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Author:

Macdonell, Arthur Anthony

Title:

A Vedic Grammar For Students

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Oxford : Clarendon Press 1916

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x, 508 p.

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A V E D I C GRAMMAR
FOR

STUDENTS
BY

A R T H U R ANTHONY

MACDONELL

M.A., PH.D.
BODEN PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT IN THE
UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
FELLOW OF BALLIOL COLLEGE ; FELLOW OF THE BRITISH ACADEMY ;
FELLOW OF

THE ROYAL DANISH ACADEMY

INCLUDING A CHAPTER ON SYNTAX AND THREE

APPENDIXES: LIST OF VERBS, METRE, ACCENT

OXFORD
AT T H E CLARENDON

PRESS

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON

EDINBURGH

TORONTO

GLASGOW

MELBOURNE

HUMPHREY

NEW YORK

BOMBAY

MILF0RD

P U B L I S H E R TO T H E U N I V E R S I T Y

PREFACE
A PRACTICAL Vedic grammar has long been a desideratum.
I t is one of the chief aids to the study of the hymns of the
Veda called for forty-three years ago in the preface to his
edition of the Rigveda by Max Mller, who adds, ' I doubt
not that the time will come when no one in India will call
himself a Sanskrit scholar who cannot construe the hymns
of the ancient Rishis of his country. I t is mainly due
to the lack of such a work that the study of Vedic literature,
despite its great linguistic and religious importance, has
never taken its proper place by the side of the study of
Classical Sanskrit either in England or India. Whitney's
excellent Sanskrit Grammar, indeed, treats the earlier lan
guage in its historical connexion with the later, but for this
very reason students are, as I have often been assured,
unable to acquire from it a clear knowledge of either the
one or the other, because beginners cannot keep the two
dialects apart in the process of learning. Till the publication of my large Vedic Grammar in 1910, no single work
comprehensively presented the early language by itself.
That work is, however, too extensive and detailed for the
needs of the student, being intended rather as a book of
reference for the scholar. Hence I have often been urged
to bring out a short practical grammar which would do for
the Vedic language what my Sanskrit Grammar for Beginners
does for the Classical language. I n the second edition
(1911) of the latter work I therefore pledged myself to

meet this demand as soon as I could. The present volume

redeems that pledge.
When planning the book I resolved, after much reflection,
to make it correspond paragraph by paragraph to the
Sanskrit Grammar, this being the best way to enable students
to compare and contrast every phenomenon of the earlier
and the later language. To this extent the present book
presupposes the other ; but it can quite well be used inde
pendently. The experience of many years teaching, however,
leads me to dissuade beginners from starting the study of
Sanskrit by means of the present grammar. Students
should, in my opinion, always commence with classical
Sanskrit, which is more regular and definite, as well as
much more restricted in the number of its inflexional forms.
A good working knowledge of the later language should
therefore be acquired before taking up Vedic grammar,
which can then be rapidly learned.
In carrying out the parallelism of this grammar with
the other I have experienced a good deal of difficulty in
numbering the corresponding paragraphs satisfactorily,
because certain groups of matter are found exclusively in
the Vedic language, as the numerous subjunctive forms, or
much more fully, as the dozen types of infinitive compared
with only one in Sanskrit ; while some Sanskrit formations,
as the periphrastic future, are non-existent in the earlier
language. Nevertheless, I have, I think, succeeded in
arranging the figures in such a way that the corresponding
paragraphs of the two grammars can always be easily
compared. The only exception is the first chapter, con
sisting of fifteen paragraphs, which in the Sanskrit Grammar
deals with the Ngar alphabet. As the present work
throughout uses transliteration only, it seemed superfluous
to repeat the description of the letters given in the earlier
work. I have accordingly substituted a general phonetic

survey of Vedic sounds as enabling the student to understand

clearly the linguistic history of Sanskrit. The employment
of transliteration has been necessary because by this means
alone could analysis by hyphens and accentuation be
adequately indicated. Duplication with Ngar characters,
as in the Sanskrit Grammar, would have increased the size
and the cost of the book without any compensating advan
tage. An account of the accent, as of vital importance in
Vedic grammar, would naturally have found a place in the
body of the book, but owing to the entire absence of this
subject in the Sanskrit Grammar and to the fulness which
its treatment requires, its introduction there was impossible.
The accent is accordingly dealt with in Appendix I l l as
a substitute for the Chief Peculiarities of Vedic Grammar
appearing at the end of the Sanskrit Grammar.
The term Vedic is here used to comprehend not only the
metrical language of the hymns, but also the prose of
the Brhmaas and of the Brhmaalike portions of the
Atharvaveda and of various recensions of the Yajurveda.
The grammatical material from the later period is mainly
given in small type, and is in any case regularly indicated
by the addition of the letter B (for Brhmaa). Otherwise
the phase of the earlier language presented is that of the
Rigveda, as being both the oldest and furnishing the most
abundant material. But forms from the other Vedas are
often also supplied without any distinguishing mark as long
as they conform to the standard of the Rigveda. If, how
ever, such forms are in any way abnormal, or i f it seemed
advisable to point out that they do not come from the
Rigveda, this is indicated by an added abbreviation in
brackets, as ' (AV.) ' for ' (Atharvaveda). On the other hand
' (RV.) is sometimes added in order to indicate, for some
reason or other, that a form is restricted to the Rigveda.
I t is, of course, impossible to go much into detail thus in

a practical work ; but the exact source of any particular

form can always be ascertained by reference to the large
Vedic Grammar. The grammatical usage of the other Vedas,
when it differs from that of the Rigveda, is regularly ex
plained. The reference is given with precise figures when
syntactical examples are taken from the Rigveda, but with
abbreviations only (as TS. for Taittirya Sahit or B. for
atapatha Brhmaa) when they come from elsewhere.
Syntactical citations are not always metrically intact because
words that are unnecessary to illustrate the usage in question
are often omitted. The accent in verbal forms that happen
to occur in Vedic texts without it, is nevertheless given
if its position is undoubted, but when there is any uncer
tainty it is left out. I n the list of verbs (Appendix I) the
third person singular is often given as the typical form even
when only other persons actually occur. Otherwise only
forms that have been positively noted are enumerated.
I ought to mention that in inflected words final s, r, and d
of endings are given in their historical form, not according
to the law of allowable finals ( 27) ; e.g. dts, not dt ;
tsmd, not tsmt; pitr, not p i t ; but when used
syntactically they appear in accordance with the rules of
Sandhi ; e. g. devn dt ; vtrsya vadhI.
The present book is to a great extent based on my large
Vedic Grammar. I t is, however, by no means simply an
abridgement of that work. For besides being differently
arranged, so as to agree with the scheme of the Sanskrit
Grammar, it contains much matter excluded from the Vedic
Grammar by the limitations imposed on the latter work as
one of the volumes of Bhler's Encyclopaedia of IndoAryan
Research. Thus it adds a full treatment of Vedic Syntax
and an account of the Vedic metres. Appendix I , moreover,
contains a list of Vedic verbs (similar to that in the Sanskrit
Grammar), which though all their forms appear in their

PREFACE

vii

appropriate place within the body of the Vedic Grammar, are

not again presented there in the form of an alphabetical list,
as is done here for the benefit of the learner. H aving
subjected all the verbal forms to a revision, I have classified
some doubtful or ambiguous ones more satisfactorily, and
added some others which were inadvertently omitted in the
large work. Moreover, a full alphabetical list of conjunctive
and adverbial particles embracing forty pages and describing
the syntactical uses of these words has been added in order
to correspond to 180 of the Sanskrit Grammar.

The

present work therefore constitutes a supplement to, as well

as an abridgement of, the Vedic Grammar, thus in reality
setting forth the subject with more completeness as a whole,
though in a comparatively brief form, than the larger work.
I may add that this grammar is shortly to be followed by
a Vedic Reader consisting of selected hymns of the Rigveda
and supplying microscopic explanations of every point on
which the elementary learner requires information. These
two books will, I hope, enable him in a short time to become
an independent student of the sacred literature of ancient
India.
For the purposes of this book I have chiefly exploited
my own Vedic Grammar (1910), but I have also utilized
Delbrck's Altindische Syntax (1888) for syntactical material,
and Whitney's Roots (1885) for the verbal forms of the
Brhmaa literature. I n describing the metres (Appen
dix I I ) I have found Oldenbergs Die Hymnen des Rigveda
(1888), and Arnold's Vedic Metre (1905) very useful.
I am indebted to Dr. James Morison and to my former
pupil, Professor A. B. Keith, for reading all the first proofs
with great care, and thus saving me from many misprints
that would have escaped my own notice. Professor Keith
has also suggested important modifications of some of my
grammatical statements. Lastly, I must congratulate

Mr. J. C Pembrey, Hon. M. A., Oriental Reader at the

Clarendon Press, on having completed the task of reading
the final proofs of this grammar, now all but seventy years
after correcting Professor H. H. Wilson's Sanskrit Grammar
in 1847. This is a record in the history of Oriental, and
most probably of any, professional proof reading for the
press.
A. A. MACDONE LL.
6 CHADLINGTON ROAD,

March 30, 1916.

OXF0RD.

CONTENTS
PREFACE . . . .
LIST oF ABBREv1AT1oNs .

CoRREOT1oNs

.
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

PAG Es
iii-viii

xi

Xii

CHAPTER I : PHONETIC INTRODUCTION

Relation of Vedic to SanskritOral tradition and
WritingSounds of the Vedic LanguageThe Vowels
Vowel GradationThe ConsonantsAncient Pronuncia-

tion .

1-19

CHAPTER I I : EUPHONIC COMBINATION

External Sandhi : Combination of Vowels and of Con
sonantsInternal Sandhi : Combination of Vowels and of
Consonants .
. . . . . . . . .
20--47

CHAPTER I I I : DECLENSION
Nouns : Consonant Stems -^unchangeable changeable :
with Two Stems; with Three Stems Vowel Stems
Degrees of ComparisonNumerals : Cardinals ; Ordinals ;
Numeral DerivativesPronouns: Personal Demonstra
tive Interrogative Relative Reflexive Possessive
Compound Derivative Indefinite Pronominal Adjectives .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. 47-117

CHAPTER I V : CONJUGATION
IntroductoryThe Present SystemFirst Conjugation
^Second Conjugation- The AugmentReduplication
Terminations Paradigms IrregularitiesThe Perfect
The Pluperfect- The Aorist: First Aorist; Second
AoristBenedictiveThe Future : Simple ; Periphrastic

CONTENTS

PAGE

ConditionalThe Passive Participles GerundIn

finitive Derivative Verbs: Causative Desiderative-
IntensiveDenominative .
.
.
.
.
.
.
117-207

CHAPTER V : INDECLINABLE WORDS

PrepositionsAdverbial Case-forms Adverbs formed
with SuffixesConjunctive and Adverbial ParticlesInterjections .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
208-253

CHAPTER V I : NOMINAL STEM FORMATION

AND COMPOUNDS
Primary SuffixesSecondary Suffixes GenderVerbal
CompoundsNominal Compounds: Co-ordinatives Deter.
minatives : Dependent and Descriptive Possessives
Governing CompoundsSyntactical CompoundsIterative Compounds .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
254-282

CHAPTER V I I : SYNTAX
Introductory Order of Words Number Concord
PronounsUse of the CasesLocative and Genitive
AbsoluteParticiplesGerund InfinitiveUse of the
TensesUse of the Moods: ImperativeInjunctiveSubjunctive0ptativePrecativeConditional .
.
. 283-368
ApPEND1x 1.

List of Verbs

369435

AppEND1x

II.

Vedic Metre

436-447

ApPEND1x

III.

The Vedic Accent .

. 448-469

471-498

GENERAL INDEx

499-508

VED1C I N D E x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
A. --^ accusative case.
. ^ tmanepada, middle voice.
AA. ^ Aitareya rayaka.
AB. ^ Aitareya Brhmaa.
Ab. = ablative case.
act. = active voice.
AV. = Atharvaveda.
Av. ^ Avesta.
B. ^ Brhmaa.
C. = Classical Sanskrit.
D.
dative case.
du. = dual number.
f.
= feminine.
G. genitive case.
Gk. ----- Greek.
I.
----- instrumental case.
IE. ^ Indo-European.
I-Ir.
Indo-Iranian.
ind. ----- indicative mood.
K. ^ Khaka sahita.
KB. = Kautaki Brhmaa.
L. = locative ease.
Lat. --^ Latin.
m. masculine.
mid. = middle voice.
MS. = Maitraya Sahit.
N. = nominative ease.
P. --^ Parasmaipada, active voice.
PB. = Pacavia ( = Taya) Brhmaa.
pl. = plural number.
RV. ^ Rigveda.
B. ^ atapatha Brahmaa.
s.
------ singular number.
SV. = smaveda.
TA. = Taittirya rayaka.
TB. = Taittirya Brhmaa.
TS. ^ Taittirya sahita.
V. = Vedic (in the narrow sense as opposed to B. = Brhmaa).
VS. = Vjasaneyi Sahit.
YV.
Yajurveda.
N.B.Other abbreviations will be found at the beginning of
Appendix I and of the Vedic Index.

CORRECTIONS
P.
P.
P.
P.
P.

25, line 24, for am i t i read am ti.

27, line 29, last word, read srat.
133, line 5, for bbhrmhe read bibhmhe.
144, line 31, for stride read strike.
156, lines 6 and 10, for oiketat and ciketathas read cketat
and oketathas.
P. 158, line 21, for (va desire) read (va bellow).
P. 174, lines 30 and 31, delete cucyuvmhi and cucyavrta (cp.
p. 382 under cyu),
P. 188, footnote, for 'gerundive read 'gerund '.
P. 200, line 6, for ' f yaj ' read of yaj '.
P. 215, line 32, for tv:n read t v m ; similarly, pp. 220, line 15,
22I. line 4, 222, line 4, 238, line 9, 242, line 30, for n read m.
P. 273, footnote, last line but one, for ' hciefiy ' read ' chiefly '.
P. 286, line 15, for follows' read 'precedes'.
P. 340, line 17, for tni read ty n i.
P. 347, at the end of line 10, add ( i . s i ) .
,, ,, line 17, for v read v.
., ,, line 21, for ducarm read ducrma.
P. 348, line 28, for vettu read vttu.
P. 350, line :^0, after wisdom add (i. 42 ).
P. 351, line 28, for abhi read abh.
. 352, line 31, for v y um read vaym.
,, ,, line 34, for (v. 69) read (vf. 59^).
5

CHAPTER I
PHONETIC INTRODUCTION
1. Vedic, or the language of the literature of the Vedas,
is represented by two main linguistic strata, in each of
which, again, earlier and later phases may be distinguished.
The older period is that of the M antras, the hymns and
spells addressed to the gods, which are contained in the
various Sahits. Of these the Rigveda, which is the most
important, represents the earliest stage. The later period
is that of the prose theological treatises called Brhmaas.
Linguistically even the oldest of them are posterior to most
of the latest parts of the Sahits, approximating to the
stage of Classical Sanskrit. But they still retain the use
of the subjunctive and employ many different types of the
infinitive, while Sanskrit has lost the former and preserves
only one single type of the latter. The prose of these
works, however, to some extent represents better than the
language of the M antras the normal features of Vedic
syntax, which in the latter is somewhat interfered with by
the exigences of metre.
The language of the works forming appendices to the
Brhmaas, that is, of the rayakas and Upaniads, forms
a transition to that of the Sutras, which is practically
identical with Classical Sanskrit.
The linguistic material of the Rigveda, being more ancient,
extensive, and authentic than that of the other Sahits, all
of which borrow largely from it, is taken as the basis of
this grammar. I t is, however, considerably supplemented
from the other Sahits. The grammatical forms of the
Brhmaas, where they differ from those of Classical
Sanskrit, have been indicated in notes, while the r syntax

is fully dealt with, because it illustrates the construction of

sentences better than the metrical hymns of the Vedas.
2. The hymns of the Vedas were composed many centuries
before the introduction of writing into India, which can
hardly have taken place much earlier than 600 B. c. They
were handed down till probably long after that event by
oral tradition, which has lasted down to the present day.
Apart from Such tradition, the text of the Sahits has
been preserved in manuscripts, the earliest of which, owing
to the adverse climatic conditions of India, are scarcely five
centuries old. H ow soon they were first committed to
writing, and whether the hymns of the Rigveda were edited
in the form of the Sahit and Pada texts with the aid of
writing, there seems insufficient evidence to decide ; but it
is almost inconceivable that voluminous prose works such
as the Brhmaas, in particular the atapatha Brhmaa,
could have been composed and preserved without such
aid.
3. The sounds of the Vedic language. There are
altogether fifty-two sounds, thirteen of which are vocalic
and thirty-nine consonantal. They are the following :--a. Nine simple vowels : a i u ; four diphthongs :
e o ai au.
b. Twenty-two mutes divided into five classes, each of
which has its nasal, making a group of twenty-seven :
(a) five gutturals (velars) : k kh g gh ;
(l^) five palatals : e ch. j j h ;
2

The text of the Vedas, with the exception of Aufrecht's and

Weber's transliterated editions of the RV. and the TS., is always printed
i n the Devangar character. The latter having been fully described
in my Sanskrit grammar for Beginners ( 414), i t is unnecessary to
repeat what is there stated. I t w i l l suffice here to give a summary
account of all the sounds of the Vedic language.
This sound is very rare, occurring only once i n the RV. and not
at all i n the A v .
2

THE VOWELS

3-4]
1

(y) seven cerebrals : h, and . h and h. ;

(^) five dentals : t t h d dh n ;
(^) five labials : p ph b bh m ;
c. Four semivowels : y (palatal), r (cerebral), 1 (dental),
v (labial) ;
d. Three sibilants : (palatal), (cerebral), s (dental) ;
e. One aspiration : h ;
f One pure nasal : (i) called Anusvra (aftcrsound).
g. Three voiceless spirants: (Visarjanlya), h (Jihv
mlya), (Upadhmnya).
4. a. The simple vowels :
ordinarily represents an original short vowel (IE. ^ ) ;
but it also often replaces an original sonant nasal, represent
ing the reduced form of the unaccented syllables an and
am, as sat beside sntam being; gat gone beside
gamat has gone.
represents both a simple long vowel (IE. e o) and
a contraction ; e. g. mtr (Lat. mter) mother ; sam
asam I was. I t frequently also represents the unaccented
syllable an ; e. g. khat dug from khan dig.
i is ordinarily an original vowel ; e. g. div (Gk. ^tft )
in heaven. I t is also frequently the low grade of e and ya ;
e. g. vidm (t^^) we know beside vda (o^a) I know ;
nviha newest beside nvyas newer. I t also represents the
low grade of radical ; e. g. i- taught beside sti teaches.
is an original vowel ; e. g. jv living. But it also often
represents the low grade of y ; e.g. a--mhi we would
attain beside aym I would attain ; or a contraction ; e. g.
r they have sped ( = iir 3. pl. PI. of is) ; mat by
thought ( = mat).
1

This is much the rarest class of mutes, being scarcely half as

common as even the palatals.
These two sounds take the place of h respectively between
vowels i n the RV. texts ; e. g. o (but ya), mho (but mhv n ).
9

u is an original vowel ; e. g. mdhu (Gk. p^0v) honey.

I t is also the low grade of o and va ; e. g. yug n. yoke
beside yga m. yoking ; supt asleep beside svpna m.
sleep.

is an original vowel ; e. g. bhr (ot^p^) I. brow. I t is

also the low grade of au and v ; e. g. dht shaken beside
dhautr I. shaking ; sd sweeten beside svd enjoy ;
and often represents a contraction; e.g. cr = u ucr
they have spoken (3. pi. pf. of vac) ; bh the two arms =

bh.
is a vocalic r, being the low grade of ar and ra ; e. g.
kt done beside cakra I have done ; gbht seized
beside grbha m. seizure.
occurs only in the ace. and gen. pl. m. and I. of ar stems
(in which it is the lengthened low grade) ; e. g. pitrn,
m t ; pit m , s v s m .
1 is a vocalic 1, being the low grade of al, occurring only
in a few forms or derivatives of the verb kp (kalp) be in
order : ckpr 3. pl. pf. ; ckpti 3. s. aor. subj. ; kpti
(VS.) I. arrangement beside kalpasva 2. s. impv. mid.,
klpa m. pious work.

b. The diphthongs.
e and o stand for the original genuine diphthongs i u.
They represent (1) the high grade corresponding to the
weak grade vowels i and u ; e. g. scati pours beside
sikt poured ; bhjam beside bhjam aor. of bhuj enjoy ;
(2) the result of the coalescence of a with and in external
and internal Sandhi ; e. g. ndra = indra ; cit = a u cit ;
pad = pad du. n. two steps ; bhveta bhva ta 3. s.
opt. might be ; maghn ( = magh un) weak stem of
maghvan bountiful ; 3) e = az in a few words before
d, dh, h ; e. g. edh be 2. s. impv. of as beside sti ; o az
before bh of easeendings, and before y and v of secondary
suffixes ; e. g. dvobhis inst. pl. of dvas n. hatred ;

4-5]

VOWEL GRADATION

duvo-y wishing to give (beside duvas-y) ; sho-van

mighty beside shas-vant.
ai and au etymologically represent i and u, as is
indicated by the fact that they become y and v in Sandhi ;
e. g. gv-as cows beside gu-s ; and that the Sandhi of a
with e ( = i) and o ( = u) is ai and au respectively.
5. Vowel gradation. Simple vowels are found to inter
change in derivation as well as in verbal and nominal in
flexion with fuller Syllables, or if short also with long vowels.
This change is dependent on shift of accent: the fuller or
long syllable remains unchanged while it bears the accent,
but is reduced to a simple or short vowel when left by the
accent. This interchange is termed vowel gradation. Five
different series of such gradation may be distinguished.
a. The Gua series. H ere the accented high grade
syllables e, o, ar, al, constituting the fundamental stage
and called Gua (cp. 17a) by the native grammarians, inter
change with the unaccented low grade syllables i , u, ,
respectively. Beside the Gua syllables appear, but much
less frequently, the syllables ai, au, r (l does not occur),
which are called Vddhi by the same authorities and may be
regarded as a lengthened variety of the Gua syllables.
Examples are : dida has pointed out : di pointed out ;
mi I go : ims we go ; pnmi I obtain : pnums we
obtain ; vrdhya to further : vdhya, id.
The low grade of both Gua and Vddhi may be , , r, r ; as
bibhya I have feared and bibh y a has feared : bht frightened ; juh v a
has invoked : ht invoked ; tat r a has crossed : tirte crosses and tr
crossed.

b. The Samprasraa series. H ere the accented high

grade syllables ya, va, ra (corresponding to the Gua stage
e o, ar) interchange with the unaccented low grade vowels
i , u, ; e.g. iyja I have sacrificed : i sacrificed; vi
desires : u-msi we desire ; ja-grh-a I have seized : ja-gh-r
they have seized.

^,. Similarly the long syllables y, va, r are reduced to 1, , r ; e. g.

jy f. might : jyte is overcome ; bruy t would say : bruvt id. ;
svd. sweet : sudyati sweetens ; dr g hyas longer : drgh long.

c.
1.
as a
lead

The a series.
I n its low grade stage a would normally disappear, but
rule it remains because its loss would in most cases
to unpronounceable or obscure forms ; e. g. sti is :

snti they are ; jagma I have gone : jagmr they have

gone ; pdyate goes : pibdan standing firm ; hnti slays :
ghnnti they slay.

2. The low grade of the Vddhi vowel is either a or

total loss ; e. g. pd m. foot : pad with the foot ; dadh ti
puts : dadhmsi we put ; pun ti purifies : punnti they
purify ; dad ti gives : devtta given by the gods.

3. When represents the Gua stage its low grade is

normally i ; e. g. sths thou hast stood : sthit stood.
^. sometimes i t is owing to analogy; e.g. pun ti purifies :
punh purify. Sometimes, especially when the low grade syllable
has a secondary accent, i t is a ; e. g. ghate plunges : ghana n. depth.

d. The ai and au series.

The low grade of ai (which appears as ay before vowels
and before consonants) is ; e. g. gayati sings, gth m.
song : gt sung.

The low grade of au (which is parallel to v : 5 b a) is ;

e. g. dh v ati washes : dht washed ; dhautr I. shaking :
dhti m. shaker, dhm m. smoke.
e. Secondary shortening of , , . The low grade
syllables , , r and r(= ) are further reduced to i , u, ,
owing to shift of accent from its normal position in a word
to its beginning, in compounds, reduplicated forms, and
vocatives ; e. g. huti I. invocation: hti call; ddivi shining:
dpya kindle ; crke thou commemoratest : krt I.
praise (from root k) ; piptm 3. du. : prt full (root
p) ; dvi voc. : dev nom. goddess ; vru voc. : varu-s
nom. motherinlaw.

6-7]

H
T E CONSONANTS

The Consonants.
6. The guttural mutes represent the Indo-European
velars (that is, q-sounds). I n the combination k- the
guttural is the regular phonetic modification of a palatal
before s ; e. g. d see : aor. dk-ata ; vac speak : fut.
vak-yti.
7. The palatals form two series, the earlier and the later.
a. Original palatals are represented by ch and , and to
some extent by j and h.
1. The aspirate ch is derived from an I E . double sound,
s + aspirated palatal mute ; e. g. chid cut off = Gk. o^vy^.
But in the inchoative suffix cha it seems to represent s +
unaspirated palatal mute ; e. g. gch-mi = Gk. ^o^^o.
2. The sibilant represents an I E . palatal (which seems
to have been pronounced dialectically either as a spirant or
a mute) ; e. g. atm 100 Lat. centum, Gk. ^arou.
3. The old palatal j (originally the media of = I-Ir. z,
French j) is recognizable by appearing as a cerebral when
final or before mutes ; e. g. yjati sacrifices beside aor.
y has sacrificed, y sacrificer, i sacrificed.
4. The breathing h represents the old palatal aspirate
IIr. ^h. I t is recognizable as an old palatal when, either as
final or before t, it is replaced by a cerebral ; e. g. vhati
carries beside v has carried.
b. The new palatals are c and to some extent j and h.
They are derived from gutturals (velars), being interchange
able, in most roots and formatives, with gutturals ; e. g.
c-ati shines beside k-a m. flame, k-van flaming, ukr
brilliant ; yuje I yoke beside yug n. yoke, yga in. yoking,
yukt yoked, ygvan yoking; dudrha has injured
beside drgha injurious.
a. The original gutturals were changed to palatals by the palatal
sounds i , y immediately following ; e. g. citt noticed beside kta
m . will from cit perceive ; jyas stronger beside ugr strong ; druhy, a
proper name, beside drogha injurious.

S. The cerebrals are entirely secondary, being a specifically

Indian product and unknown in the Indo-Iranian period.
They are probably due to aboriginal, especially Dravidian,
influence. They are still rare in the RV, where they never
occur initially, but only medially and finally. They have
as a rule arisen from dentals immediately following the
cerebral ( = original s, , j , h) or r-sounds (r, , ) ; e. g.
du-ra ( = dus-tra) invincible ; v-i ( = v-ti) wishes ;
m ( = mjt) cleansed ; n ( = nizd) nest ; dh
( = duzdh) illdisposed; dh^ ( = dht) firm; nm
( = nnm) of men.
Final cerebral mutes represent the old palatals j , , h ;
e. g. r ( = rj) m. ruler nom. s. ; vip ( = v-p) I. a river ;
( = sh) overcoming ; v ( = vht) has conveyed
(3. s. aor. of vah).
9. a. The dentals are original sounds, representing the
corresponding IE. dentals. The mutes t and d, however,
sometimes take the place of original s before s and bh
respectively ; e. g. vtss (AY) aor. of vas dwell ;
mdbhs inst. pl. of ms month.
b. The labials as a rule represent the corresponding IE.
sounds. But b is very rarely inherited; the number of
words containing this sound has, however, been greatly
increased in various ways. Thus it often replaces p or bh
in Sandhi and bh in reduplication ; e. g. pibdan firm
beside pad n. place ; rabdh taken beside rbhante they
take ; babh v a has been from bh be. There are also many
words containing b which seem to have a foreign origin.
10. The nasals. Of the five nasals belonging to the
corresponding five classes of mutes, only the dental n and
the labial m appear independently and in any part of a word,
1

z ( = s or old palatal zh), the soft form of , has always disappeared

after cerebralizing d or dh and lengthening the preceding vowel.
Though written as a short vowel the is prosodically long.
2

10]

NASALS

initially, medially, and finally ; e. g. mt I. mother, nman

n. name. The remaining three are always dependent on
a contiguous sound. The guttural , the palatal , and the
cerebral are never initial, and the last two are never final.
The guttural appears finally only when a following k or g
has been dropped, as in stems ending in c or j and in
those compounded with d ; e. g. praty nom. s. of
pratyc facing; kd nom. s. of kd of what kind?
a. Medially appears regularly only before gutturals ;
e. g. ak in. hook ; akhya embrace ; ga n. limb ; jgh
1. leg. Before other consonants it appears only when k or g
has been dropped ; e.g. yudhi for yugdhi (=yujdhi)
2. s. imp v. of yuj join.

b. The palatal nasal occurs only before or after c or j , and

before ch ; e. g. pca five ; yaj m. sacrifice ; v chantu
let them desire.

e. The cerebral appears within a word only, either

before cerebral mutes or replacing dental n after r, or
(either immediately preceding or separated from it by certain
intervening letters) ; e. g. da m. staff; nm of men ;
vra m. colour ; u hot ; krmaa n. step.
d. The dental n is the commonest of the nasals ; it is
more frequent than m, and about three times as frequent as
the other three taken together. As a rule it represents
IE. n ; but it also appears in place of the dental d or t, and
of labial m before certain suffixes. I t is substituted for d
before the suffix na ; and for d or t before the m of
secondary suffixes ; e. g. nna n. food (from ad eat) ;
vidynmant gleaming (vidyt I. lightning) ; m n maya
earthen (md I. earth). I t is substituted for m before t ;
before suffixal m or v ; and before suffixal s or t that have
been dropped as final ; e. g. yantr n. rein (yam restrain) ;
ganma, gnvah (aor. of gam go) ; gan ( = gams,
gamt) 2. 3. s. aor. of gam go ; yn ( = yamst)
3. s. aor. of yam restrain ; dn gen. of dm house (=dams),

e. The labial m as a rule represents IE. m ; e. g. nman,

Lat. nomen. I t is by far the commonest labial sound, being
more frequent than the four labial mutes taken together.
fi The pure nasal. Distinct from the five class nasals is
the pure nasal, variously called Anusvra and Anunsika,
which always follows a vowel and is formed by the breath
passing through the nose unmodified by the influence of any
consonant. The former is usually written with a dot before
consonants, the latter as before vowels. The proper use
of Anusvra is not before mutes, but before sibilants and h
(which have no class nasal). When final, Anusvra usually
represents m, sometimes n (66 A 2). Medially Anusvra
regularly appears before sibilants and h ; e. g. va m.
reed ; hav i offerings ; ms n. flesh ; sih m. lion.

I t usually appears before s, where it always represents

m or n ; e. g. msate 3. s. subj. aor. of man think ;
pianti beside pini from pis crush ; krasyte fut. of
kram stride. When Anusvra appears before or h ( = I E .
guttural or palatal) it represents the corresponding class
nasal.
11. The semivowels. The semivowels y, r , 1, V are
peculiar in having each a vowel corresponding to it, viz.
i , , , u respectively. They are called anta()sthin the
Prtikhyas, or ' intermediate ', as standing midway between
vowels and consonants.
a. The semivowel y is constantly written for i before
other vowels within the Veda itself. I t also sometimes
appears without etymological justification, especially after
roots in -a, before vowel suffixes ; e. g. dyi 3. s. aor. pass.
of da give. Otherwise it is based either on IE. i ( = Gk.
spiritus asper) or voiced palatal spirant y ( Gk. ^) ; e. g.
ys who (Gk. o^), yaj sacrifice (Gk. a.ytos) ; but yas boil

(Gk. ^o), yuj yoke (Gk. ^ y ) , I t is probably due to this

difference of origin that yas boil and yam restrain reduplicate
with ya in the perfect, but yaj sacrifice with I.

SEMIVOWELS

11

b. The semivowel v is constantly written for u before

other vowels within the Veda itself. Otherwise it seems
always to be based on IE. u, that is, on a v interchangeable
with u, but never on an IE. spirant v not interchangeable
with u.
e. The semivowel r generally corresponds to IE. r, but
also often to IE. 1. As Old Iranian invariably has r for
both, it seems as if there had been a tendency to rhotacism
in the IndoIranian period. I n order to account for the
Vedic relation of r to 1, it appears necessary to assume
a mixture of three dialects: one in which the IE. r and 1
were kept apart ; another in which IE. 1 became r (the
Vedic dialect) ; and a third in which IE. r became 1
throughout (the later Mgadh).
r is secondary when it takes the place of phonetic (= z)
as the final of stems in is and us before endings beginning
with bh; e. g. havr-bhis and vpur-bhis. This substitution
is due to the infiuence of external Sandhi, where is and us
would become ir and ur.
a. Metathesis of r takes place when r would be followed by or h
+ consonant. I t appears i n forms of d see and sj send forth ; e. g.
drum to see, ssra one who engages in battle ; also i n brahman m.
priest, brhman n. devotion beside barns n. sacrificial litter (from bh or
barh make big) ; and i n a few other words.

d. The semivowel 1 represents IE. 1 and in a few instances

IE. r. I t is rarer than in any cognate language except Old
Iranian, in which it does not occur at all. I t is much rarer
than r, which is seven times as frequent. A gradual increase
of 1 is apparent in the RV. ; thus in the tenth book are
found the verbs mluc and labh, and the nouns lman,
lohit, which in the earlier books appear as mruc sink,
rabh seize, rman n. hair, rohit red. This letter occurs
eight times as often in the latest parts of the RV. as in the
oldest ; and it is seven times as common in the AV. as in
the RV. I t seems likely that the recorded Vedic dialect

was descended from an Indo-Iranian one in which rhotacism

had removed every 1 ; but that there must have been another
Vedic dialect in which IE. r and 1 were kept distinct, and
a third in which IE. r became 1 throughout ; from the
latter two 1 must have found its way into the literary
language to an increasing extent. I n the oldest parts of the
RV. there are no verbal forms preserving IE. 1, and only a few
nouns : (u)lok m. free space, loka m. call, and -mila mixed.
a. I n the later Sahits l occasionally occurs both medially and
finally for ; e. g. 1le (vs. Kava) = e (RV. e) ; bal ti (Av.), cf.
RV. b itth. I n a good many words l is probably of foreign origin.

12. The sibilants are all voiceless, but there are various
traces of the earlier existence of voiced sibilants (cp. 7 a 3 ;
8 ; 15, 2 k). There is a considerable interchange between
the sibilants, chiefly as a result of assimilation.
a. The palatal sibilant represents an IE. palatal (mute
or spirant). Besides being the regular substitute for dental s
in external Sandhi before voiceless palatals (e. g. indra ca),
it occasionally represents that sibilant within words by
assimilation ; e. g. vura (Lat. socer) father-in-law ; a
(IE. kas) m. hare. Sometimes this substitution takes place,
without assimilation, under the influence of allied words, as
in ka m. hair beside ksara (Lat. caesaries). I t is also to
some extent confused with the other two sibilants in the
Sahits, but here it interchanges much oftener with s
than with . Before s the palatal becomes k, regularly
when medial, sometimes when final ; e. g. dkase 2. s. aor.
subj. mid., and dk[s] nom. s. from d see.
b. The cerebral is, like the cerebral mutes, altogether
secondary, always representing either an original palatal or
an original dental sibilant. Medially it represents the
palatals s ( = I-Ir. ) and j ( = I-Ir. z) and the combination k
before the cerebral tenues n (themselves produced from
dental tenues by this ) ; e. g. na from na be lost ;
m-a 3. s. impf), from mj wipe ; ta- from tak hew.

1214]

BREAT
H ING H SPIRANTS

13

Medially it is regularly, and initially very frequently,

substituted for dental s after vowels other than a and after
the consonants k, r, ; e. g. tihati from s t h stand ;
suupur 3. pl. pf. from svap sleep; abh m. bull;
ukn m. ox ; var n. rain ; havu in oblations ; nu
uvanti they praise ; goi winning cattle ; div n being
in heaven.

Occasionally represents dental s as a result of assimila

tion ; e. g. six (Lat. sex) ; victorious nom. s. from
sh overcoming.

c. The dental s as a rule represents IE. s ; e. g. va-s

horse, Lat. equo-s; s-ti Gk. ^r-rt. I n Sandhi it is often
replaced by the palatal and still offener by the cere
bral .
13. The breathing h is a secondary sound representing
as a rule the second half of an original guttural or palatal
aspirate, but occasionally of the dental dn and the labial bh.
I t usually stands for palatalized gh, this origin being
recognizable by the appearance of the guttural in cognate
forms ; e. g. hnti strikes beside ghnnti, jaghna ; dudrha
has injured beside drgha injurious. I t sometimes represents
an old palatal aspirate ( = IIr. zh), as is recognizable by its
being replaced as final or before t by a cerebral ; e. g. vhati
carries beside v has carried, h ( = uzh) for vaht.
It stands for dh e. g. in ghate plunges beside gdh n.
ford ; hit placed beside dhit from d h put. I t represents
bh in the verb grah seize beside grabh. The various origins
of h led to a certain amount of confusion in the groups of
forms from roots containing that sound. Thus beside
mugdh, the phonetic past participle of muh be confused,
appears mh (AV.) bewildered.
14. Voiceless spirants. There are three such represent
ing original final s or r. Visarjanya has its proper place in
paus.

Jihvmlya (formed at the root of the tongue) is the

guttural spirant and is appropriate before initial voiceless

gutturals (k, kh). Upadhmnya (on-breathing) is the bi-labial

spirant f and appears before voiceless labials (p, ph.),
Visajanya may take the place of the latter two, and always
does so in the printed texts of the Sahits.
15. Ancient pronunciation. As regards the pronuncia
tion prevailing about 500 B.C. we have a sufficiently exact
knowledge derived from the transcription of Sanskrit words
in foreign languages, especially Greek ; from the information
contained in the old grammarians, Pini and his school ; and
especially from the detailed statements of the Prtikhyas,
the ancient phonetic works dealing with the Sahits.
The internal evidence supplied by the phonetic changes
occurring in the language of the texts themselves and the
external evidence of comparative philology justify us in
concluding that the pronunciation in the period of the
Sahits was practically the same as in Pini's time.
The only possible exceptions are a very few doubtful points.
The following few remarks will therefore suffice on the
subject of pronunciation :
1. a. The vowels. The simple vowels and a were
pronounced as in Italian. But in the time of the
Prtikhyas was already sounded as a very short close
neutral vowel like the u in English but. I t is, however,
probable from the fact that the metre hardly ever admits
of being elided after e and o in the RV., though the
written text drops it in about 75 per cent. of the occurrences,
that at the time when the hymns were composed the
pronunciation of was still open, but that, at the time
when the Sahit text was constituted, the close pronun
ciation was already becoming general.
The vowel , now usually sounded as r i (an early pro
nunciation as shown by the confusion of and r i in ancient
inscriptions and MSS.), was in the Sahits pronounced as
a vocalic r, somewhat like the sound in the final syllable of
the French chambre. I t is described in the RV. Prtikhya

as containing an r in the middle. This agrees with r,

the equivalent of in Old Iranian.
The very rare vowel , now usually pronounced as l r i , was
in the Sahits a vocalic 1, described in the RV. Prtikhya
as corresponding to l representing an original r.
b. The diphthongs e and o were already pronounced as
the simple long vowels and in the time of the Prtikhyas;
and that this was even the case in the Sahits is shown by
the fact that their Sandhi before a was no longer ay and av
and that the a was beginning to be elided after e and o.
But that they represent the original genuine diphthongs i
and u is shown by the fact that they are produced in
Sandhi by the coalescence of a with i and u.
The diphthongs ai and au are at the present day pro
nounced as i and u, and were so pronounced even at the
time of the Prtikhyas. But that they etymologically
represent i and au is shown by their Sandhi.
c. Lengthened vowels. The vowels i and u were often
pronounced long before suffixal y ; e. g. syte is pressed
(su) ; janynt desiring a wife (jni) ; also before r when
a consonant follows; e.g. grbhs (but gras) ; a, i , u
often become long before v ; e. g. vidhyat he wounded
(a is augment) ; jigvs having conquered ( ji) ; tvan
observing order (t) ; y vant how great ; as compensation

for the loss of a following consonant ; e. g. gnforguht

(15, 2 k) ; they are also often pronounced long for metrical
reasons ; e. g. rudh hvam hear our prayer.
d. Svarabhakti. When a consonant is in conjunction
with r or a nasal, the metre shows that a very short vowel
must often be pronounced between them ; e. g. ndra =
ndra ; yaj yaj n sacrifice ; gn = g n woman.
2

1 A term used i n the Prtikhyas and meaning vowel-part '.

Described by the Prtikbyas as equal to ^., or mora i n length
and generally as equivalent to a i n sound.
2

e. Loss of vowels. With very few exceptions the only

vowel lost is initial a which, in one per cent. of its occurrences
in the RV. and about 20 per cent. in the AV. and the metrical
portions of the YV., is dropped in Sandhi after e and o.
In a few words the disappearance of initial a is prehistoric ;
e. g. v bird (Lat. avis) ; snti they are (Lat. sunt),

fi. Hiatus. I n the written text of the Sahits hiatus,

though as a rule tolerated in diphthongs only, appears in
Sandhi when a final s, y, v has been dropped before
a following vowel ; when final , , e of dual endings are
followed by vowels ; and when a remains after final e
and o.
Though not written, hiatus is common elsewhere also in
the Sahits : y and v must often be pronounced as i and u,
and a long vowel or diphthong as two vowels, the original
vowels of contractions having often to be restored both
within a word and in Sandhi; e.g. jyha mightiest as
jyiha ( = jyiha from jy be mighty).
2. Consonants. a. The aspirates were double sounds,
consisting of mutes followed by a breathing ; thus kh is
pronounced as in ' inkhorn ' ; th as in ' pothouse ; ph as
in ' topheavy ' ; gh as in ' loghouse ' ; dh as in ' madhouse ;
bh as in ' Hobhouse .
b. The gutturals were no doubt velars or sounds pro
duced by the back of the tongue against the soft palate.
They are described by the Prtikhyas as formed at the
' root of the tongue ' and at the ' root of the jaw .
c. The palatals c, j , ch are pronounced like ch in ' church ',
j in join, and ch in the second part of Churchill.
d. The cerebrals were pronounced somewhat like the
so-called dentals t, d, n in English, but with the tip of
the tongue turned farther back against the roof of the
mouth. They include the cerebral and l h which in
Rigvedic texts take the place of and h between vowels.
The latter occurs medially only; the former finally also.

Examples are: refreshment; tur abhibhtyj ;

ha invincible.
e. The dentals in the time of the Prtikhyas were
post-dentals, being produced by the tongue, according to
their description, at the ' root of the teeth ' (danta-mla).
f. The class nasals are produced with organs of speech
in the same position as for the formation of the correspond
ing mutes while the breath passes through the nose.
The pure nasal, when called Anunsika, combines with the
preceding vowel to form a single sound, a nasalized vowel,
as in the French 'bon'; when called Anusvra (aftersound), it forms in combination with the preceding vowel
two successive sounds, a pure vowel immediately followed
by the pure nasal, though seeming to form a single sound,
as in the English 'ba-ng' (where, however, the nasal is
guttural, not pure).
g. The semivowel y is the voiced palatal spirant produced
in the same place as the palatal vowel 1. The semivowel v
is described by the Prtikhyas as a voiced labio-dental
spirant. I t is like the English v or the German w. The
semivowel r must originally have been a cerebral, as is
shown by its phonetic effect on a following dental n. By
the time of the Prtikhyas it was pronounced in other
positions also. Thus the RV. Prtikhya speaks of it as
either post-dental or produced farther back (but not as
cerebral).
The semivowel 1 is described in the Prtikhyas as
pronounced in the same position as the dentals, which
means that it was a post-dental.
h. The sibilants are all voiceless. The dental s sounds
like s in ' sin ; the cerebral like sh in ' shun (but with
the tip of the tongue farther back) ; while the palatal is
produced midway between the two, being the sibilant pro
nounced in the same place as the spirant in the German
ich. Though the voiced sibilants z, z (palatal French j),

z, zh (cerebral) have entirely disappeared, they have generally

left traces of their former existence in the phonetic changes
they have produced.
i. The sound h was undoubtedly pronounced as a voiced
breathing in the Sahits. The Prtikhyas describe it as
voiced and as identical with the second element of voiced
aspirates (g-h, d-h, b-h). This is corroborated by the
spelling ^ l-h ( = h) beside ^O ( = ).
j . There are three voiceless spirants appearing only as
finals. The usual one, called Visarjanya in the Prtikhyas,
is according to the Taittirya Prtikhya articulated in the
same place as the end of the preceding vowels. Its place
may be taken by Jihvmlya before the voiceless initial
gutturals k, k n ; and by Upadhmnya before the voiceless
initial labials p, ph. These two are regarded by the RV.
Prtikhya as forming the second half of the voiceless
aspirates kh and ph respectively (just as h forms the second
half of gh, bh, ^c.), They are therefore the guttural spirant
(Greek) ^ and the bilabial spirant f respectively.
k. Loss of consonants. This is almost entirely confined
to groups of consonants. When the group is final, all but
the first element, as a rule, is dropped in paus and in
Sandhi (28). I n initial consonant groups a sibilant is often
lost before a mute ; e. g. candr shining beside candr ;
stanayitn m. beside tanayitn thunder; ty m. beside
sty thief; t beside st m. star; pyati sees beside sp
m. spy, spaa seen. I n a medial group the sibilants s
and regularly disappear between mutes ; e. g. bhakta,
3. s. aor. for hhaka beside bhaki. A mute may
disappear between a nasal and a mute ; e. g. yudh for
yugdh.
a. Medially, voiced sibilants, the dental the cerebral z,
and the palatal z, have disappeared before the voiced dentals
d, dh, and h, but nearly always leaving a trace of their
former existence. Only in the two roots containing

s sit, s order, the sibilant has disappeared without a trace :

dhvam, a--dhi. But when a preceded the z the loss
of the sibilant is indicated by e taking the place of az ;
e. g. edh (for azdh) from as be ; sed, perfect stem of sad
sit for sazd; similarly in deh give (for dazdh) beside
daddh. When other vowels than a preceded, the ^ was
cerebralized and disappeared after cerebralizing the follow
ing dental and lengthening the preceding vowel ; thus
stohvam ( = stozhvam for stosdhvam) 2. pl.
aor. beside stoa ; similarly mh n. reward (Gk.
^o^o^), Similarly the old voiced palatal z disappeared after
cerebralizing a following d or dh and lengthening the
preceding vowel ; e. g. thi for tazhi ( = takdhi) from
tak fashion ; oh for adh ( = sakdh) beside
ah sixth. Still commoner is the loss of the old aspirated
palatal zh represented by h, which was dropped after
cerebralizing and aspirating a following t and lengthening
the preceding vowel ; e. g. sh for sht conqueror from
sah ; gh concealed for guht (from guzht).
l. H aplology. When two identical or similar syllables
are in juxtaposition, one of them is sometimes dropped ;
e. g. tuvr[va]vn roaring mightily beside tuvrva ;
ir[adh]dhyai inf. of iradh seek to win; madgha m.
a plant yielding honey, beside madhudgha shedding sweet
ness ; ra-[sa]kt I. headache.

CHAPTER I I
RULES OF SANDH I OR EUPH ONIC COMBINATION
OF SOUNDS
16. Though the sentence is naturally the unit of speech,
which forms an unbroken chain of syllables euphonically
combined, it is strictly so only in the prose portions of the
A V and the YV. But as the great bulk of the Vedas is
metrical, the editors of the Sahit text treat the hemistich
(generally consisting of two Pdas or verses) as the euphonic
unit, being specially strict in applying the rules of Sandhi
between the verses forming the hemistich. But the evidence
of metre supported by that of accent shows that the Pda is
the true euphonic unit. The form which the final of a word
shows varies according as it appears in paus at the end of
a Pda, or in combination with a following word within the
Pda. With the former is concerned the law of finals in
paus, with the latter the rules of Sandhi. Avoidance
of hiatus and assimilation are the leading principles on
which the rules of Sandhi are based.
Though both are in general founded on the same phonetic
laws, it is necessary, owing to certain differences, to dis
tinguish external Sandhi, which determines the changes
of final and initial letters of words, from internal Sandhi,
which applies to the final letters of verbal roots and
nominal stems when followed by certain suffixes and
terminations.
a. The rules of external Sandhi apply with few exceptions
(which are survivals from an earlier stage of external Sandhi)
to words forming compounds, and to final letters of nominal
stems before the caseendings beginning with consonants
(bhym bhis, bhyas, su) or before secondary (182, 2)
suffixes beginning with any consonant except y.

A. External Sandhi.
Classification of Vowels.
17. Vowels are divided into
A. 1. Simple vowels : a ; i ; u ; ; .
2. Gua vowels : a ; e
o
ar al.
3. Vddhi vowels: ; ai ; au ; r.
a. Gua (secondary duality) has the appearance of being
the simple vowel strengthened by combination with a pre
ceding a according to the rule (19a) of external Sandhi
(except that a itself remains unchanged) ; Vddhi (increase),
of being the Gua vowel strengthened by combination with
another a.
B. 1. Vowels liable to bechangedinto semivowels : i , ;
u, ; ^ and the diphthongs e, ai, o au (the latter half of
which is i or u) : consonantal vowels.
2. Vowels not liable to be changed into semivowels (and
only capable of coalescence) : a, : unconsonantal vowels.
1

Combination of Final and Initial Vowels.

IS. I f the same simple vowel (short or long) occurs at
the end of one word and the beginning of the next,
contraction resulting in the long vowel is the rule in the
written text of the Sahits. Thus ihsti = ih asti ;
ndr = ndra ; tvgne = tv agne ; vtdm = v idm ;
sktm = su uktm.
4

The Vddhi form of (which would be l) does not occur.

