boosted voltages provided with frontend stages CP, and CP, to out= puta voltage that is substantially four times the input voltage r ‘Fach stage of charge pump 126 includes several switches ‘controlled with the switching frequency provided with con- teol unit 28. The switches illstratively comprise MOS tran sistors. See, for example, switches S, through S,, of FIG. 7 Switches S, Uarough S, are ilustratvely comprised of two MOS transistors. The non-overlapping switching frequencies and ,, produced with control unit 28 are illustratively provided at the gate of each MOS transistor to switeh the transistors on and off to contol the charge sharing. Charge ump 126 further includes capacitors Cy, C,. Cy. In one ‘embodiment, capacitors C,, Ca, C, all provide the same half of the clock eyele, the bottom plate of eapacitor C, is discharged to zero duc toa closed switch Sg. The tp plate of ‘capacitor is charged up by fist stage CP, through aclosed ‘witch S.. fa other words, he voltage or charge at node N, provided by capacitor, is transfered to capacitor C,,Atthe ‘endof the first halfof the clock eyele, the voliazes at nodes, and N, are stable and are atthe same value, assuming com plewe change sharing occurs. The voltage at nodes N, and Ny ts denoted as Vy in EIG. 7 In the second half ofthe clock eyele, switching frequency ‘is low and switch Sis open, snd switching frequency ishigh and switch S, is closed. Accordingly, phases CP, and CP, are isolated from each other, and phases CP, and CP, are in electrical communication. Further, node N, i charged up by second stageCP, through the closed switch S, Thus, atthe ‘enilof the second half the clock eyele, the voltages at nodes IN, and N, are stable and are atthe same value (denoted 2s vollageV,)assuming complete charge sharing occurs. Thus, the potential of node Nz becomes Vx, +V 2 Ifthe potential at node Ne is higher than the voltage at bufer 16 (V ug) the ‘charge stored in capacitor C inthe frst half ofa cock eyele ‘willbe transfered to energy buler 16 through closedswiteh So. The charge sharing through switch S, ceases when the potential of node N. decreases to buffer voltage Viggo Assuming thatthe switching frequency fy is Below the knee frequency, charge pump 126 provides complete charge sharing within the applied clock eycle, During each clock