I n this vowel gradation, as Comparative Philology shows, the
Gua vowel represents the normal stage, from which the simple
vowel was reduced by loss of accent, while Vddhi is a lengthened
variety of Gua (5 a). The reduction of the syllables ya, va, ra (which
are parallel w i t h the Gua stage) to the corresponding vowels i u,
(5 b) is termed Samprasraa (distraction).
never appears under conditions rendering i t liable to be changed
into r (cp. 4 a, p. 4).
does not occur because never meet i n the Sahits, and final
does not even occur i n the RV.
2

a. The contraction of + a and of + occasionally does

not take place, even in the written text of the RV., both
between the Pdas of a hemistich and within a Pda ; thus
man , agn ; man abh ; v u t ; s rdhv ;
and in a compound, sutya.
b. On the other hand, the metre requires the contracted
vowels of the written text to be restored in pronunciation.
I n such cases the restored initial is long by nature or
position, while the preceding final, if long, must be shortened.
Thus cst is pronounced as ca st ; crcata as ca arcata ;
mp as m p (for m p) ; matd e as mati
de ; ynt n dava as ynti ndava ; bhavantka
as bhavantu uka. When the first word is a mono
syllable (especially v or h), the written contractions and
are usually to be pronounced with hiatus ; thus hlndra as
h ndra.
19. a and
a. coalesce with the simple vowels and to the Gua
vowels e and o respectively ; e. g. ihha ih iha ;
pitva = pit iva ; m = m ; bh = ubh. They
are never contracted to ar in the written text of the R v or
VS. ; hut the metre shows that the combination is sometimes
to he pronounced as ar, for instance in the compound
saptaya the seven seers = saptarya.
1

Because of the prosodical rule that a long vowel is always

shortened before another vowel. Cf. note 5.
Occasionally 4 i remain uneontracted i n the written text of
the RV., as jy iym, pib imm, raay ih.
3 This contraction is a survival because and are simple long
vowels, but they were originally i, u.
But i n many instances where the contraction is written, the
original simple vowels must be restored with hiatus ; thus subhgos
= subhg u.
is always shortened or nasalized before in the written text ;
e. g. ttha t (for t t h ) ; vipany m tsya (for vipany ) .
2

b. coalesce with Gua vowels to Vddhi ; e. g. ibhi

= ebhi.
c. are absorbed by Vddhi vowels ; e. g. smasyauij
smasya auij.
20. The simple consonantal vowels and before dis
similar vowels or before diphthongs are regularly changed
to the semivowels y and v respectively in the written text
of the Sahits ; e. g. prty yam prti ayam ; jnitry
ajjanat = jnitr ajjanat ; tv ta = t t. But the
evidence of the metre shows that this y or v nearly always
has the syllabic value of :t or . Thus vy must be
read as v u ; vidthev ajn as vidtheu ajn.
a. Final (which does not occur in the RV.) becomes r
before a dissimilar vowel ; an example is vijtr tt
vijt ett (B.).
21. The Gua vowels e and o
a. remain unchanged before a. which is generally elided
in the written text of the Sahits, but according to the
evidence of the metre, must almost invariably in the RV.,
and generally in the AV. and YV., be pronounced. whether
written or not. I n devso aptra (1. 3^) the a is both
1

a instead of contracting with e is sometimes nasalized before i t :

aminanta vai (for a e) ; upsthm k (for e). Again is
sometimes elided before e and o ; as p'satu (for a e), yth'ohie
(for 0 ) .
Because and are prosodically shortened before a following
vowel (p. 22, note 1).
The exceptional treatment of e i n sttava ambym for sttave
ambym is a survival showing that the Sandhi of e and 0 before a
was originally the same as before other vowels.
I n the RV. i t is elided i n about 75 per cent., i n the A v . i n about
66 per cent. of its occurrences.
I n the RV. i t must be pronounced i n 99 per cent., i n the A v . and
the metrical parts of the Y v . i n about 80 per cent. of its occurrences.
The frequent elision of the a i n the written text compared with
its almost invariable retention in the original text of the RV., indicates
a period of transition between the latter and the total elision of the
post-vedic period.
2

written and pronounced ; in snv gne (i. 1^) it must be

restored as snve l gne.
b. before every other vowel (or diphthong) would naturally
become ay and av (the form they assume within a word),
but the former drops the semivowel throughout, while the
latter does so only before ; e. g. agna ih (for agnay) ;
vya ukthbh (for vyav) ; but vyav yhi.
22. The Vddhi vowels ai and au are treated before
every vowel (including a) or diphthong exactly in the same
way as e and o before vowels other than a. Thus ai
becomes (through y) throughout, but au only before
(through v) ; e. g. tsm ak (for tsmy), tsm ndrya ;
sujihv pa (for sujihvv), but tv , tv indrgn.
a. The (secondary) hiatus caused by the dropping of y
and v in the above cases (21 b and 22) as a rule remains.
But further contraction is sometimes actually written in the
Sahits ; e. g. srtav j u for srtav ju (through
srtavy for srtavi) ; vsu for v asu (through vy
for vi). Sometimes, again, the contraction, though not
written, is required by the metre. Thus ta indra must be
pronounced as tendra, and gon pa (AV.) for goh pa
(through gohy) as gohpa.
1

Irregular Vowel Sandhi.

23. Vddhi instead of Gua results from the contraction of
a. the preposition (in the AV. and VS.) with initial
in rti = t i and in rchatu chatu. I n the case of
the 1atter verb, the TS. extends this contraction to prepositions
ending in a : prchati = pa chati and avrchti =
ava chti.
1

Because e and 0 were originally = i and u.

This is also the sandhi of the AB. and K B .

ABSENCE OF VOWEL SANDH I

2325]

25

b. The preposition pr (in the RV.) with initial i in

priayr = pr isayr.
c. The augment a with the initial vowels i , u, r ; e. g.
ichas 2. s. impf. of is wish ; unat 3. s. impI. of ud wet ;
rta 3. s. aor. of go.
1

Absence of Vowel Sandhi .

24. The particle u is unchangeable^ in pronunciation
before vowels, though as a rule written as v after a con
sonant ; e. g. bn u ave, but vd v ndra. When it
combines with the final a of a particle to o, in
u, tho = tha u, u.t = ut u, m = m u it remains
unchanged even in the written text ; e. g. tho ndrya.
25. a. The and of the dual (nom. acc.) never change
to y and v. This dual is never to be pronounced short,
but the sometimes is ; e.g. hr (^ ) tsya, but sdhu.
( ^) asmai. This may remain before i as in hr iva,
but in several instances the contraction is written, as in
rdasm = rdas im, while in several others, though
not written, it must be pronounced.
b. The rare locatives singular in and are also regularly
written unchanged in the RV., but they seem always to be
treated as prosodically short.
c. The of the nom. plur. m. (of the pronoun asu) am
is always given as unchangeable in the Pada text (am iti),
but it never happens to occur before a vowel in the RV.
3

This is perhaps a survival of a prehistoric contraction of (the

original form of the augment) with i , u, r to i, u, r.
The term applied by the native phoneticians to unchangeable
vowels is praghya separated. Such vowels are indicated i n the Pada
text by an appended i t i . u is always there written i n its lengthened
and nasalized form as um i t i .
I t is occasionally written unchanged i n its lengthened form even
after a consonant, as tm akrvan.
Except vdy asym, to be pronounced vdi asym.
2

26

CONsONANT sANDH1

^-..7

^. The of the nom. s. i n prthiv , prthujry, samr j rarely, of

the istr. sum once, and of the instr. ut often, remains unchanged
before vowels ; e. g. samr j dbi, sum abhvan.
1

26. The diphthong e is unchangeable in various nominal

and verbal forms.
a. The e of the nom. acc. dual ( = a + ) , fem. and neut.
of a stems, is not liable to Sandhi ; e. g. rdas ubh
ghymam.
b. The verbal dual e of the 2. 3. pres. and perf. mid.
never combines, though it is nearly always prosodically
shortened ; e. g. parimamn t he asmn.
e. The e of the locative of the pronominal forms tv
in thee, asm in us, yum in you are unchangeable ; ^'
e. g. tv i t ; asm yu ; yum itth .
2

Combination of Final and Initial Consonants.

27. The external Sandhi of consonants is primarily and
almost exclusively concerned with the assimilation of a final
to a following initial sound. Since the Sandhi of final
consonants generally speaking starts from the form they
assume in paus. it is necessary to state the law of allowable
finals at the outset. That law may be formulated as follows :
only unaspirated hard mutes, nasals, and Visarjanya are
tolerated, and palatals are excluded, as finals. By this law
the thirtynine consonants classified in ^ 3 are reduced to
1

The unchangeableness of the vowel here being only occasional is

not indicated with i t i i n the Pada text.
Except dhyem for dhye im, as i t is also probably to be
pronounced.
Under the influence of the nominal dual e ; for there was origin
ally no difference between this dual e and any other e i n middle
forms, such as the dual vane, sing. to, and the plur. ante.
Also used as dat. i n the RV.
They are always written with i t i i n the Pada text.
Final n and r are, however, to a considerable extent treated not
on the basis of their pausal form, but of etymology.
2

the following eight as permissible in paus :k, ; ; t, n ;

p, m ; Visarjanya.
The aspirate and soft mutes (3 b) are eliminated, leaving
only hard unaspirated mutes to represent them. The palatals
(3 b ^), including (3 d), and h (3 e), are replaced by k or
( by ).
(3 d) is replaced by , s (3 d) and r (3 e) by Visarjanya.
The nasal (3 b y) and the three semivowels y, 1, v (3 c)
do not occur.
2 S. The rule is that only a single consonant may be
final. H ence all but the first of a group of consonants
must be dropped ; e. g. bhavan 3. pi. impI. were (for
bhavant) ; tn ace. pi. those (for tans) ; tudn striking
(for tudnts) ; pr forward (through pr k for prcs) ;
chn 3. s. aor. has pleased (for chantst).
a. k, t, or t, when they follow an r and belong to the
root, are allowed to remain ; e. g. vrk 3. s. aor. of vj
bend (for vrkt) ; rk nom. s. of rj strength ; mr
3. s. impf. of mj wipe ; vart 3. s. aor. of vt turn ; suh r t
nom. s. of suh r d friend.
1

^. There are seven instances i n the Sahits i n which a suffixal s or

t is retained instead of the preceding radical consonant. (1) s thus
appears i n the following four nominatives sing. : sadham s beside
sadham t (for sadham d s) companion of the feast; avays (for ava
yjs) f. sacrificial share ; vays (for vayjs) m. a kind of priest ;
purods sacrificial cake (for purod -s). (2) s or t similarly appears i n
the following four singular verbal preterite forms : ys (for yajs)
beside ay 2 s. aor. of yaj sacrifice ; sras (for srajs) 2. s. aor. of sj
emit ; bhanas (for bhanaks) 2. s. impf. of bhaj break ; and srat
(for asrast) 3 3. s. aor. of sras fall.
2

The only instance of a suffix remaining after r is i n dart 3. s. aor.

of d cleave beside dar 2. s. (for dars).
The s is probably due to the analogy of nominatives, like ms moon,
draviod s wealthgiver, ^c.
The appearance of s or t here is due to the beginnings of the
3

Classification of Consonants.
29. The assimilation, of which the application of the
rules of consonant Sandhi consists, is of two kinds. I t is
concerned either with a shift of the phonetic position in
which a consonant is articulated, or with a change of the
quality of the consonant. H ence it is necessary to understand
fully the classification of consonants from these two aspects.
In ^ 3 b c d (cp. 15, 2bh) an arrangement according to the
place of articulation is given of all the consonants except
four, the breathing h and the three voiceless spirants, which
are phonetically described in ^ 15, 2 ij.
a. Contact of the tongue with the throat produces the
gutturals, with the palate the palatals, with the roof of
the mouth the cerebrals, with the teeth the dentals, while
contact between the lips produces the labials.
b. I n forming the nasals of the five classes, the breath
partially passes through the nose while the tongue or the
lips are in the position for articulating the corresponding
tennis. The real Anusvra is formed in the nose only,
while the tongue is in the position for forming the particular
vowel which the Anusvra accompanies.
e. The semivowels y, r, 1 v are palatal, cerebral, dental,
and labial respectively, pronounced in the same position as
the corresponding vowels i , , , u, the tongue being in
partial contact with the place of articulation in the first
three, and the lips in partial contact in the fourth.
d. The three sibilants are hard spirants produced by
partial contact of the tongue with the palate, roof, and teeth
respectively. There are no corresponding soft sibilants
(English z, French j), but their prehistoric existence may be
inferred from various phenomena of Sandhi (cp. 15, 2 ko.).
tendency to normalize the terminations so as to have s i n the 2. s. and
t i n the 3. s. some halfdozen examples of this have been found i n
the Brhmaas ; e.g. ves 2. s. impf. ( veds) from v i d know.

e. h and are respectively soft and hard spirants produced

without any contact, and articulated in the position of the
vowel that precedes or follows. h occurs only before soft
letters, only after vowels and before certain hard letters.
30. Quality of consonants.
Consonants are
1. either hard (surd, voiceless) : k kh c ch, h, t th,
p ph ; s ; h (3) ;
or soft (sonant, voiced): all the rest (3) (besides all the
vowels and diphthongs).
2. either aspirate d : kh gh, eh j h , h h h, th dh
ph bh, h h h, s ;
or unaspirated : all the rest.
Hence the change of c to k is a change of the position of
articulation (palatal to guttural), and that of e to j is a
change of quality (hard to soft) ; while the change of c to g
(hard palatal to soft guttural) or of t to j (hard dental to soft
palatal) is one of both position and quality.
31. I t is essential to remember that consonant Sandhi
cannot be applied till finals have been reduced to one of the
eight allowable sounds (27). The latter are then modified
without reference to their etymological value (except partially
in the case of n and Visarjanya). Only six of these
allowable finals occur at all frequently, viz. k, t, n, p, m,
and Visarjanya, while the cerebral and the guttural
are rare.
I . Changes of Quality.
32. A final consonant (that is, a mute or Visarjanya) is
assimilated in quality to the following initial, becoming soft
before soft initials, and remaining hard before hard initials
(consonants).
Hence final k , t, p before vowels and soft consonants
become g, , d, b respectively ; e. g. arvg rdha (through
arvk for arvc) ; havyav juhv s ya (through -v for
vh) ; urv (through for : cp. 3 b ^y) ; gmad

vjebhi (for gmat) ; agnd tyat (through agnt for

agndh) ; trib gyatr (through trip for tribh) ;
ahj (for apj).
33. Fina1 k, , t, p before n or m may, and in practice
regu1arly do, become the nasal of their own class ; e. g.
pra mrtyasya (through prag for prak) ; vir
mitr v ruayo (through vir for vir) ; avati (TS.)
(through ) for navati ; sn n (through asd for
ast) ; tn mitrsya (for td) ; trikakm nivrtat (through
trikakb for trikakp from trikakbh).
34. Final t becomes 1 through d ; e. g. gl lmna
(for gt).
35. Since the nasals have no corresponding hard sounds,
they remain unchanged in quality before initial hard sounds.
The guttural , which is rare, remains otherwise unmodified
also (cp. 52) ; but it may before sibilants insert a transitional
k, e.g. pratyfik s beside praty s. Final m is liable to
change of position before all consonants (42). Final dental
n is liable to change before vowels (42, 52), palatals, dentals,
the semivowel 1, and sometimes p (40).
36. The dental nasal n remains unchanged before (1) the
gutturals k, kh, g, gh; (2) the labials p. ph, b, bh, m ; (3) the
soft dentals d, dh, n ; generally also before t (40, 2) ; (4) the
semivowels y, r, v, and the breathing h ; (5) the cerebral
and the dental sibilants and s.
a. Before and s a transitional t may be inserted,
e.g. hant shas ; tnt sm.
1

I I . Changes of Position.
37. The only four final consonants (27) liable to change of
position are the dental t and n, the labial m, and Visar
janya.
1

The palatal and cerebral nasals, as has already been stated, do not
occur as finals.
Before p i t sometimes becomes ; cp. 40, 5.
2

a. The two dentals become palatal before palatals.

b. Visarjanya and m adapt themselves to the phonetic
position of the following consonant.
1. Final t.
38. Final t before palatals (c, j , ch, ) is changed to a
palatal (c or j) ; e.g. tc cku for tt cku; ytayj
jana for ytaytjana ; rohc chyv for roht yv.^
2. Final n.
39. Final n before vowels is changed, after a long vowel,
to Anusvra : if the preceding vowel is , to m, if it is , ,
, to mr ; e.g. srgm va for srgn ; vidvm agne for
vidv n ; paridhmr ti for paridh n ; abhmr iva for
abhn ; nmr abh for nn.
40. 1. Final n before all palatals that occur becomes
palatal ; e.g. urdhv carthya for rdhv n ; t
juethm for t n ; vajri nathihi for vajrin; but since
before a transitional t may be inserted, vajnt nathihi
may (through vajric ^' nathihi) become vaj chnathihi.
a. Before c the palatal sibilant is sometimes inserted in
the RV the preceding n then becoming Anusvra. This
3

Final dentals never come into contact w i t h initial cerebrals i n

the Sahits. No initial cerebral mutes occur i n the RV., and even
the cerebral sibilant occurs only i n ss suc and its compounds, and
once i n for s from sh.
On the change of to ch after c see 53.
Both m and mr here represent original ns through m, the Sandhi
of being here the same as that of before vowels. n n
n remain unchanged at the end of a Pada (as being i n paus) before
a vowel ; e. g. devay n n'tandra (f. 72 ).
mr occurs only once, otherwise remaining unchanged as n
because two r sounds are avoided i n the same syllable (cf. Vedic
Grammar, 79).
That is, t before becomes o (38).
That is, after c initial may become ch (53).
There are no examples of the inserted sibilant before ch in the
Sahits.
2

5
6
7

insertion takes place, only when the sibilant is etymologically

justified, almost exclusively (though not without exception
even here ^) before ca and cid ; e. g. anuyj ca,
amen cit. I n the later Sahits the inserted sibilant
becomes commoner, occurring even where not etymologi
cally justified.
2. Final n usually remains unchanged before dental t,
e.g. tvvn t m n ; but the dental sibilant is sometimes
inserted in the RV., the preceding n then becoming
Anusvra. This insertion takes place, only when the
sibilant is historically justified ; e. g. vdas tvm (for
vdan). I n the later Sahits the inserted sibilant
becomes commoner, occurring even where not etymo
logically justified.
3. Final n before initial 1 always becomes nazalized 1;
e. g. jigvl lakm.
4. Though final n generally remains unchanged before
y, r, v, h (36, 4), n, n, n sometimes become m, mr, mr
as before vowels (39) ; e. g. devn havmahe ; but svvm
ytu (for svvn) ; dadvm v (for dadvn) ; pvoannm
rayivdha (for annn) ; pamr hatam (for pan) ; ds
ymr ynau (for dsyn).
5. Final n when etymologically representing ns sometimes
becomes before p (36, 2) ; thus n phi (for nn) ;
n p t ram ; svtav py (for svtavn).
1

3. Final m.
41. Final m remains unchanged before vowels ; e.g.
agnm H e Ipraise

Agni.

That is, i n the nom. s. and acc. pl. m., which originally ended
i n ns.
E.g. pa ca stht cartham (i. 72 ),
As in the 3. p i . impf., e. g. bhavan (originally bhavant) and the
voc. and loc. of n stems, e. g. rjan (which never ended in s).
No initial th occurs i n the RV.
2

^. I n a very few instances the m is dropped and the vowels there

upon contract. This Sandhi is mostly indicated by the metre only :
thus rrm ih must be pronounced rrh. I t is very rarely
written, as i n durghaitt for durgham ett. The Pada text, however,
neither here (durgh ett) nor elsewhere analyses a contraction i n
this way.

42. Final m before consonants is changed

1. before the semivowel r, the three sibilants , s, s
and the breathing h to Anusvra ; e. g. htra ratnadh
tamam (for htram) ; vrdhamna sv (for vrdha
mnam) ; mitr huve (for mitrm).
2. before y, 1, v it becomes nasalized y, 1, v ; but the
printed texts regularly use Anusvra instead ; e. g. s
yudh ; yaj vau.
3. before mutes it becomes the class nasal, and n before
n ; e.g. bhadrn kariysi ; ty camasm ; nvan
tvu ; bhadrn nah. Most MSS. and the printed texts,
however, represent this assimilated m by Anusvra ; e. g.
bhadr kariysi; ty camasm; nva tvu;
bhadr na.
1

This Sandhi is identical with that of n before the palatals c j , ch

(40) and the soft dentals d, d. n (36, 3), and of t before n (33).
1

Anusvra seems to have been used originally before the sibilants

and h only. Compounds like samr j show that m originally remained
unchanged before r (49 b),
The Taittirya Prtikhya allows the optional use of Anusvra
before these semivowels.
'- Forms w i t h internal m like yamymna and pamlukta show
that m originally remained unchanged i n external Sandhi before y
and l ; and forms like jaganv n (from gam go) point to its having
at one time become n before v i n Sandhi.
Before labials it of course remains.
This assimilation before n being identical with that of d, led to
ambiguity i n some instances and consequent wrong analysis by the
Padapha.
Max Mller i n his editions prints Anusvra throughout, even
before labials ; Aufrecht has Anusvra except before labials, where
he retains m.
2

4. Final Visarjanya.
43. Visarjanya is the spirant to which the hard s and
the corresponding soft r are reduced in paus. I f followed
by a hard sound,
1. a palatal (c, ch) or a dental (t) mute, it becomes the
corresponding Sibilant ; e. g. dev cakm (through deva
for devs) ; p ca (through p ca for pur ca,) ; ys te
(for y) ; vbhis tn (for bhi).
1

a. Visarjanya, i f preceded by and u, before dental t often becomes

cerebral s, which cerebralizes the following initial t to t. I n the RV.
this occurs chiefly, and in the later Vedas only, before pronouns;
e. g. agn e ; krtu m ; also nki an u. I n compounds this
change takes place in all the sahits ; e. g. dara hard to pass.
2

2. a guttural (k, kh) or labial (p, ph) mute, it either

remains or becomes Jihvmlya () before the gutturals
and Upadhmnlya (h.) before the labials ; e. g. vo
krmi (for vos) ; ndra pca (for ndras) ; pna
puna (for pnar) ; dyu pthiv.
3

a. After a i t often, i n the Rv becomes s, and after , ; e. g. divs

pri ; ptnvatas kdhi ; dyu pit . I n compounds this change
takes place regularly i n all the sahits ; e. g. parasp farprotecting ;
bavip drinking the offering ; duk t evildoing, dupd evilfooted.

3. a simple sibilant, it either remains or is assimilated ;

e. g. va ivtama or va ivtama ; dv or dv
; na saptn or nas saptn ; pna sm or pnas
sm. Assimilation is undoubtedly the original Sandhi ;
4

This combination (in which visarjanya represents original r) is

contrary to etymology, but is universal in sentence sandhi and is
subject to only two exceptions i n compounds : svr-cakas and svrcanas.
The only exception i n the RV. is ctus-triat thirty-four.
This treatment before gutturals and labials corresponds to that
before t ( l a), and was doubtless the original one in sentence sandhi.
This combination (in which visarjanya represents original r ) ,
though contrary to etymology, is universal in external Sandhi ; but
2

but the M SS. usually employ Visarjanya and European

editions regularly do so.
a. Before a sibilant immediately followed by a hard mute, a final
visarjanya is dropped ; e. g. mandbhi stmebhi (through mand
bhi for mandbhis) ; du-ut f. ill-praise (for du-ut), The dropping
is prescribed by the Prtikhyas of the Rv the v s and the TS.,
and is applied by Aufrecht i n his edition of the RV.
b. Before a sibilant immediately followed by a nasal or semivowel,
a final Visarjanya is optionally dropped ; e. g. kta rva .(for kta) ;
nisvarm (through n i for nis).

44. Visarjanya (except after a or ) before a soft sound

(vowel or consonant) is changed to r ; e.g. ibhir ya
(through ibhi for ibhis) ; agnr ht (through agn
for agns) ; paribh r si (through bh for bhs),
45. 1. The final syllable ( = s) drops its Visarjanya
before vowels or soft consonants; e.g. sut im (through
sut for suts) ; vv v (through vv for vvs).
2. Thef i n a lsyllable a ( = as)
a. drops its Visarjanya before vowels except a ; e. g.
khya (through khya for khyas).
b. before soft consonants and before a, is changed to o,
after which a may be elided (21 a) ; e. g. ndavo vm
(through ndava for ndavas) ; no ti (through na for
nas) or n ' t i .
46. The final syllables a ( = ar) and ( = ar), in the
comparatively few instances in which the Visarjanya
represents an etymological r, do not form an exception (45)
to the general rule (44) ; e. g. prtr agn ; pnar na ;
svar druh ; vr avyat.
1

in compounds the original r frequently remains ; e. g. vanarsd,

dhurd, ^:c. This survival shows that r originally remained before
sibilants i n sentence sandhi.
r is original i n dvr door, vr protector, vr water ; har ay, ur
dawn, dhar udder, vdhar weapon, vnar wood, svr light ; antr within,
avr down, p n a r again, prtr early ; the voe. of stems, e.g. bhr t ar ;
the 2. 3. s. of past tenses from roots i n , e. g. var, from v cover.
1

47. r followed by r is always dropped, a preceding short

vowel being lengthened ; e. g. pn rp i for pnar.
4S. The three pronouns (nom. m. s.) s that, sy that,
e this, drop the Visarjanya before all consonants ; e. g.
s vnni, sy dt, e tm. The Visarjanya is here
otherwise treated regularly ; at the end of a Pda, e. g.
pad s 1 cakra e l , and before vowels, e. g. s ap,
e asura, e 'mandan (for amandan); s adh, e
ndra.
2

a. s however, generally combines i n the RV. with a following

vowel ; e. g. ssmai for s asmai ; sd for s d ; suadh for s
adh.

Sandhi i n Compounds.
49. The euphonic combination at the junction of the
members of compounds is on the whole subject to the rules
prevailing in external Sandhi. Thus the evidence of metre
shows that contracted vowels are often to be pronounced
with hiatus when the initial vowel of the second member is
prosodically long (cp. 18 b) ; e. g. yukt-ava (for yukt va)
having yoked horses, dev-iddha kindled by the gods (for

devddha), cha-ukti (for chokti) invitation.

Compounds have, however, preserved many archaisms of
Sandhi which have disappeared from Sandhi in the sentence.
a. I n vi-pti lord of the house and viptn mistress of the house
remains instead of the required by external Sandhi.
b. I n samr j sovereign ruler m appears instead of the Anusvra
required before r (42, 1), as i n sar j antam.
4

I n a few instances 0 appears instead of ( ar) under the influence

of a as the pausal form of neuters i n as ; e. g. dho romam (for
udhudhar) ; also i n the compound aho-rtr for aha-.
s, however, twice retains i t i n the RV. ; s plikn (v. 2 )
and ss tva (viii. 33 ) for s.
3 sy never occurs i n the RV. before a vowel or at the end of
a Pda.
vi-pti has in post-Vedic Sanskrit become vipati.
2

16

e. A group of compounds formed with dus ill as first member com

bine that adverb with a following d and n to d ( duzd) and du
(=duzn) instead of durd and dur : dbha (for dusdbha) hard
to deceive, d not worshipping (for dusd), dh malevolent (for
dusdh ) ; d-a hard to attain (for dur-na), da (for dusn a)
hard to attain and hard to destroy.
1

d. Final (etymological) r i n the first member is preserved i n the

RV. before hard sounds where the rules of external Sandhi require
visarjanya or a sibilant (43): varkry producing water; svroakas
brilliant as light ; p r pati lord of the stronghold, svrpati lord of heaven ;
vanarsd and vanard sitting in the wood, dhursd being on the yoke ;
svar winning light; svrati acquisition of light. The VS. also has
aharpti lord of day, and dhr h bearing the yoke.
e. Radical stems in i r , ur mostly lengthen their vowel before con
sonants (as they do within the simple word); e.g. dhrd being on
the yoke, pry a leading to the fort.
2

50. Compounds further often contain archaisms which

though still existing in external Sandhi are obsolescent and
disappear entirely in later periods of the language.
a. I n six compounds candr bright retains its old initial
sibilant in the second member ; e. g. va-candra brilliant
with horses, puru-candr ver y brilliant.

As an independent

word it is, excepting three occurrences in the RV., invariably

candr.^
b. A final s of the first member or an initial s of the
second member is cerebralized ; e. g. du-ra har d to cross,
du-ha har d to resists
1

But dur the form required by the later external sandhi is

already commoner i n the RV. ; e. g. durd ka, dur m an.
Nouns ending in radical r retain the r before the ending su of the
loc. ph ; gr, dhr, pr.
External sandhi gradually encroaches here i n the later Sahits ;
e. g. svpati i n the Sv.
But gir retains its short vowel i n grvaas fond of praise and gr
vhas praised in song.
H ow nearly extinct candr is as an independent word is indicated
by the fact that in the analysis of its six compounds i t always appears
as candr i n the Padapha.
I n post-vedic sanskrit only dustara, dusaha.
2

c. A dental n in the second member is cerebralized after

, r, in the first member :
a. almost invariably, whether initial, medial, or final in a root, when
a verbal derivative is compounded with a preposition that contains r ;
e. g. nirj f. bright garment, prihuta denied, pr m. breath ; and
even i n suffixes, as pray a n. advance (from y go).
^. predominantly i n other compounds when the second member is
a verbal noun ; e. g. grma chief of a village, durg i dangers, pit
ya trodden by the fathers, rakoh demonslaying ; but puroy v an
beside prtary v a going out early. Cerebralization never takes place
i n ghn the weak form of han killing ; nor i n aknh tied to the axle,
kravyav h ana conveying corpses, carmamn tanner, yum nta led
by you.
^y. less regularly when the second member is an ordinary (non
verbal) noun ; e. g. uras broadnosed, prapt greatgrandson ; but
candrnirij having a brilliant garment, pnarnava again renewed.

d. The final vowel of the first member is often lengthened,

especially before v ; e. g. ann vdh prospering by food.
This is often due to an old rhythmical tendency (also
appearing in the sentence) to lengthen a vowel before
a single consonant between two short syllables ; e. g.
rathsh able to draw the ear.

e. Final or of the first member is often shortened

before a group of consonants or a long syllable ; e. g. ra
mradas soft as wool (r) ; pthivih standing on the
earth (pthiv) ; amvac t ana driving away disease (mv).

Doubling of Consonants.
51. The palatal ch etymologically represents a double
sound and metrically lengthens a preceding short vowel.
For the latter reason the RV. Prtikhya prescribes the
doubling of ch (in the form of cch) after a short vowel, and,
as regards long vowels, after only, when a vowel follows.
This rule is followed by Max Mller in his editions of the
RV. ; e. g. ut cchad, cchdvidhna, but me chantsat.
1

i The Vedic MSS. almost invariably write the simple oh, and this
practice is followed by Aufrecht in his edition of the Rigveda and
L. v. Schroeder in his edition of the MS. I t is also followed i n the
present work.

52. Before vowels final and n, if preceded by a short

vowel, are doubled ; o. g. kd ndra ; hann ndra.
Though the nasal is always written double, the metre shows
that this rule is only partially applied as regards pronun
ciation in the RV.
a. The compound vra-av with stallions as steeds ( = n ) is an
exception.

Initial Aspiration.
53. After a final c, initial regularly becomes ch ; e. g.
ye chaknvma for yd aknvma.
a. The same change occasionally takes place after ; thus
vp chutudr (for utudr) ; tur chum (for um),
54. Initial h, after softening a preceding k, t, t, p, is
changed to the soft aspirate of that mute ; e. g. sadhryg
ghit for hit ; v havy n i for v havyni ; sd ad
dht for sd at ht.
55. I f gh, dh, bh, or h are at the end of a (radical)
syllable beginning with g, d, or b, and lose their aspiration
as final or otherwise, the initial consonants are aspirated by
way of compensation ; e. g. from dagh reach the 3. s.
injunctive is dhak (for daght) ; bdh waking becomes
bht ; dh milking becomes dhk.
1

B. Internal Sandhi.
56. The rules of internal Sandhi apply to the finals of
roots and nominal and verbal stems before all endings of de
clension (except those beginning with consonants of the
middle stem : 73 a) and conjugation, before primary suffixes
(182, 1) and before secondary suffixes (182, 2) beginning
with a vowel or y. Many of these rules agree with those
of external Sandhi. The most important of those which
differ from external Sandhi are the following :
1

This is not really compensation but the survival of the original

initial aspiration of such roots, which was lost owing to the avoidance
of an aspirate at the beginning and end of the same syllable. H ence
when the final aspirate disappeared, the initial returned.

40

INTERNAL SANDH I

[57-61

FinaI Vowels.

57. I n many cases before a vowel is changed to i y ;

u and to uv ; e. g. dh + e = dhiy- dat. s. for thought ;
b h + i = b h u v - on earth ; yu-yuv- has joined ( yu).

58. Final before y becomes r i (154, 3) ; e. g. k make :

k r i - y t e 3. s. pres. pass. is done. Final before consonant
terminations is changed to r, after labials to r ; e. g. g
swallow : gryte is swallowed, g r - swallowed ; p fill :
p r - y t e is filled, p r - filled.

59. e, ai, o, au are changed before suffixes beginning

with vowels or y to ay, y, av, v respectively ; e. g.
e + u = a y - lying ; r a i + e = ry for wealth ; go + e =
gve for a cow; n a u + i = n v in a boat; g o + y a
g v y a relating to cows.
F i n a l Consonants.

60. The most notable divergence from external Sandhi is

the unchangeableness of the final consonants (cp. 32) of
roots and verbal or nominal stems before suffixes and
terminations beginning with vowels, semivowels and nasals
(while before other letters they usually follow the rules of
external Sandhi); e.g. v c ya to be spoken, durasy
worshipping, yas-vat glorious ; v c m i I speak (but v k t i
speaks) ; vocam I will speak, papcyt would mix ; pr c
a nom. pl. forward.
a. Before the primary suffix na, d is assimilated ; e. g. nna n. food
(for adna), chinn cut o^ (for chidna) ; and before the secondary
suffixes mant and maya, t and d ; e.g. vidynmant accompanied by
lightning (vidyt) and mnmya consisting of clay (md), I n the nominal
caseform am (for anm) of six () the final is assimilated.

61. Nominal or verbal stems ending in consonants and

followed by terminations consisting of a single consonant,
drop the termination altogether, two consonants not being
tolerated at the end of a word (28). The final consonant
that remains is then treated according to the rules of external

Sandhi. Thus p r a c + s nom. s. forward becomes pr

(the s being first dropped, the palatals being changed to
gutturals by 27, and the k being then dropped by 28) ;
similarly adoh + t = dhok he milked (55).
62. Aspirates followed by any sounds except vowels,
semivowels or nasals (60) lose their aspiration ; e. g. randh +
dh = randdh 2. s. aor. impv. subject ; 1abh + syate =
1

lapsyate (B.) 3. s. fut. will take ; but yudh in battle ;

rbhya seizing.
a. A lost soft aspirate is, if possible, thrown back before
dnv, bh, s (55) ; e. g. inddhvam 2. pl. impv. of indh
kindle ; bhudbhs inst. pl., bhuts loc pl. But before s
this rule applies only partially ; thus from dabh harm : des.
dpsati desires to injure, dips intending to hurt ; bhas

chew : bpsati chews ; guh hide : des. jugukatas beside

aghukat ; dah burn : part. dkat beside dhkant ; duh
milk : aor. duksat beside dhukat.
b. But it is thrown forward on a following t and th,
which are softened ; e. g. rabh + ta rabdh seized ;
rudh + t i = ruddhi ; rundh + tm = runddhm 3. s .
impv. let him obstruct.
63. Palatals. a. While c regularly becomes guttural
before consonants (cf. 61 ; 27 ; 7 b), j in some cases (the
majority) becomes guttural (k, g). in others cerebral (, , ) ;
1

For the Vedic language tolerates two aspirates neither at the

beginning and the end of the same syllable, nor at the end of one and
the beginning of the next. On the other hand, there is no loss of
aspiration i n the root i f an aspirate (after a vowel) which belongs to a
suffix or a second member of a compound follows ; e. g. vibhbhis
with the Vibhus ; garbhadh m. breedingplace. (The two imperatives bo
dh be for bhodh, and jah strike for jhah, follow the general rule.)
Except in the case of the root dh place, the weak stem of which
dadh (following the analogy of 62a) becomes dhat before t and t h
(cf. 134 B b).
j always becomes k before a conjugational s (cp. 144, 4) ; e. g. mk
va 2. s. impv. of mj wipe.
2

e. g. ukt spoken ( vac) ; yukt joined (yuj) ; rug

broken (ruj: cp. 65); but r nom. s. king (for r j + s ) ;
mhi 2. s. impv. wipe (for mjdhi) ; rr kingdom (for
rjtra: cp. 64).
b. The palatal before bh (73 a) normally becomes ;
k before s ; always before t and th (cp. 64) ; e. g. pabhs with looks (p), vi-bhs with tribes (v) ; vek-ysi
fut. of vi enter ; vik- loc. pl. (v) ; dk nom. s. of d
1

direction ; nk nom. s. of n night ; vi- entered (vi).

c. c and j (not ) palatalize a following n ; e. g. yaj + na =

yaj- sacrifice, but pra-n question.
d. The ch of the root praoh ask is treated like :
prkt 3. s. sis aor., pr 3. s. s aor. ( = prachst) ;
p asked, prum inf. to ask.
64. Cerebrals change following dentals to cerebrals (39);
e. g. is + t = i ; avi + dhi = avih 2. s. impv. is
aor. of av; a + n m (for anm) = am (cp. 33, 60a),
a. While the cerebral sibilant seems always to be
come a cerebral mute (t or ) in declension and becomes
in conjugation, it regularly becomes k before s in conju
gation (cp. 63 b and 67) ; e. g. dvi + s dv nom. s. hating,
vipr + s = vipr drop, viprbhis inst. pl. ; avi 1
dh=avih 2. s. impv. iaor. of av favour ; dvi+sat=
dvikat 3. s. inj. sa aor. of dvi hate.
65. Change of dental n to cerebral .
A preceding cerebral , , r, (even though vowels, gut
tural or labial mutes or nasals, y, V, or h intervene) changes
a dental n (followed by a vowel or n, m, y, v) to cerebral ;
e.g. n + nm = nm of men ; pit + nm pit m of
fathers ; var + na = vra m. colour ; u + na u hot ;
3

g in cases of d and d : digbhys drgbbs.

But i n the nom. v (v), v-p (v-p) and sp spy (sp) the
cerebral has taken the place of the phonetic k owing to the influence
of other forms i n which tlie cerebral is phonetic.
No example occurs of this sound before the su of the loc. plur.
1

65]

CEREBRALIZATION OF DENTAL N

43

krmaa n. step (vowels and labial nasal intervene), arka

(guttural and vowel) ; gbhti seizes (labial mute) ; brah
may devotion (vowel, h, labial nasal, vowel ; n followed
by y).
This rule is followed throughout within a word even when
a which it contains is produced by Sandhi; e.g. uuv
(for u suvn).
a. The cerebralization of n takes place almost as regularly in verbs
compounded with the prepositions pr before, pr away, pri round,
nr (for ns) out, as well as i n nominal derivatives of these combina
tions ; e. g. parde (nud thrust), praet guide (n lead); prihuta
denied ; pr iti breathes ( an) ; n r hayt (ban strike), but not i n forms
with ghn (e.g. abhipraghnnti) ; pr hiomi, but parihinmi
(hi impel).
b. I n nominal compounds n is usually cerebralized when i t is the
initial of the second member i n the RV. ; e.g. durman illnamed,
prapat greatgrandson ; but trink n. third heaven. I t is less fre
quent medially ; e. g. prvh forenoon, v amaas manlyspirited, but
imanas offarseeing mind ; np a giving drink to men, but parip n a
n. drink (cp. 50 c ^ ) ,
c. Cerebralizatien is even extended to external Sandhi i n a closely
connected following word, most often initially i n the enclitic nas us,
rarely in other monosyllables such as n now, n like, occasionally i n
other words also ; ^ e. g. sah a ; pri et . . . viat. I t some
times occurs medially, oftenest in the enclitic pronoun ena this ; e. g.
ndra eam. I t occasionally appears i n accented words also after
final r ; e. g. gr hea.

Table showing when n changes to .

in spite of intervening vowels,

gutturals (including h),
labials (including v),
and y

change if followed
n
by vowels,
to
n, m, y, v.

There are two exceptions to this rule i n the RV., the gen. plur.
rnm and rr n m.
After the final cerebral of (for six), assimilated to the
following n (33), initial dental n is cerebralized i n savati ninetysix
(Ts.) and i n a iramimta (B.).
2

44

INTERNAL CONSONANT SANDH I

[6^

66 A. The dental n
1. remains unchanged before y and v ; e. g. hanyte is
slain ; tanvn stretching, ndnanvan possessed of fuel

(indhana), asanvnt having a mouth.

2. as final of a root becomes Anusvra before s ; e. g. ji
ghsati wishes to kill ( han) ; also when it is inserted
before final s or in the neuter plural (71c; 83); e.g.
nsi n. pi. of nas sin ; havi n. pl. of havs
oblation (83).

B. The dental s
1. becomes dental t as the final of roots or nominal
stems
a. before the s of verbal suffixes (future, aorist, desiderative)
in the three verbs vas dwell, vas shine, and ghas eat ; thus
avtss thou hast dwelt ; vtsyati will shine ; jighatsati
wishes to eat (171, 5) and jignats hungry.
1

b. before caseendings with initial bh in the reduplicated

perf. participle and in four other words : thus jgvdbhis
inst. pl. having awakened ; udbhis from us I. dawn ;
mdbhs, mdbhys from ms m. month ; svtavadbhyas
from svtavas selfstrong. This change was extended
without phonetic justification to the nom. ace. s. n. in the
RV., as tatanvt extending far.
2. disappears
a. between mutes ; e. g. bhakta 3. s. s aor., for
bhaksta beside bhaki, of bhaj share; cae for
cake ( = original caste) 3. s. pres. of cak speak ;
a-gdha uneaten for a-ghs-ta from ghas eat.
A similar loss occurs in verbal compounds formed with
2

The change of s to t before the t of the 3. s. of a past tense, as i n

vy-vt has shone forth from vi-vas, is probably not a phonetic change,
but is rather due to the influence of the 3. s. of other preterites with t ;
*-vs-t having thus become -vt instead of *vas.
There having been no case-ending s here. No example occurs in
the RV. and AV. of a loc. pl. in vat-su.
2

66-67]

CEREBRALIZATION OF S

45

the preposition ud and the roots s t h stand and stambh

support ; c. g. t-thita and t-tabhita raised up.
b. before dh ; e. g. -dhi for s-dhi 2. s. impv. of s
order ; dhvam 2 pl. mid. impv. of s sit ; also after
becoming and cerebralizing the following dental ; e. g.
stohvam (for stosdhvam) 2. pl. aor. of stu praise.
67. Change of dental s to cerebral .
A preceding vowel except a (even though Anusvra
intervenes) as well as k, r, change dental s (followed by
a vowel, s, t, th, n, m, y, v) to cerebral ; e. g. from havs
oblation: hav inst. s., havi nom. pl. ; ckus n.
eye : cku inst. s., cki nom. pl. ; havu loc.
pl. ; srj I. wreath : srak loc. pl. ; gr I. song : gr
loc. pl. ; thati stands from sth stand ; ckumant
possessing eyes ; bhaviyti will be from bh be ; suvpa
has slept from svap sleep. But sarp (final) ; mnas
(a precedes) ; usr matutinal.
1

a. The cerebralization of s regularly takes place i n the RV. initially

in verbal compounds after prepositions ending i n i and u as well as i n
nominal derivatives from such compound verbs ; also after the preposi
tion ns out ; e. g. n da sit down, nu uvanti they praise ; niha
ma conquering.
b. I n nominal compounds, s is more usually cerebralized than not,
when the initial s of the second member is preceded by vowels other
than ; e. g. suma having abundant Soma. But s is often retained i n
the RV., not only when or r follows, as i n hdisp touching the heart,
risvar sung by seers, but also when there is no such cause to prevent
4

The s, however, remains i n forms of his injure, nis kiss, and

pus man, probably under the influence of the strong forms hinsti,
pmasam, ^e.
words i n which s otherwise follows r or any vowel but must be
of foreign origin, as bsaya a demon, bsa n. root fibre, bus n. vapour.
s remains when immediately followed by r or , e. g. tisrs, tis
bhis, tism f. of tri three; usrs gen., usr and usrm loc, beside
uar voc. dawn.
The s remains unchanged when followed by (even when t i n
tervenes) or r (even though a intervenes, with additional m or v in
smar remember and svar sound).
2

the change ; e. g. gsakhi beside gakhi possessing cattle. After r the

s becomes i n svar light winning, svr t i f. obtainment of light.
o. Cerebralization is even extended to externa1 Sandhi i n initial
s after a final i and u in the RV. when the two words are syntactically
closely connected. This change chiefly takes place i n monosyllabic
pronouns and particles, such as s, sy, sm, sma, svid, and particu
larly s ; e.g. . I t also occurs i n numerous verbal forms and
participles ; e. g. yy h h for ye are, div n being in heaven. I n
other words the change is rare ; e. g. tr adhsth. I n the later
sahitas this form of external Sandhi is very rare except i n the
combination u s.
1

Table showing when s changes to .

Vowels except a
(in spite of inter
vening Anusvra),
k, r,

change
s
to

if followed
by vowels,
t, th, n,
I n , y v.

68. The labial m remains unchanged before y, r, I (op.

60 and 42 B 1) ; e. g. yamymna being guided, vamr m.
ant, pamlukta concealed. But before suffixes beginning
with v it becomes n ; e. g. jaganv n having gone (from
gam go).
69. a. The breathing h becomes k in all roots before s ;
e. g. dhki 2. s. pres. from dah burn : saki 2. s. pres.
from sah prevail.
b. I n roots beginning with d it is treated like gh before
t, th, dh ; e. g. dah + t = dagdh burnt (62 b), dun + tm
= dugdhm 3. du. pres. Similarly treated is the oldest
form of the perf. pass. participle of the root muh : mugdh
bewildered.

c. h in all other roots is treated like an aspirate cerebral,

which after changing a following t, th, dh to h and
1

I n the RV. occurs the sandhi yju kannm (for skannm) with
out cerebralization of the nn (cp. 65).

lengthening a preceding short vowel, is dropped ; e. g.

sah + ta sh overcome ; r i h + ta = rh ticked ;
muh + ta mh (AV.) bewildered; vah + ta = h ;
vah + dhvm = vohvm (VS.).
d. An exception to e is the root nah bind, in which h is
treated as dh : naddh bound. An exception to both b
and e is the root dh : dh firm (begins with d and has
a short vowel).
1

CHAPTER I I I
DECLENSION
70. Declension, or the inflexion of nominal stems by
means of endings that express the various syntactical rela
tions represented by the cases, is most conveniently treated,
owing to characteristic difference of form, meaning, and use,
under (1) nouns (including adjectives) ; (2) numerals; (3) pro
nouns.
In Vedic there are
a. three genders : masculine, feminine, and neuter ;
b. three numbers : singular, dual, and plural ;
e. eight cases : nominative, vocative, accusative, instru
mental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative.
1

I n all these past participles the h is i n the RV. written as h.

with Samprasaraa.
Through vazhdhvam : azh here becoming o just as original as
(through az) becomes o (cp. 45 b).
Before this h the vowel never appears lengthened, but it is
prosodically long (cp. 8, note 2).
This is the order of the cases i n the H indu Sanskrit grammarians,
excepting the vocative, which is not regarded by them as a case. I t
is convenient as the only arrangement by which such cases as are
identical in form, either i n the singular, the dual, or the plural, may
be grouped together.
9

71. The normal caseendings added to the stem are the

following :
S1NGULAR.
-^L F .
N.

N.
s
V. ^
A. am
I.
D.

L
DUA .
L
L
P URA .
M. F .
N.
M. F .
N.

au

bhym

Ab.l

G. 1
L.

^
i

os

as

i^

bhis
bhyas
m
su

a. The vocative is the same (apart from the accent) as

the nominative in all numbers except the mase. and fem.
sing. of vowel stems generally and the masc. sing. of con
sonant stems in an, man, van ; mant, vaut ; in ; as ;
ys, vs ; tar.
b. The nom. acc. sing. has the bare stem excepting the
words in a, which add m.
c. The nom. voc. ace. plur. neut. before the ending i
insert n after a vowel stem and before a single final mute
or sibilant of a consonant stem (modifying the n according
to the character of the consonant : cp. 66 A 2).
72. An important distinction in declension is that between
the strong and the weak stem. I t is fully developed only
in derivative consonant stemsformedwith the suffixes ac,
an, man, van ; ant, mant, vant ; tar ; ys, .vs.
I n the first four and in the last the weak stem is further
reduced before vowel endings. The stem here has three
forms, which may be distinguished as strong, middle, and
weakest.
a. Shift of accent was the cause of the distinction. The
stem, having been accented in the strong cases, here naturally
preserved its full form ; but it was shortened in the weak
cases by the accent falling on the endings. For a similar
reason the last vowel of the strong stem, if long, is regularly

shortened in the vocative, because the accent always shifts

to the first Syllable in that case.
73. The strong stem appears in the following cases :
Nom. voc. acc. sing.
Nom. voc. acc. dual
of masc nouns.
Nom. voc. (not acc.) plur.
Nom voc. acc. plural only of neuters.
a. When the stem has three forms, the middle stem
appears before terminations beginning with a consonant
(bhym, bhis, bhyas, su) ; the weakest before terminations
beginning with a vowel in the remaining weak cases ;
e. g. pratycau nom. du. ; pratygbhis inst. pl. ;
pratcs gen. du. (93).
b. I n neuters with three stems, the nom. voc. acc. sing.
are middle, the nom. voc. acc. du. weakest; e.g. pratyk
sing. ; pratc du. ; pratyci pl. (93). The other eases
are as in the masc.
2

NOUNS.
74. Nominal stems are, owing to divergences of inflexion,
best classified under the main divisions of consonant and
vowel declension.
I . Stems ending in consonants 3 may be subdivided into
A. unchangeable ; B. changeable.
I I . Stems ending in vowels into those in A. a and ; B. i
and u ; C. and .
1

Excepting names of relationship i n tar (101), nearly all nouns

with changeable stems form their feminine with the suffix (100).
Changeable stems are named i n this grammar i n their strong and
original form, though the middle form would be more practical, inas
much as that is the form in which changeable stems appear as prior
member in compounds.
Some sanskrit grammars begin with the vowel declension i n a
( I I . A) since this contains the majority of all the declined stems i n
the language. But i t appears preferable to begin with the consonant
declension which adds the normal endings (71) without modification.
2

I . A. Unchangeable Stems.
75. These stems are for the most part primary or radical,
but also include some secondary or derivative words. They
end in consonants of all classes except gutturals (these having
always become palatals, which however revert to the original
sound in certain cases). They are liable to such changes only
as are required by the rules of Sandhi before the consonant
terminations (cp. 16 a). Masculines and feminines ending
in the same consonant are inflected exactly alike ; and the
neuters differ only in the acc. s. and nom. voc. ace du. and pl.
76. The final consonants of the stem retain their original
sound before vowel terminations (71) ; but when there is no
ending (i.e. in the nom. sing., in which the s of the m. and
f. is dropped), and before the ending su of the loc. pl., they
must be reduced to one of the letters k, t, t, p or Visarjanya
(27) which respectively become g, , d, b or r before the
terminations beginning with bh.
a. The voc. sing. m. I. is the same as the nom. except in
stems in (derivative) as (83).
b. Forms of the nom. voc acc. pl. n. seem not to occur
in the Sahits except in the derivative as, is, us stems,
where they are common ; e.g. ps, arci, cki.
1

Stems i n Dentals.
77. Paradigm triv t m. I. n. threefold.
S1NG.

L
DUA .

L
P UR.

N. m. I. triv t
n. triv t N.A. triv t , N. m. I. triv t as
A. m. f. triv t am n. triv t
m. f. trivtau A. m. I. triv t as
I.
trivt
L
D. [trivdbhym]^ ^
D.
triv t e
Ab
Ab. G.
triv t as
G.
[triv t os] G.
triv t am
L.
triv t i
L.
triv t os
L.
triv t su
m. I. v trvtas.
1

But i n the Brahmaas are found from bhrt bearing, vt turning,

hut sacrificing the N. pl. n. forms bhnti, vnti, hu:nti.

1. Of the stems in t most are radical, nearly thirty of

them being formed with a determinative t added to roots
ending in the short vowels i , u, ; e.g. j-t conquering,
rt hearing, kt making. Nearly all of them, however,
appear as the last member of compounds, except ct I. thought ;
dyt I. brilliance ; nt I. dancing ; vt I. host. From sarva
hut offering completely occurs in N. pl. n. the form sarva
hunti in the AB. There are also a few derivative stems
formed with the suffixes vat, tt, it, ut, and secondary
t ; e.g. pravt I. height, devtt I. divine service; sart
I. stream ; mart m. stormgod ; ykt n. liver, k-t n.
excrement.
2. There are only three stems i n th : kpth, n. penis,
pth m. path, abhi-nth adj. piercing.
3. a. About 100 stems end i n radical d, all but a few
being roots used as the final member of compounds ; e. g.
nom. adribhd mountaincleaving. Only eight occur as
monosyllabic substantives : nd I. contempt, bhd I. destroyer,
vd I. knowledge, d I. wave, md I. joy, md I. clay, hd n.
heart (used in weak eases only) ; and pd m. foot. The
latter lengthens its vowel in the strong eases :
Sing. N. pt. A. pdam. I . pad . D. pad. Ab.G.
pads. L. pad.
Du. N.A. pd. I . Ab. padbhy m .
G.L. pads.
Pl. N. pdas.
A. pads. I . padbhs. D. padbhys.
G. padm. L. pats.
b. There are also six stems formed with derivative d
(suffixal ad ud), seemingly all feminine : dd and dhd
nether millstone, bhasd hind quarters, vand longing, ar-d
autumn, kak-d summit, kk-d palate.
4. There are about fifty radical stems i n dh, simple or
compound. They are almost restricted to m. and I., no
distinctively n. forms (N. A. du. pl.) occurring and only four
forms being used as n. in the G. L. s. Seven stems appear

as monosyllabic nouns : vdh strengthening as a masc. adj .,

the rest as fem. substantives : ndh bond ; srdh foe ; kdh
hunger ; ydh fight ; mdn conflict ; vdh prosperity ; spdh
battle.

5. Radical stems i n n are formed from half a dozen roots.

Four of these are monosyllabic substantives: tnI.succession ;
rn m. joy ; vn m. wood ; svn adj. sounding. There are
also the compound adjectives tuvivn roaring aloud and
gon winning cows. H an slaying occurs as the final
member of at least thirtyfive compounds, but as it follows
for the most part the analogy of the an stems, it will be
treated under these (92).
1

Stems i n Labials.
7S. These stems, which end in p, bh, and m only, are not
numerous. No neuters occur in the first two and only one
or two in the last.
1. A l l the monosyllabic stems i n p are fem. substantives.
They are: p water, kp beauty, kp night, kp finger,
rp deceit, rp earth, vp rod. There are also about dozen
compounds, all adjectives except vip I. summit. Three
of the adjectives occur as I., the rest as m. ; e. g. pau-t p
m. delighting in cattle.

a. p lengthens the stem in the N.V. pl. pas, a form

sometimes used for the A. also. The forms occurring are :
Sing.I. ap. Ab.G. aps. Du. N. p. Pl. N.V. pas. A.
aps. I . adbhs. D. Ab. adbhys. G. apm. L. aps.
2. The six uncompounded stems i n bh are all I. substan
tives : kbh push, gbh. seizing, nbh. destroyer, ubh
splendour, stbh praise (also adj. praising), and kakbh peak.

There are also more than a dozen compounds : the substan

tives are all I., the rest being m. or I. adjectives ; there are
1

The accent of these stems is irregular i n remaining on the radical

syllable (App. I I I . 11, 1), except tan (beside tn) and van m .

no neuters. The cases of tri-bn I. triple praise (a metre)

are : Sing. N. trip. A. tribh-am. L tribh-. D.
tribhe.
Ab. tribh-as.
L. tribh-i ; Pl. A.
tribhas.
a. nbh lengthens its vowel in the N. pi. nabh-as.
A. nbh-as.
3. There are five or six monosyllabic stems i n m, and
one compound : m n. happiness, dm n. (?) house, km,
gm, jm I. earth, hm in. (?) cold ; sanm I. favour.

a. Gm and jm syncopate in the s. I.Ab.G. : gm, jm ;

gms, jms ; km syncopates in the Ab. G. s. and
lengthens its vowel in N. du. pl. : kms; km; kmas.
Dm has the G. s. dn (for dms) in the expressions ptir
dn and pt1 dn = dmpatis and dmpat lord of the
house and lord and lady of the house.

Stems i n Palatals.
79. The palatals (c, j , ) undergo a change of organ when
final and before consonant terminations (cp. 63). e always
becomes guttural (k or g), j and nearly always become
guttural, but sometimes cerebral ( or ).
1. The unchangeable stems i n c when uncompounded
are monosyllabic and almost exclusively I. substantives.
Tvc skin, however, twice occurs as a m., and krc curlew
is m. Compounds, as adjectives, are often m., but only one
form occurs as a n., in the adv. pk in a mixed manner.
Vc speech would be declined as follows :
1

Sing. N.V. vk.

A. vcam (LaI. vocem). I . vac.
D. vc. Ab. G. vcs. L. vcI.
Dual. N.A.v vc, vcau. I . vgbhym.
Plur. N.V. vcas. A. vcas (rarely vcs). I . vgbhs.
D.Ab. vgbhys. G. vcm.
Stems i n derivative ac are changeable (93).

Similarly declined are :tvc skin ; sic hem ; rc lustre,

sc flame, src ladle ; c stanza, mc injury ; nimrc

sunset and other compounds. Krc forms its N. s. kr,

du. krcau.
2. There is only one stem i n ch, formed from the root
pch ask : N. du. m. bandhupch asking after kinsmen ;

also the D. and A. infinitive forms pch to ask, sampche

to greet ; vipcham and sampcham to ask.
3. a. Uncompounded radical stems i n j are mostly I.
substantives ; but j driver, vj stake at play are m., and
2

yj, rj, bhrj are m. as well as I. Neut. forms occur in

compound adjectives, but never the distinctively n. endings
of the N.A.V. du. and pl.
When the j is derived from a guttural, i t becomes a
guttural in the N. s. and before consonant endings ; when
derived from an old palatal, it becomes a cerebral in the
N. s. and before consonants, but k before the su of
the L. pl.
Thus in the N. rk (rj) vigour ; nirk (nirj) bright
garment; but bhr m. shining (bhrj), r m. king, I.
mistress ; L .pl.srak garlands (srj), prayku offerings
(prayj).
3

^. The N. of avayj f. share of the sacrificial oblation and of vayaj m.

priest who offersthe oblation is anomalous in dropping the j and adding
the s of the nom. : avays, vays (cp. 28^).

b. There are seven m. and I. adj. or subst. formed with

the suffixes aj and ij : svapnaj sleepless, tj thirsty,
1

From vyac extend occurs the strong form uruvycam far extend
ing, and from sac accompany only the strong forms A. scam, and N. pl.
scas.
This word meaning companion also has a nasalized form i n
N.A. s. du. : y (for yk), yjam, yj.
But i n a Brhmaa bhj sharing forms the N. pi. n. form bhji.
Except in tvk from tuj m. sacrificing in due season, priest (from
yaj sacrifice).
2

dh-j bold, san-j old ; u-j desiring, b h u r - j f. arm, va-j

m. trader. There is also the n. sj blood.
1

uij m. I. would be declined as follows :

Sing. N. uk.

A. uj-am.
L uj-.
D. u1j-e.
G. ujas.
Du.N. uij-. G.L. uj-os.
Pl.N. usj-as. A. uij-as. I . ug-bhis. D. u g - b h y a s .
G. uj-m.
4. There are about sixty monosyllabic and compound
stems in formed from about a dozen roots. Nine mono
syllabic stems are I. : d worship, d direetion, d look,
n night, p sight, p ornament, pr dispute, v settlement,
v r finger. Two are 1n. : lord and sp spy. A l l the

rest are compounds (about twenty of them formed from

d).
Some half-dozen cases of the latter are used as
neuter, but no distinctively n. forms (N.A. du. pl.) occur.
The , as it represents an old palatal, normally becomes
cerebral before bh, but in d and d a guttural. Before
the su of the L. pi. it phonetically and regularly becomes k.
I t usually also becomes k in the N. s. (which originally
ended in s), as dk, n k ; but cerebral in sp and vi-sp
spy, v and v-p a river.
The normal forms, if made from v settlement, would be :
N.v v . A. v-am. I . vi-. D. vi-. Ab.G. vi-s.
L. vi-.
Du. N.A. v-, v-au.
PI. N.A. v-as. I . v i - b h s . D. Vi-bhys. G. vi- m .
L. v i k .
The N. of some compounds of dr is nasalized, as kd (for
kd k) of what kind but td k such.
The N. s irregularly represents the final palatal (28 a) i n puroa
m. sacrificial cake : N . puros, A. puro am.
This word is of obscure origin, but the j probably represents a
reduced suffix.
1

Stems i n Cerebrals.
50. The only cerebral stems that occur end in and .
Of the former there are only two : I. praise (only found
in s. I . ) and i I. refreshment (only in s. I . i and
G. is).
There are a number of stems from about a dozen roots
ending in preceded by i , u, , or k. Seven of these are
uncompounded : I. refreshment, tv I. excitement, dv I.
hatred, r I. injury ; I. dawn ; pk I. satiation ; dadh

bold. The rest are compounds of the above or of mis wink,

sri lean, uk sprinkle, mu steal, pru drip, dh dare,

v rain ; k eye. The becomes in the N., and before

bh, but is of course dropped when k precedes ; e. g. N. dv,
vipr I. drop, ank eyeless, blind ; I . pl. viprbhis.
^. The final becomes k i n the adverbial neuter form dadhk boldly.

Stems i n h.
51. There are some eighty stems formed from about
a dozen roots. A l l three genders are found in their inflexion,
but the neuter is rare, occurring in two stems only; and
never in the plural. Of monosyllabic stems nh destroyer,
mh mist, gh hidingplace, rh sprout are I., drh fiend is m.
or I., sh conqueror is m., mh great, m. and n. A l l the

rest are compounds, more than fifty being formed from the
three roots druh hate, vah carry, sah overcome ; over thirty
of them from the last. The two stems uh I. a metre,
and sarh bee are obscure in origin.
a. As h represents both the old guttural gn and the old
palatal j n it should phonetically become g or before bh,
but the cerebral represents both in the only two forms that
occur with a bh ending. I n the only L. pi. that occurs,
1

upnh f. shoe occurs only in the L. s. upnhi. Judging by

the inflexion of the word in classical sanskrit the h would become a
dental i n the N . s. and before consonant endings.

8182]

STEMS I N H AND R

57

anatsu (from anavh), the h unphonetically became ,

which has been dissimilated to t. I n the N. the phonetic k
appears in the six forms dhak, dhuk, dhruk, ruk,
spk, uk, and the unphonetic in the three forms v,
, sar.
b. Stems formed from vah and sah lengthen the radical
vowel in the strong cases, the former always, the latter
generally.
1

The forms actually occurring if made from sh victorious

would be :
Sing. N.V. m. I. .^ A. m. I. sham. I . sah. D. sah.
Ab.G. sahs. L. sah.
Du. N.A.V. m. I. sh and shau. N.A. n. sah.
PI. N.A.V. m. I. snas. A. m. shas and sahs;
I. shas. D. abhys. G. m. sahm. L. m.
as.
Stems i n r.

S2. There are over fifty stems in radical r. The preceding

vowel is nearly always i or u, only two stems containing
and three a. Twelve stems are monosyllabic (seven I..
three m.. two n. ), the rest being compounds. The r
remains before the su of the L. pi., and the radical vowel
7

anavh being a changeable stem w i t h three forms is treated

under the irregular changeable stems (96) .
when h becomes the initial s is cerebralized.
There are no stems i n 1 ; while the five which may be regarded
as ending i n the semivowels y or v are treated below (102) as ai, o,
or au stems.
The stems i n which the r is derivative (and preceded by a), i n
the suffixes ar and tar, are treated below (101) as r stems.
gr praise, dvr door, dhr burden, pr stronghold, tr star, psr
victuals, str star.
gr praising, var protector, m r destroyer.
var water, svr light.
2
3

6
7

is lengthened in the N. s. and before consonant endings.

The forms occurring, if made from pr, would be :
Sing. N. pur.
A. pram.
D. pur. Ab.G. purs.
L. pur.
Du. N.A. pr, prau.
Pl. N.v pras. A. pras. I . prbhs. D. prbhys.
G. pur m . L. pr.
a. dvr has the weakened A. pl. form dras (also once durs and
once dv r as), the only weak case occurring.
b. tr occurs i n one (strong) form only, N. pl. t r as, and str in
one (weak) form only, I . pl. st b his.
e. svr n. light has the two contracted forms D. sur G. s r as.
I t drops the caseending in the L. s. sar.
1

Stems i n s.
S3. I. The radical s stems number about forty. A dozen
are monosyllabic, five being m. : js relative, ms month,
vs abode, pus male. s ruler ; two I. : ks cough, ns
nose ; five n. : s face, bhs light, ms flesh, ds arm, ys
4

welfare.
liberal.

The rest are compounds, e.g. su das giving well,

a. Before bh the s becomes d i n the two forms I . mdbhs and D.

mdbhys, and r i n the only other one that occurs : dorbhy m .
b. The A. pi. has the accentuation of weak cases i n mss and
jss.

2. The derivative stems in s are formed with the suffixes

as, is, us, and are, with few exceptions, neuter substan
tives. A l l of them lengthen their final vowel in the N.V.A.
pl. n., e. g. mnsi, jyti, cki. The m. and f.
are mostly compounds with these stems as their final
member.
a. The as stems consist almost entirely of neuters, which
1

W i t h irregular accent.
W i t h the accent of a disyllabic.
Like the an stems (90, 2).
This word might be a feminine.
This word w i l l be treated later (96, 3) as an irregular changeable
stem.
3
5

STEMS I N AS

83]

59

are accented on the root, as mnas mind, but these as final

members of adjective compounds may be inflected in all
three genders. There are also a few primary masculines,
which are accented on the suffix, being either substantives,
as raks m. demon, or adjectives (some of which occur also
in the I. as well as n.), as aps active ; and one primary I.,
us dawn.
The N. s. m. I. lengthens the vowel of the suffix : e. g.
girs m., u s I., sumns m. I. In about a dozen
compounds the long vowel appears (owing to the influence
of the m.) in the n. also ; e. g. ramrads soft as wool.
Before endings with initial bh the suffix as becomes o
(45b). The forms actually occurring, if made from pas,
n. (Lat. opus) work and aps m. I. active would be as follows :
1

Sing. N. pas; aps.

A. pas; apsam. I . pas;
aps. D. pase ; apse. Ab. pasas ; apsas.
L. pasi ; apsi. v. pas.
Du. N.AN. pas ; aps, apsau. D. apbhym.
G. pasos.
PI. psi ; apsas. I . pobhis ; apbhis. D. po
bhyas ; apbhyas.
G. pasm ; apsm.
L.
passu; apssu.
Similarly N. n. yas glory, m. I. yas glorious ; I.
apsars nymph.
^. A number of forms have the appearance of being contractions
in the A. s. and N.A. pl. m. f. : m asam and as = asas ; thus
mahm great, vedh m ordainer, um dawn, jar m old age, medh m
wisdom, vaym vigour, ngm sinless, apsar m . PI. N. m. girs,
ngs nvedas cognisant, sajs united; f. medh s , jos insati
able, nveds, sur d hs bountiful. A. m. ngs sumedh s (?)
intelligent; f. us.

The vowel of this word is optionally lengthened i n the A. s.,

N. A. du., N. V. pi. : usam beside usam, ^:c.
The ending au is here very rare and occurs chiefly i n the later
Sahits.
2

b. The is stems, numbering about a dozen, consist

primarily of neuters only. When they form final members
of compounds, they are secondarily inflected as m. ; only
one single such form, N. s. sv-ocis self-radiant, occurs
as a I.
The final s becomes before vowel-endings and the
L. pl. su, and r before bh. The inflexion of the n. differs
from that of the m. in the A. s., N.A. du. and pl. The
actual forms occurring, if made from ocs glow in the n.
and from -ocis m. (when it differs from the n.), would
be:
Sing. N. ocs ; A. ocs ; m. ociam. I . oc-.
D. oc-e. Ab. G. oci-as. L. oc-i. V. cis.
PI. N.A. oci, m. -oci-as. I . ocr-bhis. D. ocrbhyas. G. oc-m. L. oc-u (67).
a. as f. prayer, which is not really an is stem, being derived from
4-is (the reduced form of the root s), is inflected thus: N. 1s.
A. -am. L -. Pl. N. A. -as.

c. The us stems, numbering at least sixteen exclusive

of compounds, comprise several primary masculines as well
as neuters ; three of the latter when. compounded are also
inflected as I. Eleven of the us stems are n. substantives,
all but one (jans birth) accented on the radical syllable ;
four of these (rus, ckus, tpus, vpus) are also used as
m. adjectives. Three of the exclusively m. us stems are
adjectives accented on the suffix, while two (nnus, mnus)
are substantives accented on the root.
The final s becomes before vowel endings, and r
before bh. The inflexion of the n. is the same as that of
the m. except in the A. s. and N.A. du. pl. The only
I. forms (about half a dozen) occur in the N. and A. :
e. g. N. ckus seeing, A. du. tpu- hot.
The actualformsoccurring, if made from ckus eye as n.
and seeing as m. would be :

8385]

H
C ANGEABLE STEMS

61

Sing. N. ckus. A. ckus ; m. ckuam. I . cku.

D. ckue. Ab. G. ckuas. L. ckui.
Du. N.A. cku; m. cku. D. ckurbhym.
PI. N.A. cki ; m. ckuas. I . ckurbhis.
D. ckurbhyas. G. ckum.

I.

B. Changeable Stems.

54. Regular changeable stems are found only among

derivative nouns formed with suffixes ending in the dentals
t, n, s, or the palatal c. Those in t are formed with the
suffixes ant, mant, vant ; those in n with an,
man, van, and in, min, vin ; those in s with ys
and vas ; those in c with ac (properly a root meaning
to bend). The stems in ant (8586), in (87), yams (88)
have two forms, strong and weak ; those in an (9092),
vs (89), and ac (93) have three, strong, middle, and
weakest (73).
Nouns with Two Stems.
1

55. Stems i n ant comprise present, future, and aorist

participles (156) active (m. and n.). The strong stem is in
ant, the weak in at ; e. g. adnt and adat eating from
ad eat. These participles are inflected in the m. and n.
only, the I. having a special stem in I. The n. inflexion
differs from the m. in the NN.A. s. du. pl. only. The
accent, if resting on the suffix, shifts in weak cases to the
endings that begin with vowels.
3

Excepting those of the reduplicating verbs and a few others that

follow their analogy (85 b),
On the formation of the f. stems see 95.
I n Latin and Greek the distinction was lost by normalization :
G. edentis, ^t^ro.^.
2

MAsCUL1NE.
s1NGULAR.

L
DUA .

L
L
P URA .

N. adn (Gk. ^t^)

adnt au adntas (Gk. ^o^r^)
V. dan
dant au. dantas
A. adntam (Lat. edentem) adnt au adats
I . adat
I . addbhis
D. adat
D. addbhym D.Ab. addbhyas
Ab.G. adats
G. adats
G. adatm
L. adat
L. adtsu
NEUTER.

N.A. adt

adnti
adat
Other exampIes are: rcant singing, sdant (sad sit),
ghnnt (han slay), yant (i go), snt (as be) ; py-ant

seeing ; ichnt wishing ; kvnt doing ; sunvnt pressing ;

bhajnt breaking ; jnnt knowing ; janyant begetting ;

yyutsant wishing tofight ; fut. kariynt about to do ; aor.

skant (sah overeome).

a. The analogy of these participles is followed by a few
adjectives that have lost their old participial meaning:
hnt weak, p ant spotted, bhnt great, rant brilliant;
also the substantive d n t tooth. The adj. mahnt great,
also originally a participle, deviates from the participial
declension in lengthening the vowel of the suffix in the
strong forms :
2

Sing. N. m. mahn ; n. maht. A. mah n tam. I . mahat.

Du. N.A. mah n t, au. D. 1 n a h d - b h y 1 n .
PI. N. mahntas.
A. mahats.
I . mahdbhis.
L. mahtsu.
1

For original adnts cp. Lat. edens.

Probably an old participle of ad eat with prehistoric loss of the
initial a like snt being from as be.
From the root mah (original1y magh). Cp. Lat. magnus.
2

8586]

PRESENT PARTICIPLES

63

b. The participles of verbs with a reduplicating present

base, i. e. those of the third class (127, 2) and intensives
(172), do not distinguish a strong stem, in other words,
have at throughout; e.g. bbhyat fearing, ghnighnat
repeatedly killing (han). The analogy of these participles
is followed by a few others formed from unreduplicated
bases: d-at worshipping, sat instructing; also dkat
and dhkat aor. part. of dah burn. A few others, again,
originally participles, have come to be used as substantives
with a shift of accent to the suffix. Three of these are I.
and two m. : vaht, sravt I. stream ; veht I. barren cow ;
vght m. sacrificer ; sact - m. pursuer. Besides the first
three substantives just mentioned there are no feminines
except the adjective a-sact unequalled when used as a I.
Hardly any n. forms occur except from the old reduplicated
participle jg-at going, living (from g go), used chiefly as
a substantive meaning the animate world. The infiexien of
these reduplicated stems in at is like that of the compounded
radical t stems (77), the accent never shifting to the endings.
The forms occurring if made from ddat giving ( da)
would be:
Sing. N. m. n. ddat. A. m. ddat-am. I . ddat-. D.
ddat-e. G. ddat-as. L . ddat-I.
Plur. N.A. ddat-as. I . ddad-bhis. G. ddat-am.
S6. The adjective stems formed with the suffixes -mant
and -vant, which both mean possessing, are inflected exactly
alike and differ from the stems in -ant solely in lengthening
the vowel of the suffix in the N. s. m. The v. of these stems
1

Which has been weakened because here the accent is regularly

on the reduplicative syllable.
But vh-ant carrying as a participle.
But srv-antjlowing.
The derivation of this word is uncertain.
But scat as a participle (from sac accompany).
Lit. having no equal ; but -sacant- as the f. of the participle scat.
The f. is formed with from the weak stem : mat-, vat- (95) .
2

is regularly formed with mas and vas ; e. g. hvimas

from havmant ; bhgavas from bhgavant.
From gmant possessed of cows would be formed :
Sing. N. m. gmn ; n. gmat. A. m. gmantam. L. g
mati. V. m. gmas.
PI. N. m. gmantas ; n. gmnti.
A. m. gmatas.
L. gmatsu.
3

^7. Adjective stems are formed with the suffixes in,

min, vin, which mean possessing. Those in in are very
common, those in vin number nearly twenty, but there
is only one in min : gmn praising. They are declined
in the m. and n. only ; but the n. forms are very rare,
occurring in the s. N. I . G. only. These stems sometimes
come to be used as m. substantives ; e. g. gthn singer.
As in all derivative stems ending in n, the vowel of the
suffix is lengthened in the N. s. m., and the n disappears in
that case (in the n. also) and before consonant endings.
The forms actually occurring, if made from nastn having
hands, would be as follows :
4

Sing. m. N. hast. A. hastnam. I . hastn. D. hastne.

Ab.G. hastnas. L. hastnI. V. hstin.
Du. m. N.A. hastn, au. I,D. hastbhym. G.L.
hastnos.
PL m. N. hastnas. I . hastbhis. D. hastbhyas. G.
hastnm. L. hastu.
Sing. n. N. hast. I . hastn. G. hastnas.
1

There are sixteen i n the RV. i n vas and only three i n the later
van (of which there are eight more i n the Av.), There are six
vocatives i n mas i n the RV., but no example of the form in man.
There are also vocatives i n vas from stems in van and vs
(cp. the v. i n yas from stems i n yams).
The only two forms that occur are ghtvnti and paum n ti.
The Padaptha reads vanti and manti i n these forms, and the
lengthening of the vowel seems metrieal.
The f . stem is formed with : avn possessing horses ; f. avn-.
3

8889]

COMPARATIVE STEMS I N YMS

65

SS. 3. Comparative stems are formed with the suffix

ys, which is nearly always added with the connecting
vowel to the accented root. Only two stems are formed
with ys exclusively : jyys greater and snys
older ; six others are formed with ys as well as ys ;
e.g. bhys and bhvys more. The strong stem
is reduced in the weak cases, by dropping the nasal and
shortening the vowel, to yas. These stems are declined
in the in. and n. only. No forms of the du. occur, and in
the pi. only the N. A. G. are found. The V. s. ends in
yas. The forms actually occurring, if made from kn
ys younger, would be as follows :
MAsCUL1NE.
S1NGULAR.

L
L
P URA .

N. knyn
A. knysam
1. knyas
D. knyase
Ab. G^ knyasas
L. knyasi
V. knyas

knysas
knyasas
G. knyasm

NEUTER.

N.A. knyas

knysi

The I.D. Ab. G. sing. n., identical with the m., also occur.
Nouns with Three Stems.
S 9. 1. The stem of the perf. part. active is formed with
the suffix vs. This is reduced in the weak cases in two
ways : before consonant terminations (by dropping the nasal
1

The f. is formed by adding 1 to the weak stem, e.g. pryas

nearer.
Cp. the mant, vant (86), and the vas (89) stems
2

and shortening the vowel) to vas which becomes vat ;

and before vowel terminations (by loss of the nasal accom
panied by Samprasraa) to us which becomes us. There
are thus three stems: vs, vat, and u. The accent
always rests on the suffix in uncompounded forms. The
inflexion is restricted to the m. and n. The only specifically
n. form occurring is the A. s. The V. s. is regularly formed
with vas. The forms actually occurring, if made from
cakvs having done, would be as follows :
2

MAsCUL1NE.
SINGULAR.

DUAL.

N. cakvan
A. cakvsam

cakv s
cakvs

I. cakr
D. cakre
Ab.G. cakrsas

PLURAL.

cakvsas
cakrsas
I . cakrvdbhis
G. cakrsm

V. ckvas
NEUTER.

N.A.

cakrvt

a. In about a dozen of these participles the suffix vs

is preceded by i (either as a reduced form of final radical
or as a connecting vowel) :
jajivn (from j know), tasthivn (sth stand), papi
vn (p drink), yayivn (y go), rarivn (r give) ; yivn
(i go), jagmivn (beside jaganvn : gam go), paptiv n
(pat fly), proivn (praFvas dwell), vivi-i-vn (vi enter) ;
4

1
2

On the change of s to t cp. 66 B 1 b.

The f. is formed with from the weakest stem : e. g. cakrs-1.
Cp. the mant, vant (86), and the ys stems (88).
On the change of m to n see 68.

STEMS I N AN, MAN, VAN

8990]

67

okivn (uc be wont). This i is dropped before us ; e. g.

tastha, yas, jagme.
90. 2. Nouns i n an, man, van include a large number
of words, those in van being by far the commonest, those
in an the least frequent. These stems are almost restricted
to m. and n. ; but some forms of adjective stems serve as I.,
and there is one specifically I. stem yan woman.
I n the strong cases the a of the suffix is usually lengthened,
e. g. dhvanam ; but in half a dozen an and man stems it
remains unchanged, e. g. aryamam. I n the weak cases
the a is often syncopated before vowel endings, though
never when man and van are preceded by a consonant,
e. g. I . s. grva from grvan pressing stone (but -man-
stone), while before consonant endings the final n disappears,
e.g. rjabhis. I n the RV. syncopation never takes place
in the N.A. du. n., nor with one exception (ata-dvni)
in the L. s.
As in all other n stems, the nasal is dropped in the N. s.,
e. g. m. dhv, n. krma. But there are two peculiarities
of inflexion which, being common to these three groups, do
not appear elsewhere in the consonant declension. The
ending of the L. s. is in the RV. dropped more often than
not ; e. g. mrdhn beside mrdhni on the head. I n the
N.A. pl. n. both the final n of the stem and the termination i
are, in the RV., dropped in nineteen stems, e.g. k r m a ;
while they are retained in eighteen, e. g. krmi.
1. The an stems, which are both m. and n.. besides the
2

W i t h reversion to guttural, lack of reduplication, and strengthened

radical vowel.
The stems i n an and man form their f. w i t h added to their
weakest form; those i n van substitute var.
That is, the a represents an original sonant nasal.
Seven of these appear with i n the Sahit text, but with , like
the rest, i n the Pada text. The evidence of the Avesta indicates that
the form of the sahit is the older.
six or seven adjectival forms are used as f.
2

one I. yan, are not numerous. I n the strong forms

bhu-kn chief of the bhus, pn, a god, and yan
woman retain short a ; ukn ox and van bull fluctuate
between a and . In the inflexion of these stems (unlike
those in man and van) the concurrence of three consonants
is not avoided ; e. g. r-, I . of r-n.
^. six stems belong etymologically to this group though seeming to
belong to one of the other two. They are : y-v-an m. youth, vn m.
dog, rj-van m. a man, matar-van m. a demi-god, v-bhvan farreaching, p r i - j m a n going round. rn n. is an extended form of
ras head = ir(a)sn.
1

The normal forms, if made from rjan king, would be :

s1NGULAR.

N. rj

L
DUA .

L
L
P URA .

N.A. rjn, au

A. rjnam
V. rjan^

N. rjnas
A. rjas

I.
D.
Ab. G.
L.

rj
I.D. rjabhym
I . rjabhis
rje
D. rjabhyas
rjas
G. rjos
G. rjm
rjani
.
L. rja
rjan
The n. differs in the N.A. only. No example of the s. N.A.
occurs (p. 70, n. 1). But the du. of han day is han, pl.
hni.
2. The stems in man are about equally divided between
m. and n., the former being mostly agent nouns, the latter
verbal abstracts. About a dozen forms from these stems
as final members of compounds are used as feminines.^ I n
see below, 91. 3, 4.
Probably from grow.
From bh be.
From gam go.
The V. of mtar-van is m t arivas as i f from a stem i n van.
No certain examples of f. formed w i t h from man stems are
found i n the RV., though the Av. has five such at the end of
compounds.
1

STEMS I N MAN

90]

69

the strong forms aryamn m. a god, tmn m. self jman

victorious retain the short vowel in the suffix. I n the weak
forms, even when the suffix is preceded by a vowel, about
a dozen forms do not syncopate the a, e. g. bhman,
dmane. I n the I . s. seven stems not only syncopate, but
drop either the m or the n as well : prathin pre,
bhn , mahin, vari ; drghm , ram-.
The normal forms, if made from -man (Gk. a^u^u)
in. stone, would be :
Sing. N. m. A. mn-am. I . man-. D. man-e.
Ab. G. man-as. L. man-i and man. v man.
Du. N.A.V. mn-. L. man-os.
Plur. N.V smn-as. A. man-as. I . ma-bhis. D.
ma-bhyas. G. manm. L. ma-sn.
1

The n. differs in the N.A. only. These cases from

krman act are :
Sing. krma. Du. krma. PI. krmi, krm,
krma.
3. The stems in van are chiefly verbal adjectives and
are almost exclusively declined in the m. H ardly a dozen
of them make n. forms, and only five or six forms are used
as I. I n the strong cases there is only one example of
the a remaining short: anarvam. I n the weak cases,
when the suffix is preceded by a vowel, the a is always
syncopated in the Sahit text except in the forms dvne,
vasuvne, and tavani. The V. is usually formed in
van, but there are four in vas : tvas, evayvas
prtaritvas, vibhvas.
2

when the suffix is preceded by a vowel, the a is generally synco

pated, as mahimn , also mahin , ^:c
The f. of these stems is otherwise formed with 1, which is, how
ever, never added to van, but regularly to a collateral suffix vara.
Twentyfive such stems i n var are found i n the RV.
Cp. the mant, vant, ys, vs stems.
2

The normal forms occurring, if made from grvan m.

pressingstone, would be :
Sing. N. grv. A. grvam. I . grv. D. grve.
Ab. G. grvas. L. gr v ai and grvan. V. grvan.
Du. N.A.V. gr v , au. I . gr v abhym. G. grvos.
PI. N.V. grvas. A. grvas. I . gr v abhis. D.
gr v abhyas. G. grvm. L. grvasu.
The n. differs in the N.A. only. These cases (the du.
does not occur) formed from dhnvan bow are: Sing.
dhnva. PI. dhnvni, dhnv, dhnva.
Irregular Stems i n an.

91. 1. Pnthan m. path, forming the strong stem

Pnthan, is best treated under the irregular stems in
radical (97 A. 2 a).
2. han n. day, otherwise regular, supplements the N. s.
with har.
3. vn m. dog, otherwise inflected like rjan, takes
Samprasaraa in its weakest stem n. which, as representing an Originally disyllabic stem. retains the accent :
1

s1NGULAR.

N. v (^ou)
A. vnam
I . n-
G. n-as (^vuos)

DUAL.

vna, au
vn, au

PLURAL.

vnas
sunas
L v-bhis
D. v-bhyas
G. n-m

The normal N. i n a appears to have been avoided i n an stems,

collateral stems always being substituted i n this case, as ki for
akn eye, ^c.
so also i n Greek : ^v^os ^ n-as.
3 Cp. Greek
2

IRREGULAR STEMS I N AN

9192]

71

4. yvan, m. youth, otherwise regular, forms its weakest

stem, yun, by Samprasraa and contraction (yun):
1

s1NGULAR.

L
DUA .

N. yv
V. yvan
A. yvnam

L
L
P URA .

N.A. yvn

N.V. yvanas
A. ynas

D. y n e
G. ynas

I . yvabhis
D. yvabhyas
3

5. maghvan bountiful, an epithet of Indra, also forms

its weakest stem, maghn, by Samprasraa and contraction
(maghun) :
s1NGULAR.

DUAL.

N. maghv
V. mghavan
A. maghvnam

maghvn

G. maghnas

maghnos

PLURAL.

maghvnas
maghnas
maghnm

6. dhan n. udder supplements the N. s. with d har

and dhas ; before consonant endings, the latter stem also
occurs : pl. L. dhassu
92. The root han, which forms the final member of
thirtyfive compounds in the RV, follows, for the most part,
the analogy of derivative stems in an. The strong stem is

Cp. Lat. juvenis and jnior.

The stem retains the accent because i t represents a disyllable ;
cp. vn.
The supplementary stem magh-vant is also used i n the following
eases : N . maghvn. Pl. L maghvad-bhis. D. maghvad-bhyas.
L. maghvat-su.
2

han (with a long vowel in the N. s. only), the middle is h,

and the weakest ghn. The cases that occur would in the
compound vtrahn Vtraslaying be :
1

s1NGULAR.

L
DUA .

L
L
P URA .

N. vtrah
N.A. vtrah, au
v. v t rahan
A. vtraham
I.
D.
G.
L.

N. vtrahas
A. vtraghns

vtraghn
vtraghn
vtraghns
vtraghn

I . vtrahbhis

3. Adjectives i n ac.
2

93. These words, the suffix of which generally expresses

the meaning of ward, form the strong stem in ac, the
middle in c or c (according as ac is preceded by y or v).
About fourteen stems have a weakest form in c, and about
six in c, which, if they are the contractions of accented
syllables, shift the accent to the endings. They are inflected
in the m. and n. only, the I. being formed with from the
weakest stem. The only cases occurring in the pl. are the
N.A. and in the du. N.A.L.
The forms actually found, if made from pratyc turned
towards, would be :
3

H ere the h reverts to the original guttural aspirate ; the n in this

combination is never cerebralized.
Properly the root ac bend, which has, however, practically
acquired the character of a suffix.
H ere ya and va irregularly contract to and , instead of i and u.
This is the general rule of the RV., but not of the Av. Thus
A. pi. pratcsRV.,prat c as AV.
2

3
4

ADJECTIVES I N ANC

93]

73

MAsCUL1NE.

DUAL.

s1NGULAR.

N. praty (61)
A. pratycam
I.
D.
Ab.G.
L.

prate
pratc
pratcs
prato

PLURAL.

N.A. pratyc, au

N. pratycas
A. pratcs

L. pratcs
NEUTER.
Pratc

N.A. pratyk

a. Other words similarly declined are :

STRoNG STEM.

M1DDLE

STEM.

WEAKEsT
STEM.

nyc downward
samye united
tirye transverse
dae upward
anvc following
vvac allpervading

nyk
samyk
tiryk
dak
anvk
vvak

nc
samc
tir-c
dc
anc
vsc

b. About a dozen stems, in which the ac is preceded

by a word ending in a, have no weakest form. Such are
pc backward, arvc hitherward, vc downward, devc
godward, prc turned away, pr c forward.
1

The only

The stem nc seems to have retained the accent ; for the f. is nc

(not no), and the L nc being used adverbially probably has an
adverbial shift of accent. devadryc godward also retains the accent
on the suffix : I . devadr c .
The y is here inserted by analogy.
H ere t i r i takes the place of tirs across, from which the weakest
stem tirao ( = tirs + ac) is formed.
though no y precedes the a of the suffix, by analogy.
2

cases occurring in the du. and pi. are the N.A. m. The
inflexion of these words may be illustrated by pc :
Sing. m. N. p. (61).
A. pcam.
I . pc.
L. pci.
Du. N.A. pc, pcau.
Pl. N. pcas. A. pcas.
The only distinctively n. form is N.A. s. prk. The I. is
formed from the weak stem with : pre.
94. The points to be noted about changeable stems are :
1. The vowel of the suffix is lengthened in the N. s. m.
except in ant and ac stems : gmn, agnivn ; knyn ;
cakv n ; r j ; m, grv, yv; hast, g-m1,
tarasv ; but adn, praty.
2. The N. sing. ends in a nasal in all changeable stems
except those in n, which drop it.
3. A l l changeable stems that lengthen the vowel in the
N. s. m. shorten it in the V. Those that drop the n in
the N., retain it in the V., while those that have n (after a)
in the N. drop it in the V., and add s :
thus rjan (N. rj), man (N. m), grvan (N.
grv), yvan (N. yv) ; hstin (N. hast) ; hvimas
(N. havmn), mrutvas (N. martvan) ; knyas (N.
knyn) ; ckvas (N. ckvn).
2

a. The only changeable stems i n which the V. does not differ i n form
(though i t does i n accent) from the N . are the ant and ac stems :
dan (N. adn) ; prtya (N. praty).

95. The feminines of nouns with changeable stems are

1

In B. some halfdozen N.A. plur. n. forms occur : prci, praty

ci, arvci, samyci, sadhryaci, anvaei.
One an stem has a V. i n as : mtariv-as (p. 68, n. 5).
Four van stems form their V. i n vas : tvas, evayvas prtar
itvas, vbhvas.
The RV. has three vocatives i n van : arvan, atvan, avasvan.
The AV. has five others, but none i n vas.
2

9596]

FEMININES OF CH ANGEABLE STEMS

75

formed by adding to the weak stem (when there are two

stems) or the weakest (when there are three) ; e. g. adati
(m. adnt); dhenumt (m. dhenumnt), mavat (m.
mavant) ; arkn (m. arkn) ; nvyas (m. nvys) ;
jagm(m.jagmiv s); samrj(m.rjan), maghn
(m. maghvan), ghn (m. hn) ; pratc (m. pratyc) ;
avitr (m. avitr).
a. The f. of the present participle active of the first conjugation
(125) is made from the strong m. stem i n ant (cp. 156); that of
the second conjugation from the weak stem i n at ; e. g. bhvant
being, uchnt shining, pyant obtaining abundantly, oodyant
urging ; but ghnat (m. ghnnt) slaying, pprat furthering (m. pprat),
kvat (m. kvnt), yujat (m. yujnt) yoking, punat (m.
punnt) purity ing.
1

b. The f. of the simple future participle is formed like the present

participle of the first conjugation : s yant about to bring forth, san
iynt going to obtain.
e. Adjectives i n van form their f. i n var ; e. g. pvan (^i^) fat,
f. pvar (.r^a = ^f^a),
The f. of the irregular yvan young
(91. 4) is yuvat.

Irregular Nouns with Changeable Stems.

96. 1. ap I. water lengthens its vowel in the strong cases
du. and pi. and substitutes t for p before bh. The forms
occurring are :
Sing. I . ap. Ab. G. aps. Du. N. p. PI. N.V.
pas. A. aps. I . adbhis. D. adbhys. G. apm.
L. aps.
2. anavh m. ox (lit. cartdrawer, from nas + vah) has
three stems: the last syllable is lengthened in the strong
stem anavh; and shortened by Samprasraa in the
weakest anah and in the middle anad (dissimulated
1

The weak stem appears once i n sicat sprinkling beside the

regular sicnt.
I n a compound.
2

for ana). The N. is irregularly formed as if from

a stem in vant. The forms occurring are :
s1NGULAR.

N. anavan
A. anadvham

DUAL.

PLURAL.

N. anavahau
A. anadvhau

G. anahas
L. anadhi

N.
A.
D.
L.

anadvhas
anahas
anadbhis
anadtsu

3. pmas m. man has three forms . its a is lengthened

in the strong stem, and syncopated in the weakest to pus,
in the middle to pum. The forms occurring are :
2

SINGULAR.

N. pmn (89. 1)
V. pmas
A. pmsam
Ab.G. puss
L. pus

PLURAL.

pmsas
puss
G. pusm
L. pus

I I . Stems ending i n Vowels.

3

97. A. 1. The stems in derivative a (m. n.) and (f.)

constitute the most important declensions because the former
embraces more than one half of all nominal stems, and the
latter includes more feminines than any other declension.
1

Probably an old compound, with the second part of which the

Lat. mas male ' may be allied.
W i t h necessary loss of the s between consonants : cp. 28 and 16 a.
N . as, am = Gk. .o^, .o^ ; Lat. .^e, um.
a
Gk. a , ; Lat. a.
2

STEMS I N A AND

97]

77

These two declensions are also the most irregular since the
endings diverge from the normal ones here more than
elsewhere. The a declension is the only one in which the
N.A. n. has an ending in the singular, and in which the
Ab. s. is distinguished from the G. The inflexion of the n.
differs from that of the m. in the N.A.V. s. du., and pi. only.
The forms actually occurring, i f made from priy dear,
would bo :
PLURAL.

S1NGULAR.

MASC.

MAsC

FEM.

N. priys

priy

A. priym
I . priya
priy
D. priy y a
Ab. priy t
G. prysya
L. priy
V. prya

priy s
priy s as
priy s
priy b his
12

N. priys
priysas
A.
priyn
I.
priyis
priybhis
D.Ab.
priybhyas
7

priym
priyy
priy
priy yai

FEM.

priy ys
priy ym^
prye

G. priym
L. priyu.
V. prys
prysas
11

priy b hyas
10

priy m
priysu.
prys
11

13

DuaI. N.A. m. priy , priyu ; I. priy.

I.D.Ab. m. I. n. priy b hym.
G.L. m.f.n. priyyos.
1

Certain adjectives i n as a am follow the pronominal declension

(110).
These terminations originally came from the pronominal declen
sion (110). The final of ena is often lengthened (en).
3 This form, made with the normal I. ending , is rare.
This ending is preserved i n the Lat. o for od (e.g. 6^naivod i n
inscriptions) and i n the Greek (Cre tic) adverb ^o^ hence.
The terminations yai ( ye), ys ( yas), y m are due to
the influence of the feminines i n (originally y), e.g. devyi,
devy s , devy m (cp. 100).
(For notes ^ l see next page.)
2

a. The N.A. neuter forms are : Sing. priym. Du. priy.

Pl. priy and priy i.^
14

a. I n the Brhmaas and stras the D. s. I. ending ai is used instead

of the Ab.G. ending as both i n this declension and elsewhere (98. 3 a) ;
e. g. jrayai tvaca of dead skin.
16

2. Radical stems, m. and I., are common in the RV.,

being formed from about thirty roots. Most of them appear
only as the final member of compounds, but four are used as
monosyllables in the m. : j child, tr protector, d giver,

sth standing ; and seven in the I. : k abode, kh well,

gn divine woman, j child, jy bowstring, m measure,

vr troop.
6

17

The forms occurring in the oblique cases are so

The form amba, occurring thrice i n the RV., may have a V.

meaning, o mother l The VS. and TS. have the V. mbe as from a stem
mb mother.
This form seems to consist of a double ending : asas. The form
i n as is about twice i n the RV. and twentyfour times i n the AV. as
frequent as that i n asas.
That the ending was originally ns is shown by the Sandhi (40. 2) ;
cp. Gothic ans, Gk. inscr. o^s.
This ending is preserved i n such Greek datives as i^ro^. I t is
slightly commoner in the RV. than priybhis, but i n the AV. i t is
five times as common. I t is almost always used i n the Brhmaas.
The n seems to have been due to the influence of the n stems.
The u of su is almost invariably to be read w i t h hiatus, even
before u.
This form is rare i n the RV., being probably due to the influence
of the many masculines.
The du. i n is more than seven times as common as that i n an
i n the RV.
The form i n is commoner i n the RV. than that i n ni i n the
proportion of three to two. I n the AV. the proportion is reversed.
^ This form is due to the influence of the an stems, which form
their m pL i n both and ni e. g. nm and nmnf.
There are no distinctively n. forms, as the radical vowel i n that
gender is always shortened to a, and the stem is then inflected
according to the derivative declension.
These stems become less common i n the later Sahits, where
they often shorten the final vowel to a, and are then inflected like
derivative a stems.
7

1 0

1 1

1 2

1 3

1 4

1 6

1 7

9798]

RADICAL STEMS

79

rare that some endings, such as those of the L. s., the

G.L. du., and the G. pl. are not represented at all. The m.
always takes s in the N. s., but the I. often drops it,
doubtless owing to the influence of the derivative stems.
The radical vowel is dropped before the endings e and as
of the D. and G. s. The forms actually occurring, if made
from j child m. I., would be :
1

Sing. N. js, I. also j. A. jm. I . j. D. j. G. js.

V. jas.
Dual. N.A.V. j and ju. I . jbhym.
Plur. N. js. A. js. I . jbhis. D. j bhyas. Ab.
jbhyas. L. jsu.
a. Five anomalously formed m. derivative stems i n follow the
analogy of the radical stems.
The strong stem of path m. path is in the RV. pnth only : Sing. N.
pnths. A. pnthm. Pl. N. pnths. The Av. has besides the
stem pnthn : sing. N . pnth. A. pnthanam. PI. N . pnthnas.
From the adverb tth thus is formed the sing. N. taths not say
ing ' yes '.
un m., a seer, has a N . like a f. : un. A. un-m. D. une.
mnth churning stick and mah great form the A. mnthm and
mahm.

3. Radical a stems, m. n., numbering about twenty,

consist almost entirely of stems in radical that has been
shortened to a. Excepting kha n. aperture they appear as
final members of compounds only ; e. g. prathamaj first
born. ha slaying is a reduced form of han ; e. g. atru-h
slaying enemies.

9S. B. Stems in i and u (m.f.n.).

Both declensions embrace a large number of nouns of all
genders. But the i declension contains comparatively few
n. stems, and, excepting the N.A. s. and pl., n. forms are
1

Not, however, in most of the dative infinitives ; e. g. par-di to

give up, pra-khyi to see, prati-mi imitate (cp. 167).
Contrary to the rule generally applicable to monosyllabic stems,
the accent remains on the radical syllable throughout.

rare in it, not occurring at all in several cases. I n the

u declension the masculines greatly preponderate, being
about four times as numerous as the I. and n. stems taken
together, while the neuters here greatly outnumber the
feminines. The inflexion, which is closely parallel in both
groups, is practically the same in all genders except that
the N.A. s. and pi. n. differ from the m. and I., and the
A. pl. m. and I. differ from each other. The final vowel of
the stem shows Gua in three of the weak cases of the s.
(D.Ab.G.), as well as in the V. s. and the N. pl. m. I.,
while it is abnormally strengthened in the L. s. The
normal ending as of the Ab.G. s. is reduced to s, while
that of the L. s. is always dropped in the i declension and
usually in the u declension. The inflexion of the n stems
has influenced the i declension in the I . s. only, but the
u declension in the G.Ab. and L. also. Oxytone stems,
when i and u are changed to y and v, throw the accent on
a following vowel, not as Svarita, but as Udtta, and even
on the nm of the G. pi., though the stem vowel in that
case does not lose its syllabic value.
The adjectives c-i bright and mdh-u sweet may be used
to illustrate the forms actually occurring :
S1NGULAR.

m.
N. ci-s
A. ci-m
cy-a
I . ci-n-
1

I.
ci-s
ci-m
cy-
c
ci

n.
ci
ci
2

n.
I.
mdhu-s mdhu
mdhu-m mdhu
mdhv-
mdhv-
mdhu-n
mdhu-n-
1n.

mdhn-s
mdhu-m

ci-n-

Five stems in the RV. form their I. like cy, but twenty-five
(under the influence of the n declension) like cin.
This is the normal formation, but the contracted form i n is more
than twice as common i n the RV. The latter is i n the RV. further
shortened to i i n about a dozen words.
The normally formed I . i n is made i n the m. by only four stems,
but that with n by thirty i n the RV. ; i n the n. the n form is used
almost exclusively.
1

DERIVATIVE STEMS I N I AND U

98]

I.
cay-e

m.
D. cay-e
Ab. ces

ce-s

G. ce-s
L. c
cau

ce-s

V. ce

N.A-V. c

n.
caye

[ce-s] mdho-s
ce-s
c
cau

ce

[ci]

mdho

DUAL.
mdh

n.
I.
mdhav-e mdhave
mdhune
mdho-s mdhos
mdhunas
mdho-s mdhos
mdhunas
mdhavi
mdhau mdhau
mdhuni
mdho
mdhu
19

11

c
cau

ci-bhym
cyos

I.D.Ab.
G.L.

m.
mdhav-e

mdho-s
mdhv-as
mdhav-i
mdhau

81

12

13

mdh

mdhv-

mdhvos mdhvos mdhunos

ar m.f. devout and vi m. sheep have arys and vyas.

The form in au is more than twice as common as that i n i n
m. and f.
The derivative 1, u and stems are the only ones that do not take
or au i n the dual.
t with aid is often used as a D. The RV. has seven datives i n ai,
e. g. bhrtyifor sustenance, following the analogy of the declension.
The RV. has six forms according to the declension, e. g. yuvaty s .
The form vd on the altar, occurring twice, is the only L. from an
i stem with the normal ending i ( = vdii).
7 This type occurs from over sixty stems, the normal formation
(mdhve) from only three stems i n the RV.
^' The normally formed type mdhvas is followed by six stems, the
prevailing type m^dhos by over seventy in the RV.
Seven stems follow this type, while nineteen follow mdhau i n
the RV.
From one stem also mdhve.
Once also mdhvas.
Also mdhvas, vsvas.
Only i n the form s n avi.
^ The only example i n RV. is urv the two earths. The vs. has
jnun two knees.
The only example is j n un0s (Av.).
2

1 0
11

12

13

15

14

15

PLURAL.
n.
m.
I.
n.
^
mdh
c
mdhav-as
mdhav-as
^
NN. cay-as cay-as^
ci
^ mdhu
c-ni
mdh-n
mdh-s
mdhni
A. cn
c-s
ci-bhis
mdhubhis
I.
oi-bhyas
D.Ab.
mdhubhyas
cnm
G.
mdhnm
L.
eisu
mdhusu
In.

I.

a. Twentyseven i stems i n the RV. show forms according to the

derivative declension i n the D.Ah.G.L. s. f. : e.g. bhtf.sustenance:
D. bhrtyi ; bh m i f. earth: Ab.G. bh m ys, L. bh m ym. Such
forms i n ai, as, m are much commoner i n the AV. I n B. ai is
regularly used instead of as (cp. 97a ^ ) , Besides the numerous I . s.
forms i n n the RV. has half a dozen i stems showing the influence
of the n declension i n the incipient use of the endings n i n the
N.AN. du. n. and n i i n the N.A. pl. n.
I n the u declension the RV. has only three forms following the
analogy of the derivative i declension : u f. arrow : D. vai, G. v
as, suvstvs of the (river) Suvstu (all i n late passages). There are
3

The only stem not taking Gua is ar devout which has the N . p i .
arys m. f.
The original ending ns is i n both cn and mdhn preserved
i n the sandhi forms of s or r (39, 40).
About ten stems i n i i n the RV. have N. pl. forms according to
the derivative declension ; e. g. avns streams beside avnayas.
The normal type c ( ci-i) is of about the same frequency
as its shortened form ci, both together occurring about fifty times
in the RV. The secondary type cni occurs about fourteen times.
There is only one example of the N. pl. m. without Gua : mdhv-as
itself occurring four times.
There are two examples of the N . pl. I. without Gua : mdhv-as
and atkratv-as having a hundred powers.
The type without ending is made from twelve stems, the form
w i t h shortened vowel being nearly twice as common as that with .
The secondary type mdhni is more frequent than mdhu.
I n B. the D. s. f. ending ai is here regularly used instead of the
Ab G. s.
2

98^99]

IRREGULAR

I STEMS

83

also some forms following the analogy of the u declension : A. -bhrvam from bhru fearless and N. du. and pi. i n yuv-a and yuv-as from
several stems derived with the suffix yu. Besides the numerous T.
singulars m. and n., there are many alternative n. forms, in the
remaining cases of the s. and N . A. pl., following the n declension :
D. mdhu- ne, kapnne ; Ab. mdhunas, snu.nas ; G. oruas,
druas, dras, mdhunas, vsunas ; L. yuni, s n uni ; dru
i ; N. A. pl. d r i,
b. There is no example of a v. s. n. from an i stem, and the only one
from an u stem is gggulu (Av.). This seems to indicate that the
v. s. i n these stems was identical w i t h the N.
c. Adjectives in u often use this stem for the f. also ; e. g. oru dear ;
otherwise they form the f. i n u, as t a n m., tan f. thin (Lat. tenuis) ;
or i n 1, as u r m urv f. wide.
d. There are about a dozen stems i n which final i seems to be radical
in a secondary sense as representing a reduced form of roots ending i n
a. They are mostly m. compounds formed with dhi ; e. g. nidhf
treasury. There are also about eight stems formed from roots in u, all
of which except dy day are final members of compounds ; e. g. raghu
dr running swiftly ; besides some twelve stems i n which u is radical i n
a secondary sense, as representing the shortened form of the vowel of
three roots i n u ; e.g. sup clarifying well (from pu purify), parlbh
surrounding (from bhu be).
The inflexion of these radical i and u stems is exactly the same as
that of the derivative i and u stems given above.

Irregularities.
99. 1. pti (Gk. 7ro^t^) m. husband is irregular in the
D.G.L. s. : ptye, ptyur, ptyau; while the I . in this
sense has the normal form pty. When it means lord,
either as a simple word or as final member of a compound,
it is regular : D. ptaye, b h asptaye, G. ptes, praj
pates, L. gpatau ; while the I . in this sense is formed
with n : ptin, b h asptin.
The I. is ptn (Gk.
1

7roruta) wife and lady.

The anomalous ending appears to be due to the influence of the

Ab.G. i n the names of relationship (101) i n like pitr, G. of pitr
father.

a. Thef.jni wie takes the anomalous ending ur i n the G. : jnyur.

I t has the further anomaly of forming its N. jn like the derivative
declension.

2. skhi 1n. friend, besides having irregularities like pti

in the weak eases of the s., has a strong stem formed with
Vddhi : N. skh, A. skhyam, I . skhy, D. skhye,
Ab.G. skhyur, V. skhe. Du. skhy and skhyau ;
Pl. N. sknyas, A. skhn, L skhibhis, D. skhibhyas,
G. skhnm.
1

a. I n the RV. skhi occurs as the final member of eight compounds

i n which i t is inflected i n the same way and is also used as a f. ; e. g.
martsakh N . m. f. having the Maruts as friends.

3. ar devout is irregular in forming several cases like the

radical stems (except in accentuation): sing. A. arym
(beside arm) m., G. arys m. ; pl. N . arys m. I.,
A. arys m. I.
a. The Vs. has also the N . s. ars, beside the regular ars of the RV.
vi sheep (Lat. ovis) also takes the normal ending as i n the G. s. :
vyas. v m. bird has i n the RV. the N. s. vs beside vs.

4. The neuters ki eye, sthi bone, ddhi eurds, skthi

thigh, form their weakest cases from stems in n ; e. g.
I . dadhn , sakthn ; G. aks, asthns, dadhns.
Du.N. ki (AV.), I . skthibhym, G. aks, but
skthyos (VS.). I n the pl. the an stems are used in the
N.A. also : aki (beside ki, AV.), asthni (beside
sthni, AV.), sakth n i; I . akbhis, asthbhis; D.
asthbhyas.
5. dy m.I.sky (originally diu, weak grade of dyo, 102, 3)
retains this stem before consonant terminations (taking
Vddhi in the N.V. s.), but changes it to div before vowels :
1
2

Influenced, like ptyur, by the names of relationship i n (101).

Formed regularly like ce from ci.

STEMS I N I AND U

99100]

85
1

Sing. N. dyus (^v^ = Aj^),

A. dvam. I . div.
D. div. Ab.G. divs (Atfo^.
L. div (^t/^),
V.
dyus (Z^v).
PI.N. dvas. A. m. dyun,3 I. dvas. I . dybhis.
2

1OO. C. Stems in and are mostly I. when substan

tives, but a great many as final members of compounds are
adjectives used in the m. as well as I.
I . The stems are very differently inflected according as
they are radical (a) or derivative (b). The analogy of the
primary radical group (1) is closely followed both in
inflexion and accentuation by a secondary group (2) of about
eighty polysyllabic stems which, though formed with
derivative , are for the sake of clearness best treated as
a division of the radical group.
a. The normal endings as they appear in the inflexion of
consonant stems are taken throughout this declension. The
G. pl., however, preserves the normal ending am in one
single form only (dhiym), nm being otherwise always
added. The N . s. always adds s. Accentuation on the
final syllable of the stem is characteristic of this declension,
and, except in monosyllabic stems, the acute remains on
that syllable throughout. Before vowel endings the is
split to i y in monosyllabic nouns, even when they are final
members of compounds, as A. dhyam, pl. N. n n adhiyas
having diverse intentions; but in roots as final members of
4

The stem dv, the Samprasraa form of dyv, has made its way
into the strong cases, A. s. and N. pl owing to the very frequent
weak cases divs, ^:c which taken together occur more than 350 times
in the RV.
i.e. daus to be pronounced as a disyllable. The s of the N . is
retained i n this form.
These two forms, which occur only i n the RV. or passages borrowed
from it, always mean days.
Except accented dh, as adham (but sudh follows the general
rule, as sudhyas),
2

compounds only when two consonants precede, as yaja

pryam sacrificeloving, but yajanym ( yajanam)
leading the sacrifice. Otherwise is always written as y,
but is invariably to be pronounced as i , as nadym pro
nounced nadam stream.
The monosyllabic stems belonging to the radical class are
the feminines dh thought, bh fear, r glory, and the m. v
receiver (occurring only once in the N. s.). The compounds
of the first three, being mostly Bahuvrhis (189), and the
compounds formed from the roots kr buy, n lead, pr love,
m diminish, v move, lie, r mix, being mostly accusative
Tatpuruas (187), are both m. and I.
The secondary group consists of more than eighty poly
syllabic stems accented on the final syllable and probably
for this reason following the analogy of the radical com
pounds. Excepting about half a dozen they are substantives,
nearly all I. The masculines are ah serpent, rath charioteer,
and about eight compounds.
b. The declension in derivative embraces a large number
of stems formed by means of the suffix (originally y)
largely to supply a I. to m. words, and not normally accenting
the suffix. I t also includes a large number of miscellaneous
I. stems of an independent character having no corresponding
m., as c might. I t includes seven m. stems, five of
2

I n the secondary radical group (a 2, p. 87) the 1 is split only i n

samudr and partly i n cakr.
The resolved forms given below are spelt with i (not i y as they
may have been pronounced) so as to avoid confusion with the written
forms of the sahit text that are spelt with iy. Again the resolved
vowel is given as I (not 1) because long vowels are regularly shortened
in pronunciation before vowels (p. 22, notes 1 and 5).
3 The exceptions are mostly stems i n which the preceding syllable,
having been reduced, throws the accent forward, e. g. ur, f. urv
wide ; or i n which, as proper names, the accent has shifted to indicate
a change of meaning, e. g. asikn a river, but sikn black.
2

l00]

RADICAL AND DERIVATIVE I STEMS

87

which are proper names: Tirac, Nm, Pth, Mtal,

Sbhar, besides rr ruler, sir weaver.
The inflexion of these stems differs from that of the
radical stems in three respects :(1) no s is added in
the N. s. m. or I. ; (2) the endings diverge considerably
from the normal ones, the s. A. taking m, the D. ai, the
Ab.G. as, the L. m, the pl. N.V.A. s ; (3) stems accented
on the final vowel shift the acute to the ending in the weak
cases of the s., in the G.L. du., and in the G. pl.
1

a. RADICAL STEMS.

1. dh I. thought. 2. rath m.

b.

I.

DER1VAT1VE

STEMs.

dev I. goddess.

charioteer.
S1NGULAR.

N.
A.
I.
D.
G.

dhs
dhyam
dhiy
dhiy
dhiys

V.

raths
ratham
rath
rathe
rathas
rthi

dev
devm
devy
devyi
Ab.G. devys
L. devym
V. dvi

DUAL.
N.A. dhy, au

rath

L dhbhy m
G.L. dhiys

rath bhym
rathos

N.A. dev
V. dv
D.Ab. dev bhym
devys

I n the later language the derivative group (b) absorbs the second
ary radical group (a 2), while borrowing from the latter the N. AN.
du. and the N.V. pl. forms.

PLURAL.
N. dhyas
A. dhyas
I . dhbhs
G. dhn m
L. dh

rathas
rathas
rath bhis
D. rath bhyas
G. rath nm
L. rath u

devs
devs
devbhis
dev bhyas
devnm
devu
V. dvs

a. Other words belonging to the secondary radical class (a 2) are :

kumr girl (A. kumram), tandr weariness (N. tandr s ), dt mes
senger (N. dut s ), nad stream (A. nadam), lakm mark (N. lakms,
A. lakmam), sih lioness (N. sihs, A. siham).
str woman, originally a disyllable, is inflected as a radical
monosyllabic stem i n the sing. A. and pl. N.A.L : stryam ; stryas,
strbhs (accent) ; but retains traces of its derivative origin in the s.
N. str (no s), D. striyi (Av.), G. striy s L . striy m (Av.).
2

I I . The declension, which comprises both radical and

derivative stems, is much more homogeneous than the
declension. The inflexion of these two classes corresponds
exactly to that of the two divisions of the radical declension.
Practically all the stems in this declension are oxytones
(including both the compound radical and the derivative
stems).
a. I n the radical class there are seven monosyllabic
stems, five of which are I. : d gift, bh earth, br. brow,
sy thread, sr stream ; one m. and I. : s begetter and
mother ; one 1n. : j speeding, steed. There are further two

reduplicated I. substantives and one adjective : juh. tongue,

juh sacrificial spoon; jg singing aloud. Finally, there
are about sixty compounds, almost exclusively formed from
about eleven roots, e. g. paribh surrounding.
1

dhnm occurs seven times i n the Rv dhiy m only once, the

latter being the only example of the normal ending.
I n B. this form is used for the G. ; e. g. striyai paya woman's
milk.
2

100]

RADICAL AND DERIVATIVE STEMS

89

b. The derivative class comprises two divisions : the one

consists of about eighteen oxytone I. substantives, several
of which correspond to m. or n. stems in u accented on the
first syllable, e. g. agru (m. gru) maid ; the other and
more numerous division consists of oxytone I. adjectives
corresponding to m. oxytones, e.g. babhr (m. babhr)
brown.
a. The normal endings as they appear i n the inflexion of consonant
stems are taken throughout this declension (radical and derivative).
The G. pi., however, takes the normal am i n uncompounded radical
stems only, but n m i n all others. The N. s. always adds s. Before
vowel endings the is split into uv i n monosyllabic nouns and
generally i n compounds with roots as final member (even when pre
ceded by a single consonant). I n the minority of such compounds
(some nine i n the RV.) and i n all derivative stems, it is written as v
but pronounced as u . Thus A. bnvam, bhvam present; but
vibham eminent, tanam.
1

The forms occurring i f made from bh earth and tan

body would be the following :
S1NGULAR.
RAD1CAL.

DER1v AT1vE .

N. bhus
A. bhvam
I . bhuv
Ab.G. bhuvs
L. bhuv

D.
Ab.G.
L.
V.

tans
tanam
tan
tane
tanas
tani
tanu.
tnu

The derivative stems show an incipient tendency to be influenced

by the inflexion of the derivative declension. The RV. has only one
such form : varu m ; the AV. has at least ten such ; the VS. has
A. pucal m courtesan, D. tanvi G. tanv s . I n B . the D. s. f.
ending ai is used for s ; e. g. dnenvi rta the seed of the cow.
Judging by the only two forms that occur, bhuv m and jguvm.
I t is, however, split i n the derivative stems agr k a d r Soma
vessel, i n adjectives when u is preceded by y, and i n bbnats loathing.
H ence i n such forms i t is given below as u (short because a vowel
is shortened before another i n pronunciation ; cp. p. 22, note 1).
2

DUAL.
N.A. bhv
I . bhbhy m
L. bhuvs

N.A. tan
D. tan bhym
L. tanos

PLURAL.
N. bhvas
A. bhvas
G. bhuvm

N.
A.
I.
D.
G.

tanas
tanas
tan bhis
tan bhyas
tan nm

1O1. D. Stems in (m. and I.), which in origin are

consonant stems in derivative ar or tar, closely resemble
an stems (90) in their declension. Derivative stems in
consist of two groups, the one formed with the original
suffix ar, the other with tar. The former is a small group
of only eight stems, the latter a very large one of more
than 150. Both groups agree in distinguishing strong
and weak cases. The strong stem ends in ar . or r,
which in the weak forms is reduced to r before vowels and
before consonants. Both groups further agree in dropping
the final of the stem in the N. s. m. I., which case always
ends in . They resemble the vowel declension in adding
the ending n in the A. pl. m. and s in the A. pl. I., and in
inserting n before the am of the G. pl. They have the
peculiar ending ur in the G. s.^
1

1. The stems in ar are: m. dev husband's brother,

n man; I. us dawn, nnnd husband's sister, svs^
sister; n. har day, udhar udder, vdhar weapon, which
4

Except usrs.
Except svsrm and nrm.
Except nras and usrs.
This word is probably derived with the suffix ar.
I n this word the is probably radical : svsar.

101]

STEMS I N AND T

91

occur in the N.A. s. only. The forms that occur of the

first five stems are :
a. Sing. A. devram. PI. N. devras. L. devu.
b. Sing. A. nram (u^pa). D. nre. G. nras.
L. nri (Ep. Gk u^pt), Du. N.A. nr. V. nr and
nrau. PI. N.V nras (Ep. Gk u^p^), A. nrn.
I . nbhis. D.A. n bhyas. G. narm and n m .
L. nu.
e. Sing. G. usrs. L. nsr and usrm. V. ar.
Pl. A. usrs.
d. Sing. G. nnndur. L. nnndari.
e. Sing. N. svs. A. svsram. I . svsr. D. svsre.
Ab. G. svsur. Du. svsr, au. L. svsros. PI. N.
svsras. A. svss. I . svsbhis. G. svsrm and
svsm.
2. This group includes two subdivisions, the one forming
its strong stem in tar, the other in tr (Gk. rnp, r^op,
Lat. tor). The former consists of a small class of five
names of relationship : three m., pitr father, bhrtar
2

brother, nptar grandson, and two I., duhitr daughter

and mtr mother, together with the m. and I. compounds

formed from them. The second division consists of more
than 150 stems (including compounds) which are either
agent nouns accented chiefly on the suffix, or participles
accented chiefly on the root. These stems are never I., and
only four are n.
I n the t declension three stems are to be distinguished : the strong,
tar or tr ; the middle, t ; and the weakest, tr. The names of rela
tionship take the Gua form, agent nouns the Vddhi form of the
5

har and d har form their other cases from the an stems han
and dhan. Cp. 91. 6.
Often to be pronounced n m .
Following the analogy of the derivative declension.
svsram and narm are the only two forms of the declension
in which m is added direct to the stem.
The strong stem nptar does not occur i n the RV., npt taking
its place.
2

strong stem. The inflexion of the m. and f. differs i n the A. pl. only.
The sing. G. is formed i n ur, the L. i n ari, the V. i n ar ; the pl. A .
m. i n tn, f. ts, G. i n tm.

The inflexion of the three stems dt m. giver (t^or^p,

dator), pit m. father (^rr^p, pter), mt I. mother
(^r), mter) is as follows :
S1NGULAR.

N. dt
A. dt r am
I.
D.
Ab.G.
L.
V.

dtr
dtr
dtr
dtri
d t ar (^:or^p)

pit
pitram
pitr
pitr
pitr
pitri (rrar^pt)
ptar (Jupiter)

mt
mtram
mtr
mtr
mtr
mtri
mtar

(^r^p)

DUAL.
N.A. dt r , au

pitr, au

mtr, au

I.D. dt bhyam

pit bhym

mt bhym

G.L. dtrs

pitrs

mtrs

PLURAL.
N. dt r as

pitras

mtras

A. dtrn

pitn

mtrs

pit bhis
pit bhyas

mt bhis
mt bhyas

pitn m

mtrm

I . dt bhis
D.Ab. dt bhyas
G. dt m
L. dtru
V. d t ras

pitu
ptaras

mt u
mtaras

101102]

STEMS I N DIPHTHONGS

93

a. npt i n the RV. occurs i n the weak stem only : sing. I . nptra,
D. nptre, G. nptur. Pl. I . nptbhis. I t is supplemented i n the
strong forms by npt (Lat. nepot): sing. N.v. npat. A. nptam.
Du. N.A. npt. Pl. N.v. npatas. I n the TS. occurs nptram
(like svsram among the r stems).
b. The only n. stems occurring are dhart prop, dhmt smithy,
stht stationary, vidhart meting out, and of these Only about half a
dozen forms occur. The only oblique cases met with are the G. sthtur
and the L. dhmtri. The N.A. s. owing to its rarity seems never to
have acquired fixity i n the Veda, but sthtr represents the normal
form. I n B. the N.A. form i n begins to be used i n an adjectival
sense : bhart supporting, janayit creative.
c. The f. of agent nouns i n t r is formed with from the weak stem
of the m., e. g. jnitr mother (inflected like dev).

1O2. E. Stems in ai, o, au. The only stems in

diphthongs are: ri m. and (rarely) I. wealth, g m. bull,
I. eow, dy m. I. sky, nu I. ship, gln m. I. lump. They
form a transition from the consonant to the vowel declension ;
for while they take the normal endings like the ordinary
consonant declension, they add s in the N. s. m. I. and
have a vowel before the endings with initial consonant.
There are no neuter forms.
1. ri appears as ry before vowels and r before con
sonants. The forms occurring are : Sing. A. rm (LaI.
rem). I . ry. D. ry (Lat. re). Ab. G. rys.
PI. N. ryas. A. rys. G. ry m .
2. go has as its strong form gau which appears as g in
the A. s. and pi. The Ab.G. are irregular in adding s only
instead of as. The forms occurring are: Sing. N. gus
(^ov^. A. gam (^u).
I . gv. D. gve. Ab.G. gs.
L. gv-I.Du. gv, au.Pl. N. gvas.
A. gas.
I . gbhis. D. gbhyas. G. gvm and gnm.
L. gu. v. gvas.
1

Rarely ryas ; once rs (SV.).

As regards accentuation this word is not treated as a monosyllabic
stem, never shifting the accent to the endings.
This form, which follows the vowel declension and is much less
common than gvm, occurs at the end of a Pda only.
2

3. dy m. I. sky (cp. 99. 5) is declined like g. The

forms occurring are : Sing. N. dyus (.^v^), ^ A. dym
(Lat. diem). Ab.G. dys. L. dyvi. V. dyus and
dyus (^v), Du. N.A. dyv.PI. N.V. dyvas.
4. nu is inflected quite regularly as far as can be judged
by the few forms occurring : Sing. N. nus (uav^).
N. nvam (^fa),
I . nv. G. nvs (u^fs). L. nv
1

(u^ft).Pl.N. nvas (u^J^,

nves),

A. navas (u^fa^).

I . nubhis (uav^t).
5. glu occurs in two forms only: Sing. N. glus and
Pl. I . glaubhs.
3

Degrees of Comparison.
103. 1. The secondary suffixes of the comparative
tara (Gk. r^po) and the superlative tama (Lat. timo) are
regularly added to nominal stems (both simple and com
pound), substantives as well as adjectives, generally to the
weak or middle stem ; e. g. priytara dearer, tavstara
4

stronger, vpuara more wonderful, bhgavattara more

bounteous ; vtratra a worse Vtra ; bhrid v attara
giving more abundantly ; avat-tam most constant ; ratna
dha-tama best bestower of treasure ; hrayavmat-tama
best wielder of the golden axe ; rath tama best charioteer.
a. The final n of the stem is retained before these suffixes ; e. g.
madntara more gladdening, vntama most manly. An n is some
times even inserted ; e. g. surabhntara more fragrant ; rayntama
very rich.

The same as the N . of dyu (99. 5).

That is, daus with the proper V. accent, but with anomalous
retention of the N. s.
The N . pl. glvas also occurs i n the A B .
These secondary comparatives and superlatives are commoner than
the primary i n the proportion of three to two.
2

103]

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE

95

b. I n a few instances the strong stem of a present participle is used ;

e. g. vr d hantama being most mighty, shantama most victorious ; and
the weakest stem of a perfect participle : vidara wiser ; mh
ama most gracious.
c. These secondary suffixes are occasionally found added to the
primary comparatives and superlatives, e.g. rhatama most
beautiful.
d. They also form a comparative and superlative from the preposi
tion d up : ttara higher, uttam highest.
e. These suffixes form their f. i n ; e. g. mt tam most motherly.
1

2. The primary suffix of the comparative ys (Gk. ^ou,

Lat. ior) and that of the superlative iha (Gk. t^rro) are
added directly to the root, which is regularly accented and
gunates and , but leaves a unchanged apart from
nasalization in a few instances. Final radical combines
with the initial of the suffix to e, which is, however, usually
to be read as two syllables. Examples are : tjys
sharper, tjiha very sharp (tij be sharp) ; jvys quieker,
jviha quickest (j be swift) ; yjys sacrificing better,
yjiha sacrificing best; mhiha most liberal (mah
bestow abundantly) ; jyha greatest and jyeth eldest (jy
overcome).
3

a. In many instances these superlatives attach themselves in mean

ing to derivative adjectives, being formed from the root which the
latter contain ; e. g. ys smaller, iha smallest beside u
minute ; dvys farther beside dr far ; dr g hys longer, dr g h
iha longest beside drgh long ; 1ghys lighter beside lagh light ;
vrys wider, vriha widest beside ur wide ; -ys more fre
quent beside -vant constant ; 6iha very quick beside am quickly ;
brhiha very lofty beside bhnt gre^t; yviha youngest beside
yvan youth ; vriha most excellent beside vra choice ; s d hiha
straightest beside sdh. straight.

w i t h the accent of the ordinal suffix tam.

when used as an ordinal suffix tama forms its f. i n accented
(cp. 107).
Except jyen meaning eldest and kanih meaning youngest.
2

^. I n a few examples the suffix is added to the derivative form of

the root which appears in the adjective ; thus -iha (^^o^ro^) beside
-u (^-11s) swit (from a reach); t k yas sharper beside tk
sharp (from t i j be sharp) ; nvyas newer, nviha newest beside nva
new ; svdys (^i^, suvior) sweeter, svdiha (^^ro^) beside
svd (,^1^, suvis) sweet (from svad be sweet).
1

a. Beside the usual forms in ys there occur about

half a dozen alternative comparatives made with the shorter
form of the suffix, ys : tvys (tvys) stronger ;
nvys (nvys) newer ; pnys (pnys)
more wonderful,

bh ys

(bhvys) beeoming more,

greater; rbhys (rbhys) more violent; shys

(shys) stronger. Some halfdozen more have no
alternative form beside them: jyys greater, older;
prys dearer, prha dearest (priy dear) ; vsys
better, vsiha best (vsu good) ; r-ys (^p^t^u) better,
r-ha best (r be bright), snys (Lat. senior) older

(sna old), sthys most steadfast (sthir firm).

b. Some comparatives and superlatives belong to their
positives in sense only; e.g. knys^ lesser, younger,
kniha smallest and kanih youngest (lpa small) ;
4

ndys (Av. nazdyah) nearer, ndiha (Av. nazd

ita) nearest (antik near), vrys higher, vriha
highest (vddh grown up).
5

From the adj. pp bad,theradical element of which is uncertain,

is formed direct the comparative p p ys i n the TS.
H ere the vowel remains unchanged. This is also the case i n the
corresponding superlative bhuyiha, which moreover adds the suffix
w i t h an intervening y.
Cp. kany girl (^ kan), Gk. ^a^s ( = 1^os),
Appears i n this sense i n the TS.
Cp. vrman n., varmn m. height.
2

104]

CARDINALS

97

NUMERALS.
Cardinals.

1O4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
1

ka.
dv (^vo, Lat. duo),
t r i (rpi, Lat. tri),
catr (Lat. quatuor).
pca (7r^r^).
( ^ , Lat. sex).
sapt (^7rr),
a (o^r^, LaI. octo,
Gothic ahtau).
nva (Lat. novem).
da (^a),
ka-daa.
dva-daa
(^^a),
tryo-daa.'^
ctur-daa.
pca-daa.
-aa.
sapt-daa.
1

adaa.

19. nva-daa.
20. v i a t
(Lat.
viginti).
30. tri-t.
40. catvri-t.
50. pact (7r.-u
r^oura),
60. a-.
70. sapta-t.
80. a-t.
90. nava-t.
100. atm
(^aro^,
Lat. centum).
1,000. sahsran.
10,000. ayta n.
100,000. niytan.
1,000,000. praytan.
10,000,000. r b u d a n .
100,000,000. nyrhuda n.
3

19

a is an old dual form.

The cardinals between 10 and 20 are Dvandva compounds formed
by prefixing the accented unit to daa ten.
Here k stands for ka under the influence of dv daa.
Here the N. du. is retained instead of the stem form dva.
tryo, for tryas (45. 2), is the N . pl. (105).
catr as first member of a compound is regularly accented otur-.
For a-daa through az-daa (cp. 69 c, note 3),
This and the remaining cardinals are substantives. Those from
twenty to ninety are either old compounds (adj. and substantive : two
decades, ^ c ) or derivatives formed w i t h -th
catvrim for catvri, n. pl. (105), like viat and trit.
Sixty to ninety are abstract f. nouns derived from the simple
cardinals (except at) meaning hexad of tens, ^c.
a- is radically cognate to a-.
2

3
4

7
3

10

11

a. The numbers intermediate between the decades 20100

are Dvandva compounds formed by prefixing the accented
unit to the decade ; e. g. aviati 28 ; ka-triat 31 ;
tryas-triat 33 ; nva-catvriat 49 ; nva-ai 69 ;
nvti 89 ; pcanavati 95, avati 96, anavati
98 ; ka-atam 101, ctu-atam 104, tric-chatam 130.
a. Intermediate numbers may also be expressed by adding together
unit and decade with or without ca ; e.g. nva ca navat ea ninety and
nine, navati nva ninety-nine.
^. I n the TS. the number preceding a decade is also expressed by
kn n by one not ----- minus one ; thus kn n viat twenty less one
= 19 ; kn n catvrit 39 ; kn n a 59 ; kn n iti 79 ;
kn n atm 99.

b. There are two ways of forming multiples. The larger

number in the du. or pl. may be multiplied by the smaller
used as an adjective ; e. g. dv at 200 ; sa sahsra
60,000 ; tri at tr sahsri trie ca nva oa 3,339.
Otherwise the multiplier prefixed to the larger number
forms with it a possessive (adjective) compound accented on
the last syllable ; e. g. tryastriat tri-at asahasr
6,333.
^. Multiples of numbers below 100 are sometimes formed i n these two
ways ; e.g. navat r nva nine nineties 810 ; trisapt 21, triav 27.

Declension of Cardinals.
105. Only the first four cardinals, like other adjectives,
distinguish the genders. ka one, while inflected chiefly in
the s., forms a pl. also in the sense of some ; dv two is of
course inflected in the dual only.
1. ka is declined like the pronominal adjectives vva
1

i A N . f. du. form of ka in the sense of a certain appears i n ko

yuvat (AV.) a certain pair of maidens.

105]

99

CARDINALS
1

and srva (120 b). The forms occurring in the Sahits

are :
m. s. N. kas. A. kam. I . kena. G. kasya. L.
kasmin. Pl. N. ke. D. kebhyas.
I. s. N. ka. A. km. I . kay. G. kasys. PI. N.
ks.
n. s. N. kam. PI. N. ka.
2. dv two is declined quite regularly as a dual, like
priy (97 A. 1). The forms occurring are :
m. N. dv , dvu. I . dv b hym. G. dvyos. L. dvyos.
I. N. dv. I . dv b hym.
n. N. dv. L. dvyos.
2

3. tr three is declined in the m. n. pl. quite regularly, like

ei (98 B). The I. stem is tis. the inflexion of which
differs in the N.A. from other stems by adding the
normal ending as to the unmodified stem. The forms
occurring are :
m. PI. tryas. A. trn. I . tribhs. D. trbhys. G.
tr m . L. tri.
I. N. tisrs. A. tisrs. I . tisrbhis. D. tis b hyas. G.
4

n. N.A. tr, tr i.
4. eatr four in the m. n. has the strong stem catvr
(cp. Lat. quatuor). I n the G. pi., though the stem ends in

The only form of the Ab. s. occurring, kt, follows the nominal
declension ; it is used in forming compound numerals, kn n trim
st 29, ^c. (Ts.) ; kasmt, used in the same way, occurs in a B. pas
sage of the TS.
The dual form is retained in the numeral compound dv daa 12.
Otherwise dvi is used as the stem in compounds, as dvipd bi^ed, and
in derivation, as dvfdh in two ways, ^c.
Probably for trisr formed like svs (10I. 1, note 5).
Except nars (10I. 1 c),
Once written tis m , though the is actually long metrically.
2

a consonant, n is inserted before the caseending. The

I. stem is ctas, which is inflected exactly like tis and
shifts its accent like pca. The forms occurring are :
m. N. catvras. A. catras. I . catrbhis. D. catr
bhyas. G. caturm.
I. N. A. ctasras. I . eatasbhis. D. catasbhyas. G.
catasm.
n. N.A. catv r i.
106. The cardinals from five to nineteen, though used
adjectivally, do not distinguish gender and take no ending
in the N.A. They also have in common the peculiarity
of accenting a before the consonant terminations and the
final syllable in the G.
3

a. The forms of six occurring in the Sahits are :

N.A. (27). I . abhs. D. abhys. L. as.
b. The forms of a eight indicate that it was an old
dual. The forms that occur are :
N.A. a. au. I . abhs. D. abhys. L. as.
3

c. pca five as well as sapt seven and the cardinals

from nine to nineteen are declined like neuters in an (90. 2)
except in the G., which follows priy (97). The forms
occurring are :
N.A. pca. I. pacbhis. D. pacbhyas. G. pa
cnm. L. pacsu.
1

Like am the G. of , which, however, does not seem to

occur i n any of the Sahits.
W i t h accent on the final syllable like the G. of pca, ^c.
'^ Except a and au which are N . A. dual forms.
Except a, which accents the terminations.
^ Meaning probably the two tetrads (perhaps w i t h reference to the
fingers of the two hands).
a is the stem used as the first member of compounds in the
RV., but aa begins to be used in the AV.
2

106107]

SYNTAX OF CARDINALS.

ORDINALS

101

N.A. sapt. I . saptbhis. D.Ab. saptbhyas.

G.
saptn m .
N.A. nva. I . navbhis. D. navbhyas. G. navanm.
N.A. da. I . da-bhis. D. da-bhyas. G. danm.
L. da-su.
N.A. kdaa. D. ekdabhyas. N. dvdaa. D. dv
da-bhyas. N. tryodaa. I. trayoda-bhis. D.
trayoda-bhyas. N. pcadaa. D. pacadabhyas. N. aa. D. oa-bhyas. N. saptdaa.
D. saptadabhyas. N. adaa. D. aada-bhyas.
N. nvadaa. L navada-bhis. D. kn n vi
atyi (TS.).
d. The cardinals for the decades from twenty to ninety
with their compounds are I. substantives, nearly always
inflected in the sing. and according to the declension of the
ste1^. final ; e. g. N. viat-s. A. viat-m. I. vi
aty. N. trit. A. trit-am. I. trit-a. L.
triti. I f the sense requires it these numerals may be
used in the pi. ; e. g. nva navats nine nineties ; navn
navatn m of nine nineties.

at hundred and sahsra thousand are neuters, which

may be declined in all numbers ; e. g. dv at two hundred ;
sapt atni seven hundred ; tr sahsri three thousand.
a. I n the group jive to nineteen the bare stem may be used i n the
oblique cases agreeing with substantives; e.g. sapt h5tbhi with
seven priests (cp. 194 B a).

Ordinals.
1O7. The ordinals, being all adjectives ending in a, are
declined in the 1n. and n. like priy. The I. is formed
with (declined like dev) except in the first four, which
take .
The ordinals from first to tenth are formed with various
suffixes, viz. (t)1ya, tha, thama, ma.
The formation

of the first four is somewhat irregular. The stems of the

ordinals from eleventh to nineteenth differ from those of
the corresponding cardinals only in being accented on the
final syllable ; their inflexion differs from that of the latter
in following priy. Thus ekda eleventh forms the
cases : m. s. A. ekda-m. Pl. N. ekdasas. A. ek
dan. L ekdais.
The ordinals from twentieth to ninetieth (including their
compounds), which also end in accented , seem to be
abbreviated forms of the corresponding cardinals ; e. g.
catvri fortieth.
The ordinals for hundredth and thousandth are formed
with the superlative suffix tama accented on the final
syllable : ata-tam, sahasratam.
1

1st pratham, I. .
2nd dvit y a, I. .
3rd tt y a, I. (Lat. tert
3

ius).
7

tur y a, I. (for catur

ya through ktur
4th
ya).
caturth, I. (r^rap
To-^, Lat. quartus),
1

5th pacam, I. .
6th ah (LaI. sextus),
sapttha.
7th saptam (Lat. septi
mus).

8th aam.
9th navam.
10th daa-m (LaI. deci
mus).

Only about three examples of this formation have been noted in

the sahits, and four i n the Brhmaas.
Sahasratam has been noted i n B. only.
Probably for pratam foremost, the t h being due to the infiuence of
caturth, ^c.
Both pratham and trt y have one caseform each according to
the pronominal declension in the AV. : G. prathamsyas and L. tt
yasym.
From an older dvit second.
From an older trt third.
When used i n the fractional sense of onefourth accented on the
first syllable : trya (AV.) ; similarly i n B . cturtha onefourth,
t t ya onethird.
2

107-109]

1 1th
21st
34th
40th
48th

ORDINALS. NUMERAL DERIVATIVES

ek-da.
eka-vi.
catus-tri (B.).
catvri.
a-eatvri.

52nd
61st
100th
1000th

103

dvpac (B.).
eka-a- (B.).
ata-tam.
sahasratam (B.).

NumeraI Derivatives.
1OS. A number of derivatives, chiefly adverbs, are formed
from the cardinals.
a. M uItipIicative adverbs : sakt onee (lit. one making) ;
dvs twice (Gk.
Lat. bis) ; trs thr ice (Gk. r ^, Lat.
tris) ; cats four times (for catrs). Others are expressed
by the cardinal and the form ktvas times (probably makings
A. pl. of ktu) which is used as a separate word except in
aaktvas (AV.) eight times ; e. g. da k t vas (AV.) ten
times, bhuri k t vas many times.

b. Adverbs of manner formed with the suffix dh :

dvdh in tu^o ways or parts, trdh and tredh , catur
dh, pacadh , oh, saptadh , aadh, navadh ,
sahasradh.
e. A few muItipIicative adjectives derived with the
suffixes a, taya, vaya meaning fold : tray threefold,
dvay twofold ; da-taya tenfold ; ctur-vaya fourfold.

PRONOUNS
1O9. Pronouns differ from nouns both in origin and
declension. They are derived from a small class of roots
with a demonstrative sense, and they have several distinct
peculiarities of inflexion. These peculiarities have in
varying degrees been extended to several groups of adjectives.

A.

PersonaI Pronouns.

This class displays the greatest number of peculiarities :

they are for each person derived from several roots or
combinations of roots; they are specially irregular in
inflexion ; they do not distinguish gender, nor to some
extent even number. Some resemble neuters in form ;
a few have no apparent caseending ; in two of them the
A. pl. m. does duty as I. also.
SINGULAR.

L
L
P URA .

N. ahm L
A. mm me
I . my by me
D.
Ab.
G.
L.

tvm thou
vaym we
tvm thee
asmn us
tv
by theeasmbhis by
tvy
us
mhyam
tbhyam
to
asmbhyam
tome
mhya
for us
thee
mdfrom me
tvdfrom thee asmd from
us
mma of me
tva of thee
asm k am
of us
myi in me
tv
in thee asmsu in
tvyi
us
asm
3

yuym ye
yumn you
3

yumbhyam
for you
yusmd jrom
you
ym k am
of you
yum in you

Cp. Lat. mihi and tibi.

Only this, the normal form ( = tvi), is found i n the RV. The
irregular tvyi appears i n the later sahits.
asmn and yum n are new formations according to the nominal
declension. The stems are compounds of the pronominal elements
a+sma and yu+sma. The Vs. twice has the distinctly f. new forma
tion yums.
asmkam and yusmkam are properly the A. n. s. of the posses
sives asmka our, yumka your.
asm s u is a new formation following the analogy of asm b his.
asm is also used as D.
Changed from original ym by the influence of vaym.
2

109110]

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

105

I)ual. N. vm and avm (B.) we tu^o. A. avm (B.) us

two. Ab. v-bhyam (K.) and avd (TS.) from us two.
G. avy-os (B.) of us two.
N. yuvm ye two. A. yuvm you two. I . yuvbhyam
and yuv bhym by you two. Ab. yuvd from you
two. G. yuvs and yuvyos of you two.
1

a. The following unaccented forms, inadmissible at the beginning

of a sentence, are also used : sing. A. m, tv. D.G. me (Gk. ^ ) , te
(Gk. ro.), Du. A.D.G. nau (Gk. ^ ) , vm. PL A.D.G. nas (Lat. nos),
vas (Lat. vos).
b. The usual stems of these pronouns used i n derivation or as first
member of compounds are : ma, asma ; tva, yuva, yuma ; thtrs
asmadrh hating us ; tvyata presented by thee ; yuvay desiring you
two ; yusmaynt desiring you. But the forms mad, asmad, tvad occur
a few times as first member of compounds ; thus mtkta done by me ;
asmtsakhi having us as companions ; tvdyoni derived from thee.
4

B.

Demonstrative Pronouns.

110. The inflexion of these pronouns, as compared with

the nominal a declension, has the following peculiarities .
1. in the sing. d is added instead of m in the N.A. n. ;
the element sma appears between the root and the ending
in the D.Ab.L. m. n., and sya in the D.Ab.G.L. I. ; i n
(instead of i) is the ending in the L. m. n. 2. in the pl.
the N. m. ends in e instead of as ; the G. has s instead of n
before the ending am.
The stem t that (also he, she, it) may be taken as the type
for the inflexion of adjectival pronouns :

vm (probably abbreviated for v m ), occurring once i n the RV.,

seems to be the only N . du. form found i n the sahits.
The N . vm (B.) and A. vm (K. B.) seem to have been the
normal forms judging by yuvm and yuv m .
yuvs occurs i n the RV., yuvyos i n the Ts.
me and te originally L., have come to be used as D. and G.
2

SINGULAR.
MAsc. NEUT.
N. s s
td

PLURAL.
FEM.

FEM.
MAsc. NEUT.
t (roi) t
ts
and
tni
tn
ts
tbhis, tis tbhis

A. t m
I.
D.
Ab.
G.
L.

tna

td

tm
ty

tsmai
tsmd
tsya
tsmin
ssmin
6

(rot^)

tsyai
tsys
tsys
tsym

tbhyas
tm
tsu

t bhyas

tsm
tsu

DUAL.
N.A. m. t, tu, I. t, n. t. I.Ab. m. I. t bhym.
m. n. tyos.

G.L.

The stem t is frequently used i n derivation, especially that of

adverbs, as tth thus ; the n. form td often appears as first member
of a compound ; e. g. tdapas accustomed to that work.

a. There are three other demonstratives derived from t :

1. et this here is inflected exactly like t. The forms
that occur are :
19

On the Sandhi of ss cp. 48 ; s, s, td = Gk. o, ro ; Gothic sa,

so, thata (Eng. that, Lat. istud),
tm, tm, td = Gk. ^ro^, r^, ro.
sometimes tn.
These forms have the normal ending e : = tsmae, tsye. I n
B. tsyai is substituted for the G. tsys.
The Chndogya Upaniad once has sasmd.
H omeric Gk. roo (for tosio),
ssmin occurs nine times i n the RV., tsmin twentytwo times.
'^ Cp. Lat. istorum.
Gk. ^ra^ (for rao^), cp. Lat. istrum.
The stem used in derivation and composition is eta ; e.g. et vant
so great, etd such. I n B. etad is sometimes thus used : otadd
giving this, etanmya consisting of this.
2

10

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

110111]

107

m. Sing. N. es (67, 48). A. etm. I. etna. D. et

smai. Ab. etsmad. G. etsya.Du. N. et, etu.
Pl. N. et. A. etn. I . etbhis, etis. D. etbhyas.
I. Sing. N. e. A. etm. I . ety. L. etsym.Du. N.
et. Pl. ots. A. ets. I . et b his. L. etsu.
n. Sing. N. etd.

Pl. N. et, etni.

2. ty is derived from t with the suffix ya and means

that. I t is common in the RV., but rare in the later
Sahits. Unlike t it is used adjectivally only, hardly
ever occurring without its substantive. I t never begins
a sentence except when followed by the particles u, cid,
n, or s.
1

The forms occurring are :

m. Sing. N. sy. A. tym. G. tysya. Du. N. ty.
Pl. N. ty. A. ty n . I . tybhis.
I. Sing. N. sy. A. tym. I . ty. G. tysyas.Du. N.
ty. Pl. N. tys. A. tys.
n. Sing. tyd. Pl. ty, ty n i.
3. A very rare derivative is tak this little, which occurs
only twice in the RV. in the two A. sing. forms m. takm,
n. takd.
3

sim seems to have the sense of an emphatic demonstrative. The

forms occurring are^ sing. N . sims. V. sma. D. simsmai (n.).
Ab. simsmd. Pl. sim.

I l l . In the inflexion of the demonstrative which in the

N. s. in. appears as aym this here the two pronominal

1 I t is also found a few times i n B.

see 48, note 3.
I t is generally given the meaning of every, all, but the above is the
more probable sense.
2

roots i (which nearly always has a double ending) and a

are employed, the former in the N. (except the m. s.) and A.,
the latter in all the other cases. The A. s. m. I. starts from
im (the A. of i), which appears in the du. and pi. also, so
that all these cases have the appearance of being formed
from a stem im.
2

SINGULAR.
MAsC
N. aym
A. imm

I.
D.
Ab.
G.
L.

NEUT.
idm
idm
4

en
asmi
asmd
asy
asmn
6

PLURAL.
MAsC
im
imn

FEM.

iym
imm
7

ay
asyi
asys
asys
asym

NEUT.
im

FEM.

imni
ebhs
ebhys

ims
ims
bhs
bhys

em
es

sm
s

DUAL.
N.A. m. im, u. I. im.
m. G.L. ays.
1

n. im.

m. D.Ab. bhym.

These two roots are frequently used i n derivation ; e. g. tra here,

tha then ; id now, ih here, tara other.
From this stem is formed the adverb imth thus.
3 Here i m is the A. of i , from which is also formed the A .f.m
and the n . i d , both used as particles.
Also twice ena. en and the remaining oblique cases, when used
as nouns and unemphatic, may lose their accent.
The Ab., according to the nominal declension, d is used as a
conjunction.
Both asya and asmai may be accented sya and smai when
emphatic at the beginning of a Pda. The form imsya occurs once
in the RV. instead of asy ; and imasmai i n the AA. for asmai.
Instead of ay the form any occurs twice i n the RV. : i t is the
only form from ana found i n the Sahits.
2

112]

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

109

112. The demonstrative corresponding to aym employed

to express remoteness in the sense of that there, you, and
having in the N. s. the curious forms m. I. asu, n. ads,
uses throughout its inflexion the root a, but always in an
extended form. The fundamental stem used in every case
(except the N. s.) is am A. m. of a. This is extended by
the addition of the particle u to amu, which appears
throughout the sing. (with in A. I.) except the N. I n the
ph amu is the I. and am the in. stem (except the A.).
The forms occurring are :
1

m. Sing. N. asu. A. amm. L amna. D. am

mai. Ab. ammd. G. amya. L. ammin.
Pl. am. A. amn. D. ambhyas. G. amm.
I. Sing. N. asu. A. amum. I . amuy. D. am
yai. G. amys.Du. N. amu.PI. N. ams.
A. amus.
n. Sing. N. ads.^ PI. N. amu.
4

a. The unaccented defective pronoun of the third person

ena (he, she, it) is declined in the A. of all numbers,
besides the I . s. and the G. du.
A. sing. m. enam, I. enam, n. enad.Du. m. enau,
I. ene.Pl. m. enn, I. ens.
I . sing. enena. G. du. enos (RV.), enayos (AV.).
6

^. Another unaccented demonstrative pronoun restricted to the RV.

(excepting one form i n the Av. and the TS.) is tva meaning one, many

This stem is used i n derivation ; e.g. amtas thence, amtra there,

amth thus (B.).
H ere the pronominal root a seems to be compounded with sa
extended by the particle u : asu and asu.
This is the only example of sya being added to any but an a stem.
Used adverbially, with shifted accent.
H ere the neuter ad of the pronominal root a is extended with
the suffix as.
H ere we have the same e (L. of a) as i n ka one, ev thus.
2

a one, generally repeated i n the sense of one another. The n. tvad

meaning partly is also found i n B. The forms occurring are ..
sing. N. m. tvas, f. tv n. tvad. A. m. tvam. L m. tvena.
D. m. tvasmai, f. tvasyai.Pl. m. tve.
^. The pronoun av this occurs only i n the G. du. form avs i n
combination with vm meaning of you two being such (used like sa i n
s tvm thou as such).
The pronoun m a this occurs only once i n the AV. (also i n
the AB.) i n the formula mo hm asmi this am 1.
1

C. Interrogative Pronoun.
113. The interrogative k who? which? what? used as

both substantive and adjective, is inflected exactly like t,

excepting the alternative neuter form km. which instead
of the pronominal d has the nominal m (never elsewhere
attached to a stem in i). The forms occurring are :
m. Sing. ks. A. km. I . kna. D. ksmai. Ab.
ksmad. G. ksya. L. ksmin.Du. N. ku.
Pl. k. I . kbhis. L. ku.
f. Sing. N. k. A. km. I . ky. G. ksys.PI. N.
ks. A. ks. L. ksu.
n. Sing. N.A. kd and km. PI. N. k and kni.
3

a. I n derivation the stems k i and k u as well as ka are used ; e. g.

kyant how great ? kha where ? kti how many ?
As first member of a compound kad occurs twice : katpay greatly
swelling, kdartha having what purpose ? k i m is similarly used a few
times i n the later Sahits and the Brhmaas; e.g. kikar
servant.
b. kya, an extended form of k, occurring i n the G. only, is found
i n combination w i t h cid : kyasya cid of whomsoever.
1

From this pronoun are derived the I. and Ab. adverbs (with
shifted accent) am at home and amdfrom near.
The N.s.m. is preserved as a petrified form i n nkis and mkis
no one, nothing.
3
relative frequency of kd and km is i n the RV. as two to
three.
9

ll-115]

RELATIVE AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS I l l

D. Relative Pronoun.

114. The relative pronoun y who, which, what is declined

exactly like t. The forms occurring are :
m. Sing. N. ys. A. ym. I . yn and yna. D. y
smai. Ab. ysmd. G. ysya. L. ysmin.
Du. N. y, yu. D. ybhyam. G. yyos. L. yyos
and ys.
PI. N. y. A. yn. I . ybhis and yis. D. ybhyas.
G. ym. L. yu.
I. Sing. N. y.
A. ym.
I . yya.
G. ysyas.
L. ysym.
Du. N. y. G.L. yyos.
1

PI. N. ys. A. ys. I . ybhis. D. y bhyas.

sm. L. ysu.
n. N.A. Sing. yd. Du. y. PI. y, yni.

G. y

a. The stem of y is used to form derivatives ; e. g. yth as. I t

also appears as first member of a compound i n yd which like. The
neuter yd is also once used thus i n the RV. : yt-kma desiring what ;
and a few times later, as yad-devaty having what deity (K.), yat-krn
doing what (B.).
b. A form of the relative extended w i t h the diminutive suffix ka
yak who, occurs only i n the sing. N. m. yaks, f . yak and the p l .
N. m. yak.

E.

Reflexive Pronouns.
4

115. a. The reflexive indeclinable substantive svaym

self is properly ^used as a N. referring to all three persons.
Sometimes, however, its N. nature being forgotten, it is
1

yn is twice as common i n the RV. as yna, but the Pada text

always reads yna.
The Ab., formed according to the nominal declension, yd is used
as a conjunction.
yo's for yy0s like yuv6s for yuvy0s (p. 105, note 3).
Derived from sv with suffix am and interposed y (like aym
from a).
2

used as an A. ; e. g. yuji svay dhur I have yoked myself

to the pole ; or as agreeing in sense with another case. I t
occasionally means spontaneously.
b. tan body is used in the RV. to express self in other
cases than the N. and in all numbers. The reflexive
pronoun sv and a possessive G. may be added ; e. g.
yjasva tanvm worship thyself and yjasva tanv tva
svm worship thine own self. The reflexive sense of tan
has disappeared in B.
^t. There are one or two instances i n the RV. of the incipient use of
tmn soul i n a reflexive sense ; e. g. bla ddhna tmni putting
force into himself. The A. tm n am is frequently thus used i n the later
Sahits (though never i n the RV.) and in B.

c. sv own is a reflexive adjective referring to all three

persons and numbers. I t is inflected like an ordinary
adjective (priy) in the RV. (except the two isolated
pronominal forms svsmin and svsys), The forms
occurring are :
m. Sing. N. svs (Lat. suus). A. svm. I . svna and
svn. D. svya. Ab. svd. G. svsya. L. sv
and svsmin (Rv),
PI. N. svs. A. svn. I . svbhis and svis. D. sv
bhyas. G. svnm. L. svu.
I. Sing. N. sv (Lat. sua). A. svm. I . svy. D.
svyai. Ab. svys. G. svsys (Rv). L. svym.
PI. N. svs. A. svs. I . svbhis. L. svsu.
n. Sing. N.A. svm (Lat. suum). Pl. A. sv (Lat. sua).
^. As first member of compounds sv several times appears i n the
substantive (as well as the adj.) sense ; e. g. svyukta selfyoked.
svaym is similarly used in the Sahits ; e.g. svayaj selfborn.

F. Possessive Pronouns.
110. Possessive pronouns are rare because the G. of the
personal pronoun is generally used to express the sense
which they convey.

116--117]

PRONOMINA
L

COMPOUNDS

113

a. The possessives of the first person are mmaka and

mamak my and asmka our. The forms occurring are :
Sing. D. mmakya. G. mmakasya.
Sing. N. in. mmaks. n. mmakm. PI. G. m
nam.
Sing. N.A. n. asmkam.
I . asmkena.
PI. N. m.
asm k sas. I . asm k ebhis.
1

The n. s. asm k am, by far the commonest of these forms, is used as

the G. pi. of the personal pronoun = of us (109).
3

b. The possessives of the second person are tvak thy

(only D. pi. tvakbhyas), tv thy (only I. pl. I. tvbhis),
and yumka your. Of the latter, three forms occur:
I . s. m. yumkena, pl. I. yum k bhis, and the N.A. n.
yumkam used as the G. pi. of the second personal
pronoun of you.
c. Besides being used reflexively sv is fairly often
employed as a simple possessive, generally of the third
person (like Lat. suus), his, her, their, but also of the second,
thy, your, and of the first, my, our. The inflexion (115 c) is
the same in both senses.
G. Pronominal Compounds and Derivatives.
117. With -d in the RV. and other Sahits, and
with dka in the VS. are formed the following pronominal
compounds : d , tad, etd such, kd what like ?
yd what like ; dka, etd k a such.
4

Both formed from the G. of the personal pronoun mma. There

also occurs once i n the RV. the derivative m kna my.
The VS. has once the N. s. smks our formed like mmak beside
mmaka.
Formed from the G. tva.
I n the Brhmaas (B.) -da begins to appear : da, td a,
yd a.
N. s. m. kd .
w i t h the very anomalous L. s. yd min.
2

a. W i t h the suffix ka, conveying a diminutive or contemptuous

meaning, very rarely used derivatives are formed from the pronouns
t, y, s, and asu: tak that little (110. 3), yka who, which (114 b),
sak (only N . s. f. sak), asaku N. s. f. that little (Vs.).
b. With the comparative suffix tara derivatives are formed from i ,
k, y, and w i t h the superlative suffix tama from the latter two
(cp. 120) : tara other, katar which of two^ yatar who or which of two ;
katam who or which of many ^ yatam who or which of many.

IIS. a. With t i derivatives with a numerical sense are

formed from k, t, and y : kti how many ^ (Lat. guot) ;
tti so many (Lat. totidem) ; yti as many. No inflected
forms of these words occur. They appear in the sense of
the N.A. pi. only.
b. With yant expressing the quantitative meaning of
much derivatives are formed from i and k i : yant so much :
n. s. N. yat, pi. ynti; I. s. D. yatyai; kyant how
much ? : sing. N. n. kyat ; I. kyat. D. m. kyate.
L. kyti (for kyati).
e. With vant are formed derivatives from personal pro
nouns with the sense of like, attached to ; and from others in
the quantitative sense of great; thus tv vant like thee,
m vant like me, yuv vant devoted to you two (only D.
yuv v ate) ; yum vant belonging to you (only L. pi.
yum v atsu) ; etvant and tvant so great ; yavant as
great; vant so great (s. N. n. vat. D. m. n. vate.
G. vatas ; pl. A. m. vatas) ; kvant how far? (G. s.
kvatas).
Indefinite Pronouns.
119. a. The only simple pronoun which has an un
doubtedly indefinite sense is sama (unaccented) any, every.
The six forms that occur are : m. s. A. samam. D. samas
mai.
Ab. samasmd. G. samasya. L. samasmin.
PI. N. same.

119-1^0]

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES

115

b. Compound indefinite pronouns are formed by combining

the particles ca, cana, or cid with the interrogative k ;
thus k ca any, any one ; k can any one soever, every ;
k cid any, some ; any one, some one.

Pronominal Adjectives.
12O. Several adjectives derived from or allied in mean
ing to pronouns, follow the pronominal declension (110)
altogether or in part.
a. The adjectives that strictly adhere to the pronominal
type of inflexion are any other and the derivatives formed
with tara and tama from k and y. The specifically
pronominal cases of the latter that have been met with are :
Sing. N. n. katard, yatard; katamd, yatamd.
D. katamsmai. G. I. katamsys. L. I. yatamsym.
PI. N. m. katam, yatam, yatar (K.). From tara occur in
the Khaka Sahit m. D. s. itarasmai and N. pl. itare.
The forms of any that occur are :
m. Sing. N. anys. A. anym. . I . anyna. D. any
smai. G. anysya. L. anysmin.PI. N. any.
A. anyn. I . anybhis and anyis. D. anybhyas.
G. anym. L. anyu.
I. Sing. N. any. A. anym. I . anyy. D. anysyai.
G. anysys. L. anysym. Du. N. any.PI. N.
anys. A. anys. I . any bhis. G. anysm.
L. anysu.
n. Sing. N. anyd.Du. I . any bhym.PI. N. any.
b. vva all, srva whole, ka one are partially pronominal, differing only in taking m instead of d in the N.A. s. n.
Thus :
Sing. D. vvasmai. Ab. vvasmd. L. vvasmin.
1

The RV. has the nominal forms D. vvya, Ah. vvt, L. vve,
once each.
1

PI. N. vve. G. m. vvem. I. vvsm; but

sing. N. n. vvam.
Sing. D. m. srvasmai. I. srvasyai. Ab. m. srvasmad.
PI. m. N. srve. G. srveam. I. srvasm ; but
sing. N. n. srvam.
Sing. G. I. kasys. L. m. kasmin. PI. N. m. ke ;
but sing. N. n. kam.
c. More than a dozen other adjectives, having pronominal
affinities in form or meaning, occasionally have pronominal
caseforms (but always m instead of d in the N.A. s. n.) :
1. Eight adjectives formed with the comparative suffixes
tara and ra, and the superlative suffix ma : ttara higher,
later :

and ttare.
am (K.).

Sing. Ab. L. ttarasmd and ttarasmin beside ttard

L. I. ttarasym. PI. N. ttare. G. ttare

para, vara, para lower: sing. L. aparasmin (K.).

Pl. N. m. pare, vare, pare beside parsas, varsas,
parsas and pars.
avam lowest : L. s. f. avamsym.
upam highest : L. s. I. upamsym.
param farthest: sing. I. G. paramsys. L. para
msyam. Pl. m. N. param (K.).
madhyam middlemost : sing. I. L. madhyamsym.
2. Five other adjectives with a comparative or pronominal
sense :
para ulterior : sing. D. m. prasmai. Ab. m. prasmd.
L. m. prasmin beside pre. G. I. prasys. PI. m. N.
pre beside prasas. G. prem.
prva prior: sing. D. p r vasmai. Ab. p r vasmd.
L. p r vasmin (K.), I. p r vasym. PI. N. m. p r ve (very
common) beside p r vsas (very rare). G. m. prveam,
I. p r vsm.
1

The AV. once has ke as L . sing.

nma i other : sing. L. m. nmasmin. Pl.N. m. nme, but G. nem

nm (unaccented).
sv own (116c), otherwise following the nominal declension, has
once sing. G. f. svsyas and once L. n. svsmin.
samn similar, common has once sing. Ab. n. samnsmd beside
samn d .

3. Four adjectives, numerical in form or meaning, have

occasional pronominal endings : pratham first has the
sing. G. I. prathamsys ; tt y a third has sing. L. I.
tt y asym ; bhaya of both kinds has pl. m. G. bhayem
and N. bhaye beside bhaysas and bhays ; kvala
exclusive has once pl. N. m. kvale.
2

CHAPTER IV
CONJUGATION
121. Vedic verbs are inflected in two voices, active and
middle. The middle forms may be employed in a passive
sense, except in the present system, which has a special
passive stem inflected with the middle endings. Some
verbs are conjugated in both active and middle, e. g. kti
and kut makes ; others in one voice only, e. g. sti is ;
others partly in one, partly in the other ; e. g. vrtate
turns, but perfect vavrta has turned.
a. The Vedic verb has in each tense and mood three
numbers, Singular, Dual, and Plural, all in regular use,
1

Perhaps from n+ima not this.

Cp. 107, note 4.
ubh both is declined i n the Du. only : N.A. m. ubh , f. ubh.
I. uhn b hym. G. ubhyos.
2

with three persons in each (except the imperative in which

the first persons are wanting).
122. There are five tenses in ordinary use, the present,
the imperfect, the perfect, the aorist, and the future. The
terms imperfect, perfect, aorist are here used in a purely
formal sense, that is, as corresponding in formation to the
Greek tenses bearing those names. No Vedic tense has an
imperfect meaning, while the perfect sense is generally
expressed by the aorist.
a. Besides the indicative there are four moods, the
subjunctive, the injunctive, the optative, and the imperative,
all of which are formed from the stems of the present, the
perfect, and the aorist. The imperfect has no moods ; and
the only modal form occurring in the future is the unique
subjunctive kariy s from k make.
c^. The subjunctive, very common i n the RV. and the AV., is three
or four times as frequent as the optative ; the latter, comparatively
rare i n the sahits, occurs far oftener than the former i n the
Brhmaas. Both form stems with a special modal affix.
The suoj. adds a to the indicative stem : when the latter distin
guishes a strong and a weak stem, the a is attached to the former,
while i t coalesces to with the final of a stems. Thus the pr. subj.
stem of duh milk is dha, of yuj join ynnja, but of bhu be bhv.
The opt. adds y or , which when strong and weak stems are dis
tinguished are attached to the latter. stems in a take throughout ;
others take i n the mid.,ya i n the act. ; thus the pr. opt. stem of bhu
is bhve ( = bhva) ; of duh and yuj, act. duhy, yujy , mid.
duh, yuj.
^/ The i n j . is identical i n form with an unaugmented past tense
(impf., aor., plnp.). I t is very common i n the R v but has almost
disappeared from the Brhmaas, except when used with the prohibi
tive particle m.
The imp v. has no modal affix, adding its endings direct to the tense
stem ; e. g. 2. s. pr. viddh know, pf. mumugdh release, aor. ru-dh hear.
I n the 2. 3. du. and 2. pl. act. and mid. (ending i n tam, t m ; thm,
t m ; ta ; dhvam) i t is identical with the inj.

b. Participles, active and middle, are formed from the

tense stem of the present, future, aorist, and perfect. There

122124]

H
T E PRESENT SYSTEM

119

are also passive participles, present, perfect, and future ;

the first being formed from the passive stem in ya the
other two from the root.
e. There are also gerunds, which are stereotyped cases
(chiefly instrumentais) of verbal nouns and having the value
of indeclinable active participles with a prevailingly past
sense ; e. g. gatv and gatvya having gone.
d. There are about a dozen differently formed types of
infinitives, which are cases of verbal nouns made directly
or with a suffix from the root, and hardly ever connected
with a tense stem ; e. g. dham to kindle ; gntavi to go.

The Present System.

123. While the perfect, aorist, and future tenses add the
endings directly (or after inserting a sibilant) to the root,
the present group (that is, the present with its moods and
participles, and the imperfect) forms a special stem, which
is made in eight different ways by primary verbs.

The Eight Classes.

124. These eight classes are divided into two conjuga
tions. In the first, which comprises the first, fourth, and
sixth classes, the present stem ends in a and remains
unchanged throughout (like the a declension). The secondary
conjugations in a (desideratives, intensives, causatives,
denominatives) as well as the future follow this conjugation
in their inflexion. The second or graded conjugation is
characterized by shift of accent between stem and ending,
accompanied by vowel gradation. I t comprises the remain
ing five classes, in which the terminations are added directly
to the final of the root or to the (graded) suffixes no or n,
and the stem is changeable, being either strong or weak.

A. First Conjugation.
125. 1. The first or Bh class adds a to the last letter of
the root, which being accented takes Gua of a final vowel
(short or long) and of a short medial vowel followed by one
consonant ; e. g. j i conquer : jya : bh be : bhva ; budh
awake: bdha.
2. The sixth or Tud class adds an accented to the root,
which being unaccented has no Gua. Before this a final
is changed to ir.
3. The fourth or Div class adds ya to the last letter of
the root, which is accented ; e. g. nah bind : nhya ; div
play : dvya (cp. 15, 1 c).
1

B. Second Conjugation.
126. The strong forms are :
1. The singular present and imperfect active ;
2. The whole subjunctive ;
3. The third person singular imperative active.
In these forms the vowel of the root or of the affix, being
accented, is strengthened ; while in the weak forms it is
reduced because the terminations are accented.
a. I n the ninth class the accented form of the affix is n, the unac
cented n or n ; i n the seventh they are respective1y n and n.

127. 1. The second or root class adds the terminations

directly to the root (in the subjunctive and optative with
the intervening modal suffix). The radical vowel in the
strong forms is accented and takes Gua if possible (125, 1) ;
2

1 The weak form i n some instances assumed by the root points to

the ya having originally been accented (cp. 133 B 1),
Except i n the augmented (128 c) imperfect singular because the
augment is invariably accented.
2

127]

FORMATION OF PRESENT STEM

121

e. g. from i go : sing. 1. mi, i, ti ; dvi hate : dvmi,

dvki dvi.
2. The third or reduplicating class adds the terminations
directly to the reduplicated root, which in the strong forms
takes Gua i f possible. Contrary to analogy, the accent is
not, in the majority of verbs belonging to this class, on the
root in the strong forms, but on the reduplicative syllable
(which is also accented in the 3. pi. act. and mid.). Thus
hu sacrifice: Sing. 1. juhmi, pi. l.juhums; bh bear:
Sing. 1. hbharmi, pl. 1. bibhms, 3. bbhrati.
3. The seventh or infixing nasal class adds the termina
tions directly to the final consonant, before which n is
inserted in the strong and n in the weak forms ; e. g. yuj
join : yunjmi yujms.
4. The fifth or nu class adds in the strong forms the
accented syllable n, which in the weak forms is reduced
to nu ; e. g. k make : kmi, kms.
1

a. Four roots ending i n n have the appearance of being formed with

a suffix u, but this is probably due to the an of the root being reduced
to the sonant nasal ; thus from tan stretch tann (for tnnu), I n the
tenth Maala of the RV. the anomalous weak stem kuru appears
three times (beside the normal ku) and the strong stem karo i n
the AV. These stems gave rise to the eighth or u class of Sanskrit
grammar.

5. The ninth or n class adds to the root in the strong

forms the accented syllable n, which in the weak forms is
reduced to n before consonants and n before vowels. The
root shows a tendency to be weakened. Thus grabh seize :
gbhmi, pl. 1. gbhmsi and gbhms, 3. gbh
nti.
1

I t is doubtless as a result of this accentuation that these verbs

lose the n of the endings i n these two forms : bbhrati, bbbrate.
The intensives conjugated i n the active (172) follow this
class.
The u is dropped before the m of the I. pi. ind. act. and mid.
2

The Augment.
12S. The imperfect, pluperfect, aorist, and conditional
generally prefix to the stem the accented syllable a which
gives to those forms the sense of past time.
a. This augment sometimes appears lengthened before
the n, y, r, v of seven or eight roots : aor. na (na attain) ;
impf. yunak, aor. yukta, yuktm (yuj join) ; impf.
riak and aor. raik (ric leave) ; aor. var (v cover) ;
impf vi (v choose); impf. vak (vj turn), impI.
vidhyat (vyadh wound).
b. The augment contracts with the initial vowels i , u,
to the Vddhi vowels ai, au, r ; e. g. ichat impI. of is
wish ; unat impf. of ud wet ; rta (Gk. ^p7^o) 3. s. aor.
mid. of go.
c. The augment is very often dropped : this is doubtless
a survival from the time when it was an independent particle
that could be dispensed with if the past sense was clear from
the context. I n the R v the unaugmented forms of past
tenses are much more than half as numerous as the augmented
ones. I n sense the forms that drop the augment are either
indicative or injunctive, these being about equal in number
in the RV. About onethird of the injunctives in the RV.
are used with the prohibitive particle m (Gk. p^), I n the
AV. nearly all the unaugmented forms are injunctives, of
which fourfifths are used with m.
Reduplication.
129. Five verbal formations take reduplication : the
present stem of the third conjugational class, the perfect
(with the pluperfect), one kind of aorist, the desiderative,
and the intensive. Each of these has certain peculiarities,
which must be treated separately under the special rules of
reduplication (130, 135, 149, 170, 173). Common to all are
the following :

REDUPLICATION

129l30]

123

General Rules of Reduplication.

1. The first syllable of a root (i. e. that portion of it which
ends with a vowel) is reduplicated ; e. g. budh perceive :
bu-budh.
2. Aspirated letters are represented by the corresponding
unaspirated ; e. g. bh fear : hi-bh ; dh put : da-dh.
3. Gutturals are represented by the corresponding palatals,
h hy j ; e. g. gam go : ja-gam ; khan dig : ca-khan ; han
smite: ja-ghan.
4. I f the root begins with more than one consonant, the
first only is reduplicated ; e. g. kram stride : ca-kram.
5. I f a root begins with a sibilant followed by a hard
consonant, the latter is reduplicated ; e. g. sth stand :
tasth ; skand leap : ca-skand. But svaj embrace : sa-svaj
(v is soft) ; smi smile : si-mi (m is soft).
6. I f the radical vowel, whether final or medial, is long,
it is shortened in the reduplicative syllable; e.g. d give:
da-d ; rdh succeed : ra-rdh.
1

Special Rule of Reduplication for the Third Class.

13O. and are represented in reduplication by i ;
e.g. bh bear: h-bhar-ti; p fill: p-par-ti. The root
vt turn is the only exception : va-vart(t)-i.
4

a. Thirteen roots also reduplicate a with i , while nine do so with a.

This is not always the case i n the reduplication of intensives

(173 b),
There are some exceptions to this rule in the reduplication of
intensives (173, 3).
This rule does not apply to intensives (173), nor for the most
part to the reduplicated aorist (149, 2), and i n the reduplicated perfect
it is subject to numerous exceptions (139, 9).
Three of these, p drink, stha stand, han slay, have permanently
gone over to the a conjugation, while ghr smell is beginning to do so.
2

Terminations.

131. The following table gives the terminations, which

are on the whole the same for all verbs, of the present
system. The chief difference is in the optative which is
characterized by e in the first, and y and in the second
conjugation. The present indicative has the primary (mi,
si, t i , ^:c), and the imperfect, the optative, and (with
some modifications) the imperative have the secondary
terminations (m, s, t, ^:c), while the subjunctive fluctuates
between the two. Of the other tenses the future takes the
primary, and the pluperfect and the aorist, with the
benedictive and the conditional, take the secondary termina
tions; while the perfect has in the active (with many
variations) the secondary, and in the middle the primary
endings.
The following distinctions between the two conjugations
should be noted. I n the first or a conjugation (as in the
a declension) the accent is never on the terminations, but
always on the same syllable of the stem (the root in the
first and fourth, the affix in the sixth class), which therefore
remains unchanged. On the other hand, in the second
conjugation (as in the declension of changeable stems) the
accent falls on the strong stem, which is reduced in the weak
forms by the shifting of the accent to the endings. I n the
1

second conjugation therefore the endings are accented

except i n the strong forms (126). The same applies to the

unaugmented imperfect (128).
1

That is, coalescing with the final a of the stem ; e. g. bbvo

bhva.
That is, the modal affix shows vowel gradation (5 b).
9

l3l]

CONJUGATIONAL ENDINGS

125

ACT1vE.

PREsENT.

IMPERFECT.

oPTAT1vE.
1st

1. mi
2. si

(a),1n^

yam
s

3. ti

t
1

1. vas
2. thas
3. tas

va
tam
tm

va
tam
tm

ma
ta, tana
(a)-n, ur 7
6

ma
ta
yur

1MPv.

2nd conj.
ym
ys

ni,
a-si, a-s - tat
dhi, hi
a-ti, a-t tu

yt
yVa
ytam
ytm

-va
athas
a-tas

tam
tm

a-ma
a-tha
a-n

ta, tana
(a)-ntu

t
1

1. masi,- mas
2. tha, thana
3. (a)-nti

C0nj.

sUBJ.

yma
yta
yr

The final a of the stem i n the first conjugation is lengthened before

m or v : bhvmi bhvvas.
I n the RV. masi is more than five times as common as mas, but i n
the AV. mas is rather commoner than masi.
The only example of the ending thana i n the a conjugation is
vda thana.
Reduplicated verbs and others treated as such drop the n i n the
3. pi. ind. pr. and impv. act. I n the whole second conj. the n is
dropped i n the 3. pl. pres. impf. impv. mid.
m i n the first (bhavam), am i n the second (dvesam).
There are no examples of this ending i n the a conjugation.
The ending ur is taken by nearly all the verbs of the redupli
cating class and by several of the root class.
These endings coalesce with the final a of the stem to eyam, es,
et, ^c.
Verbs of the a conjugation have normally no ending i n the
2. s. impv. ; but they not infrequently add tt, which occurs i n B.
also. I n the graded conjugation dhi. h i , t t are added to the weak
stem, and na i n some verbs of the ninth class : e. g. addh, u
dhi ; u-hi, pun-hi ; a-na ; vit-tt, kutt.
Only two examples occur i n the a conjugation : bhja-tana and
nhya-tana.
2

19

19

MlDDLE.
1MPF.

PRESENT.

1. e

2. se
3. te
1. vahe

2. ethe (l),
the (2)
3. etc (1),
3

SUBJUNCT1VE.

ai

ths

ya
-ths

ta

-ta

a-te, atai

-vahi

-vahai

ethm (1),
athm (2)

-y-thm

aithe

etm (1),
tm (2)
3

-y-tm

aite

-mahi

-mahai
-mahe

vahi

OPTATIVE.

a-se, a-sai

mahi

2. dhve

dhvam

dhvam

a-dhvai

3. nte(l),
te (2)

nta (1),
ata (2)

-r-an

a-ntai
a-nta ^

sva
tm
m
etham (1)
thm (2^
etm (1)
tm (2)

te (2)
1. mahe
1

IMPERATIVE^

dhvam
ntm (1)
atm (2)

The final a of the first conjugation is lengthened before m and v.

This i combines with the final a of the first conjugation to e :
bhve.
I n these forms e takes the place of the final a of the a conjugation.
This modal combines with the final a of the first conjugation to
e : bhveya, ^:c.
The RV. has ase only, the AV. and the Brhmaas asai only.
The form ate is almost exclusively used i n the RV while atai
is the prevailing one in the AV., and the only one later.
The ending antai occurs i n B. only.
The form i n anta i n the a conjugation, where i t is very common,
e. g. bhavanta, is an injunctive ; but i n the graded conjugation a
subj., e.g. kavanta (inj. kvata),
2

132]

CONJUGATIONAL ENDINGS

127

Paradigms.
132. Since the three classes of the first conjugation, as
well as all the secondary verbs the stems of which end in a,
are inflected exactly alike, one paradigm will suffice for all
of them. The injunctive is not given here because its forms
are identical with the unaugmented imperfect. Forms of
which no examples are found in the Sahits are added in
square brackets.
1

1 A l l other conjugation^ stems ending i n a, the passive (154), the

s future (151), the a (141 a), the sa (147), and the reduplicated (149)
aor. are similarly inflected.

FIRST

CONJUGATION.
F i r s t C l a s s : bh be :
Present.

ACTIVE.
s1NGULAR.

1. bhv-mi
2. bhva-si
3. bhva-ti

DUAL.

bhv-vas
bhva-thas
bhva-tas

PLURAL.

bhv-asi
bhv-mas
bhva-tha
bhva-nti

Imperfect.

1. -bhava-m
2. -bhava-s
3. -bhava-t

[-bhav-va]
-bhava-tam
-bhava-tm

-bhavma
-bhava-ta
-bhavan

Imperative.

2. bhva
bhva-tt
3. bhva-tu

bhva-tam
bhva-tm

bhva-ta
bhva-ntu

subjunctive.

1.

bhv-ni
bhva
2. bhva-si
bhva-s
3. bhva-ti
bhva-t

bhva-va

bhva-ma

bhva-thas
bhv-tas

bhva-tha
bhva-n

optative.

1. bhv-eyam
2. bhv-es
3. bhv-et

[bhv-eva]
I bhv-etam]
bhv-etam

bhv-ema
[bhv-eta]
bhv-eyr

P I R ^

OoN^U^A^oN.

Present stem bhv-a.

M1DDLE.

Present.
s1NGULAR.

bhv-e
bhva-se
bhva-te

DUAL.

PLURAL.

bhv-vahe

bhv-mahe

[bhv-ethe]
bhv-ete

bhva-dhve
bhva-nte

Imperfect.

-bhav-e
-bhava-ths
-bhava-ta

[-bhav-vahi]
-bhav-ethm
-bhav-etm

bhva-sva
bhva-tm

bhv-ethm
bhv-etm

-bhav-mahi]
bhava-dhvam]
bhavanta

Imperative.

bhva-dhvam
bhva-ntm

subjunctive.

bhv-ai
bhva-se
bhva-sai (AV.)
bhv-te
bhv-tai

bhv-vahai

bhv-mahai

bhv-aithe

[bhva-dhve]

bhv-aite

[bhva-nte]

optative.

bhv-eya
[bhv-eths]
bhveta

hhv-evahi
bhv-eyathm]
bhv-eytam]

bhv-emahi
hhv-edhvam]
bhv-ern]

SECOND

CONJUGATION.

Second C l a s s

^. i go : Present stem , I.

AGT1VE.
Present.
s1NGULAR.

DUAL.

1. mi

[ivs]

2. i

iths

3. ti

its

PLURAL.

imsi
ims
ith
ithna
ynti

Imperfect.

1. yam
2. is
3. it

[iva]
itam
itm

ima
ita
itana
yan

Imperative.

2. ih,
itt
3. tu

itm
itm

it
itna
yntu

Subjunctive.

1.
2.
3.

yni
y
yasi
yas
yati
yat

yva

yma

yathas

yatha

yatas

yan

optative.

1. iyam
2. iys
3. iyt

iyva
iytam
iytm

iyma
iyta
iyr

SECOND

CONJUGATION .

bru speak : Present stem brv, hr.

M1DDLE.
Present.

s1NGULAR.

DUAL.

PLURAL.

bruv

[brvhe]

brmhe

br

bruv t he

brdhv

brt
bruv

bruv t e

bruvte

Imperfect.

[bruvi]
brths
brta

brvahi]
bruvthm]
| bruvtm]

[brmahi]
brdhvam
bruvata

Imperative.

brsv

[bruv t hm]

brdhvm

brt m

[bruv t m]

bruvtm

subjunctive.

brvai

brvvahai

brvase

brvaithe

brvate

brvaite

brvamahai
[brvadhve]
brvanta

optative.

bruvy
[bruvth s ]
bruvt

[bruvvhi]
[bruvy t hm]
[bruvy t m]
Participle.

bruv, I.

bruvmhi
[bruvdhvm]
[bruvrn]

T h i r d C l a s s ^ bh bear :
ACTIVE.

Present.
s1NGULAR.

DUAL.

1. bbharmi

[bibhvs]

2. bbhari
3. bbharti

bibhths
hibhts

PLURAL.

bibhmsi
bibhms
bibhth
bbhrati

Imperfect.

1. bibharam
2. bibhar (28)

[hibhva]
bibhtam

3. bibhar (28)

bibhtm

bibhma
bibhta
bibhtana
bibhran
bibharur

Imperative.

2. bibhh
bibhrt t

bibhtm

3. bbhartu

bibhtm

bibht
hibhna
bbhratu

Subjunctive.

1. bbhari
2. bbharas
3. bbharat

[bbharva]
bbharathas
[bbharatas]

1. hibhym
2. hibhys
3. hibhyt

[bibhyva]
[bibhy tam]
bibhy tm

bbharma
[bbharatha]
bbharan

optative.

Participle.

bbhrat, I. hbhrat

hibhyma
[bibhy ta]
bibhyr

Present stem bbhar, bibh.

M1DDLE.

Present.
s1NGULAR.

DUAL.

PLURAL.

bbhre

bibhvhe

hbhmhe

bibhr
bibhrt

bibhrthe
bbhrte

bibhdhv
bbhrate

Imperfect.

[bibhri]
bibhths
bibhrta

bibhvahi]
[bibhrthm]

bibhmahi]
bibhdhvam]

[bibhrtm]

bibhrata

Imperative.

bibhv

bbhrtham

bibhrt m

[bbhrtm]

bibhrdhvm
bbhratm

Subjunctive.

bbharai]
bibharase
bbharate

bbharvahai
[bbharaithe]
[bbharaite]

bibharmahai
[bbharadhve]
bbharanta

optative.

bbhrya
[bibhrths]
bbhrta

[bbhrvahi]
[bbhrythm]
[bbhrytm]
Participle.

bibhra, f.

bbhrmahi
[bbhrdhvam]
bbhrran

F i f t h C l a s s : k make :
AcT1VE.

Present.

sINGULAR.

1. kmi
2. ki
3. kti

DUAL.

[kvs]
kuths
kuts

PLURAL.

kmsi
kms
kuth
kvnti

Imperfect.

1. kavam
2. kos
3. kot

[kva]
kutam
kutm

[kma]
kuta
kvan

Imperative.

kuh
2. k
knt t
3. [ktu]

kutm
kut m

kut
kta
ktana
kvntu

Subjunctive.

1. ^ kv
kvni
2. kvas
3. krnvat

kvva

kvma

kvathas]
krnvatas ]

kvatha
krnvan

optative.

1. ku.ym
2. [kuy s]
3. kuy t

[kuy va]
[kuy tam]
[kuy tm]
Participle.

kvnt, f. kvat

kuy ma
[kuy ta]
[kuyr]

11]

H
FIFT

CL ASS

135

Present stem k, ku.

M1DDLE.

Present.
s1NGULAR.

DUAL.

PLURAL.

kv

[kvhe]

kmhe

ku
(kut
(kv

kv t he
[kv t e]

[kudhv]
kvte

Imperfect.

[kvi]
kuths
kuta

kvahi]
kvthm]
kvtm]

[kmahi]
kudhvam
kvata

Imperative.

kuv

kv t hm

kudhvm

kut m

[kv t m ]

kvtm

Subjunctive.

kvai

kvvahai

kvase
kvate

knvaithe
kvaite

kvmahai
[kvadhve]
kvanta

optative.

[kvy]
[kvths]
kvt

[kvvhi]
[kvy t hm]
[kvy t m]
Participle.

kvn, I.

[kvmhi]
[kvdhvm]
[knvrn]

Seventh Class:

yujjoin:

ACTIVE.

Present.
DUAL.

sINGULAR.

1. yunajmi
2. yunki (63, 67)
3. yunkti (63)

yujvs]
yukths]
yukts]

PLURAL.

yujms
[yukth]
yujnti

Imperfect.

1. [yunajam]
2. yunak (63, 61)
3. yunak (63, 61)

[yujva]
yuktam
[yuktm]

[yujma]
[yukta]
yujan

Imperative.

2. yudh (10 a)
3. yunktu

yutm (10 a) yut

yunkta, tana
yujntu
yutm
Subjunctive.

1. [yunjni]
2. yunjas
3. yunjat

yunajva
[yunjathas]
yunjatas

yunajma
[yunjatha]
yunjan

optative.

1. [yujym]
2. [yujys]
3. yujyt

[yujy va]
[yujytam]
[yujy tm]

[yujyama]
[yujy ta]
[yujyr]

Present stem : yunj, yuj.

M1DDLE.

Present.
s1NGULAR.

yuj
yuk
yukt

DUAL.

[yujvhe]
yuj t he
yujte

PLURAL.

[yujmhe]
yugdhv
yujte

Imperfect.

yuji]
yukths]
yukta]

yujvahi]
[yujthm]
[yujtm]

[yujmahi]
[yugdhvam]
yujata

Imperative.

yukv (63, 67) yuj t hm

yugdhvm

yutm

yujtm

[yuj t m]
Subjunctive.

[yunjai]
[yunjase]
yunjate

[yunjvahai]
[yunjaithe]
[yunjaite]

yunjmahai
[yunjadhve]
[yunjanta]

optative.

[yujy]
[yujths]
yujt

[yujvhi]
[yujy t hm]
[yujy t m]

[yujmhi]
[yujdhvm]
[yujrn]

N i n t h C l a s s : g r a b h seize :
ACTIVE.

Present.
DUAL.

s1NGULAR.

1.

gbhami

[gbhvs]

2.

gbhsi

gbhths

3.

gbhti

gbhts

PLURAL.

gbhmsi
gbhms
gbhth
gbhthna
gbhnti

Imperfect.

1.
2.
3.

gbhm
gbhs
gbht

[gbhva]
gbhtam
[gbhtm]

[gbhma]
gbhta
gbhan

Imperative.

2. gbhh
gbhtt
gbh
3. gbhtu

gbhtm

gbht
gbhtna

gbhtm

gbhntu

Subjunctive.

1. grbhn n i
2. gbhs
3. gbht
gbhti

[gbhva]
[gbhthas]
[gbhtas]

gbhma
gbhtha
gbhn

optative.

1. gbhyam
2. gbhys
3. gbhyat

[gbhyva]
[ gbhytam]
[ gbhytm]

[gbhyma]
[gbhyata]
[gbhyr]

Participle.

gbhnt, I. gbhat.

Present stem gbh, gbh gbh.

M1DDLE.

Present.
s1NGULAR.

DUAL.

gbh

[gbhvhe]

gbh

[gbhthe]

gbht

[gbhte]

PLURAL.

gbhmhe
[gbhdhv]
gbhte

Imperfect.

gbhi
[gbhths]
gbhta

gbhvahi]
^gbhtham]
^gbhtm]

gbhmahi
[gbhdhvam |
gbhata

Imperative.

gbhv

[gbh t hm]

gbhdhvm

gbhtm

[gbhtm]

gbhtm

Subjunctive.

[gbhi]
[gbhse]
[gbhte]

gbhvahai
[gbhithe]
[gbhite]

[gbhy^
[gbhthas]
gbht

[gbhvhi]
[gbhmhi]
[gbhy t hm] [gbhdhvm]
gbhy t m] [gbhrn]

gbhmahai
[gbhdhve]
[gbhnta]

optative.

Participle.

gbhn, f.

Irregularities of the Present Stem.

First Conjugation.
133. A. First or Bh Class. 1. The radical vowel is
lengthened in guh hide and in kram stride (in the act. only) :
guha, kr m ati (but mid. krmate) ; h consider takes
Gua : ha ; kp lament does not take Gua : k p a.
2. gam go, yam restrain, yu separate form their present
stems with cha (Gk. o^): gcha (Gk. l.^o^o), yeha,
ycha.
3. a. The four roots p drink, sth stand, sac aceompany,
sad sit form present stems that originally belonged to the
reduplicating class : pba (Lat. bibo) ; tha (to.r^t, LaI.
sisto); sca (for ss(a)ca) ; sda (for ss(a)da ; Lat. sdo).
b. Four stems are transfers from the fifth or nu class,
being either used beside or having entirely superseded the
simpler original stems : nvati (from i send) beside inti ;
jnvati (from j i quieken) beside jini ; hnvati (from
hi impel) beside hinti ; pnva fatten, doubtless originally
pnu (p).
4. da bite and sanj hang lose their nasal : d-a, sj-a.
5. The ending tat (besides being regularly used in the
2. s. impv. by twelve verbs) is exceptionally used for the
3. s. in gchatt and smra-tt. Only one example occurs,
in this class, of the 2. pl. impv. act. ending tana: bhja
tana ; and one of dhva (for dhvam) in the 2. pi. mid. :
yja-dhva.
1

Instead of taking Gua.

But uh remov e remains unchanged (125, 1).
Against 125, 1.
A reminiscence of the reduplicative origin of this stem is the loss
of the nasal in the 3. pl. pres. sc-ati and 3. pl. inj. mid. sac-ata.
2

B. Fourth or v a Class. 1. The radical syllable is

reduced in seven verbs : spa see loses its initial : p-ya ;
vyadh pierce takes Samprasraa : vdhya ; is shortened
in dh suck : dhya ; m exchange : mya ; v weave :

Vya ; Vy envelope : vyya ; hv call : hvya.

2. Final sometimes becomes both r and r : j waste
away : jrya and j r ya (AY) ; t cross : t r ya and trya ;
p fill becomes p r ya only (because of its initial labial).
3. ram be weary lengthens its vowel: rmya ; in B.
tam faint and mad be exhilarated do the same : tmya,
mdya.
C. Sixth Class. 1. The radical vowel is nasalized in
eight verbs : kt cut : knt ; tp be pleased : tmp ;
pi

adorn : pi- ; mue r elease : muc ; lip smear :

limp ; lup br eak : lump ; vid find: vind ; sic spr inkle :
sic. Three other roots, tud thr ust, dh make fir m, ubh
shine have occasional nasalized forms.
2. Four roots form their present stem with the suffix cha
(cp. A 2) : is wish : i-ch ; go : -ch ; pra ask : p-ch ;
vas shine : u-ch. The root vrac cut, which seems to be
formed with c, takes Samprasraa : vc-.
3. Three roots in , k scatter, g swallow, t cross, form
the present stems kir-, gir-, tir- (beside tr-a).
1

^. Beside the normal use of the imperative suffix t t for the 2. s. in

m-tt, vitt, vhtt suvtt, i t also appears for the 3. s. in
vi-tt.

I 3 4 . A. Second or Root Class.

I . The root is irregularly strengthened in the following
verbs :
a. ku whet, yu unite, nu and stu praise take Vddhi

instead of Gua in the strong forms before terminations

with samprasraa and loss of . Cp. Lat. prec-or and po(rc)-sco,
and Old German frag-en . ask ' and for-scon (forschen).
Cp. vras-ka cutting, past participle vk cut, and v k a wolf.
1

beginning with consonants ; e. g. stumi, staut, but

stavam.
b. mj wipe takes Vddhi in the strong forms : mrjmi,
m r i, but mjms, mjnti.
e. lie mid. takes Gua and accents the radical syllable
throughout its weak forms : e. g. s. 1. 3. y-e, 2. -e
(^^rat), I t has the additional irregularity of inserting r
before the endings in the 3. pi. pr., impv., impf. : -r-ate,
-ratm, -e-r-an.
i go, bru speak, stu praise, han slay before the ending of the 2. pi.
impv. act. have the alternative forms -ta and tanabrvtana,st6ta,
hntana. B r u has the same irregularity in the 2. pk impf. bravta
and bravtana.

2. The root is irregularly weakened in the following

verbs :
a. va desire takes Sa1nprasraa in the weak forms :
L pi. u-msi, part. u-n, but 1. s. v-mi.
b. as be drops its initial a in the optative and all the weak
forms of the pr. and impv. ; e. g. opt. syt would be ;
pr. sms we are, snti (Lat. sunt) they are ; impv. du. 2.
stm, pi. 2. st, 3. sntu. The 2. s. impv. preserves the
vowel (in an altered form) in edh (for azdh, Av. zd).
I n the impf it inserts before the endings of the 2. 3. s. :
ss, st (beside s = st).
e. han slay in weak forms loses its n before terminations
beginning with consonants (except m, y, v), as hath, but
hnti. I n the 3. pi. pr., impv., impf., and part., the a is
syncopated and h reverts to the original guttural gh:
ghnnti, ghnntu, ghnan ; ghnnt. The 2. s. impv.
is jah (for jhah), with palatalized initial instead of
ghah.

i I n B. r u cry, su impel, sku tear, snu distil have the same peculiarity :
rauti sauti, skauti, snautr.

3. A vowel or semivowel is irregularly inserted in the

following verbs :
a. The roots an breathe, rud weep, vam vomit, vas blow,

svap sleep insert i before all terminations beginning with

a consonant, except in the 2. 3. s. impf., where they insert ;
e. g. niti, nt ; avamt ; vas-i-ti.
b. The roots praise and rule add i in some forms of
the 2. s. and pi. mid.: iva; -ie (beside ke),
i-dhve. Occasional forms (2. s. impv.) with connecting i
from other roots also occur: jan-i-va be born, vas-i-va
elothe, nath-ihi pierce, stan-i-hi thunder.

e. The root b r speak inserts in the strong forms

before terminations beginning with consonants : brv--mi,
-bravt; am injure inserts before consonants; thus
am--ti, am--va, m--t (TS.).
4. With regard to the endings :
a. The root s order loses the n in the 3. pi. act. and
mid., and in the part. : s-ate, as-atu, sat.
b. The root duh milk is very anomalous in its endings.
The irregular forms are the following: act. impI. 3. s.
duhat beside dhok, 3. pi. duhran beside duhan
and duhr; opt. 3. s. duhyt (for duhy t ), 3. pl.
duhyn (for duhyr). Mid. pr. ind. 3. pl. duhr and
duhrate beside the regular duhat ; impv. 3. s. duh m ,
3. pl. duhr m and duhrtm ; part. dghna.
e. Roots ending in take ur instead of an in the 3. pi. impI.
act. ; e.g. pprotect : pur. A few roots ending in consonants
show the same irregularity ; e. g. tvi be stirred : tviur.
1

^. The verbs rule, duh milk, vid ^nd, lie frequently, and eit
observe, bru speak rarely, take e instead of t o i n the 3. s. pr. mid. : -e,
duh- vid-, ye ; oit, bruv.
^. I n the AV. and B. subj. forms with instead of a are not un
common ; e. g. ys, sat, brvthas, hntha, dn.
3

2
3

But with irregular accent, as also rihat they lick.

I n the AV. the 3. s. impv. mid. is similarly formed i n y-m.
This irregularity occurs i n B. also.
I n B. subj. forms with primary endings are very rare.

B. Third or Reduplicating Class.

1. Roots ending in drop the radical vowel before
terminations beginning with vowels ; e. g. m measure :
1. s. mm-e, 3. pi. mm-ate.
a. The of m measure, m bellow, r give, sharpen,

ha go away is in weak forms usually changed to before con

sonants (cp. 5 e) : mmte ; rarths ; i-msi ; jhte.
b. da give, dh place, the two commonest verbs in this
class, use dad and dadh as their stems in all weak forms :
ddmahe, dadhmsi. When the aspiration of dadh is
lost before t, th s it is thrown back on the initial : dhatt,
dhatth, dhatsv. The 2. s. impv. act. is deh (for
dazdh) beside daddh and datt t ; and dheh (for
dhazdh) beside dhatt t .
2. The root vyac takes Samprasraa, e. g. 3. du. pr.
vivikts ; hvar be crooked makes some forms with
Samprasraa and then reduplicates with u : e.g. juhrths,
2. s. inj. mid.
1

3. bhas chew, sac accompany, has laugh syncopate the

radical vowel in weak forms ; thus bpsati 3 pl. ind. pr.

(but babhasat 3. s. subj.); s-cati 3. pl. ind. pr.,
s-c-ata 3. pl. inj. ; j-kat (for ja-gh(a)s-at) pr. part.
^. The roots go, d give, dh put, p cross, y u separate, sharpen, hu
sacrifice have several forms with a strong vowel i n the 2. impv. act. s.
yu-yo-dh, i-dh (beside i--h); du. yuytam (beside yuyu
tm); pl. yarta, ddata and ddtana, ddhta and ddh
tana, ppartana, yuyta and yuytana juhta and juhtana.
d, dn, h leave, have similar strong forms i n the 2. pi. impf. : da
dta, dadhta, jahtana.
^. There are numerous transfers from this to other classes. The
roots p drink, sth stand, han stride form such stems according to the
a conjugation exclusively, pba, tha, jghna (cp. 133 A. 3 a) ; while
ghr smell, bhas chew, m bellow, r give, sac accompany occasionally use
the a stems jghra, hpsa, mma, rra, sca. The roots da give and
dh put also make some forms from their weak stems according to the
1

But 2. s. impv. act. rar-sva (AV.).

a conjugation, as 3. s. pr. mid. ddate, 3. p i . act. ddhanti, 3. pl.

impv. ddhantu. The former, dad, has even an incipient tendency
to become a root ; thus i t forms the past part. pass. datt given.

C. Fifth or Nu Class. 1. The u of the suffix is dropped

before the m of the 1. pl. ind. act. and mid., as kms
kmhe.
2. When nu is preceded by a consonant its u becomes u V
before vowel endings ; e. g. 3. pi. pr. a-nuv-nti (but
su-nv-nti).
3. ru hear forms (by dissimilation) the stem u, and
v cover (with interchange of vowel and semivowel) ru
beside the regular vu.
4. Beside the regular and very frequent present stem
ku (from k make) there begins to appear in the tenth
Maala of the R v the very anomalous kuru. The strong
form of this stem, kar, which has the further anomaly of
Gua in the root, first appears in the A v .
1

a. The four roots ending i n n, tan stretch, man think, van win, san
gain, have the appearance of forming their stem with the suffix u, as
tanu. These (with three later roots) form a separate (eighth) class
according to the H indu grammarians. But the a of these present
stems i n reality probably represents the sonant nasal, = t^nu. This
group was joined by kuru, the late and anomalous present stem of
kr make (cp. C 4).
^. Five stems of this class, inu, u j i n u , pinu, hinu, have
come to be used frequently as secondary roots forming present stems
according to the a conjugation : nva va, jnva, pnva, hnva.
v. I n the 3. pi. pr. mid. six verbs of this class take the ending re
with connecting vowel i : invir, vir pinvir, rv-i-r,
sunvi-r, ninv-ir.
4

After the preposition pari around this stem prefixes an unoriginal

s : pari-kvnti they adorn.
Twice in the 2. s. impv. kuru and once in the I. pl. pr. ind.
kur-mas.
But the forms made from ku are still six times as common in
the AV. as those from kar6, kuru, which are the only stems used in B .
- Like duh-re i n the root class.
2

^. I n the impv. the 2. s. act. has the ending h i , as uh three

times as often in the RV. as the form without ending, as u ; i n the
AV. i t occurs only about one-sixth as often as the latter ; i n B. it has
almost disappeared. I n the RV. the ending dhi also occurs i n udh. The ending tat occurs i n ku-tt, hinu-tat, kuru-tt. I n the
2. du. are found the strong forms kro-tam, hin0-tam ; and in the 2. p i .
k-ta and k-tana, r-ta and tana, sunta and suntana,
hin5ta and hintana ; tant^ and karta.

D. Infixing Nasal Class. 1. aj anoint, bhaj break,

his injure drop their nasal before inserting na : as
ankti, bhankti, hinsti.
2. t h crush infixes n in the strong forms ; e. g.
thi (69 e).
E. Ninth or N Class. 1. The three roots j overpower,
j hasten, p purify shorten their vowel before the affix :
jinmi, junsi, pun ti.
2. grabh seize and its later form grah take Samprasraa :
gbhmi, ghmi (AV.).
3. j know and the four roots which in forms outside
the present system appear with a nasal, bandh bind, manth
shake, skambh make firm, stambh prop, drop their nasal :
jn ti, badhn ti, mathn ti, skabhn ti, stabhn ti.
4. Four roots ending in consonants, a eat, grah seize,
bandh bind, stambh prop, have the peculiar ending ana in
the 2. s. impv. act. : a-n, gh, badhn, stabhn.
p jill and m crush make, beside the regular stems p and
m, the transfer stems, according to the a conjugation, p
and m, from which several forms occur.

The Perfect Tense.

135. This tense is formed by reduplication. Like the
present, it has, besides an indicative, the subjunctive,
injunctive, optative, and imperative moods, as well as
participles, and an augmented form, the pluperfect. I t is
very common, being formed by nearly 300 verbs in the
Sahits.

THE PERFECT

135136]

147

Special Rules of Reduplication.

1. and ( = ar) and ( = al) always reduplicate with a
(cp. 139, 9) ; e. g. k do : cak ; t cross : tat ; kp be
adapted: ckp ; go: ar ( aar).
2. Initial a or becomes a ; e. g. an breathe : n ;
p obtain : p. The long vowels and remain unchanged
( = i and u) ; e.g. move: 1. s. ; h consider:

3. s. h.
3. Roots beginning with i and u contract i + i to and
u + u to except in the sing. act., where the reduplicative
syllable is separated from the strong radical syllable by its
own semivowel : e. g. i go : 2. s. iytha : uc be pleased :
2. s. mid. ci, but 3. S. act. uvca.
4. Roots containing ya or va and liable to Samprasraa
in other forms (such as the past part. pass.) reduplicate
with i and u respectively. There are four such with ya :
tyaj forsake, yaj sacrifice, vyac extend, syand move on:

tityaj, iyaj, Vivyac, siyand; and five with va: vac

speak, vad speak, vap strew, vah carry, svap sleep: uvac,

uvad, uvap, uvah, suvap. On the other hand the

three roots yam stretch, van win, vas wear have the full
reduplication ya or Va throughout : yayam, vavan,
vavas.
136. The singular perfect active is strong (like the sing.
pr. and impf. act.), the root being accented ; the remaining
forms are weak, the terminations being accented. The
endings are the following :
ACTIVE.
M1DDLE.
sING.

1. a
2. tha
3. a
1

DUAL
[v]

thur
tur

PLUR.

s1NG.

DUAL

PLUR.

[vhe]
the
te

mhe
dhv
r

vac has two forms with the f u l l reduplication : 3. s. act. vav c a

and 2. s. mid. vavak.

CONJUGATION

148

[136

a. Terminations beginning with initial consonants are as

a rule added directly to the stem ; mahe is invariably so
added. The endings tha, ma, se, re are nearly always
added direct to stems ending in vowels ; thus from da give :
dadatha ; j i conquer : jigtha ; n lead : nintha ; su
press : suum ; h call : juhr ; k make : cakrtha,
cakm, cak, but cakrir. The same endings tha,
ma, se, re are added directly to roots ending in consonants,
if the final syllable of the stem is prosodically short, but
with connecting i if it is long ; e. g. tatntha ; jaganm,
jagbhrn, yuyujm ; vivits ; ckpr, tatasr
yuyujr, vividr ; but uvcitha, cim, paptim ;
jir.
b. Before terminations beginning with vowels (op. 137, 1 a)
1 . preceded by one consonant become y, if preceded by
more than one, iy ; e. g. bh fear : bibhytur ; ri resort :
iriy-.
2. ordinarily become uv ; e. g. yu join : yuyuv ; ru
hear : uruv- ; swell : uv-.
3. becomes r, becomes ir ; e. g. k make : cakr-,
cakr- ; t eross : titir-r ; st strew : tistir.
1

The Strong Stem.

1. Short vowels followed by a single consonant take Gua
throughout the singular active ; e. g. di point : di-d-a ;
uc be wont : uv-c-a ; k t eut : cakrta ; but jinv quicken :
jijinvthur.
1 Roots in always add re with connecting i .
The final radical vowel in weak forms is reduced to i , e. g. from
dh put, dadhidhve. This reduced vowel in the very common verbs
d and dh was probably the startingpoint for the use of i as a con
necting vowel in other verbs.
This is due to the rhythmic rule that the stem may not have two
prosodically short vowels in successive syllables. Cp. p. 155, note 2.
But h call: j u h v ; bh be: babh v a; s bring forth: sas v a.
2

THE STRONG STEM

136137]

149
1

2. Final vowels take vddhi in the 3. s. ; e. g. n lead :

ninya ; ru hear : u-rva ; k make : cakra.
3. Medial a followed by a single consonant takes vddhi
in the 3. s. ; e. g. han strike : jaghna, but tak fashion
tataka.
4. Roots ending in take the anomalous ending au in
the I. and 3. s. act. ; e. g. dh put : dadhu. The only
exception is the root pr fill, which once forms the 3. s.
papr beside the regular papru.
1

The Weak Stem.

137. 1. I n roots containing the vowels , , the radical
syllable remains unchanged except by Sandhi ; e. g. yuj
join : yuyujm ; vid find : vivid ; k make : cakm.
a. Before terminations beginning with vowels, and , i f
preceded by one consonant become y and r, if by more than
one, i y and ar ; while and regularly become uv and i r ;
e. g. j i conquer : jigyr ; bh fear : hibhyr ; k make :

cakrr ; ri resort : iriy- ; yu join : yu-yuv- ; ru

hear : u-ruv- ; swell : -uv- ; t cross : ti-tir-r ;
st strew : tistir-.
2. I n roots containing a medial a or final the radical
syllable is weakened.
a. About a dozen roots in which a is preceded and
followed by a single consonant (e. g. pat) and which
reduplicate the initial consonant unchanged (this excludes
roots beginning with aspirates, gutturals, and for the most
part v) contract the two syllables to one containing the
diphthong e (cp. Lat. fac-io, fec-i). They are the following :
1

The I. sing. never takes vddhi i n the RV. and Av. I n an

Upaniad and a s t r a cakra occurs as 1. sing. and i n a stra jigya
(ji) also.
This vowel spread from contracted forms like sa-zd (Av. hazd) weak
perfect stem of sad sit (az becoming e ; cp. 134, 2 b and 133 A 1).
2

tap heat, dabh harm, nam bend, pac cook, pat fly, yat
stretch, yam extend, rabh grasp, labh take, ak be able,
1

ap curse, sap serve. Examples are : pat : pet-tur ; ak :

ek-r.
The two roots tan str etch and sac follow join this class in
the AV.
b. Four roots with medial a but initial guttural, syncopate
their vowel : khan dig : cakhn ; gam go : jagm ; ghas
eat : jak ; han smite : jaghn.
Six other roots, though conforming to the conditions
described above (2 a), syncopate the a instead of contracting :
jan beget : jaj ; tan str etch : tatn ; pan admir e : papn ;
man think : mamn ; van win : vavn ; sac follow : sac.
^. pat jly both contracts and syncopates in the RV. : pet and pa-pt.

c. Eight roots containing the syllables ya, va, ra take

2

Samprasraa : yaj sacrifice, vac and vad speak, vap strew,

vas dwell, vah carry, svap sleep, grabh and grah seize ;

e. g. su-up, jagbh and ja-gh. I n the first six, as they

reduplicate with i or u, the result is a contraction to and .
Thus yaj : 1j ( i-ij) ; vac : c ( u-uc).
d. A few roots with medial a and penultimate nasal, drop
the latter: krand cry out: ca-krad; tas shake: ta-tas ;
skambh prop: ca-skabh ( A Y ) ; stambh prop: ta-stabh.
e. Roots ending in reduce it to i before consonants
and drop it before vowels ; e. g. dh place : dadhi-m ;
dadh-r.
1

I n the wk. perfect of yat and yam the contraction is based on the
combination or the full reduplicative syllable and the radical syllable
with Samprasraa : yet ----- ya-it, y em ---- ya-im.
From yaj occurs one form according to the contracting class (2 a) :
yej-.
2

138]

PARADIGMS OF TH E PERFECT

151

Paradigms of the Reduplicated Perfect.

13S. 1. tud strike : strong stem tutd ; weak tutud.
ACTlvE.

s1NGULAR.

tutda
tutditha
3. tutda
1.
2.

DUAL.

[tutudv]
tutudthur
tutudtur

PLURAL.

tutudm
tutud
tutudr

MIDDLE.
1

1. tutud
2. tututs
3. tutud

[tutudvhe]
tutud t he
tutud t e

tutudmhe
[tutuddhv]
tutudr

2. k do: strong stem cakr, cakr ; weak cak, cakr.

AcnvE.

1. cakra
2. eakrtha

3.

cakra

[cakv]
eakrthur
cakrtur

cakm
cakr
cakrr

M1DDLE.
1.
2.

cakr
ck
3. oakr

[cakyhe]
cakrthe
cakr t e

cakmhe
cakdhv
cakrir

3. dha place: strong stem dadha ; weak dadh, dadhi.

ACTIVE.

1.
2.

[dadhu]
dadh tha
3. dadhu

[dadhiv]
dadhthur
c.adhtur

1. dadh
2. dadhis
3. dadh

[dadhivhe]
dadh t he
dadh t e

dadhim
dadh
dadhr

M1DDLE.

Lat. tutud.

dadhimhe
dadhidhv
dadhir

^ The only example of this form is dadhidhv.

4. n lead : strong stem nin, nini ; weak nin.

ACTIVE.
s1NGULAR.

1. mnaya
2. nintha
3.
ninya

DUAL.

[ninv]
ninythur
ninytur

PLURAL.

ninm
niny
ninyr

M1DDLE.
1. niny
2. nin
3. niny

[ninvhe]
niny t he
niny t e

ninmhe
nindhv
ninr

5. stu praise : strong stem tu, tuu ; weak tuu.

ACT1vE.
1. tuva
2. tutha
3. tuva

[tuuv]
tuuvthur
tuuvtur

tuum
tuuv
tuuvr

MIDDLE.

1. tuuv
2. tuu
3. tustuv

[tuuvhe]
tuuv t he
tuuv t e

tuumhe
tuudhv
tustuvir

6. tap heat : strong stem tatp, tatap ; weak tep.

ACTIVE.

1. tatpa
2. tatptha
3.
tat p a

[tepiv]
tepthur
teptur

tepim
tep
tepr

MIDDLE.

1. tep
2. tepi
3. tep

[tepivhe]
tep t he
tepte

[tepimhe]
[tepidhv]
tepir

138-l39]

PARADIGMS OF TH E PERFECT

153

7. gam go : strong stem jagm, jagam ; weak jagm.

ACT1VE.
s1NGULAR.
1. jagma
2. jagntha
3.

jagma

DUAL.

[jaganv]
jagmthur
jagmtur

PLURAL.

jaganm
jagm
jagmr

MIDDLE.

1. jagm
2. jagmi
3. jagm

[jaganyhe]
jagm t he
jagm t e

jaganmhe
jagmidhv
jagmir

8. vac speak : strong stem uvc, uvc ; weak c.

ACT1vE.
1. uvca
2. uvktha
3.

uvca

1. c
2. ci
3. c

[civ]
cthur
ctur

cim
c
cr

M1DDLE.
[civhe]
cthe
[cte]

[cimhe^
[cidhv^
cir

Irregu1arities.
I 3 9 . 1. bhaj share, though beginning with an aspirate,
follows the analogy of the contracting perfects with e
(137, 2 a) ; e. g. babhaja : bhej. bandh bind, after
dropping its nasal, does the same ; e. g. babndha :
bedhr (Av.).
2. yam guide, van win, vas wear have the full reduplica
tion throughout (135, 4) ; yam takes Samprasraa of the
radical syllable: yay m a: yem ( = yaime) ; van syn
copates its a : vavna, vavn ; vas retains its radical
syllable un weakened throughout: vvase (cp. 139, 9).

3. vid know forms an unreduplicated perfect with present

meaning: 1. vda I know (o7^a, German weiss), 2. vttha
(olo.^a ; weisst), 3. vda (o^ ; weiss) ; pi. 1. vidm (to^u;
wissen), 2. vid, 3. vidr.
a. A few isolated unreduplicated forms from about six other roots
occur: takthur; skambhthur and skambhr ; cettur ; yam
tur and yamr ; nindim ; arhir.

4. The initial of ci gather, ci observe, cit perceive, j i conquer,

hau kill reverts to the original guttural in the radical syllable :
3. s. act. cikya, cikta, jigya jaghna. bh bcar
almost invariably reduplicates with j in the RV : jabhrtha,
jabh r a, jabhrr; jabhr, jabhri jabhrir ;
but only once with b : babhr.
5. ah say is defective, forming only the 3. s. and pl. : ha
and hr. The two additional forms 2. s. ttha, 3. du.
htur occur in the Brhmaas.
6. Five roots beginning with a prosodically long a re
duplicate with n : a attain, aj anoint, ardh thrive, arc
praise, arh deserve. Only the first two make several forms.
Here the radical nasal is repeated with the initial vowel :
s. 3. na (Gk. ^^-a)
; pl. 1. nsm, 2. n-a-,
3. n-a-r ; mid. s. 3. n-a- ; s. 3. nja, mid. s. 1.
naj, pl. 3. najr. The analogy spread from these to
the roots which have no nasal : pi. 3. ncr, ndhr,
nhr ; mid. s. 3. nc, ndh.
1

7. bh be has the double irregularity of reduplicating

with a and retaining its throughout (cp. Gk. 7r^vao^) :
sing. I. babh va (Gk. 7r^^v^a). 2. babh t ha and
babh vitha. 3. babhva. Du. 2. babhvthur.
3. habhvtur. PI. 1. babhvim. 2. babhv.
3. babhuvr.

I n a Stra occurs the 2. pf. mid. n-a-adhve.

139-140]

IRREGULARITIES OF TH E PERFECT

155

s bring forth has the same peculiarities in sa-s-v-a,

the only perfect form of this root occurring.
8. cyu stir reduplicates ci-cyu (beside cu-cyu) and dyut
shine similarly di-dyut. This was due to the vocalic
pronunciation of the y : ciu, diut.
9. The reduplicative vowel is lengthened in more than
thirty perfect stems ; e. g. kan be pleased : c-kan ; g wake :
j-g; kp be adapted: c-kp ; dh think: d-dh ; t u be
strong: t - t u ; swell: -u.
a. I n the Mantra portion of the Sahits there once occurs a peri
phrastic perfect form with the reduplicated perfect of k make govern
ing the acc. of a fem. substantive in derived from a secondary
(causative) verbal stem. This form is gamay cakra (AV.) he
caused to go (lit. made a causing to go). I n the Brhmaa parts of the
later sahits (TS., MS K.) such periphrastic forms are occasionally
met with, and they become more frequent i n the regular Brhmaas.

Moods of the Perfect.

I4O. Modal forms of the perfect are of rare occurrence in
the Sanihits except the RV.
1. The subjunctive is normally formed by adding a to
the strong perfect stem accented on the radical syllable.
In the active the secondary endings are the more usual ;
when the primary endings are used the reduplicative syllable
is in several forms accented. I n about a dozen forms the
weak stem is used. Middle forms, of which only seven or
3

The root lie also reduplicates with a i n the part. aayn.

These three, b h , su, , are the only roots with an i or u vowel that
reduplicate with a.
Here the radical vowel itself is shortened. The quantitative form
of the stem is subject to the rule that i t may not contain two prosodi
cally short vowels (except i n the I. s. act.). Hence sah reduplicates
either as s-sah or sa-sh (in a weak form).
Cp. the accentuation of the reduplicating class i n the present
system.
1

eight occur, are almost restricted to the 3. sing. Examples

are :
Act. s. 1. anaj (aj anoint) ; 2. tatnas (tan stretch),
bubdhas (budh wake), pipryas (pr please) ; jjos
asi (jus enjoy) ; cikitas (cit observe), mumucas (muc
release). 3. ciketat, jaghnat (han smite), tatnat,
tuvat (stu praise), pipryat; d-de-a-ti (di
point), b-bodh-a-ti, m-moc-ati ; mu-muc-a-t, vi-vid-a-t
(vidfind).
Du. 2. ci-ket-a-thas, j-jo-a-thas. PI. 1. ta-tn--ma.
2. ju-jo-a-tha. 3. ta-tn-a-n,
Mid. s. 3. ta-tp-a-te, j-jo-a-te. Pl. 1. an-s-mahai.
2. The injunctive occurs in hardly a dozen forms, a few
in the sing. act., the rest in the 3. pi. mid. ; e.g. s. 2. a-s
(=a-s-s: s order). 3. d-dhot (dh shake), su-sro-t
(sruflow) ; mid. pi. 3. tatna-nta (cp. 140, 6).
3. The optative is formed by adding the accented modal
suffix combined with the endings to the weak perfect stem.
The active forms are much commoner than the middle.
Examples are :
1

Act. s. I. n-aym, jagamy m , riricy m , va

vtym. 2. babhuys, vavtys. 3. anajyt, ja
gamyt, vavtyt, babhy I .
Du. 2. jagamy t am. Pl. 1. vavtyma. 3. jagam
yr, vavtyr.
Mid. s. 1. vavty. 2. vvdhth s . 3. vavtt.
Pl. 1. vavtmhi.
3

a. There also occurs one mid. precative form ssahshs (sah

overcome).
1

I n these three forms the of the reduplicative syllable n is

shortened as i f the indicative contained an augment.
Identical i n form with the unaugmented pluperfect (140, 6).
From a attain, with the long reduplicative vowel retained.
Cp. 139, 6.
2

l40]

PERFECT OP TATIvE

157

4. The imperative perfect is formed like that of the

present reduplicating class, the radical syllable being weak
except in the 3. s. act., where it is strong. Nearly all the
forms occurring, which number about twenty, are active.
Examples are :
Act. s. 2. ci-kid-dh (cit), di-di-h (di), mumugdh (muc), a--dhi (s).
3. babh tu.
mumktu.
Du. 2. mumuktam, vavktam (vj twist). Pl. 2.
didiana ( di), vavttana.
Mid. s. 2. vavtsv. PI. 2. vavddhvm.
1

Participle.
5. Both active and middle forms of the perfect participle
are common. I t is formed from the weak perfect stem,
with the accent on the suffix, as eakv s, cakr.
If, in the active form, the stem is reduced to a monosyllable,
the suffix is nearly always added with the connecting vowel i ,
but not when the stem is unreduplicated ; e. g. paptiv s
(Gk. 7r^7rra^), but vidv s (Gk. ^ ^ ) , Examples are :
Act. jaganv s (gam), jagbhv s (grabh),
jigv s ( ji), jjuv s3 (j), tasthiv s (sth),
babhvs (Gk. 7r^v^), ririkv s (ric), vavt
vs, vvdhv s, ssahv s, suup vs ( svap) ;
yiv s (i), iv s (vas dwell); d-v s (d
worship), shv s ( sah).
Mid. najan ( aj), n-a-n ( a), j-n ( yaj),
c-n (vac), ja-gm-n (gam), ti-stir- (st), tepn (tap), pa-spa-n (spa), bhej-n (bhaj),
3

1
2
3

Cp. Gk. 1^-1^-^, 2. pl. ^1^-r^ (1^

ru hear).
with unchanged as i n strong forms elsewhere (139, 7).
W i t h long reduplicative vowel.

yem-an (yam), v-vdh-n, a-ay-n (), i-riy (ri), si-miy (smi), su-up- (svap),
seh-n (sah).
Pluperfect.
6. Corresponding to the imperfect there is an augmented
form of the perfect called the pluperfect. The strong stem
is used in the singular active, the weak elsewhere. The
secondary endings only are used ; in the 3. p l ur always
appears in the active and iran in the middle. The s and t
of the 2. and 3. s. are in some forms preserved by an
interposed . There are also several forms made with
thematic a in this tense. The augment is often dropped, as
in other past tenses. The total number of pluperfect forms
occurring is about sixty. Examples are :
Act. s. I. -cacak-am, -jagrabh-am, tuav-am;
cakar-am, ciket-am (cit), 2. jagan ( = -jagam-s) ;
na-nam-as ; -vive--s ( vi). 3. -jagan (=-jagam-t),
a-ciket ( cit) ; r-ran ( = rran-t : ran rejoice) ; -jagrabh-t ; -cikit-a-t and -ciket-a-t ; tastambh-a-t.
Du. 2. -mu-muk-tam ; mu-muk-tam. 3. -vva-1

tm (va desire).

Pl. 2. -jagan-ta ; -cucyav--tana. 3. -cucyav-ur.

Mid. s. 1. -urav-i. 3. didi-a(di). PI. 3. -cakr
iran, -jagm-iran, -pec-iran; -vavt-ran, -sasg-ram
(sj). There are also several transfer forms as from
a stems ; e. g. titvia-nta, cakp--nta, d-dh-a-nta.
2

Aorist.
141. This tense is of very common occurrence in the
Vedas, being formed from more that 450 roots. I t is an
1 Two forms take ran only instead of iran. There are also several
transfer forms in anta.
with reversion of the palatal to original guttural, and ending
ram for ran.
2

AORIST

141]

159

augmented tense, taking the secondary endings and forming

moods and participles. I t is distinguished from the imperfect
by having no corresponding present and by difference of
meaning. There are two types of aorist. The first or
sigmatic aorist is formed by inserting s, with or without an
added a, between the root and the endings. I t is taken by
more than 200 roots. The second aorist adds the endings
to the simple or the reduplicated root either directly or with
tile connecting vowel a. I t is taken by over 250 roots.
There are four forms of the first Aorist, and three of the
second. Upwards of 50 roots take more than one form.
One verb, budh wake, has forms from five varieties of this
tense.
First Aorist.
a. The stem of the first form is made by adding to the
augmented root the suffix sa. I t isinflectedlike an imperfect
of the sixth or class of the first conjugation, the s being
accented in unaugmented forms. I t is taken in the Sahits
by only ten roots containing one of the vowels i , u, , and
en ding in one of the consonants j , , , or h, all of which
phonetically become k before s. These roots are : mj wipe,
1

yaj sacrifice, vj twist ; kru cry out, m and sp touch ;

dvi hate ; guh hide, duh milk, ruh ascend. I n the indicative

no dual forms are found ; and in the mid. only the 3. s. and
pi. are met with. The only moods occurring are the
injunctive and the imperative, with altogether fewer than
a dozen forms. This form of the aorist corresponds to the
Greek First Aorist (e. g. ^-^t^, Lat. dixi-t). The augment,
as in other past tenses, is sometimes dropped.
I n B. nine additional roots take the sa aorist : k drag, di point,
dih smear, d see, druh be hostile, pis crush, m i h mingere. vi enter, vh
tear ; and i n s. l i h lick.
The stem of this aorist therefore always ends i n ka.
1

Indicative. Act. s. 1. vkam. 2. drukas (B.),

dhukas. 3. krukat, ghukat, dukat
and dhuk
at, mkat (m), rukat, spkat. Pl. 1. mk
ma
(mj),
rukma.
3.
dhukan;
dukan
and
dhukan.
Mid. s. 3. dhukata ; dukata and dhukata. PI. 3.
mkanta ( mj).
In the injunctive only the following forms occur :
Act. s. 2. duks, mks (m). 3. dvikt. PI. 2.
mkata ( m).
Mid. s. 3. dukta and dhukta, dvikta. Pl. 3.
dhuknta.
In the imperative only three forms occur :
Act. du. 2. mktam (mj). 3. yaktm.
Mid. s. 2. dhuksva.
142. The other three forms of the First Aorist are made
by adding to the augmented root the suffixes s, is, si
respectively. They are inflected like imperfects of the
second or graded conjugation. The sis form is used in the
act. only (excepting three optative forms) and is taken by
not more than six roots. The other two are very common,
being formed from nearly 300 roots in V. and B. taken
together.
1

Second or s form.
143. This form of the aorist is taken by at least 135
roots in V. and B. In addition to the indicative it forms
all the moods and a participle.
Indicative.
1. The radical vowel as a rule takes Vddhi (a being
lengthened) in the active. I n the middle, excepting final
and u (which take Gua) the radical vowel remains un
1

On these forms without initial aspiration cp. 62a.

143]

FIRST AORIST

161

changed. The only point in which the inflexion differs

from that of the imperfect of the graded conjugation is that
the 3. pl. act. invariably ends in ur. I n the active, the
endings s and t of the 2. 3. s. disappear and the tense sign
also, unless the root ends in a vowel ; e. g. -har -har-s-t,
but -h-s = hst. The A v . and TS., however, less
often than not, insert a connecting before these endings,
thus preserving both the latter and the s of the tense stem ;
e.g. -naik---t (nij wash). The forms of the indicative
actually occurring would, if made from bh bear in the
active, and from budh wake in the middle, be as follows :
1

ACTIVE.

s1NGULAR.
1. -bhr--am
2. -bhr
3. bhr

DUAL.

[-bhr-va]
-bhr-am
bhrstm

PLURAL.

-bhr-ma
-bhr-a
-bhr--ur

M1DDLE.
DUAL.
s1NGULAR.
1. bhut-s-i (62 a)
[-bhutsvahi]
2. -bud-dhas (62 b) -bhut-s-athm
3. -bud-dha (62 b)
-bhut-s-tm

PLURAL.

-bhut-s-mahi
-bhud-dhvam (62 a)
-bhut-s-ata

The middle voice, as exemplified by a root ending in u,

stu praise, is inflected as follows :
Sing. 1. a-sto--I. 2. -sto-hs. 3. sto-a. Du. 1.
[-sto--vahi].
2. [-sto--thm].
3. -sto--tm.
Pl. 1. -sto--mahi. 2. -sto-hvam (66 B 2 b). 3. sto
-ata.
1

The RV. and K. have no forms with the inserted ; while i n B.

the chief forms without i t are adrk (d see) and ay (yaj sacrifice) ;
also bhais (bh) = bhaiss, which while losing the s ending pre
serves the appearance of a 2. sing.

2. The subjunctive is common in the RV. in active

forms, but not in the middle. The root regularly takes
Gua throughout (active and middle). The primary endings
are frequent. The forms occurring, i f made from stu praise,
would be :
Act. sing. 1. sti. 2. stasi, stas. 3. st
ati, stat. Du. 2. statnas.
3. statas.
PI. 1. stma. 2. statha. 3. stan.
Mid. sing. 1. stai. 2. stase. 3. state.
Du. 2. stthe (for staithe). PI. 3. stante.
3. Ijunctive forms are fairly common. When normal
they are of course identical with the unaugmented indicative.
But the sing. 1. act. is irregular in never taking Vddhi :
all the forms of it that occur either have Gua, as stoam,
jeam (ji); or lengthen the radical vowel, as yam
(yu separate) ; or substitute e for in roots ending in , as
yeam (y go), geam (g go), stheam (sth stand).
The latter irregularity also appears in pl. 1 : jema
gema, dema (d give), beside the normal yauma
(yu separate).

4. The optative occurs in the middle only, the 2. 3. s.

always having the precative s (with one exception). The
forms actually occurring are :
Sing. 1. di1y (d cut), bhaky (bhaj divide),
masy (man think), muky (muc release), rsy
(r give), sky (Av), sty (st strew). 2. ma
shs^ (man think). 3. dara (d tear), bhak
ta (SY), masa, mka (mc injure). Du. 2.
2

subjunctives of this aor. are very rare i n B. except yakat ( yaj)

and vakat (vah).
W i t h radical reduced to i : cp. 5c. similarly dhiya ( d h )
in B.
3 W i t h an reduced to a ( sonant nasal).
From sah overcome, with radical vowel lengthened.
Anusvra for n (66 A 2).
^ Without the precative s.
2

MOODS OF TH E S AORIST

143144]

163

tr sthm (tra protect). PI. 1. bhakmhi, mas

mhi, vasmhi and vasmhi (van win), sak
mhi (sac follow), dhukmhi (duh milk). 3. ma
srata.
5. Only six imperative forms occur, and four of these are
transfers (with thematic a). They are: Act. s. 2. nea
(n lead) and para (p take across). Mid. s. 2. skva
(sah).
3. rsatm. Du. 2. rsthm. PI. 3.
rsantm.
6. Only two or three forms of the active participle
occur : dkat and dhkat (dah burn), skat (sah).
About a dozen stems, irregularly formed by adding s to
the root with an intermediate a and taking the regular
ending na, may be accounted middle s aorist participles ;
e. g. mandasn rejoicing, yamasn being driven.
2

Irregularities of the s form.

144. 1. Before the Suffix s, (a) final radical n (as well
as m) becomes Anusvra (66 A 2), as masata ( man),
vasmhi (van); (b) s becomes t in the verb vas
dwell and possibly also in vas shine: vtss^ (AV.) thou
hast dwelt and vt ( vasst) has shone ( A v ) ,
2. The RV. has one example of an incipient tendency to
preserve the s and t of the 2. 3. s. in 2. s. ys ( ayajss)
beside the phonetically regular form of the 3. s. y
( = yajst). The AV. has three or four examples of this :
s. 2. srs (=srajss: sj); 3. -rai-t ( -rai-s-t :
For tr-s-ythm.
W i t h Anusvra for n (66 A 2).
W i t h an reduced to a ( = sonant nasal).
Without initial aspiration : cp. 62 a and 156 a.
see 66 B 1. I n an Upaniad the 2. du. appears as -vstam, the
aor. suffix s having been lost without affecting the radical s.
1

ri); hait (=haist: hi); vt ( avasst:

vas shine). The later Sahits here frequently preserve
these endings by inserting before them: s. 2. rtss
(rdh), vtss (vas dwell); 3. tst (tan),
naikt (nij), tpst (tap), bhait (bh),
vkt (vah), hst, hvrt (hvar).
a. The ending dhvam (before which the s of the aor. is lost) becomes
nvam when the s would have been cerebralized (66^B 2) : sto
hvam ( = stozhvam) is the only example.

3. The roots d give and d cut reduce the radical vowel

to i in dii, diy ; gam, man, van lose their nasal in
gasmahi, masy, vasmhi (beside vasmhi) ;
while sah lengthens its vowel in ski, ski ; sk
m a ; skya; skva.
4. The roots sj emit and pc mix take metathesis in the
act.: s. 2. srs ( = srk), 3. srk; prk. Du. 2.
sram.
5. The following are the forms occurring in the 3. s. ind.
act. in which (a) the ending t is lost: jais (ji), prs,
hs ; (b) both the tensesign s and the ending t are lost :
krn (krand cry out), kr (kar flow), cait (cit
perceive), chn (chand seem), tn (tan stretch), tsr
(tsar approach stealthily), dyaut (dyut shine), dhk (dah
burn), prk (pc mix), pr (prach ask), bhr (bh),
^y (yaj sacrifice), yn (yam guide), raut (rudh
obstruct), v (vah convey), vt (vas shine), -vait (vit
be bright), syn (syand move on), srk (sj emit), svr
(svar sound), hr (h take), raik (ric leave).
6. After a consonant other than n, m, r the tense sign s
is dropped before t, th, and dh ; e. g. bhakta (beside
bhaki) ; mukths (beside muki).
2

But the t may i n this instance represent the changed final radical
s : 144, 1 (b), There are a few additional examples in B. : ajait
(beside ajais an^ajait : ji) ; acait (ci); nait (n),
And even the final consonant of the root when there are two (28),
2

145]

IS AORIST
Third or i form.

145. About 145 roots take this aorist in v and B. I t

differs from the s aorist merely in adding the s with the
connecting vowel i , which changes it to (67).
Indicative.
1. The radical vowel as a rule takes Gua throughout ;
but in the active a final vowel takes vddhi and a medial
vowel is sometimes lengthened. The endings are the same
as those of the s aorist except that the 2. 3. s. end in is
( = is) and i t ( ist), This aorist has all the moods, but
no participle. Middle forms are not common and very few
occur except in the 2. 3. sing.
The normal forms occurring, if made from kram stride,
would be:
Act. sing. 1. kramiam. 2. kramis. 3. kramit.
Du. 3. kramiam. Pl. 1. kramima. 3. kram
iur.
Mid. sing. 1. kramii. 2. kramihs. 3. kram
ia. Du. 3. kramitm. Pl. 3. kramiata.
2. Subjunctive forms are rare except in the 2. 3. s. act.
Examples are :
Act. sing. 1. dvii. 2. vias, knias. 3. kr
iat, bdhiat. Pl. 3. snian.
Mid. pl. 1. y c imahe. 3. snianta.
3. Injunctive are commoner than subjunctive forms.
They occur most frequently in the 2. 3. s. and plur.
Examples are :
Act. sing. 1. s-i-am (as praise). 2. vis (av
favour), tris (t cross), ydhis (yudh fight), svis (s
generate). 3. -it (a eat), t r it. Du. 2. triam, mrdh
iam (mdh neglect). Pl. 1. rmima. 2. vdhia
and vdhiana. 3. jriur (j waste away).
Mid. sing. 1. r d hii (rdh succeed). 2. mrithas

166

CONJUGATION

[145146

(m not heed), 3. pvia (p purify). PI. 1. vythi

mahi (vyath waver),
4. Optative forms arc rare, occurring in the middle only.
The 2. 3. s. take the precative s. Examples are :
Sing. 1. edhiy (edh thrive). 2. modiths (mud
rejoice). 3. jani. Du. 1. sahivhi. PI. tri
mhi.
5. Imperative forms are rare, occurring in the active only.
Sing. 2. avih. 3. aviu. Du. 2. avim. 3. av
im. Pl. 2. avina.
a. The radical medial a is lengthened in kan enjoy, car move, das
waste, mad exhilarate, stan thunder, svan sound, and optionally i n vad
speak, ran rejoice, san gain, sah prevail; while the radical syllable
appears i n a reduced or unstrengthened form in the opt. s. 1. mid. of
gam and ruc shine : gmiy and rucisy.
b. The root grabh seize takes the connecting vowel (as i t does i n
other verbal forms) instead of i , as grabhma.
c. I n s. 1. ind. act. the ending im appears instead of iam in the
three forms kramm, grabhm, and vadh-m, doubtless owing to
the analogy of the 2. 3. s. in s, t. I n B. is also found agrahaiam
(grah).

Fourth or si form.
I46. This form differs from the preceding one simply in
prefixing an additional s to the suffix. Only seven verbs
1

ending in a n, or m, g sing, j know, py fill up, y go,

h leave, van win, ram rejoice, take this aorist. The total
number of forms occurring is under twenty ; and middle
forms are found in the optative only. The forms occurring
are :
1. Indicative. Sing. 1. ysiam. Du. 3. ysi
m. PI. 2. ysia. 3. gsiur, ysiur.
2. Subjunctive. Sing. 3. gsiat, ysat.
1

I n B. also occurs dhy think, besides forms in st from dr sleep,

v blow, hv call.

l46147]

SIS FORM OF TH E FIRST AORIST

167
1

3. Optative. Sing. 1. vasiy. 2. ysih s ,

Pl. 1. pysimahi.
4. Injunctive. Sing. 1. rasi.am. Du. 2. hsiam.
3. hsim. Pl. 2. hsia. 3. hsiur.
5. Imperative. Du. 2. ysim. Pl. 2. ys.
Second Aorist.

147. This aorist resembles an imperfect formed directly

from the root, the terminations being added with or without
the connecting vowel a.
The first form is like an imperfect of the accented class
(125, 2), the stem being formed by adding a to the un
modified root.^ I t corresponds to the second aorist of the
first conjugation in Greek. I t is taken, in v. and B.
together, by nearly eighty roots, chiefly with a medial vowel.
Middle forms are rare.
1. Indicative. The forms actually occurring would, if
made from vid find, be as follows : ^
Act. sing. 1. vidam. 2. vidas. 3. vidat. Du. 1.
vidva. Pl. 1. vidma. 2. vidata. 3. vidan.
Mid. sing. 1. vide. 2. vidaths. 3. vidata. Du. 1.
vidvahi. 3. videtm. Pl. 1 . vidmahI. 3. vidanta.
2. The subjunctive forms from the same root would be :
Act. sing. 2. vidsi, vids. 3. vid t i, vidt. Du. 1.
vidva. 2. vid t has. 3. vidtas. Pl. 1. vidma. 2. vid
tha, vid t hana.
Mid. sing. 3. vidte. Pl. 1. vid m ahe.
3. The injunctive forms from vid would be :
Act. sing. 1. vidm. 2. vids. 3. vidt. Pl. 3. vidn.
Mid. sing. 3. vidta. Pl. 1. vid m ahi. 3. vidnta.
4. The optative is rare in V., but not infrequent in B.
1

W i t h precative s.
W i t h 1 for i .
3 Three roots with , however, show forms with Gua (147 a 2 and c).
2

I t is almost restricted to the active. The forms from vid

would be :
Act. sing. 1. vidyam. 2. vids. 3. vidt. PI. 1.
vidma.
Mid. sing. 1. vidya. PI. 1. vidmahi. There also occurs
one precative form, s. 3. vida (AV.).
5. Imperative forms are rare and almost restricted to the
active. Those made by sad sit are :
Sing. 2. sad. 3. sadtu. Du. 2. sadtam. 3. sadtm.
Pl. 2. sadta, sadtana. 3. sadntu.
Mid. pi. 2. sadadhvam. 3. sadantm.
6. Rather more than a dozen examples of the participle,
taking active and middle together, occur : e. g. tp-nt,
uent ; guhmna, ucmna.
Irregularities.
a. Several roots form transfer stems according to this instead of the
root form, chiefly by reducing the radical syllable.
1. khy see, vy envelope, hv call shorten their to a : khyat,
vyat, hvat; d give, dhput, stha stand occasionally do the same,
in the forms dat ; dhat (Sv.) and dhat; sthat (Av.); s
order shortens to i ; e. g. 3. s. inj. at, pari. int.
2. k make and gam go form a few transfers from the root class i n
the Av., retaining the strong radical vowel : -kar-a-t, -gam-a-t,
gaman.
b. The root is reduced by the loss of its nasal i n krand cry out, tas
shake, dhvas scatter, bhra fall, randh make subject, srasfall; e.g.
3. sing. tasat; pi. dhvasn ; subj. pl. 1. radhma ; i n j . sing. 1.
radham ; 2. kradas ; 3. bhraat.
c. The root takes Gna in go, d see, sjlow ; e. g. r-anta (unaug
mented 3. pl. ind. mid.) ; dr-am (s. 1. inj., but pi. 3. inj. dn, opt.
1. s. dyam, p l . dma); srat (unaugmented 3. s.).

Second Form. Root Aorist.

14S. This form of the simple aorist is taken by about
100 roots in v., and about 25 others in B., the commonest
being those with medial a (about 30). I t corresponds to

148]

ROOT AORIST

169

the second aorist of the second conjugation in Greek. I t is

inflected in both active and middle.
Indicative.
1. The root is strong in the sing. act., but weak elsewhere.
Roots ending in vowels, however, tend to retain the strong
vowel throughout the active except the 3. pl. Those ending
in regularly retain that vowel throughout the ind. act.
except in 3. pl. where it is dropped before ur, which is
always the ending in these verbs. I n the 3. pl. mid. the
ending ran is more than twice as common as ata ; ram as
well as ran is taken by three roots.
a. The forms occurring from roots ending in a, if made
from sth, would be :
Act. sing. 1. -sth-m (^-o.r^), 2. -sth-s. 3. -sth-t
(^-o^), Du. 2. -sth-tam. 3. -sth-tm. Pl. 1. -sth-ma
(^rp^u),
2. sthta. 3. -sth-ur.
Mid. sing. 2. -sthi-ths (^r-0^),
3. -sthi-ta. PI. 1.
-sthimahi. 3. -sthi-ran.
b. Roots in take Gua throughout the ind. act. except
the 3. pl. The forms from k would be :
Act. sing. 1. -kar-am. 2. -kar. 3. -kar. Du. 2.
kartam. 3. -kar-tm. Pl. 1. -kar-ma. 2. kar-ta.
3. kran.
Mid. sing. 1. -kr-i. 2. -k-ths. 3. -k-ta. Du. 1.
-k-vahi. 3. ktm. Pl. 1. -k-mahi. 2. -kdhvam. 3. -kr-ata.
c. bh be retains its throughout (as in the perfect),
interposing v between it and a following a :
Act. 1. -bhuv-am. 2. bhs. 3. -bh-t (^-^v).
Du. 2. -bh-tam. 3. bhtm. Pl. 1. -bh-ma
(^v-^u),
2. -bh-ta and bh-tana. 3. -bhu-v-an.
d. The following are forms of the 2. 3. s. act. in which
l W i t h split ; i n the later language a-bhv-am.

the endings s and t are lost : 2. kar, gan ( = gams),

ghas, var (v cover), spar (sp win) ; with lengthened
augment : na (na attain), var (v cover), vas (vas
shine). 3. kar kran (kram stride), gan,^ ghas,
cet (cit observe), tan, dar (d pierce), bhet (bhid
pierce), bhr (bhrj shine), mok (1nuc release), myak
(myak be situated), vart (vt turn), star ; with lengthened
augment: na, var (v eover), vas^ (vas shine) ; without
augment : vark (vj twist), skan (skand leap).
e. I n the 3. pi. act. and mid. roots with medial a are
syncopated : kan (=ghasan), gman (=gaman);
gmata ( = gamata), tnata ( = tanata) ; but in
the 2. 3. s. mid. they lose their nasal: gathas, gata,
mata (but 1. du. ganvahi, pl. ganmahi).
f Final is in the mid. ind. reduced to i , and before m
also to ; e. g. 2. diths, sthiths. 3. dhita
( ^ r o ) , Pl. 1. dhimahi (TS.) and dmahi (VS.),
dhmahi.
g. I n the 3. s. ind. ghas is reduced to g : gdha (=ghasta)^;
while go takes Gua: rta (unaugmented) and rta
(^pro), 3. pl. rata.
h. The forms taking ran in 3. pl. mid. are : kpran,
gbhran, jusran, -d-ran, -pad-ran, -budh-ran,
-yuj-ran, -vas-ran (vas shine), -vi-ran, -vt-ran,
-sg-ran,^ -sthi-ran, spdh-ran ; with ram : d-ram,
budhram, sgram.^
1

For na-s, the phonetic result of which should have been

nak (63b).
For vass, vast. These forms have by an oversight been
omitted i n ^ 499 of my Vedic arammar.
3 For kramt, gamt.
For
na-t.
For varj-t.
For skand-t.
By syncopation gh-s-ta ; loss of s between consonants (66 B 2 a)
gh-ta, and loss of aspiration, which is thrown forward on the t and
renders i t sonant (62 b).
3 W i t h reversion to the original guttural.
1

148]

MOODS OF TH E ROOT AORIST

171

2. The subjunctive is common, nearly 100 forms being

met with. The forms occurring, if made from k would be :
Act. sing. 1. kr and kri. 2. krasi and kras.
3. krati and krat. Du. 2. krathas. 3. kratas.
PI. 1. krma. 3. kranti, kran.
Mid. sing. 2. krase. 3. krate. PI. 1. kramahe
and krmahai. 3. kranta.
3. The injunctive is fairly frequent, nearly sixty forms of
it being met with. Examples are :
Act. sing. 1. karam, dar-am, bhuvam, bhoj-am.
2. jes, bh-s, bh-s (bh fear), dhak (dagh reach), bhet
(bhid split), rok (ruj break). 3. bh-t, re-t (ri), nak
and na (na attain). PI. 1. dagh-ma, bh-ma ; ched-ma,
ho-ma (h call). 3. bhv-an, vr-an (v cover) ; kramur
dur (d give), dhr (dh put).
Mid. sing. I . na-i (na = na attain). 2. nutths
(nud push), mths (m die), mhs (m neglect), rik
ths (ric leave). 3. arta ( go), aa (a attain), vik-ta
(vij tremble), v-ta (v choose). PL 1. dhmahi (dh put).
4. More than forty optative forms are met with. Examples
are :
Act. sing. 1. a-ym (a obtain), vjym, deym (da
give). 2. a-ys, dhy s , gamys, jey s , bhy s .
1

3. bhy t (AV.). PI. 1. a-yma, dhy m a, kriy m a,

bhy m a, sthey m a. 3. a-yr (a attain), dhe-yr.
Mid. sing. 1. a-y. 3. ar--t ( go). Pl. 1. a--mhi,
idh--mhi (idh kindle), na--mhi (na reach).
6

The root is weak i n the isolated forms dhat, bhuvat, rv-a-t.

The weak root appears once i n the form idh-a-t. The weak root
also appears once i n the 2. du. form dhthe.
This may, however, be an irregular a aorist : cp. 147 c.
For dagh-s.
W i t h strong radical vowel.
The RV. has no forms of the 3. s. in yt, but only precatives i n
vas ( = ys-t),
1

a. There are also about thirty precative forms (made from

about twenty roots in the Sahits), all of which except two
are active. Examples are :
Act. sing. 1. bhy s am. 3. ays ( = a-yst), gam
ys, daghy s , peys (p drink), bhys. Du. 2.
bhuystam.
Pl. 1. kriy s ma. 2. bhysta.
Mid. s. 3. pada, muca.
5. Over ninety forms of the imperative occur, all but
about twelve being active. Several forms in the 2. persons
act. have a strong root, which is then usually accented.
Examples are :
Act. s. 2. kdh gadh (gam), prdh (pfill), bodh,
ydhi (yudh fight), ag-dh (ak be able) ; gah (gam go),
mahi (m measure), shi (s bind). 3. gntu (gam go),
dh tu bhu.tu, rtu.
Du. 2. k-tm and kar-tam (Av), ga-tm and gan-tm,
d-tam, dhak-tam (dagh reach), bh-tm, var-tam (v
cover), vo-hm (vah carry), rutm. 3. gantm, ptam,
vohm. PI. 2. kta and krta, gata and gnta, bht,
ynta, ru-ta and r-ta ; kr-tana, gn-tana, dhtana,
bh-tana. 3. gm-antu, dhntu, ruv-antu.
Mid. s. 2. kv dhiv (dh put), yukv (yuj join) ;
accented on the root : mtsva, ykva (yaj sacrifice), rsva
vsva (van win), skva (sac follow). Pl. 2. kdhvam
vohvam.
6. Of the participle only seven or eight examples occur
in the active, but nearly forty in the middle. Examples are :
Act. dhnt, krnt, gmnt, sth n t.
Mid. ar, idhn, kr, d -na and d-an,
budh-n, bhiy-n, vr- (v cover), ubh-n and
um-bhn suvn (always to be pronounced svn) and
svn (SV).
1

Formed from both bhu be (for bhudh) and budh awake (for
bddhi instead of buddh).
For ynddhf (through y5ddhi),
2

149]

REDUPLICATED FORM

173

Third or Reduplicated Form.

149. This aorist is formed from nearly ninety verbs in
the Sahits and from nearly thirty more in the Brahmaas.
Though (with a few slight exceptions) unconnected in form
with the causative, it has come to be connected with the
causative in sense, having a causative meaning when the
corresponding verb in aya has that meaning. The character
istic feature of this aorist is the almost invariable quantitative
sequence of a long reduplicative and a short radical vowel
( .^). I n order to bring about this rhythm, the reduplicative
vowel (unless it becomes long by position) is lengthened, if
the radical vowel is (or is made) prosodically short. With
this view the radical vowel is shortened in v bellow, sdh
succeed, h be hostile and, by dropping the nasal, in krand
cry out, jambh crush, randh subject, syand flow, sras fall.
The stem of the great majority of forms is made with a
thematic a. But about a dozen roots ending in vowels
(, i , , ) and svap sleep make occasional forms from stems
without thematic a, the inflexion then being like that of an
imperfect of the reduplicating class (127, 2). A medial
radical vowel remains unchanged or is weakened, but a final
vowel takes Gua. A l l the moods occur, but no participle.
Special Rules of Reduplication.
a. The vowels , are represented in the reduplicative
syllable by i .
b. The vowel of the reduplicative syllable, unless already
long by position, is lengthened.
1. The forms of the indicative actually occurring would,
if made from jan beget, be as follows :
Act. s. 1. jjanam. 2. jjanas. 3. jjanat. Du. 2.
jjanatam. PI. 1. jjanma. 2. jjanata. 3. jjanan.
Mid. s. 3. jjanata. PI. 2. jjanadhvam. 3. jjananta.

The following are examples :

Act. s. 1. nnaam (na be lost), ckam (k drag),
piplavam (B.), pparam (p pass).
2. ci-krad-as,
bbhuvas; sivapas; without thematic a: -jgar (g
swallow and g waken) ; sivap. 3. ckpat, cucyavat (K.),
jhiat (h), didyutat, bbudhat, vvaat (v),
v-vdhat, siyadat ( syand) ; bbhayat, inathat (nath
pierce); without thematic a: iret (ri), -sinat.
Pl. 3. vvaan (v), sisrasan (sras), sadan
(sad) ; bbhajur (B.).
Mid. s. 3. vvarata (v eover). Pl. 2. vvdhadhvam.
3. bbhayanta, vvaanta (v), siyadanta.
2. The subjunctive is rare, only about a dozen forms
occurring, all active except one. Examples are :
Act. s. 1. rradh. 2. ttapsi. 3. ckpti, pispati,
sadhti ( sdh), Pl. 1. rramma, sadhma.
3. Injunctive forms are fairly common, more than fifty
occurring in the active, but only five in the middle.
Examples are :
Act. s. 1. cukrudham, ddharam (dh hold). 2. eikipas,
pispas, rradhas, sadhas. 3. cucyavat, ddharat,
mmayat (m bellow), sivadat (svad sweeten).
Du. 2. jihvaratam. Pl. 2. rradhata. 3. rraman,
uucan (uc shine). 3. sapanta (sap serve).
4. The optative forms number hardly a dozen, being
made from only three roots, mostly from vac speak, the rest
from cyu stir and r i hurt. They are :
Act. s. I. vocyam. 2. rries, vocs. 3. voct.
Du. 2. voctam. PI. 1. vocma. 3. vocyur.
Mid. s. L vocya. PI. 1. cucyuv--mahi, i vocmahi.
3. cucyavrata. There is also the 3. s. mid. precative
form rri---a.
1

i Without thematic a.

149-l50]

MOODS OF THE REDUPLICATED AORIST 175

5. H ardly more than a dozen imperative forms occur, all

of them active. These are :
Sing. 2. vocatt. 3. vocatu.
Du. 2. jigtm (g waken), didhtm, vocatam. Pl. 2.
jig-t, didht, paptata, vocata, sudta (AV.),
3. ppurantu (p fill), irathantu.
1

Irregularities.
a. I. The reduplicative syllable of dyut shine has i : didyutat ;
that of am injure repeats the whole root : mamat ( amamat) ;
while i t is left short i n jigrtm, jigt (beside jgar), didhtm,
didht (beside ddharat), and i n the isolated i n j . didpas for
d d i p a s (dip shine).
2. The radical syllable suffers contraction or syncopation (as i n the
weak forms of the perfect) i n the three verbs na be lost, vac speak, and
pat fall; thus -nes-at (-- -nana-at), -voc-at (---- -va-uc-at : cp.
Gk. ^-^7r-o-^) and paptat. H aving all had the reduplicative vowel
of the perfect (while the regular aorist reduplicative appears i n
the alternative forms -nna-at and ppatat), they were probably
pluperfects i n origin. But they have come to be aorists as is shown
by their meaning and by the occurrence of modal forms (as vocatu,
^c., and paptata).
3. The initial of the suffix is retained from the causative stems
jnpaya, sthpaya, hpaya, bhaya, arpaya, jpaya (ji),
The radical vowel is reduced to i in the first four, while the redupli
cative vowel comes after instead of before the radical vowel in the
fifth : thus jijipat ; tihipat ; jhipas ; bbhias, bbhi
aths ; arpipam ; jjapata (VS.).
2

Benedictive or Precative.
15O. This is a form of the optative which adds an s
after the modal suffix and which is made almost exclusively
from aorist stems. I n the RV. it occurs in the 1. 3. s. and
1

Without thematic a.
Cp. its perfect reduplication : 139, 8.
^' Cp. the perfect reduplication of roots with a + nasal (139, 6).
H ere the p of the suffix is not only retained, but reduplicated.
The causative of j i conquer from which this aor. is formed, would
normally have been jyaya. I n B. also occurs the form jjipata.
2

1. pl. active, and in the 2. 3. s. mid. The endings together

with the modal suffix are :
Act. s. 1. ysam. 3. ys ( = yss) ; pl. 1. ysma.
Mid. s. 2. hs. 3. a.
a. The only perfect precative occurring is the 2. s. mid. :
ssahh s .
b. Of the root aorist nearly thirty precatives are met with
in the Sahits. They occur in the act. 1. 3. s., 2. du.,
1. 2. pl. ; mid. 3. s. (see 148, 4 a). The a aorist and the
reduplicated aor. have one precative form each in the 3. s.
mid. (147, 4 and 149, 4). I n the s aorist four precative
forms occur in the 2. and 3. s. mid. (see 143, 4).
Simple Future.
151. The Stem is formed by adding the suffix sy or
(rather less frequently with connecting i) iy to the root.
As the future sense is often expressed by the subjunctive
and sometimes also by the indicative, the future tense is not
common in the R v , being formed from only sixteen roots,
while the A v makes it from about thirtytwo others, and
the TS. forms it from over sixty roots. In V. and B. taken
together over one hundred form the future in sya and over
eighty that in iya. The only derivative verbs that form
the future (always with iya) are causatives, of which four
stems appear, two in the RV. and two in the A v Roots
ending in always take isya, whereas those ending in other
vowels generally take sya.
a. Final vowels and prosodically short medial vowels take
Gua, final a and medial a remaining unchanged ; e. g.
j i conquer : jey ; n lead : ney ; d give : d a s y ;
m i h shed water : meky ; yuj join : yoky ; k t cut :
k a r t s y ; dah burn : dhaky ; bandh bind : bhantsy ;
b h be : bhaviy ; s flow : sariy ; v t turn : vart
iy.

151152]

SIMPLE FUTURE

177

a. Causatives, which always take iya, retain the present stem,

dropping only the final a ; thus dhrayiy (dh support); vsayiy
(vas wear) ; dayiy (dus spoil) ; vrayiy (v cover).

b. The inflexion of the future is like that of the present of

the first conjugation (bhvmi). Middle forms occur in the
sing. only. The forms met with, if made from k do,
would be :
Act. s. 1. kariy m i. 2. kariysi. 3. kariyti.
Du. 2. kariythas. 3. kariytas. PI. 1. kariy
mas, masi. 2. kariytha. 3. kariynti.
Mid. s. I. kariy. 2. kariyse. 3. kariyte.
1. Only one subjunctive, the 2. s. act. kariys has
been met with in V., and one other, 1. du. mid., notsyva
hai (nud push) in B.

2. More than twenty participles occur, of which only four

are mid. Examples are :
Act. kariynt, dhakynt (dah) ; mid. yaky
ma (yaj), staviyma (stu).
Irregularities.
c. I n su bring forth the future stem is formed w i t h unchanged final
vowel, which is moreover accented : sya ; while the medial a of sah
is lengthened : sky.

Periphrastic Future.
I 5 2 . There is no certain example of this form of the
future in the Sahits. But such a phrase as anvgant
yajpatir vo tra (TS., VS.) the sacrificer is following after

you here may be an example of its incipient use.

I n B. this future is taken by nearly thirty roots. I t is made by
using the N . s. of an agent noun i n t (180), to which the present of
the verb as be is added i n the 1. 2. persons, while i n the 3. persons du.
and pi. the N. du. and pi. appear. The use of this tenseform is
1

The forerunners i n V. of this new tenseformation i n B. are the

agent nouns i n t which, generally accented on the root, are used
participially governing an acc. and may be employed predicatively
with or without the copula ; e. g. dt y vnit maghm (iii. 13^) who
gives and wins bounty.

almost limited to the active, only a few isolated examples being

found i n the middle. Forms occurring, i f made from bh be, would
be : Act. sing. I. bhavit s mi ; 3. bhavit . Pf. 1. bhavit s mas ; 3.
bhavit r as. Mid. sing. I. 2. bhavit s e. Pf. I. bhavit s mahe.

Conditional.
153. This is a past tense of the future meaning would
have. Only one example occurs in the Sahits : bhar
isyat (RV. ii. 30 ) was going to bear off. This form is
very rare B. also, except in the B. where it is found
more than fifty times.
2

Passive.
154. The passive, which takes the terminations of the
middle, differs from the latter only in the forms made from
the present stem and in the 3. s. aor. From the middle of
verbs of the fourth class it differs in accent only : nhyate
binds : nahyte is bound.
The stem is formed by adding accented y to the root,
which appears in its weak form.
1. Final mostly becomes ; e. g. d give : dy ; but it
also remains ; e. g. j know : jy.
2. Final i and u are lengthened ; e.g. j i conquer: jyte ;
ru hear: r-y-te.
3. Final becomes r i ; e. g. k make : kri-y-te.
4. Final becomes r ; e. g. crush: r-y-te.
5. Roots ending in a consonant preceded by a nasal, lose
the nasal; e.g. aj anoint: aj-y-te; bandh bind: badhy-te ; bhaj break : bhaj-y-te ; vac move crookedly : vacya-te ; as praise : as-y-te.
1

The only two roots i n which r is preceded by two consonants and

which form a passive are str strew and smr remember. Their passives do
not occur in the Sahits, but i n B. are found str1.y-te and smar-y-te.
The passive of pfll does not occur i n the Sahits, but in B. i t is
pur-y-te (the being preceded by a labial).
2

PASSIVE

154155]

179

6. Roots liable to Samprasraa (17 note 1) take it ; e. g.

vac speak : ucyte ; vad speak : udyte ; vah

carry :

uhyte ; grah seize : ghyte.

a. Derivative verbs i n aya (causatives) drop the suffix while retain
ing the strong radical vowel. Only one such stem has been noted in
the sabits : bhjyte is caused to share (from bhajya causative of
bhaj share).

a. The forms of the present indicative passive occurring,

if made from h eall, would be :
Sing. 1. hy. 2. hyse. 3. hyte. Du. 3.
hyte. PI. 1. hy mahe. 3. hynte.
b. As regards the moods only two certain subjunctive
forms (s. 3. uhy te, bhriyte) and one injunctive (s. 3.
syata : s bring forth) occur. No optative forms occur
in the R v or Av.
There are, however, nearly thirty
imperative forms occurring in the 2. 3. s. pl. These forms,
illustrated by h call, are : s. 2. hysva. 3. hytm.
PI. 2. hydhvam. 3. hyntm.
c. Of the participle over forty examples occur ; e. g. h
yamna being called. Of the imperfect only about eight
forms have been noted, occurring only in the 3. s. and pi. :
hyata and hyanta.
1

Irregularities.
2

d. tan stretch forms its passive from t : t y t e . Similarly jan

beget becomes j yate is born, which, however, i n form belongs to the
radically accented fourth class. mriyte dies ( mr) and dhriyto
(dh) is steadfast, while passive i n form, are intransitive i n sense.

Aorist Passive.
155. Outside the present system the passive has no
special finite form except in the 3. sing. aor. This is a
peculiar middle form (made from about fortyfive roots in
1

But they are met with in the Brhmaas.

I n B. khyte is formed from khan dig.

the Sahits) which is used with a predominantly passive

meaning. When it is formed from verbs with a neuter sense,
like gam go, that sense remains unchanged (as in the past
passive participle). I t is a 3. s. ind. in which the augmented
root takes the ending i . The characteristic feature of this
form is the strengthening of the root as compared with other
middle forms ; e. g. -kr-i beside -kr-i (1. s. mid.).
Prosodically short medial i , u, take Gua, and medial a is
normally lengthened ; final i , u, take Vddhi, while final
interposes a y before the ending. The accent of unaug
mented forms is always on the root. Examples are :
-ved-i (vid find), -bodh-i (budh wake), dari (d see),
-vc-i (vac speak); -sry-i (ri resort), stvi (stu
praise), -kr-i (k do), -dh-y-i (dh put).
More than twenty unaugmented forms are also used
injunctively ; e. g. rvi let be heard.
Irregularities.
a. I. The medial a is not lengthened in jani, the unaugmented
jni (beside jni), and vahi.
2. From the denominative stem jrayaplay the lover the unique form
jrayyi let him be embraced is formed.

PARTICIPLES, GERUNDS, AND I N F I N I T I V E .

I . Active Participles.
156. The stem of the present (except the reduplicating
class), the future, and the aorist active participle is formed
with the suffix ant. The strong stem may be obtained by
dropping the i of the 3. pi. ind. act. ; e. g. bhvant, kip
nt, syant; duhnt, kvnt, bhindnt, prnt.
1

About a dozen more are found i n B.

On the declension of participles i n ant see 85 ; en the formation
of their fem. stems, 95 a.
2

1^6157]

PARTICIPLES

181

Stems of the reduplicating class do not distinguish strong

forms because they drop the n : e.g. jhvat (3. pl.
jhvati).
The strong stem of the future participle may similarly be
obtained by dropping the i of the 3. pi. act. : bhaviynt,
kariynt.
The active participle is formed by the root aorist, the
a aorist, and the s aorist, from the unaugmented tense stem
in the latter two ; e. g. vidnt, skant (sah prevail) ; and
from the weakened or unmodified root in the former ; e. g.
dhnt, krnt (k make), gmnt (gam go), pnt (pa
drink),
a. Irregularities. I n the pres. part. the initial a of as be and the
medial a of han slay are lost : snt (3. pi. snti), ghnnt (3. pi. ghn
nti); while the n of the suffix is lost in d -at worshipping and sat
(3. pl. sati), The n is also lost in the s aor. part. of dah burn :
dksat and dhkat. Whether i t was also lost i n skat the part.
of the same aor. from sah prevail, is uncertain because i t is only met
with i n a weak ease.

157. The reduplicated perfect participIe is formed

from the weak (but uncontracted or unsyncopated) stem to
which the suffix vs is directly added. There are more
than fifty such stems. Examples are: cakvs, jagan
vs (gam go), tastabhvs (stambh prop), tasthiv s
(sth stand), dad-v s, dadvs (d give), babhv s,
vavtv s, sasavs (san gain), suupv s (svap
sleep).

a. Some halfdozen of these participles are formed by

adding the suffix with connecting i to the reduplicated stem
contracted to a single syllable : yivs (i go) ; ivs
(vas dwell) ; okivs (uc be pleased) ; paptiv s (pat
fall) ; sac-i-vs (sac follow) ; in the later Sahits also
2

Both d and s belong to the root, and not the reduplicating

class.
W i t h strong radical vowel and reversion to the original guttural.
1

jakiv s (ghas eat). The only certain example of a perf.

part. adding the suffix with connecting i to the fully
reduplicated stem is vivi-i-vs (TS.).
b. A few perfect participles are formed by attaching vs
to the unreduplicated stem : d-vs worshipping, vidvs
knowing, snvs prevailing, and perhaps khidvs^
oppressing. Similarly formed is mhvs bountiful, though
the root does not occur in independent use. Three un
reduplicated roots take connecting i in the later Sahits :
d-i-vs (SV.) wor shipping, vi-i-vs (AV.) entering,
varjiv s

(AV.) having twisted.

a. Irregularities.In seven stems the palatal reverts to the original

guttural : cikitv s (cit), jigv s (ji), ririkv s (ric),
rurukv s (ruc), vivikv s (vic), uuk-v s (uc), 0 k - i vs (uc). The radical vowel is strong i n dadv s (AV.), oki
vs, shvs ; while the reduplieative vowel is long in ssah
vs and uu-v s ().

II.

Middle and Passive Participles.

I5S. The participles of the future middle, of the present

passive, and the present middle of the a conjugation are
formed by adding the suffix mna to the stem (which
always ends in a); e.g. fut. mid. yakyma (yaj);
pres. pass. kriyma (k); pres. mid. yjamna.
a. Verbs of the second conjugation add the suffix na to
the weak stem in the pres. mid. ; e.g. bruv (hr),
jhvana (hu), rundhn (rudh), kvn (k),
punn (p).
a. There are several irregularities i n the formation of the middle
participles of the root class. I. The root as sit optionally takes the
anomalous suffix na : sna beside sn. 2. The final of the root
1

jak syncopated for jagh(a)s.

I n B. are also found dad-i-vs and cichid-i-vs.
3 Occurring only i n the voc. khidvas.
Presupposed by the fem. varju^1.
2

PERFECT PARTICIPLES

158-160]

183

duh milk optionally reverts to the original guttural : dgh-na beside

the regular dh-ana. 3. A few roots take Gua : oh-an (h),
yodh-n (yudh), y-na (), stavn (stu). 4. several of
these participles optionally accent the radical syllable instead of the
final vowel of the suffix ; e. g. vdana beside vidan.

159. The Perfect Middle Participle isformedby adding

the suffix n to the weak form of the stem as it appears
before the ending of the 3. pl. mid. re (ire, rire). I t is
common, more than eighty examples occurring. The follow
ing are some of them : anajn (aj), nan ( a),
r- (), jn (yaj), c-n (vac), cakr-
(k), cikit-n (cit), jagm-n (gam), tasth-n
(sth), tistir- (st), tep-n (tap), pap-n (p
drink), paspa-n (spa), bhej-n (bhaj), yem-n
( yam), 1ebh-n (labh), vvas-n (vas wear and dwell),
siriy- (ri), simiy-(smi), suup (svap),
a. Irregularities. 1 . This participle of lie has the double anomaly
of reduplicating with a and of strengthening the radical syllable :
aay-n. 2. The root sah prevail adds the suffix to a reduplicated as
well as to a contracted stem : ssah-n and seh-n. 3. The radical
vowel of kam love and am labour is not syncopated : cakam-an and
aam-n. 4. Four of these participles have the intensive accent on
the reduplicative syllable: tutuj-na-, uujna, uuv-na (),
and ad-na (ad prevail).
1

160. The Perfect Passive Participle isformedby adding,

in the great majority of instances, the suffix t (with or
without connecting i) or, far less commonly, the suffix n
(directly) to the root.
Cp. a similar irregularity of i n 134, 1 b.
Also normally, but less frequently, accented ttujn.
3 Cp. the Gk. perf. mid. part. ^^a^^^o^.
The first three cannot be accounted intensives because they have
not the intensive reduplicative vowel (173, 1). Though the redupli
cative vowel of ad-na may be that of either perfect or intensive,
the occurrence of the perf. form adr beside i t favours the view
that i t is a perf. participle.
1

184

CONJUGATIONS

[160

1. n, which is taken by primary verbs only, is attached

to the (unweakened) root, which ends in a long vowel or one
of the consonants d and (rarely) c or j . Before this suffix,
i and u remain unchanged ; remains or is reduced to or i ;
becomes r or (generally when a labial precedes) r ; d is
assimilated to n ; e and j revert to the original guttural.
Thus l cling : l-n ; d burn : dn ; dr sleep : dr- ;
d divide : di-n ; h leave : hn ; g swallow : gr- ;
m erush : mr- ; j waste away : jr- ; bhid split :

bhinn ; skand leap : skan-n ; vrac eut up : vk- ;

ruj break : rug-.
a. Several roots take alternative forms i n ta : nun-n and nut-t
(nud) ; vin-n and vit-t (vid jind) ; san-n. and sat-t (sad sit) ;
-n and -t (y coagulate) ; p jill : pr- and purt ; crush :
r and ur-t ; pc mur : -prg-a and prkt.
b. The final palatal of pre muc, vrac cut up and ruj break reverts to
the guttural (cp. 160, 1).

2. When t is added direct the root tends to appear in its

weak form : verbs liable to Samprasraa take it ; a medial
or final nasal is lost ; is often reduced to or i ; y some
times to . Examples are : yt, jit, bht stut,
hut, kt; na (na be lost), sikt (sic), yukt
(yuj), gh (guh), dugdh (duh), s (sj) ;
i (yaj), viddh (vyadh), ukt (vac), h
(vah), supt (svap), p (prach) ; akt (aj),
tat (tan), gat (gam); pt (pa drink), sthit
(sth); vt (vy),
1

a. The root dh put is doubly weakened i n hit beside dhita.

Medial is reduced to i in is- (s order). Syncopation and loss of
s appear i n -g-dha eaten (ghas),
b. Excepting the occurrence of the normal form data in the com
pound tvdta given by thee, d give regularly uses the weak pres.
3

1 W i t h cerebralization and aspiration of the suffix, loss of the radical

final and lengthening of the radical vowel (cp. 62, 69 c).
W i t h the same changes as in guh after vaht has been reduced
by Samprasraa to uh.t.
3 ^ ^ ^7^
7
2

160161]

PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE

185

stem dad i n forming its past passive participle : datt. The latter is
further reduced to tta i n devatt given by the gods, and when com
bined w i t h certain prepositions : vytta opened, prtta given away,
prttta given back. The same syncopation appears i n the compound
participle of d divide : vatta cut otf:
c. One root i n an and three or four in am retain the nasal and
lengthen the vowel : dhvan sound : dhvant ; kram stride : krnt ;
am be quiet : n-t ; ram be weary : rn-t ; dham blow has tile
irregular dhm-t and dham-i-t.
d. A few- roots i n an have : khan dig : kb-t ; jan be born : ja-t ;
van win : -v-ta ; san gain : st.
1

3. i-ta is taken by a considerable number of roots ending

not only in conjunct consonants or in single consonants
difficult to combine with t, but also in simple consonants,
especially sibilants, which present no such difficulty. The
root is not weakened (excepting four instances of Sampra
sraa). Secondary verbs (almost without exception causa
tives) take ita exclusively (after dropping aya).
Examples are : nind-it, rak-it ; grath-it, it,
car-it, jv-it ; pat-it, pan-it ; kup-it, stabh-it ;
mu-it ; arp-it (arp-ya cause to go), cod-it (cod-ya
2

set in nation).

a. The roots taking Samprasraa are: grabh and grah

seize: gbh--tand gh--t(Av);^ vak increase: uk-it;
vad speak : ud-it ; rath slacken : th-it.
I 6 I . There is once found in the AV. a perfect passive
participle extended with the possessive suffix vant, which
gives it the sense of a perfect participle active : ait-vant
having eaten.
Representing the long sonant nasal.
Only one perfect participle passive has been noted from a desidera
tive : mmsit called in question, and one from a denominative :
bhmit enraged.
I n B. japaya, causative of j know, forms its part. without con
necting i : japt.
Usually (and abnormally) accented rpita.
With for i as in some other forms from this root.
This type of participle hardly occurs even i n the Brhmaas.
1

162. The Future Passive Participle is in the R v formed

with four suffixes : one with the primary suffix ya, which is
common, the rest with the secondary suffixes yya, nya,
and tva, each of which occurs about a dozen times. I n the
A v . there begin to be used two other gerundives, formed
with tavy and anya, each occurring twice. A l l these
participles correspond in sense to the Lat. gerundive
in ndus.

1. I n the RV. about forty examples of the gerundive in

ya occur, and about twenty more in the A v . The suffix is
nearly always to be read as ia, which accounts for the
treatment before it of final radical vowels. The root, being
accented, appears in a strong form excepting a few examples
which have the short radical vowel i , u, or .
a. Final coalesces with the initial of ia to o, between which and
the following a a phonetic y is interposed : da give : dya ( ^ d iya)
to be given.
b. Final , , regularly take Gua or Vddhi, the final element
of which always appears as y, v, r, as before a vowel ; e. g. l cling :
lyya ; nu praise : nvya ; bhu be : bhvya and bhvy future ;
hu call : hvya ; v choose : vrya.
c. Medial i , u, r, i f followed by a single consonant, may take Gua
and a may be lengtl^ened ; e. g. dvi : dvsya hateful ; yudh : ydhya
to be subdued ; rdh : rdhya to be accomplished ; mrj : mrjya to be
purified ; vac : vcya to be said ; but also ghya to be concealed ; dhrya
to be assailed ; sdya to be seated.
d. A final short vowel sometimes remains unchanged, a t being
then interposed : tya to be gone ; rtya to be heard ; ktya to be
made ; carktya to be praised.

2. The suffix yya, nearly always to be read yia, is

almost restricted to the RV. ; e. g. pan y ya to be admired ;
vidyya to be found ; rav-yya glorious. I t is sometimes
attached to secondary stems ; to a causative : panay y ya
admirable, sphayyya desirable; to a desiderative : di
dhiyya to be eoneiliated ( dh) ; to an intensive : vitan
tas y ya to be hastened.
3. nya (generally to be read nia) is attached to the root,

GERUNDIVE

162-163]

187

which remains unaltered except when it ends in a vowel:

thus dvi-ya malignant, yudh-nya to be combatted, dnya worthy to be seen ; but vr-eya choiceworthy (v choose).

It is once added to an aor. stem : ya-s-nya to be guided

( yam), Secondary verbs also take this suffix ; desideratives :
didk-ya worthy to be seen, urya deserving to be

heard; intensives: marmjnya to be glorified, vavdh

nya to be glorified ; denominatives : saparya to be
adored.

4. tva, almost restricted to the RV. and generally to be

read tua, is added to the strong form of the root, which is
accented. Thus krtva to be made, htva to be driven on
(hi), stva to be pressed ( su), vktva to be said; with
connecting i : snitva to be won ; with connecting :
bhvtva future.
5. The only two examples in V. (both occurring in AV.)
of the gerundive in tavy, which in both cases is added
with connecting i , are janitavy to be born and hisi
tavy to be injured.
6. The only examples of the gerundive in anya (both
appearing in the Av) are upajvanya to be subsisted on
2

and mantra y a worthy to be addressed.

III.

Gerund or Indeclinable Participle.

I 6 3 . More than 120 examples of the gerund occur in

the RV. and AV. I t expresses an action which accompanies
or more often precedes that of the finite verb. I t is formed
with the three suffixes tv, tv, tvya (all old cases of stems
1

A few examples occur i n the Brahmaas : jtva ( j i conquer),

sn tva (sn bathe), hntva (han slay).
W i t h instead of 1.
This gerundive has become not Uncommon i n B., where i t is
formed not only from the root, but from secondary stems.
I n B. nearly a dozen examples have been met with.
2

in t u which is also used to form infinitives) attached to the

simple root.
1. The form in tv, which is almost restricted to the RV.,
is the commonest of the three in that Sahit, where fifteen
examples occur. I t probably represents an old locative of
stems in t u . I t is as a rule added directly to the root,
which has the same form as in the perf. pass. participle
in ta. Examples are : ktv having made, gatv having
1

gone, guhv having hidden, bhtv having become, vktv

having overthrown (vj), hitv having abandoned (h),

There are two forms in which the suffix is added with the
connecting vowel i : janitv having produced and skabhitv
having propped.

2. The suffix tv (an old inst. sing. of a verbal noun in tu)

is taken by nine roots in the R v and about thirty more in
the A v . The root has the same form as before the ta of the
perf. pass. participle. The forms occurring in the RV. are :
ptv (pa drink), bhittv having shattered, bhtv having
become, mitv having formed (m), yuktv having yoked,
Vtv having covered, srutv having heard, htv having

slain, hitv having abandoned. Some of the forms from the

AV. are : iv having sacrificed (yaj), jagdhv having
devoured (jak), trtv having crossed (t), thv
having shattered ( th), dattv having given ( d), paktv

having cooked (pac), baddhv having bound (bandh),

bhaktv having divided (bhaj), rhv having ascended

(ruh), vv having cut up (vrac), suptv having

slept ( svap) ; three take the connecting vowel i : cyitv
noting (cy), hisitv having injured, ghtv having

seized ; a few also are formed from secondary stems in aya

(which is retained) ; e. g. kalpayitv having arranged.
3. The rarest gerund is that in tvya, which is formed
1

This gerundive is not found i n the AV., but i t has not entirely
disappeared i n the Brahmanas.

163164]

GERUND

189

from only eight roots in the RV. : gatvya having gone,

1

jagdhvya having devoured, dattv y a having given, d

vya having seen, bhaktv y a having attained, yuktv y a
having yoked, hatv y a having slain, hitv y a having aban

doned ; three more of these gerunds appear in the Yajurveda :

ktvya having done, tatv y a
having covered.

having stretehed, vtv y a

I 6 4 . When the verb is compounded the suffix is regularly

either ya or ty. I n at least twothirds of such forms the
vowel of the suffix is long in the RV. The root is always
accented.
1. y is added (but never with i) to the root, which has
the same form as before tv, except that final and am
remain unchanged. Nearly forty roots in the R v and
about thirty more in the AV. form these compound gerunds.
Examples from the RV. are : cy bending ( = ac), abhy
pya having enveloped (vap), abhikrmya approaching,
abhigury graciously accepting (g sing), sagbhy
gathering, nic y y fearing, viturya driving forth ( t),
dya taking, atidvya playing higher, a nud -ya looking
along, arbhya grasping, nidy having sat down ; from

a causative stem : pr r pya setting in motion (prarpaya),

Examples from the AV. are: udhya having carried up
(vah), sagrya swallowing up (g), upaddya
putting in (d), sabhuya combining, utthaya arising
(sth), sasvya having sewed; from a causative stem :
vibhajya having apportioned (bhaj).
a. Three roots are found i n the RV. compounded with adverbs or
substantives : punard ya giving back, mithaspdhya vying together,
karag h ya seizing bythce^r, padagrhya grasping by the foot, hasta
ghya grasping bythehand.

This gerund occurs twice i n the AV. and about half a dozen times
in B. I t is once formed from a causative stem i n the B. : sp-ayi

tvya (spa),

165. 2. ty (nearly always with long vowel in the RV.)

is added instead of y to compound verbs ending in a short
vowel ; e. g. ty having come (i), abhijtya having
1

conquered, d ty regarding, apamtya having borrowed,

upa-rtya having overheard ; with adverbial or nominal

prefix: arakty having made ready, akhkhalk tya
shouting, namasktya (AV.) paying homage.
a. The analogy of these verbs is followed by some roots ending in
n or m preceded by a, which drop the nasal as i n the perf. pass. part. :
vihty having driven away (han), gty having come (gam),
udytya (AV.) lifting up (yam).

166. The accusative in am of certain verbal nouns,

though not yet construed like a gerund in the Sahits, is
not infrequently so construed in the Brhmaas and Stras.
Before the suffix, the root (which is almost always com
pounded) appears in the form it assumes before the i of the
3. s. aor. pass. (155) ; e. g. kh sam--lmbh-am taking
hold of a branch (B.); mahngm abhisasram running
together around a great snake (B.).

Iv.

Infinitive.

I ^ 7 . The infinitive, all the forms of which are old cases

of verbal nouns, acc., dat., abl.-gen., or loc., is very frequent,
occurring about 700 times in the RV. Only the acc. and
dat. forms are common, but the datives outnumber the acc.
in the proportion of 12 to 1 in the RV. and 3 to 1 in
the AV. I t is a remarkable fact that the infinitive in tum,
the only form surviving in Sanskrit, occurs not more than
five times in the R v , while the dative infinitive, which in
the R v is more than seven times as common as all the
rest put together, has already for the most part disappeared
in the Brhmaas.
1
2

Sometimes not original but reduced from a long vowel.

H ere m i is reduced from ma measure.

INFINITIVE

167]

191

a. The infinitive is as a rule formed from the root, not being

connected with any tense stems or ever showing the distinctions of
voice. The forms i n dhyai, se and sni are, however, not infrequently
connected with a present stem ; that i n dhyai is once formed from
a perfect stem, and is also i n several instances taken by causative
stems. The forms i n dhyai and tavi are at once recognizable as
infinitives by their abnormal enings ; that i n sni, though i t has an
ordinary caseending, by its isolated stemformation. The acc. inf.
in tum and am and the abl. gen. inf. show their infinitive character
by their power of combining with prepositions and their verbal
construction. some infinitives, however, cannot be distinguished
from ordinary cases of verbal nouns : they are not to be regarded as
genuine infinitives unless they are isolated case forms or have a verbal
construction.

1. Dative Infinitive.
This infinitive ends in e, which with the final of a root
or stem combines to ai. I t is formed from :
a. roots, about sixty forms occurring. About a dozen are
formed from roots ending in long vowels and from one in i ,
all of them (except an alternative form of bh) being com
pounded with prefixes ; e. g. pardi to give up, prahy
to send (hi) ; mye to diminish (m), bhv and bhuv
to be ; tre to cross.
The rest are from roots ending in consonants. About
a dozen are uncompounded, as mah to be glad, mih to
shed water, bhj to enjoy, d- to see. But the compounded
forms are commoner ; e. g. grbhe to seize, dhe to kindle,
nde to thrust, pche to ask, vce to speak, vdhe
1

to pierce, syde to flow.^

1

The only daf. inf. i n ordinary use in B. is that in tavi. Otherwise

only five or six i n e (see note 6) ; two i n tave, vitave and str
tave, and one i n dhyai, s hyai to conquer ( sah) have been noted i n B.
Loc infinitives have disappeared.
Except rad-dh to trust and pra-m to form, which drop the . ^
With Samprasraa.
W i t h lengthened vowel.
W i t h loss of nasal (syand).
I n B. have been noted half a dozen infinitives i n e from roots
2

b. verbal nouns derived with nine different suffixes.

These in the aggregate are more numerous.
1. Some twenty-five are datives of stems in as ; e. g.
y-as-e to go, ck-as-e to see, earse to fare, puy-s-e
1

to thrive, bhiy-s-e to fear, riy-s-e to be resplendent.

2. Five or six datives of stems in i are found in the RV.,

and one or two in other Sahits ; tuj-ye to breed, d-y-e
to see, mahy-e to rejoiee, yudhy-e to fight, sanye to
win ; ghaye to seize (K.), citye to understand (vS.).
3. Four or five are datives of stems in t i : iy-e to
refresh, pty-e to drink, vtye to enjoy, saty-e
to win.
2

4. More than thirty are datives of stems in t u (added to

the gunated root, sometimes with connecting i) ; e. g.
ttave to eat, tav-e to go, tave to weave ( = v),
krtav-e to make, gntav-e to go, ptave to drink, bhr
tave to bear away, yave to sacrifice, vktav-e to speak,

Vstav-e to shine, vhav-e to convey (vah) ; vitav-e

to refresh, critav-e to fi^re, svitav-e to bring forth (s),

srvitav-e to flow (sru), hvitav-e to eall (h);

jvtave to live, strtav-e (AV.) to lay lolv (st).
5. More than a dozen are datives of stems in tava (which
is added like tu to the gunated root) and have the peculiarity
of being douhiy accented ; e. g. tavi to go, tavi to
weave, gntavi to go, ptavi to drink, mntavi to think,
srtavi to flow ; ymitavi to guide, srvitavi to
flow.
ending i n consonants, all but one being compounded : d- (TS.) to
see, pratidh e to withstand (TS.), pramrad to cr ush (B.), -rbh-e
to take hold (B.), sde to sit upon (AB.), atispe to glide over (MS.).
A n these except pramrad occur i n the RV.
Which is generally accented, but about half a dozen examples
accent the root.
The only examples of this infinitive noted in B. are vitave and
strtave.
1

DATIVE INFINITIVE

167]

193

a. This infinitive is still i n regular use i n B., where the following

examples have been noted : tavi and y t avi to go, krtavi to do,
ddyitavi to fly away, drgdhavi to plot, mntavi to think, mnthi
tavi to rule, strtavi to lay low, ticaritavi to transgress, netavi to
bring, nrastavi to throw out, pristartavi to strew around, s
hvayitavi to call together.

6. There is only one certain example of a dative infinitive

from a stem in ty : ityi to go.
7. More than thirtyfive are datives (almost restricted to
the R v ) of stems in dhy, which is added to verbal stems
ending in a (generally accented) ; e. g. iydhyai to go (i),
gmadhyai to go, cardhyai to fare, ay-dhyai to lie
(), stav-dhyai to praise (stu); pib-dhyai to drink
( p), p-dhyai to fill ( p), huv-dhyai to call (h) ;
vvdh-dhyai to strengthen ; naydhyai to cause to
disappear, vartaydhyai to cause to turn.
1

a. Only one of these infinitives has been noted i n B. : s hyai to

conquer (sah). I n the TS. occurs one example ending i n o instead
of ai : gamdhyo to go.

8. Five are datives of stems in man : trmae to protect,

dmane to give (Gk. ^op^uat), dhrmae to support,
bhrmae to preserve, vidmne (Gk. ^p^uat) to know.
9. Three are datives of stems in van : turve to over
come (t), dvne (Gk. ^ovuat = ^of^uat) to give, dhr
vae to injure.
4

2. Accusative Infinitive.
This infinitive is formed in two ways.
a. One of them (of which more than a dozen examples
occur in the RV. besides several others in the A v . ) is made
with am added to the weak form of the root, which nearly
1

The last three are made from regular present stems.

From the reduplicated perfect stem.
From the causative stem, from which about ten such infinitives
are formed.
W i t h interchange of vowel and semivowel : r v. Cp. 171, 2.
2

194

CONJUGATION

[167

always ends in a consonant (except dh, m, t) ; e. g.

samdham to kindle, sampcham to ask, rbham to
reach, arham to mount, bham to shine ; pratram
to prolong (t), pratidh m to place upon, pramyam to
neglect (m).
b. The second form which is made from stems in tu
( = Lat. supine) is much less common than the datives from
the same stems. Only five examples occur in the RV. and
about as many others in the A v ; RV. : tum to weave, d
tum to give (Lat. datum), prum to ask, prbhartum
to present, anuprvohum to advance ; AV. : ttum to eat,
krtum to make, drum to see, y c itum to ask,
sprdhitum to contend with ; K., VS. : khnitum to dig.
a. The ace inf. has become nearly twice as frequent as the dat. i n B.
The form i n am is not unusual, while that in tum is quite common.

3. Ablative Genitive Infinitive.

This infinitive is rare, fewer than twenty examples occur
ring in the Sahits. I t is rather of the nature of a verbal
noun than a genuine infinitive. Like the ace infinitive it
is formed in two ways : from a radical (consonant) stem and
from a verbal noun in tu. I t thus ends either in as or tos ;
and as each of these endings represents both the abl. and
the gen., the cases can only be distinguished syntactically.
a. The as form has the abl. sense almost exclusively.
There are six examples of .it in the RV. : tdas being
pierced, avapdas falling down, sampcas coming in con

tact, abhi-r-as binding, abhi-vs-as blowing, ati-kd-as

leaping across. There seems to be one certain example of
the gen. : ni-m-as to wink.
b. Of the tos form the RV. has six examples in the abl.
sense : -tos and gn-tos going, jn-i-tos being born,
n-dha-tos putting down, rtos being shattered, stos

pressing, hntos being struck. Three examples in the gen.

sense are : krtos doing, dtos giving, ytos warding off.
a. The abl. gen. inf. has become as common as the dat. i n B.

167-168]

LOCATIVE INFINITIVE

195

4. Locative Infinitive.
This form of the infinitive is rare; hardly more than
a dozen examples occur even if several doubtful forms are
included.
a. Five or six are locatives of radical stems : vy--i at
the dawning, sack-i on beholding, d- and sad-i
on seeing, budh- at the waking. As these forms, however,
have nothing distinctive of the infinitive and govern the
genitive only, they are rather to be regarded as ordinary
locatives of verbal nouns.
b. From a stem in tar are formed dhar-tr-i to support
and vi-dhartr-i to bestow ; it is, however, doubtful whether
theseformsare genuine infinitives.
e. The RV. has eight locatives from stems in san, with
a genuine infinitive sense: ne--i to lead, par-i to
pass, abhi-bh--i to aid, u-i to swell, sak--i
to abide (sac); with connecting : tar---i; from
present stems : gi to sing, st---i to spread.
DERIVATIVE VERBS.
I . Causatives.
I 6 S . This is by far the commonest of the secondary
conjugations, being formed from more than two hundred
roots in the Sahits and from about a hundred additional
ones in the Brhmaas. Of about 150 causative stems
in the RV., however, at least one-third have not a causative,
but an iterative sense. The whole formation may indeed
originally have had an iterative meaning. This perhaps
explains how an iterative formation, the reduplicated aorist,
specially attached itself to the causative. The same root
occasionally forms both the iterative and the causative, as
pat-ya-ti flies about and pt-yati causes to fly beside the
simple verb pta-ti flies.

The causative is formed by adding the suffix ya to the

root, which is usually strengthened.
1. Initial or medial i , u, , (if not long by position) take
Gua ; e. g. vid know : ved-ya causc to know ; krudh be
angry: krodh-ya enrage; d dissolve (intr.): ard-ya
destroy ; tp be pleased : tarp-ya delight ; kip be adapted :

kalp-ya arrange.
a. Several roots, mostly lacking the causative meaning,
leave the radical vowel unchanged ; e. g. rue shine : ruc-ya,
id. (but roc-ya illumine).
b. Initial or medial a (if not long by position) is lengthened
in about thirty roots; e.g. am be injurious: m-ya suffer
injury ; na be lost : n-ya destroy.
a. I n the following roots the a optionally remains short in the
causative : gam go, das waste away, dhvan disappear, pat jly mad be
exhilarated, ram rest ; thus pat jly : patya jly about, once ca^se to jly,
and pat ya cause to jly.
^. I n about twentyfive roots the a always remains short, the
causative meaning being mostly absent ; e. g. dam control : damya
id. ; jan beget : janya id.

e. Final i , , take Gua or Vddhi ; e. g. k i possess :

1

kayya cause to dwell securely ; cyu waver : cyvya

shake ; bh be : bhvya eause to become ; gh drip : ghr
ya cause to drip ; ru hear, j waste away, and s flow have

Gua as well as Vddhi: rav-ya and rv-ya cause to

hear ; jarya and jrya wear out, sarya and srya
cause to flow ; d pierce has Gua only : darya shatter.
d. Roots ending in a add pya ; e. g. dh put : dhpya
2

cause to put.

e. The causative retains the suffix throughout the conju

gation even outside the present system. Its inflexion is
identical with that of the primary verbs of the first conju
1

The only example of a causative from a root in final i (except the

irregular jpya from j i conquer and rpya from ri resort).
As to other roots taking paya see 'Irregularities', 2.
2

CAUSATIVE

168]

197
2

gation (132). Subjunctive, imperative, injunctive, imperfect,

and present participle forms are common ; but the optative
is very rare in the active and does not occur at all in the
middle. Only four future forms occur in the R v and the
A v . : dayiymi I shall spoil, dhrayiyti will support,
vsayiyse thou wilt adorn thyself, vrayiyte will shield.

In the perfect only one periphrastic form (139, 9 a) occurs :

gamay cak r a (AV.). Reduplicated aorist forms are
connected with only six causative stems (p. 175, a. 3). There
are also three is aorists formed from the causative stem:
vyathays from vyathya disturb ; ailayt from ilya
guiet down ; dhvanayt from dhvanya envelope.
f Of nominal derivatives the following are examples :
a pres. pass. part. bhjymna ; a few perf. pass. parti
ciples : ghrit smeared, codit impelled, ve-i-t caused to
enter; a few gerundives in yya (162, 2) : trayay y ya to be
3

guarded; panay y ya admirable; sphayyya

desirable;

ten infinitives in dhyai : naydhyai to destroy, &c.

(p. 193, 7) ; four gerunds in the A v : arpayitv having
delivered up, kalpayitv having arranged, sdayitv having
set down, srasayitv letting fall.

Irregularities.
1. Three causatives i n the AV. shorten the before paya : japya
cause to know, ra-pya cook, sna-pya bathe beside sn-pya (RV.).
2. Four roots i n vowels other than a, that is, i n o r i , take paya;
r go : ar-pya cause to go ; k i dwell : ke-pya cause to dwell (beside
1

The only du. mid. form occurring is 3. mdyaite ; and the only
mid. form in ai (except 1. du.) i n the RV. is mdaydhvai.
The 2. s. i n t t occurs i n both v. and B. ; and from v cover occurs
the unique 2. pl. varaya-dhvt i n K.
I n B. such forms are still uncommon except in the B., where
they are numerous.
I n B. desideratives are formed from about a dozen causative
stems ; e.g. di-drpay-ia desire to cause to run.
2

kay-ya) ; j i conquer and ri resort substitute for i : j-pya cause to

conquer, r-pya raise.
3 The root bh fear forms the quite anomalous causative stem
bh--ya frighten .
4. The roots p drink and py swell add aya with interposed y :
pay-ya cause to drink and pyy-ya fill up. This is probably to be
explained by the assumption that the original form of these roots was
p ai and pyai.
5. The vowel of grabh grasp is weakened by samprasraa : gbh-ya
grasp ; while that of dus spoil is lengthened : du-ya, id. The
root p fill, owing to its initial labial, forms its causative with medial
u for : pr-ya fulfil.
1

II.

Desideratives.

169. The desiderative, which is the least common of the

secondary conjugations, is formed from the root with an
accented reduplicative syllable and the suffix sa. This s a is
never added with a connecting i in the R v , nor, with the
single exception of p-pat-ia, in the Av., j-jv-i-a i n the
VS., and j-gam-i-a in the TS. The desiderative is formed
from fewer than sixty roots in the Sahits and from more
than thirty additional ones in B. I t is inflected like verbs
of the first conjugation (132).
The accent being on the reduplicative syllable, the root as
a rule remains unchanged ; e. g. d a give : d-da-sa desire to
give ; bhid cleave : b-bhit-sa ; n lead : n-na ; guh hide :
j - g u k - a (62 a, 69 a) ; bh be : b-bhu-a ; d see : ddk-a. But
1. final i and u are lengthened, and becomes r ; e. g.
j i conquer: jg-a; ru hear: -r-a ; k make: c
kr-a.
2. final a is i n three roots reduced (cp. 171, 3) to and in
1

I n B. the root ruh rise, even though ending in a consonant, takes

paya after dropping its h : ro-paya raise (beside roh- ya).
I n B. about a dozen other roots form their desiderative stem
thus ; e. g. ci-kram-1.sa, ji-graha, vi-vid-i-a (vid know), ^e.
2

DESIDERATIVES

16917l]

199

one to i : g go: jga (SV.) ; pa drink: ppa (beside

ppasa) ; h go forth : jha ; dha put : ddhia (beside
dhtsa).
Special Rule of Reduplication.
170. The characteristic reduplicative vowel is i , which
appears in all stems except those formed from roots contain
ing (which reduplicate with u) ; e. g. jy ovepower :
j-jyasa; mis mix: mmika; pr love: ppra; vt turn:
vvtsa ; but guh hide: jguka; bh be : bbha.
Irregularities.
171. 1. Five roots w i t h medial a followed by m or n lengthen the
vowel : gam go : jgsa ; han smite : jghsa (66 A 2) ; man
think lengthens the reduplicative vowel also : mmsa (66 A 2) ;
van win and san gain drop the nasal : vvsa and sssa.
2. dhv injure, after interchange of semivowel and vowel to ur
lengthens its u : ddhura. Cp. p. 193, note 4.
3. H aifa dozen roots containing or a shorten the radical syllable
by a kind of syncopation : d give and dh put lose their vowel :
dtsa ( = dd[a]sa) beside ddasa ; dbtsa ( = ddh[]sa)
beside ddhia ; dabh harm, labh take, ak be able, sah prevail lose
their initial radical consonant and their vowel : d-p-sa ( = d [ d a ] b h sa), l p - s a (--- l[la]bh-sa), k-a ( = [a]ka), ska with
lengthened reduplicative vowel ( s[sa]ksa).
1

a. p obtain and ^dh thrive (treated as ardh) contract the redupli

cated i with the radical initial to : psa ( = psa) and rrtsa
( ardhsa).
4. I n ci note, cit perceive, j i conquer, han slay, the radical initial
reverts to the original guttural : cksa, ckitsa jfga, j
ghsa.

Also dhpsa in B.
Also lpsa in B.
I n B. are similarly formed dhka (dah burn), pitsa (pad go),
ripsa (rabh grasp).
2

5. ghas eat changes its final s to t (66 B 1) : j-ght-sa (Av.) be

hungry.
6. Three roots reduplicate with a long vowel: tur cross ( = t) :
tu-tur-a ; bdh oppress : b-bhatsa ; man think : m-m-sa. On
the other hand the reduplicative syllable is reduced i n the desiderative
f yaj saeri/ice and na attain by loss of the initial consonant : -yak-a
(for yyak-a) and -nak-sa (for n-naka). I n one form from p
obtain the reduplication is dropped altogether : ap-santa.
1

a. The two roots w i t h initial vowel a eat and edh increase form their
desiderative stem with the reduplicative vowel in the second syllable :
a-i-i-a (B.) and ed-idh-i-a (vs.).

I n the inflexion of the desiderative all the moods of the

present system, besides the imperfect, are represented,
though not fully ; and of present participles more than
twenty-five examples are met with. The forms occurring,
if made from v-v-sa desire to win, would be :
Present ind. act. sing. 1. vvsmi.
2. vvsasi.
3. vvsati. Du. 2. vivsathas. 3. vvsatas. PI. 1.
vvsmas. 3. vvsanti.
Mid. sing. 1. vvse.
2. vvsase.
3. vvsate.
Pl. 1. vvsmahe. 3. vvsante.
Subj. act. sing. 1. vvsni. 3. vvst. Pl. 3. vvsn.
Inj. act. sing. 3. vvsaI. M id. pl. 3. vvsanta.
Opt. act. sing. 1. vvseyam. 3. vvset. PI. I. vvse
ma. Mid. sing. 1. vvseya.
Impv. act. sing. 2. vvsa and vvsatt. 3. vvsatu.
Du. 2. vvsatam.
3. vvsatm.
Pl. 2. vvsata.
3. vvasantu.
Part. act. vvasant. M id. vvasamna.
Impf. act. sing. 2. vivsas. 3. vivsat. PI. 3.
vivsan.

With shortening of the radical vowel.

With lengthening of the radical vowel.

DESIDERATIvES

171172]

201
1

a. Outside the present system only two desiderative verbal forms

have been met with, two i aorists i n the AV. : cikitss and
rtss.
Three participial forms have also been noted : the perf.
pass. part. mmsit3 and the gerundives didrkya worthy to be
seen and urya worthy to be heard. Finally, over a dozen verbal
adjectives formed with u from the desiderative stem occur i n the RV.,
e. g. iyak wishing to sacrifice. They have the value of a pres. part.
governing a case.
4

III.

Intensives (Frequentatives).

172. These verbs are meant to convey intensification or

frequent repetition of the action expressed by the simple
root. They are common, being formed from over ninety
roots in the Sahits, and about twentyfive others in the
Brahmaas. The formation is restricted to roots with
initial consonants, nor is it ever applied to derivative verbs.
The stem, of which a peculiar form of strong reduplication
is characteristic, has two forms. The primary type, which
is by far the commonest, adds the personal endings imme
diately to the reduplicated stem (accented on the first syllable
in strong forms : App. I I I . 12 e). I t is inflected, in both
active and middle, like a verb of the third or reduplicated
class (132) ; e. g. nij wash : 3. sing. nnekti. The secondary
form, which is rare, adds accented y in the same way as
the passive (154) to the reduplicated stem. I t is conjugated
in the middle only, like the passive ; e. g. vij tremble :
vevijyte trembles violently.
1

I n B. periphrastic perfect forms from five or six desiderative

stems have been noted.
I n B. is aorists from half a dozen desiderative stems occur ; e. g.
aipst aipsima, ajighss, ammsihs. One or two
simple and periphrastic futures also occur i n B as titikiyate (tij
be sharp), didkit r as (d see).
I n B. also jijyuit (jv live), dhk-i-t (dah burn), uru-i-t
(r hear).
I n B. also lpsi-tavya (labh take), didnys-i-tavy (dhy think),
jijnsy (jn know). ^
2

a. The primary intensive optionally inserts between the

root and terminations beginning with consonants. This
is found in the 1. 3. s. ind. act. and the 2. 3. s. impv. and
impI. act. ; e. g. ind. cka--mi, c k a--ti ; impv. 2. caka-hI. 3. jhav--tn ; impI. 3. johavt.
Special Rules of Reduplication.
173. I. Radical and are reduplicated with the respective
Gua vowels e and o ; e. g. di point : de-di ; n lead :
ne-n ; uc shine : o-uc ; nu praise : no-nu ; bh be :
ho-bh.
2. Radical a and are reduplicated in two ways :
a. More than a dozen roots with medial a (ending in
mutes or sibilants, and one in m) as well as three with
final r, reduplicate with a : k shine : c-ka ; pat fall :
p-pat ; gam go : jagam ; g wake : jg ; d split : dad ;
dh hold : dadh ; also cal stir : ccal.
b. A l l ether roots containing (d and dh also alter
natively) and those with medial a followed by r, 1, or a
nasal, reduplicate with ar, al, an or am ; e. g. k com
memorate : cark and carkir ; k drag : cark ; d
split : dard and dardir (beside dd) ; dh hold : dardn
(beside ddh) ; h be excited : jarh ; car move : carcar ;
phar scatter : parphar ; cal stir : calcal (beside ccal) ;
gam go : jangam (beside jagam); jambh chew up : jajabh ;
da bite : dan-da ; tan thunder : tastan (66 A 2).
3. Over twenty roots with final or penultimate nasal,
or , interpose an (or i if the vowel would be long by
position) between the reduplicative syllable and the root ;
e. g. gam go : gan-i-gam (but gan-i-gm-at) ; han slay :
ghan-ghan ; krand cry out : kan-i-krand and kan-i-krad ;
skand leap : kan-i-kand and can-i-kad ; bh bear : bhar
-bh ; vt turn : var--vt ; nu praise : nav-nu ; dh shake :
dav-i-dhv ; dyut shine : dav-i-dyut.

INTENSIVES

174]

203

1.rre^ularitie^.
174. The radical vowel is shortened i n roots with medial : k
shine : c-ka ; bdh oppress : b-badh ; v bellow : v-va. I n a few
roots containing or r the radical syllable varies ; thus gr swallow :
jargur and jalgul ; car move : carcur beside carcar ; t cross : tar
tur beside tartar.
a. The root go reduplicates with al : alar (dissimilation) ; gh
plunge, with a nasal: j a g a h ; bdh oppress, w i t h its final m u t e :
badbadh (beside bbadh) ; bh bear and bhur quiver, with a palatal :
jarbhr, jarbhur ; bhur and gur greet reduplicate u with a : jarbhur,
jargur.
b. Roots with initial guttural, i f interposing before the root,
reduplicate with the same guttural ; thus krand cry out : kanikrand ;
gam go : gangam ; han (for ghan) slay : ghanghan ; k make has
both karikr and carik ; skand leap has both kaniskand and
canikad.
1

A. The forms of the primary type that occur, if made

from nij wash, would be the following :
1. Pres. ind. act. sing. 1. nnejmi, nnejmi. 2. n
neki. 3. nnekti nnejti. Du. 2. nenikths. 3. ne
nikts. PI. 1. nenijms, nenijmsi. 3. nnijati.
Mid. sing. 1. nenij. 3. nenikt. Du. 3. nnijte.
PI. 3. nnijate.
2. Subj. act. sing. 1. nnijni. 2. nnijas. 3. nnij
aI. Du. 1. nnijva. PI. 1. nnijma. 3. nnijan.
Mid. du. 3. nnijaite. Pl. 3. nnijanta.
3

I n B. also jajapyte (jap mutter). H ere also vah carry re

duplicates with n (together with interposed ) though there is no
trace of a nasal i n the root : vanvnyte.
This is the only example of such reduplication.
This root shows the same peculiarity in the perfect (139, 4).
The intensive of this root occurs only i n the participle karikrt
and carikrt.
The only form occurring in this person has the interposed i and
strong radical syllable : tartarthas.
The only form actually occurring in this person is jaghnni
(accented like the subj. of the reduplicating present).
9
3

3. Opt. No certain forms occur in the R v and only two

active forms in other Sahits: sing. 3. veviyt (Av.),
pl. 1. jagyma (vS., MS., TS.), jgriyma (TS.). The
3. s. mid. nenijta occurs in K.
4. Impv. About twenty active (but no middle) forms
occur. Made from jg these would be : sing. 2. jghi,
jgarhi, jgt t . 3. j g artu, j g artu. Du. 2. jg
tm. 3. jgt m . PI. 2. jgt.
5. Of the participle over forty stems occur, about twothirds
of them being active. Examples are: act. knikradat,
ckitat, jghanat, j g rat, drdrat, n n adat, rruv
at ; mid. jrbhura, dnda-na, yyuv-na (yu join),
srsr-a.
6. Impf. Fewer than thirty forms of this tense occur,
only three of them being middle. Examples of the persons
occurring are :
Act. sing. 1. -cka-am. 2. jgar. 3. dardar,
varvar, johavt; dvidyot, nvnot. Du. 2.
dardtam.
Pl. 1. marmjm.
3. carkur,
dardirur, nonavur.
Mid. sing. 3. dedia, nannata. PI. 3. mrmjata.
1

a. Outside the present system few intensive forms occur. There

are four act. perfect intensives with present sense : sing. 1. jgara.
3. jg r a (^7^vo^), davidhva (dh shake), nnava (nu praise); also
dodrva (dru run : Ts.), yoyva (yu separate : MS.), lel y a (l be
unsteady.. MS.). There is besides the perf. part. jagv s. A causa
tive intensive appears once in the participial form varvarjyant
twisting about.
4

I n B. occurs the 2. s. mid. form nenikva ( nij),

The RV. has no impv. forms with interposed , but the AV. and
Vs. have a few i n the 2. 3. s., as cka--hi johav--tu. A few
examples occur i n B. also.
From nam bend, with loss of nasal (a = sonant nasal), for -nannan-ta.
I n B. also occur the causative stems from intensives jgarya
and ddhr-ya (dh hold).
2

174175]

INTENSIVES

205

B. The forms of the secondary type, which is indis

tinguishable from a passive in form, number only about
a dozen. They occur only in the 2. 3. s. and 3. pi. ind. pres.,
besides a few participles. They are :
Pres. ind. sing. 2. cokyse (sku tear). 3. dediy-te, neny-te, marmj-yte, rerih-y-te, vevij-yte,
vev-yte (v enjoy). Pl. 3. tartr-ynte (t), marmjynte.
Part. carcr-y-ma (car), nen-y-mna, marmjy-mna.
I v . Denominatives.
175. These verbs, inflected like those of the a conjugation
(132), are derived, almost exclusively with the suffix ya,
from nouns, to which they express some such relation as
' be or act like ', treat as , ' turn into ', or ' use as ', ' wishfor.
More than a hundred denominative stems occur in the RV.
and about fifty in the Av. The suffix is normally accented,
but a certain number of undoubted denominatives, such as
mantr-ya utter a prayer, arth-ya make an objeet of, desire,

have the causative accent, thus forming a connecting link

between the regular denominatives and the causatives.
A. Before the suffix ya :
1. final i and u are lengthened ; e. g. kavy be wise
(kavi), ray-y desire wealth (ray) ; j-y be straight
(j) ; vas-y desire wealth (vsu) ; atr-y play the
2

enemy (tru), be hostile.

2. final a usually remains unchanged, but is often length

ened ; it is sometimes changed to ; and even dropped ;
1

Denominatives are less common i n B. ; thus the A B . has hardly

twenty, and the B. about a dozen.
. Except artiy act like an enemy, be hostile beside arty and
janiy seek a wife beside jany ; gtuy set in motion (gt),
I n the Pada text the 1 is usually, the is always, written short.
2

e. g. jara-y treat like a lover, deva-y serve the gods, tya

act according to sacred order; av-y desire horses, ty
observe sacred order (beside tya), yajy sacrifice ;
2

adhvary perform the sacrifice (adhvar), putry desire

a son (putr), rathy drive in a car (rtha) ; adhvary
perform sacrifice (beside adhvary), taviy be mighty
(tavi : beside taviy),
3. final a remains unchanged ; e. g. gopy aet as herdsman,
proteet, ptanay fight. Final o, in the only example
occurring, becomes av : gavy desire cows.
4. Consonant stems, the commonest being those in as,
nearly always remain unchanged ; e. g. bhiajy play the
2

physician, heal ; ukay act like a bull (ukn) ; vadhary

hurl a bolt (vdhar) ; sumanasy be gracious (sumnas) ;

taruy engage in fight (trus).
a. A few denominative forms are made without a suffix, direct
from nominal stems, but nearly always beside regular denominatives
i n y ; e. g. bhiskti from bhij act as physician beside bhisajy ;
and the forms taruema, taruante, taruanta (from trua
conqueror) beside tarns y.

Inflexion.

PI. 1.
ynti.

B. A l l the tenses, moods, and participles of the present

system are represented. I f made from namasy pay homage
the forms occurring would be :
1. Pres. ind. act. sing. 1. namasy m i. 2. namasysi.
3. namasyti. Du. 2. namasythas. 3. namasytas.
namasymasi, mas. 2. namasytha. 3. namas
Mid. sing. 1. namasy.

2. namasyse.

3. namasyte.

W i t h causative accent.
The Pada text i n this and nearly every example has Iy.
the sahit text of the AV. has putriy.
The may also be dropped : ptany fight against.
2

Even

DENOMINATIVES

175]

207

Du. 2. namasythe. 3. namasyte. PI. 1. namasy

mahe. 3. namasynte.
2. Subj. act. sing. 1. namasy. 2. namasys. 3. na
masyt. Du. 3. namasytas. PI. 3. namasyn.
Mid. sing. 2. namasy s e. 3. namasy t e.
3. I n j . act. sing. 2. namasys. Pl. 3. namasyn.
4. opt. act. Sing. 2. namasys. 3. namasyt. PI. 1.
namasyma.
Mid. sing. 3. namasyta.
5. Impv. act. sing. 2. namasy. 3. namasytu. Du. 2.
namasytam. 3. namasytm. PI. 2. namasyta. 3. na
masyntu.
Mid. sing. 2. namasysva.
PI. 2. namasydhvam.
3. namasyntam.
6. Part. act. namasynt. Mid. namasymana.
7. ImpI. act. sing. 2. namasyas. 3. namasyat. Du. 3.
namasytam. PI. 3. namasyan.
Mid. sing. 3. namasyata. Du. 2. namasyethm. Pl. 3.
namasyanta.
a. The only finite forms occurring outside the present
system are four aorists. Two are injunctives :
s. nays
(RV.) from naya leave unfulfilled (na) ; 2. pl. ppayia
(TS.) from papaya lead into evil (papa) ; and two indicatives :
3. s. saparyait (AV.) has worshipped (an irregular form,
probably = saparyt) ; 3. pl. vyiata (VS.) they
have accepted. The TS. has also the three fut. participles
1

kayiynt about to scratch, meghyiynt about to be

cloudy, kay-iynt about to drip, with the corresponding

perf. pass. part. kayit, meghit, kit.
2

I n B. also occurs the is aor. syt has murmured.

I n B. also occurs the future gopy-iyati.
I n B. there are also a few other past pass. participles and a few
gerunds.
2

CHAPTER V
INDECLINABLE WORDS
Prepositions.
I 7 6 . Two classes of prepositions have to be distinguished.
The first comprises the genuine or adverbial prepositions.
These are words with a local sense which, primarily used to
modify the meaning of verbs, came to be connected inde
pendently with the cases governed by the verbs thus
modified. They show no signs of derivation from inflexional
forms or (except tirs and purs) forms made with adverbial
suffixes. The second class has been called adnominal
prepositions because they are not compounded with verbs,
but govern cases of nouns only. They almost invariably
end in case terminations or adverbial suffixes.
1. Adverbial Prepositions.
There are fourteen or (if sm is included) fifteen genuine
prepositions which, when used independently of verbs,
define the local meaning of cases. They are almost entirely
restricted to employment with the acc., loc., and abl. As
their connexion with the abl. is only secondary, the genuine
prepositions appear to have been originally connected with
the acc. and loc. only. As a rule these prepositions follow,
but also often precede, their case.
I. The accusative is exclusively taken by cha towards,
ti beyond, nu after, abh towards, prti (Gk. 7rpori) against,
and tirs across (cp. LaI. trans).

a. pri (Gk. 7r^pi) around takes the acc. primarily, but

secondarily and more frequently the abl. in the sense of
from (around).

PREPOSITIONS

176177]

209

b. pa to (with verbs of motion) takes the acc. primarily,

and less frequently the loc. in the sense of beside, upon, at.
2. The locative is exclusively taken by pi (Gk. ^7ri) upon
and primarily by dhi upon, antr (Lat. inter) between, on,
in, at, to, purs before.
a. dhi takes the abl. secondarily and less commonly i n the sense
of from (upon).
b. The last three secondarily take both abl. and ace. ; purs does
so without change of meaning.
antr with abl. means from (within) ; with acc., between.
a with ace. means to, expressing the goal with verbs of motion.
With the abl., i f following, i t means from (on) ; i f preceding, up to.
1

3. The ablative seems to he used once or twice indepen

dently with va in the sense of down from.
2. Adnominal Prepositions.
177. These prepositions, being adverbs in origin, govern
oblique cases (except the dat.) independently. Several of
them govern the genitive and the instrumental, cases that
are practically never connected with the genuine prepositions
in the SahitS. I n the following list these prepositions
are grouped under the cases which they accompany :
1. Acc. : adns below (also with abl. or gen.), antar
between, abhtas around, upri above, beyond, pars beyond

(also with abl., more often inst.), partas around (AV.),

3

sanitr apart from.

2. Instr. : sah with, skm with, sumd with, smd

with ; avs below (also abl.), pars outside (also acc. and abl.).
3. AbI. : adhs below (also acc. and gen.), avs down from
1

I t sometimes also precedes the abl. i n this sense.

This is almost the only use of i n B. ; i n C. i t means both from
and up to.
I n B. several adverbial instrumentais expressing situation or
direction govern the acc. : ntarea between, varea below, prea
beyond ; ttarea to the north of, dkiena to the south of.
2

(also instr.), r far from (also gen.), rt without, pars apart

from (also acc. and inst.), pur before, bahirdh from out,
sanutr far from.
4. Gen. : purstd in front of.
1

5. Loc. : sc (in assoeiation) with, beside, at, in.

Adverbial Caseforms.
179. Many easeforms of nominal and pronominal stems,
often not otherwise in use, are employed as adverbs.
Examples of all the eases appear with adverbial function.
1. Nom. : prathamm firstly, dvityam secondly. Such
adverbs were originally used in apposition to the verbal
action.
2. Acc. : these adverbs find their explanation in various
meanings of the case. They represent (a) the cognate acc. ;
e. g. bhuyas more, and comparatives in taram added to
verbal prefixes, as vitarm (kram) (stride) more widely;
(b) the appositional ace ; e. g. nma by name, rpm in form,
satym truly ; (e) the acc. of direction ; e. g. gram (i) (go)
to the front of, before, stam (gam) (go) home ; (d) the acc. of

distance and time ; e. g. drm a long way off, far ; nktam

by night, sym in the evening, nitym constantly, p r vam
formerly.
a. There are also some acc. adverbs derived from obsolete nominal
stems, as ram sufficiently, nnm now ; others from pronominal
stems, as ads there, idm here, now, km why yd when.

3. Instr. : adverbs with the ending of this case (sometimes

pl.) are formed from substantives, adjectives, and pronouns.
They usually express manner or accompanying circumstances,
as shas forcibly, nvyasa anew, en in this way ; also not
l I n B. the gen. is governed by this adverb as well as by parastd
after; e. g. sktasya purastt before the hymn ; savatsarasya paras tt
after a year.

178179]

ADVERBS

211

infrequently extension of space or time, as grea in front,

aktbhis by night, drva by day.
a. The substantive instrumentais are chiefly formed from feminines
in not otherwise used, as tay in the right way, naktay by night.
b. The adjective instrumentais are formed from stems i n a and
a few i n c ; e. g. ucc and uccis on high, pac behind, madny in the
midst, nais slowly ; prc forwards. There are also several anomalous
feminines from stes i n u and one or two i n ; e. g. u-y- swiftly,
raghuy rapidly, sdhuy straight, urviy f ar.
c. The pronominal instrumentais are formed from stems i n a and
one i n u ; e. g. an thus, am at home, ay thus, kay how ubhay in
both ways ; amuy in that way.

4. Dat. : the adverbial use of the dat. is rare : apar y a

for the future (from para later), vrya according to wish

(vra choice).
5. A b l . :theseadverbs are seldom formed from substan
tives, as art from a distance, st from near; or from
pronouns, amt from near, t then, tt thus, yt as far as ;
but they are fairly often formed from adjectives, as uttar t
from the north, dr t from afar, pact from behind, sant
from of old, sakt visibly.

6. Gen. : such adverbs are very rare : akts by night,

vstos in the morning.
7. Loc. : gre in front, astamk at home, k near, r
afur, t without, dur afar ; apar u in future.

Adverbs formed with Suffixes.

179. The suffixes more or less commonly used in the
formation of adverbs may be grouped under the senses
expressed by the instr., abl., and loc. cases.
1. Instr. : th forms adverbs of manner especially from
pronominal stems : th and more commonly (with short
ened vowel) tha then, itth thus, imtha in this manner,
kath how ?, ttha thus, yth in which manner, anytha
otherwise, viv-tha in every way ; rdhv-th upwards,

prvth formerly, pratnth as of old ; tnth regularly,

nmth by name ; evth just as.
a. tham is similarly used in itthm thus and kathm how

dh forms adverbs of manner from numerals or cognate

words : ekadh singly, dvdh in two ways, katidh how
many times, purudh variously, bahudh and viv-dh
in many ways, ava-dh again and again.

I t also forms

adverbs from a few nouns, adverbs, and pronouns : priya

dh kindly, mitradh in a friendly way ; bahirdh outward ;
dh then, addh (thus =) truly. The same suffix, with
its vowel shortened, forms sadha (in one way =) together,
which appears as the first member of several compounds,
and as an independent word assumes the form of sah with.
^. The suffix ha probably also represents original dh i n ih here
(Prakrit idha), kha where ? viv-ha and vivh always, samaha
in some way or other.

va, expressing similarity of manner, forms the two adverbs

iva like, as, and ev (often ev) thus. vam appears in
evm thus, the later form of ev.
vat forms adverbs meaning like from substantives and
adjectives ; e. g. manuvt like Manu ; puravt, pr
vavt, pratnavt as of old.
as forms adverbs of manner with a distributive sense :
ata-s by hundreds, sahasra-s by thousands, reis in
rows ; tu-s season by season, deva-s to each of the gods,
parva-s joint by joint, manma-s each as he is minded.

s forms two or three multiplicative adverbs : dv-s twice,

tr-s thriee. I t also appears in a few other adverbs : adh-s
below, av-s downwards; dy-s (from dyu day) in anyedy-s next day and ubhayadys on both days.

2. Abl. : tas forms adverbs in the ablative sense from

pronouns, nouns, and prepositions ; e. g. -tas hence, am-tas
thenee, i-ts from here, mat-ts from me ; dakia-ts from
the right, htts from the heart ; abh-tas around, par-tas

179180]

ADvERBS

213

round about. These adverbs are sometimes equivalent to

ablatives ; e. g. to bh y as more than that.

tt (an old abl. of ta that) forms adverbs with an abl.

sense (sometimes merging into the loc.) ; e. g. adhstt
below ; r t tt from afar ; pae tt from behind ; purstt
in or from the front ; pr k tt from the front.

3. Loc. : as forms adverbs chiefly of a local or temporal

sense : tirs aeross, pars beyond, purs before ; sadvas
and sadys today, v-s to-morrow, hy-s yesterday ; also
mith-s wrongly.
tr or tra forms adverbs with a local sense, mostly from
pronominal or cognate stems : -tra here, any-tra elsewhere,
vivtra everywhere; asmatr among us, satr in one
place, dakiatr on the right, purutr in many places,
bahutr amongst many ; devatr among the gods, martya
tr among mortals, ayu-tr on a couch.
a. These adverbs are sometimes used as equivalents of locatives,
e. g. hsta dakiatr in the right hand.

d forms adverbs of time almost exclusively from pro

nominal roots : id now, kad when ? tad then, yada at
what time, sd and sarvada always.
^. dam occurs beside d in sdam always ; and dnm an extended
form of da, i n idnm now, tad nm then, viva-d nm always.
^. There are also various miscellaneous adverbs, mostly of obscure
origin, formed w i t h other suffixes of rare occurrence ; e. g. pur
before, mthu wrongly.

Conjunctive and Adverbial Particles.

ISO. ag emphasizes a preceding word (sometimes
separated from it by short particles like h and m) in such
a way as to express that the action especially or exclusively
applies to that word, just, only, else ; e. g. y ang just he
who ; yd ag just when, just because ; tvm ag thou only ;
km ag how else, why else ?

a. I n B. ag never has this meaning ; but it sometimes there begins

a sentence with an adhortative sense, accentuating the verb : ag no
yaj vyckva pray explain the sacrifice to us (MS.).

tra sometimes occurs as the correlative to yd when ;

e. g. vve yd asy rayanta dev, pr vo tra sum
nm aym when all the gods shall rejoice in it, then may I
obtain your favours.

nean,

tha, a collateral form of dha, occurs chiefly in the more

recent hymns of the RV., and entirely supplants the older
doublet in the later Vedas. Connecting sentences and
clauses it expresses a temporal or logical sequence. I t may
generally be translated by (and) then, (and) so ; when there
is a contrast, especially after a negative, it is equivalent to
but. I t often corresponds to a yd when or h since, as, in
the antecedent clause. With very few exceptions tha begins
the sentence or clause. Examples are : mardbhir, indra,
sakhy te astu, them vv p t an jaysi befriends
with the Maruts, O Indra, then thou shalt win all these battles
7

(viii. 96 ) ; huv vm, tha m ( = m ) gatam I call you,

so come to me (viii. 10 ) ; ydd devr sahisa may,
ath b havat kvala smo asya when he had overcome the
5

godless wiles, Soma became exclusively his (vii. 98^) ; m k ir

mk

rian,

mk

ri

kvae,

thri

bhir gahi let none be lost, let none suffer harm, none incur
fracture in a pit, but come back with them uninjured (vI. 547).

From B. : pti n me pnaryuva kurutam, tha

va vakyami make my husband young again, then I shall

tell you (B.) ; ah durg hnt^ity, tha ks tvm i t i

I am called the slayer in danger, but who are you ? (TS.).
a. tha is also occasionally used after gerunds (which are equivalent
to an antecedent clause) : subhgyam asyai dattvaya^,tha^,stam v
pretana having wished her luck, then go home (x. 85 3). This use is
common i n B., where i t also occurs after present participles and
locatives absolute.
b. tha i n the sense of also connects substantives, but this use
3

represents an abridged sentence ; e.g. im smso dhi turve,

ydau, im kveu vm tha these Somas are beside Turvaa, beside

Yadu, (they are) also beside the Kavas for you (viii. 9 ). From B. : id
h pit ^ ev^,gr 'tha putr 'tha putra for here first comes the father, then
the son, then the grandson (B.).
c. I n B. tha also connects the verbs of a compound relative clause :
ysya pit pitmah pya syd, tha tn n prpnuy t whose
father and grandfather are pious, but who cannot attain to this (TS.).
14

tho ( = tha u) generally means and also, moreover:

arvavto na gahy tho, akra, parvta come to us from
11

near, and also, O mighty one, from afar (ill. 37 ).

From B. :

sm inddha nakhbhyo 'tho lmabhya he kindles

himself completely up to his nails and also his hair (^B.).
a. I n B. thc sometimes has the sense of but also, e. g. t vi dv
bhavata . . . tho pi tr i syu there are two of them, but there may also
be three (sB.),

dha occurs in the RV. only, and almost exclusively, as

compared with tha, in the earlier hymns. Like the latter
it means then, expressing both a temporal and a logical
sequence ; when there is a contrast, but. dha. ..dha both...
and ; dha dvit and that particularly ; dha n just now ;
now at last ; and even ; dha sma especially then.

Unlike

tha it is never used with u.

pi meaning also, even generally precedes the word it
emphasizes: y gop pi t huve he who is the herdsman,
him too I call (x. 19 ) ; adhr bpsad agnr n vyati,
4

pnar yn trur pi Agni tires not of chewing plants,

returning even to the young ones (viii. 437). From B. : td

dhaitd py vidvsa hu even those who do not know

say this (B .) ; ady p i even today (AB.).

ram is an adverb meaning suitably, in readiness. Some

times used like an adjective, it is construed with the dative ;
e. g. tvan ay ptave smo astu, ram mnase yuv
bhym such let this Soma be (for you) to drink, according to (your)
mind for you two (i. 108 ) ; s s mai^ram it is ready for him.
2

In combination with k it means serve, prepare (anything)

for, with gam, serve, with bh, accrue (to any one) suitably or

sufficiently, always taking the dative.

a. lam, the form i n which the preceding word appears i n B., is there
often similarly used ; e. g. s nlam huty sa nla bhakya it
was not jit for offering, nor fit for consuming (B.).

ha in the RV. and AV. emphasizes a preceding word

whether it he verb, substantive, pronoun, adjective, adverb,
or preposition. Its sense may generally be expressed by
surely, certainly, indeed, just, or merely by stress.

I t also

appears after other emphasizing particles such as d, ghd,

ut, m. Examples of its use are: kvha where pray?
(x. 5l ) ; nha not at all (i. 147 ) ; ysyha akr svan
2

eu ryati in the pressings of whomsoever the mighty one

rejoices (x. 43^),
I n B. this use of ha is still found. But here i t generally occurs i n
the first of two slightly antithetical sentences, the verb of the first
being then nearly always accented, while the antithesis i n the second
sentence is either not expressed at all, or is indicated by the particles
tha, u or t ; e.g. prcy ha devbhyo yaj vhaty arv c
manuyan avati turned away it takes the sacrifice to the gods ; turned hither
it advances men (B.). Sometimes ( i n MS. and Ts.) ha is thus used
with the first of two v's ; e. g. ksya v h ed v bhavit ksya v
this will tomorrow belong either to the one or the other (MS.).

(otherwise a preposition) appears in V. fairly often

emphasizing, in the sense of completeness, words expressive
of number or degree, or sometimes even ordinary adjectives
and substantives ; e. g. trr div three times each day
(I. 142^) ; k vo vritha , nara who is the very mightiest
of you, heroes? (i. 37 ); pr b o d h a y pradhi jar
6

sasatm iva awake the wise man, just as a lover a sleeping

3

maiden (I. 134 ),

d (originally an abl. of the pronoun a from or after
that) is used as an adverb expressing sequence of time ^
thereupon, then, often as a correlative to yd, yada or ydi
when, sometimes to the relative when equivalent to those
conjunctions : yadd yukta harta sadhsthad d rtr

vsas tanute as soon as he has yoked his steeds from their stall,
then night spreads her garment (i. 115 ); dh y viv
bhvanbhy vardhata, d rdas jyti vhnir tanot
4

now (who =) when he surpassed all beings, then the charioteer

overspread the two worlds with light (ii. 17),
a. I t sometimes connects words and clauses in the sense of and,
moreover : asu ca y na urvr^ d im tanv mma that jield of ours
and this my body (viii. 9 l ) ; yd, indra, han prathamaj m hnm, n
mynm min prt my when, O Indra, thou didst slay the firstborn
of the serpents and then didst bring to nought the wiles of the wily (I. 32 ),
b. I t is sometimes used with interrogatives, when i t means then,
pray : k m d matra sakhym how mighty then is the friendship ^
(iv. 23 ),
c. Unless used with interrogatives, d almost invariably begins
the Pada.
d. d is often followed by d when i t means just then, then at once,
then more than ever.
6

ti thus is used with verbs of speaking and thinking,

which have sometimes to be supplied. The particle generally
concludes the Speech and is followed by the verb : y ndrya
sunvma^ti^ h a who says ' we will press Soma for Indra
(iv. 25 ) ; nndro asti^ti nma u tva aha ' Indra does not
exist one and another says (viii. 100^), Less commonly the
verb precedes : jyeh ha camas dv k a r a ^ t i the eldest
said ' I will make two cups ' (iv. 33 ), Very rarely both t i and
the verb precede the speech: v pchad ti mtra, k
ugr he asked his mother, ' who are the strong ones? (viii. 77 ).
The verb is occasionally omitted : tv duhitr vahat
koti^ti^id vva bhvana sm eti 'Tva prepares
a wedding for his daughter (thinking) thus this whole world
comes together (x. 17 ). Thus a principal sentence as direct
speech is used with ti where in other languages a subordinate
sentence would be employed.
4

1. I n B. the use of ti is much the same, only that ti regularly follows

and seems seldom to be omitted ; the verbs of saying and thinking,
too, w i t h which i t is employed, are more numerous : t t h ^ i t i dev
abruvan 'yes', said the gods (B.),

2. There are i n B. also some additional uses :

a. Very often the quotation is only an appellative that may be
expressed by inverted commas : ys tv ^td dev dity ti^,acksate
whom they call thus .. the divine dityas' (^B.),
b. Sometimes i t i is used at the end of an enumeration to express
that i t forms a wellknown aggregate : etad vai ira samddha
yasmin pro vk caku rotram i t i th^t is a complete head in which
are breath, speech, eye, ear (KB.).
c. The particle is also often used i n a special sense with reference
to a ritual act to indicate how i t is done : ti^,gre kati^tha^ti^,
tha iti^tha^ti^tha^,ti (B.) so he first draws the furrow, then so, then
so, then so, then so (-^ as you see).
d. sometimes a conjunction is introduced before the quotation
that ends with ti, but without changing the construction : s rtm
abravd yth srvsv ev sam v ad vsni^ti (Ms.) he swore (that)
1 will dwell with all equally ( that he would).
itth primarily means so : gnt nn . . yth pur ^
itth as before, so come ye now (i. 397) ; satym itth truly so
(vlii. 33^), Secondarily i t comes to mean (just so as it
should be=) truly : kti^asmai vrivo y itth ^ ndrya
smam usat sunti he (Indra) gives ease to him that truly
presses Soma for Indra who desires it (iv. 24^). I n this sense
the word is sometimes used like an adjective : ittha skhi
bhyah for (those who are truly =) true friends (iii. 32 ).
16

d (n. of the pren. stem i , Lat. id) is a very common

particle in the R v , is much less frequent in the AV., and
is comparatively rare in B. I t emphasizes preceding words
of all kinds, including the finite verb (which it accents), and
may usually be rendered by just or stress only, sometimes
by even ; e. g. t d n n k t a t d d dv mhyam hu
this is what they tell me by night, this by day (i. 24 ^) ; syma
i d ndrasya rmai may we be in Indra's care (i. 4 ) ; dha
sm no maghava carkt d t then especially think of us,
O Bounteous One (i. 104^) ; s a d r ady s a d r d u v
alike to-day, alike even to-morrow (i. 123^). When the verb is
1

I n classical Sanskrit i d survives only i n the compound particle

ced if = ca-id.

compound, the particle regularly follows the preposition,

not the verb itself: ul k halasutnm va^d v, indra,
jalgula gulp eagerly down, O Indra,
mortar (i. 28 ).

the drops shed by the

a. I n B . the particle is similarly used : n t t sady nysmai ti

diet he should not assign (just those -^) the same (cows) to another on the
same day (B.) ; ttha^,n nun td s a now thus it came to pass (B.).

iva is an enclitic particle with two uses :

1. I t means as if, as, like in abbreviated similes in appo
sition, never introducing a clause like yth. I t follows
the word with which comparison is made ; i f the comparison
consists of several words, the particle generally follows the
first, less commonly the second. The comparison is usually
complete, but not infrequently it is only partially expressed.
This employment of iva is very common in V., but com
paratively rare in B. Examples of this use are: dur cit
sn tad ivti rocase even though far away, thou shinest
brightly as if near at hand (i. 947) ; t t pad payanti
divtva ckur tatam they see that step like an eye fixed in
9

heaven (I. 22^ ) ; s na pit ^ iva snve gne spyan

bhava as such be accessible to us, O Agni, as a father to his son
9

(I. I ) ; dvo no ti nv ^ iva praya take us across our foes

as [across the ocean] in a ship (i. 97 ) ; tbh rjna
parighya tihati samudra iva bhmim with these he ke^s
7

embracing the king, as the sea the earth (AB.).

2. I t modifies a statement not intended to be understood

in its strict sense, meaning as it were. I t chiefly follows
adjectives, adverbs, prepositions or verbs. This use of iva is
rare in V., but very common in B. Examples are : ih^iva
ve I hear close at hand as it were (i. 37 ) ; td, indra,
pr^,iva vry cakartha that heroic deed, O Indra, thou didst
perform (as it were ) ^uite preeminently (I. 1037) ; y p r^,iva
nyasi who (as it were ) almost losest thyself (i. 146 ) ;
ydi tn n^iva hryatha if ye are not ^uite pleased with that
3

(i. lei ). From B. : tsmt s babhruk iva hence he (is as

3

it were) may be called brown (^B.) ; rebhati^iva he seems to

chatter (AB.) ; tn na srva iva^abhipr padyeta not exactly

every one should have access to that (B.) ; upri^iva vi td
yd rdhv n b he above may be called what is higher than

the navel (B.).

m (an old enclitic acc. of the pron. root i) occurs in v .
only, and is almost restricted to the RV.
1. I t is generally employed as an acc. sing. of all genders
= him, her, it, sometimes even as an acc. du. or pi. I t either
takes the place of a noun, or prepares for a following noun,
or is accompanied by other pronouns (tm, ym, enam,
enn) ; e. g. gachanti^m vas they come to him with aid
(I. 85 ) ; ^m m ve bhara bring him, the swift, to the
11

swift (i. 47) ; tm hinvanti dhtya him devotions impel

(i. 144 ) ; yd m enn uat abhy vart (vii. 103 )

5

when it has rained upon them that longed (for rain).

2. m also appears as a generalizing particle with relatives

(whoever), with yd (whenever), with interrogatives (who,
pray ?), with k can (nothing at all) ; e. g. y bhvanti
17

jya whatever conflicts take place (vii. 32 ) ; k vykt

nra who, pray, are the radiant men ? (vii. 56 ).
1

u is an enclitic particle, often written where the metre

requires or favours a long syllable, especially in the second
syllable of a Pda, before a single consonant. I t often
appears contracted to o (cp. 24) with a preceding a or
(mostly the final of particles or prepositions, also of the
pron. e, sometimes of verbal forms). I t has two main
uses in the RV. :
1. I t is employed deictically with verbs and pronouns.
a. With verbs it expresses the immediate commencement
of an action : with a present now, already ; with a past
tense = just ; with an imperative, injunctive, or optative
used in an impv. sense at once ; s is here very often
added, being = instantly. When the verb is accom
panied by a preposition, the particle regularly follows the

latter.

Examples of its use are : d u ty jatvedasa

dev vahanti ketva his beams now bear aloft the god that
knows all creatures (i. 50 ) ; bhd u bh the light has just
1

19

arisen (i. 46 ) ; tpa^u v gne ntarn amtrn burn

2

instantly, O Agni, our neighbouring foes (iii. 18 ).

^. This use of u with verbal forms does not seem to be found i n B.

b. I t emphasizes deictic pronouns, which may then be

rendered by stress, and interrogative pronouns, when it may
be translated by pray ; e. g. aym u te, sarasvati, vsiho
dvrv tsya subhage vy va this Vasiha has opened
6

for thee, O bountiful Sarasvat, the two doors of sacrifice (vii. 95 ) ;

k u ravat who, pray, will hear ? (iv. 43 ),
1

a. I n B. this use is very rare with deictic pronouns, but not

infrequent with interrogatives ; e. g. idm u no bnaviyati ydi no
jeynti this at least will remain to us, i^ they conquer us (Ts. ) ; km u s
yajna yajeta y gam iva yaj n duht what sort of sacrifice,
pray, would he ojrer if he were not to milk out the sacrifice like a cow ^ (MS.).

2. The particle u is used anaphorically to connect sen

tences, when a word (usually the first) is repeated in the
second, in the sense of also ; e. g. trr nkta yths, t r r
u, avin, dv thrice by night ye come, thrice also, O Avins,

by day (i. 34 ) ; tv trt tvm u no vdh bh thou be

2

our protector, thou, too, be for our increase (i. 178 ),

The

repeated word need not always have the same form : y no

dvy dhara ss pada, ym u dvims tm u pr
jahtu may he who hates us fall downward; whom also we hate,
21

him too let his breath forsake (iii. 53 ). The u sometimes

appears in both sentences, sometimes in the first only:
vaym u tv dv sut, vay nkta havmahe we
call thee by day to the pressed Soma, we also by night (viii. 64^).

a. I t is sometimes used without referring back definitely,

but simply adding some similar quality or activity with
reference to the same thing = and also, and ; e. g. s dev
devn prti paprathe pth, vvd u t paribhr brh
maas pti he, the god, has extended himself widely to the gods,
and he, Lord of Prayer, embraces all this universe (ii. 24 ).
11

b. I t also, in the same sentence, expresses a contrast on

the contrary, or, more frequently, with the demonstrative t
corresponding to the relative y again, in return ; e. g.
strya sats tn u me pus h u those who are women,
them on the contrary they speak of to me (as) men (i. 164 ) ;
y adhvaru ht . . tm u nmobhir kudhvam him
who is priest at sacrifices, in return bring hither with devotions
(i. 77 ).
16

a. I n B. the anaphoric use is common, prevailing chiefly i n the

B. ; e.g. tsmd v ndro 'bibhet, tsmd u tvbibhet of that
Indra was afraid, ofthat also Tva was afraid (MS.).
a. The demonstrative here often refers back w i t h u to previous
statements : uto pacvattm ev bhavati : p kt0 yaj, p kta
pa, pacartva savatsarsya : e^u pacvattsya sampt :
but it is also divided into ^tive parts .. the sacri/ice isfive/old,cattle are fivefold
the seasons of the year are five .. this is the sum of what is divided into five
parts (B.). similarly used are the phrases t d u ha smha with
reference to this he used to say, td u hovca with reference to this he said ;
td u t t h n k u r y t that one should not do thus.
^. A slight contrast is expressed by u i n the second sentence :
ydi nan t i pitdevaty bhavati, ydy v an t i de van ty anti
if he does not eat, he becomes a worshipper of the ^anes, but if he does eat, he
eats before the gods (B.).
^. Used i n combination with km, u expresses a climax i n the
second clause how much more : manuya n nv pastram ichnti,
km n dev y nvvasnam even men wish for something spread out,
how much more the gods whose is a new dwelling (TS.).
u t i n the RV. means and, connecting two or more words
or sentences.
a. The particle commonly couples two words ; e. g. y h . .
pthiv m u t dym ko ddh r a who alone has supported
heaven and earth (i. 154 ), When there is an enumeration
of more than two objects, u t comes after the last ; e. g.
dite, mtra, v r u a ^ u t O Aditi, Mitra,
and Varua
(il. 27 ). When a word is repeated from the beginning of
a clause, ut (like u) follows the repeated word : tr sau
bhagatv trr ut rvsi na thrice (grant) us prosperity
and thrice fume (I. 34 ),
4

14

b. When u t connects a sentence with a preceding one, i t

is placed at the beginning : etngne brhma vvdhas
va . . ut pr ney abh vsyo asmn with this prayer,
O Agni, strengthen thyself, and lead us onward to greater
fortune (I. 3 l ^ .
1

c. ut... ut means both... and; u t v or; u t va. ..ut

v either.. .or; e.g. ut^id n m bhgavanta syama^ut
prapitv u t mdhye hnm both now may we be fortunate
and at eventide and at midday (i. 41 ) ; samudr d u t va
divs pri from the ocean or from heaven (I. 47 ) ; ya po
divy u t va srvanti khantma either the waters that are
celestial or that flow in channels (i. 49 ).
4

a. I n B. ut does not mean and, but also, even, emphasizing the

assertion generally and not (like pi) a single notion i nthesentence :
ut yci^it s ur bhvati j v aty ev even when his breath is gone, he still
liv^s (Ts.). Even when preceding a substantive u t seems to refer to
the whole statement : ut mtsya ev mtsya gilati it is also the case
that one jish devours another (B.).
^. W i t h the optative u t expresses that an action might after all
take place : u t ^ e v cid devn abh bhavema after all we might thus
overcome the gods (B.).
b. ut. ..ut i n B. (as well as i n V.) means both. ..and: u t tva
ut pava ti bruyt he should say both the seasons and the animals' (B.).
ut is regularly the first word i n the sentence except that km
or forms of t or y precede i t : tsmd u t bahur apar bhavati
therefore e^en though rich he becomes cattleless (B.).
ut ( = u t u) in the RV. means and also: u t no asy
uso juta h and may he also be pleased with us this
morning (i. 13l ),
a. I n B. u t has the sense of but also or also : havan y e hav si
rapayeyu . . . u t g r hapatya ev rapayanti they should cook the
oblation on the havan^ya jire, but they also cook it on the orhapatya (B.).
6

ev has two uses i n the RV. and the AV. :

1. A t the beginning of sentences or clauses i t means thus,
referring either to what precedes or follows ; e. g. ev g nir
gtamebhir astoa thus Agni has been praised by the
Gotamas (i. 77 ) ; ev t m hur : indra ko vibhakt
thus they speak of him : Indra is the one dispenser (vii. 26 ).
5

I t often appears as the correlative of ytha as : yth n

purvam paro jhty, ev, dhtar, yi kalpayaiam
as the later abandons not the earlier, so, Creator, arrange their
5

lives (x. 18 ). With the impv. ev so, then : ev vandasva

vrua bhntam (viii. 42) then praise the lofty Varua

(who has done these great deeds).

2. As an emphasizing particle following the word on
which stress is laid, ev may be variously rendered just,
^uite, alone, &c., or by stress ; e. g. tm ev him only ;
ka ev ^uite alone ; traiv just here ; svaym ev ^uite
spontaneously, jt ev scarcely born, n^ev not at all.
a. I n B. the first of the above uses has entirely disappeared (evm
here taking the place of ev), while the second is extremely common.
The particle follows all kinds of words requiring emphasis for any
reason ; this is especially the case when a word is repeated ; e. g.
ym gre gnf hotr y a pr v ata, s pr d hanvad, y dvit y a
pr v ata, s p r ^ e v ^ a d h a n v a t the Agni whom they first chose for the
priesthood, perished ; he whom they chose the second time, likewise perished
(B.). when two notions are connected by way of contrast or other
wise, ev may follow either the first or the second ; e. g. amu.m ev
dev up y an, imm sur (B.) the gods inherited that world (heaven),
the Asuras this one (the earth) ; smo yum k a, vg evasm k am (let)
soma (be) yours, Vac ours (B.).

evm thus occurs only once in the RV. (as correlative to

ytha as) and in the A v . not at all with yth, but only as
an adverb with the verb vid know : y ev vidyt he who
may possess such knowledge.
I n B. evm is very common, having two uses :
1. I t is correlative to yth as, being often accompanied by a form
of the same verb as the latter ; e. g. y t h vi parjnya svi
vrsaty, ev yaj yjamnya varati as Parjanya rains heavily, so
the sacrifice rains for the sacrificer (Ts.). w h e n the second verb is
omitted, yth. ..evm is equivalent to iva ; e.g. t dev abhy
sjyanta yth vtti vetsymn evm the gods rushed up like those
wishing to obtain property (B.),
2. I t accompanies verbs as an adverb, especially in the very
frequent phrase y ev vda he who possesses such knowledge ; u t ^
ev cin n labheran atter all they will thus not touch it (B.).

kam appears both as an accented and an unaccented

particle. The former use is found in both V. and B., the
latter in the R v only.
1. a. km as an adv. with the full meaning well (equivalent
to the Vedic sm) appears in B. only ; e. g. km me 'sat
may it be well with me (B.); it also occurs in a negative
form : ka bhavati he fares not well (TS.).
b. km has the same meaning attenuated after datives
(generally at the end of a Pda) either of persons = for the
benefit of (dat. commodi) or of abstract nouns (final dative) ;
e. g. yuvm et cakrathu sndhuu plav taugry y a
km ye two hare placed that ship in the waters for the benefit of

the son of Tugra (i. 182^) ; tv devso amtya k

papu thee the gods hare drunk for the love of immortality

(ix. 106^) ; samnm ajy jate ubh km (vii. 57 ) with

3

the same hue they adorn themselves in order to shine (well),

From B. : ksmai km agnihotr hyata ti for whose

benefit is the Agnihotra offered? (MS.) ; tjase k prm
ijyate for the sake of splendour the full moon sacrifice is

offered (MS.).
2. The unaccented kam occurs in the RV. only excepting
one independent passage of the A v I t always appears as
an enclitic following the particles n, s, h. I t means
willingly, gladly, indeed, but the sense is generally so attenu
ated as to be untranslatable. n kam appears with the inj.,
impv., subj., ind., also in relative clauses ; e.g. so n kam
ajro vrdh ea be unaging and grow (x. 50^), s kam
appears with the imperative only : th s ka, magha
van, m pr g pray stand still, bounteous god, go not
2

further (ill. 53 ). h kam generally appears with the ind.

(occasionally omitted), sometimes with impv. or subj. :
rj h ka bhvananm abhir for he indeed is the king
1

^vho r ules over beings (I. 98 ).

km (n. of k = k) has two uses. I n the first place it

means why ^ e. g. km u rha k yviho na jagan

why has the best, why has the youngest come to us ^ (i. 161 ).

I t is also a simple interrogative particle (equivalent to a

mark of interrogation) ; e. g. k me havym hno
jueta would he, free from anger, enjoy an oblation of mine ?
2

(vil. 86 ) ; k rjasa en par anyd sti is there anything

5

else beyond the welkin ^ (Av. v. 11 ).

a. I n B. km is similarly used. With following u i t here adds
a climax i n a second sentence how much more (see u) ; w i t h following
ut and the optative i t means why after all ; e. g. km ut tvareran
why, after all, should they hasten? (B.).

kla, an uncommon particle in v , meaning indeed,

certainly, strongly emphasizes (in R v and A v ) the preceding
word (noun, pronoun, adjective, and the negative n) ; e. g.
svd kla^aym (vi. 47 ) sweet, indeed, is this (Soma) ;
tad t n tru n kl vivitse then thou didst find no foe at
all (I. 32 ).
1

a. I n B. the use is similar; e.g. kipr kla^, struta (B.)

quickly, then, spread (the barhis). But here kla usually follows other
particles, vi or (ha) vv : e vi kla havo y m a this, indeed, is
the course of the sacrifice (B.) ; tava ha vva kila bhagava idam Sir,
this belongs to you only (AB.).

kuvd, a pronominal interrogative particle, introduces

sentences which, though apparently independent, are treated
as dependent, since the verb (except twice in the RV.) is
regularly accented. This use seems to have arisen from the
particle's having been employed as an elliptical expression of
doubt such as might be rendered by ' I wonder (whether) ' ;
e. g. tm, indra, mdam gahi kuvn nv sya tpva
come, Indra,

to this carouse (to see) whether you shall enjoy it

(iii. 42 ) ; kuvt smasya pm ti have I , indeed, drunk

1

Soma (x. 119 ) = ( I wonder) whether I have drunk Soma.

a. I n B. kuvd is similarly used ; e. g. kuvn me putrm vadht
has he actually killed my son^ (B.) ; kuvt ts m ste does he indeed sit
silent^ (B.),

khIu indeed, in truth, does not occur at all in the A v ,

and only once in the RV., where it emphasizes an imperative :
mitr kudhva khIu pray, conclude friendship (x. 34 ),
14

a. I n B. the particle is common. I t is rarely used alone, but often

with other particles.
a. I t appears alone with the impv., subj., or ind. ; e. g. tra khlu
ramata here, pray, remain (B.) ; dhnvat khlu s y maddevatym
agnm ddhtai he indeed shall prosper who shall establish a fire conse
crated to me (TS.); asmkm ev^id khlu bhvanam to us alone
indeed this world belongs (B.).
b. After the particles u or tho and before or after vi i t emphasizes
the word preceding the combined particles; e.g. td u khlu mah
yaj bhavati thus, indeed, the great sacrifice arises (B.).
a. tho kblu is used either to express an (usually preferred)
alternative = or else, or rather, but surely rather ; or to introduce an
objection ; e. g. vaivadevm ti bryd, tho khlu aindrm ti
bryt 'for all gods' one should say, or else one should say for Indra'
(TS.) ; dkitena satyam eva vaditavyam ; atho khalv hu : ko
'shati manuya sarva satya vaditum i t i an initiated man should
speak the truth only ; now they make the objection .. ' what man can speak the
whole truths' (AB.).
vi khlu can only be distinguished from vi alone as an
emphatic vf. But khlu vi i n the Ts. and A B . has the special use
of introducing a second causal protasis after a first beginning with
simple vi, the conclusion then following with ev ; e. g. prjpaty
vi prua ; praj p ati khlu vi tsya veda : praj p atim ev
svna bhgadheyna upa dhvati now man comes from Prajapati; again
Prajpati knows about him .. so he approaches Prajpati with the portion (of
the sacrifice) belonging to him (TS.). This use occasionally occurs even
though the preceding clause does not begin with vi.

gha is an enclitic particle, almost restricted to the RV.

Generally occupying the second place in the Pda, it is with
few exceptions metrically lengthened to gha. I t emphasizes
the preceding word, which is nearly always either the
negative n, or a pronoun (demonstrative or personal), or a
verbal preposition, the meaning being variously rendered by
just, only, very, or merely stress. I t emphasizes a noun only
twice and a verb only once in the RV. : tt y e gha svane
at least at the third Soma libation (I. 161^) ; unti gha t
amtsa ett those immortals desire this (x. 10^),

ca (Gk. T^, Lat. -^ue) and is an enclitic conjunction used

to connect both words and sentences. I t regularly follows
an accented word, and when it adds a clause, the first word
of that clause.
1. ca connects substantives (including pronouns and
numerals) and adverbs ; e. g. mitr huve vrua ca
7

I invoke Mitra and Varua (i. 2 ) ; maghvno vay ca

the patrons and we (I. 73^) ; atm ka ea a hundred and

one (i. 117 ^) ; ady nn ca today and now (i. 13 ),
I n a few passages (but never in B.) the ca follows the first
word instead of the second : nkt ca . . us night and
1

morning (i. 737).

a. ca...ca are used much i n the same way; e.g. girya ca dyv
ca bh m the mountains and heavenandearth (i. 6 l ) ; div ca gm
ca of heaven and of earth ( i . 37 ) ; asm ca t.m ca us and them (if. I ) ;
nva ca navat ca nine and ninety ( I . 32 ) ; ca pr ca crantam
moving hither and away ( i . 164 ).
Similarly i n B. : dev ca^sur ca gods and Asuras (B.) ; a
ca tr i ca at n i sixty and three hundred ; purstc ca^;upric ca
from before and from behind.
^. ca...ca sometimes also express a contrast : nkt ca cakrr us
vrpe : kr ca vram aru ca s dhu they have made
night and morning of different aspect : they have put together the black colour
and the ruddy (f. 73 ).
similarly i n B. : ubhya grmy ca^ray ca juhoti he
sacritic^s both : what is tame and what is wild (MS.).
14

1 6

31

a. A peculiar use of ca in the RV. is to add a second

vocative in the form of a nominative ; e. g. vyav ndra
ca . . ytam O Vyu and Indra, eome (i. 2^).

b. Another peculiar use of ca, both in V. and B., is to

add one noun (nearly always in the nom.) to another which
has to be supplied ; e. g. yd ndra ca ddvahe when we
two, (I) and Indra, receive (viii. 34 ^) ; ndra ca sma
pibata, bhaspate do ye, (thou), O Bhaspati, and Indra,
drink (iv. 50 ).
From B. : t b h aspti ca^anvvaitm they two, (he) and
1

Bhaspati, followed them (TS.) ; tat saj kjin y a ca

vadati so he pronounces harmony (between it) and the black

antelope skin (B.).
a. I n B. ca is used to add a single word at the end of a sentence in
the sense of and (so did) ; e. g. rmea ha sma vi td dev jayanti
yd es jyyam sa^saya ca by penance the gods were wont to win what
was to be won by them, and so did the seers (B. ).

c. ca following the interrogative k, or the relative y

and the interrogative k combined, gives them an indefinite
sense: k ca or y k ca any one, whoever (cp. 119 b),
2. ca also connects both principal sentences and relative
clauses : devbhir yhi yki ca come with the gods and
sacrifice (i. 14 ) ; y vyr y ca nn vyuch n that
1

10

have shone forth and that shall now shine forth (i. 113 ) ;

y ^smn dvi y ca vay dvim who hates us and

whom we hate (B.),

a. ca...ca connect sentences to express a contrast by

means of parallel verbal forms which are either identical or
at least appear in the same number and person, the first
verb being then always accented : pr ca ynti pnar
12

ca^tanti they go away and come again (I. 123 ).

a. I n B. the use of ca...ca is similar; e. g. vats ca^upvasjty
ukh c a ^ d h i rayati he admits the calf and puts the pot on the fire (Ts.).
The rule of accentuation applies even when the second verb is
omitted : agnye ca hav pariddti gpty asyi ca pthivyi
he delivers the oblation for protection to Fire and to this Earth (B.). This
connecting use is particularly common in parallel abridged relative
sentences : srvn pa n n dadhire y ca grmy y ca^ray
they laid down all animals, those that are tame and those that are wild (B.).

3. ca is used a few times in V. in the sense of if with the

subjunctive or the indicative: ndra ca myti no, n
na pacd agh naat if Indra be gracious to us, no
calamity will hereafter befall us (ii. 41 ); im ca vca
11

pratihryath, naro, vvd vm vo anavat i f ye

graciously accept this song, O heroes, it will obtain all goods
from you (i. 40 ).
6

can, properly meaning not even, is most usually employed

after a negative ; e. g. tt y am asya nkir dadharati,

vya can patyanta patatra no one dares approach
his third (step), not even the winged birds though they fly
(i. 155 ), From its use in such supplementary clauses,
where i t may also be translated by even, the latter sense
comes to be the natural or even necessary one after a negative
in a single clause sentence ; e. g. ysmd t n sdhyati
yaj vipacta can without whom the sacrifice does not
succeed [not] even of the wise man (i. 187) ; ndra n mahn
pthiv can prti even the earth is not equal to Indra in
greatness (i. 81 ). As one of the two negatives is superfluous
in a single clause sentence, can alone occasionally does
duty for the negative: mah can tv pr ulk y a
deyam not even for a great reward would I give thee away
(viii. I ) ,
a. I n a few passages, even when there is no accompanying
negative, can throwing off its own negative sense, means
even, also: ah can tt srbhir naym I too would
ae^uire this with the patrons (vi. 267) ; dh can rd
dadhati therefore also they believe (i. 55 ).
^
5

a. I n B. can appears only after a negative i n single clause

sentences, in which n can means not even ; e. g. n haina saptnas
trama can strute no enemy fells him even though desiring to fell
him (B.).

b. can gives the interrogative an indefinite sense : k

can any one, n k can no one (cp. 119 b).
Cid is an enclitic particle very frequently used to emphasize
the preceding word. I t has two senses:
1. expressing that the statement is not to be expected
in regard to the word emphasized : even ; e. g. dh cid
rujo gvyam rvm even the firm cowstall thou hast broken
through (iii. 32 ), This sense is, however, sometimes so
attenuated as to be capable of being rendered by stress only ;
e. g. tv cin na myai bodhi svadh be thou attentive
to our endeavour (iv. 3 ).
10

2. generalizing any, every, all ; e. g. k t cid na

pr mumugdhy asmt (i. 24 ) remove from us any (every,
all) sin committed (by us). Similarly, with interrogatives
any, with relatives ever ; thus k cid any one : ti k
cid em any one (= every one) hears them (I. 37 ^) ; sun
vdbhyo randhay k cid avratm subject every impious
man to those that press Soma (i. 132 ); n or m k cid (not
any =) no one ; kad cid ever at any time or always ; y
eid whoever ; yc cid if ever ; yth cid as ever.
9

a. I n B. the only use that survives is the generalizing sense with

interrogative pronouns ---- any, some ; e. g. tha k oid h a then he
says to some one (B.) ; y t te k cid bravt what any one said to
you (B.).
cd ( = ca d) if occurs only three times in the RV., but
later becomes commoner. I n the RV. and A V . it is found
with the ind. pres. and aor. ; in the A v i t also occurs once
with the opt. Thus : v cd uchnty, asvin, usa, p r
v b r h m a i k r avo bharante when the Dawns shine forth,
0 Avins, the singers offer prayers to you (vii. 72 ) ; brahm
cd dhstam graht s ev ptir ekadh if a Brahman
has taken her hand, he alone is her husband (Av. v. 17^) ; t i
manvta ycit vas ed ena y c eyu thus one would
think who has been requested, if they were to request a cow of
him (Av. xii. 4 ^),
4

a. I n B. ed is used with the ind. pres., aor., fut. and with the opt. ;
e. g. ta cd ev niti nsya yaj vyathate if he does not go away
from there, his sacrifice does not fail (MS.) ; s hovca triyaturya
cn mm bbhaja tryam ev trhi v nrukta vadiyat t i
he said ifthey have given me only onefourth each time, then Vac will speak
distinctly only to the extent of onefourth ' (B.) ; t cn me n vivksyasi,
murdh te v patiyati if you cannot explain this (riddle) to me, your head
will burst (B.) ; et cd anysm anubry s tta ev te ra
chindym if you were to tell this to another, I would strike off your head (B. ).
ttas occurs in the RV. several times adverbially in the
local sense of the ablative thence ; e. g. tto vi p r
vavte thence the poison has turned away.

I t also, but very

rarely, has the temporal sense of thereupon, then ; e. g.

yajir tharv p r a t h a m paths tate, t t a sryo . .
jani with sacrifices Atharvan first extended the paths, then the
sun was born (i. 83^).
a. I n B., on the other hand, the temporal sense of thereupon is extremely
common. H ere i t also often appears at the beginning of a sentence
connected with a preceding one i n the sense of therefore, consequently ;
e. g. s yajm ev, yajap t ri pr vivea; tto h a i n n ekatur
nfrhantum it entered in^ the sacrifice itsef, into the sacrificial vessels;
consequently those two were unable to expel it (B.).
tth occurs in the R v in the sense of so, thus; e.g.
t t h a t such is the rule (i. 83 ^). I t also appears as a
correlative (though less often than ev) to ytha ; e. g.
y a v v a s y a sunvats t t h u ythor t r e listen
to the sacrificing Syvva as thou didst listen to A tri (viii. 367).
1

a. I n B. the use is similar ; e. g. t t h ^ n nn td sa so, indeed,

it came to pass (B.) ; as correlative (though less often than evm) to
yth : n vi t t h ^ a b h d yth^masi it has not come about as I had
thought (B.).
b. ttho ( = t t h ^ u ) occurs in B., meaning and in the same way, but
so ; e. g. ttho evttare n vapet and in the same way he should assign
the last two (TS.) ; s yd daki prava syt, kipr ha yjamno
^m lokm iyt, t t h 0 ha yjamno jyg jvati if it (the altar) were
sloping to the south, the sacrificer would quickly go to yonder world, but thus
(as i t is) the sacrificerlives a long time (B.).
td is often used adverbially in the RV. I t then has three
different senses :
1. I t frequently means then as correlative to yd when ;
e. g. yj j y ath vtrahtyya tt pthiv m aprathaya
when thou wast born for the rtrafight, thou didst spread out
the earth (viii. 89^).
2. I t is also often used in the sense of thither (acc. of the
goal) ; e. g. t d t tv yukt hrayo vahantu thither let the
yoked bays waft thee (ill. 53 ).
4

3. Occasionally i t has the sense of therefore ; e. g. t d vo

deva abruvan, td va gamam that the gods said to you,

therefore I have come to you (i. 161 ) ; p r td vu stavate

vry^a therefore Yiu is praised for his heroism (i. 154 ).
a. I n B. td has four different adverbial uses :
1. as a correlative to y d (when, inasmuch as) = thereby, and to
ytra (where) there ; e. g. yn nv v r j nam abhisuvnti, tt t
ghnanti now when they press the king (soma), they kill him thereby (B.) ;
ytrny adhayo ml y anti t d et mdamn vardhante where
other plants wither, it (the wheat) grows merrily (B.).
2. i n the sense of thereupon, then ; e. g. tha^itith sm t d
augh gant , t n m n v am upaklpya^upssai now in such and
such a year a flood win then come, then having built a ship you shall turn
to me (B.).
3. constantly w i t h reference to a preceding statement i n the sense
of as to that, thereby, thus ; e. g. yajm ev t d dev up y an the gods
thus obtained the sacrifice (B.) ; t t td avakptm ev yd brhma
'rjany syt so it is quite suitable that a Brahman should be without
a king (B.) ; t d hu as to that they say ; td u tt now as to this (B.).
4. before yd with reference to a preceding statement to add an
explanation, and may be rendered by that is to say, now ; e. g. t d
yd es ett tpati tna e ukr now, inasmuch as he burns here,
therefore he is bright (B.). similarly i n the phrase t d yt tth that is
to say, why it is so (is as follows)
the reason for this is as follows (sB.),
2

trhi at that time, then, occurs only once in the R v , but

several times in the AV. : n mtyr sd amta n
trhi there was not death nor immortality then (x. 129 ). I n
the AV. the word appears as correlative to yd when, and
in B. to ytra, yd, yd, yrhi when, and ydi if; e. g.
raksi v ena tarhy 1abhante yarhi na jyate the
Rakases then seize him when (the fire) does not arise (AB.) ;
ydi v tvjo 'Iok bhvanty alok u t r h i yjamna
if the priest is without a place, the sacrificer is then also without
a place (B.),
2

tsmd therefore is not found as an adverb in the RV.,

but occurs several times as such in the AV., and is constantly
so used in B. As correlative to yd because it appears once
in the A v and is very common in B. ; e. g. yd vi td
vruaghtbhya km bhavat tsmat k y (MS.)
because those who were seized by Varua felt well, therefore it is
called kaya (body).

t, though accented, never commences a sentence or Pda.

I t has two uses :
1. I t is an emphasizing particle. I n the RV., where it
occurs nearly fifty times, it seems to be restricted to this
sense.
a. I n about twothirds of its occurrences t emphasizes
an exhortation in the 2. pers. impv. (rarely the 3. pers., or
the subj. in an impv. sense) pray, then; e.g. tv ta, n
data pray come, sit you down (i. 5 ) ; n te dur param
cid rjsy, t pr yhi hribhym even the highest
1

spaces are not far to thee ; come hither, then, with thy two bays
2

(iii. 30 ).
b. I n several passages t emphasizes assertions (generally
following the demonstrative t) in the sense of surely, indeed ;
12

e. g. tt tv sya that surely is his work (iii. 30 ).

2. I t is an adversative particle meaning but. This is its

sense in the only passage of the Av. in which it occurs, and
is its only meaning in B. ; e.g. cak r a bhadrm asmbhyam
atmne tpana t s he has done what is good for us, but
6

painful to himself (Av. iv. 18 ) ; td ev vditor n tv

ev krtavi that one should know thus, but not do thus (MS.).

With ha or n in the preceding clause, it expresses the

sense it is true... but; e.g. td ha t vco, 'ny tv
vta sthti this indeed is what they say, but the established
practice is different therefrom (B.).
tna occurs i n B. as an adverb correlative to yd because ; e. g. yd
gramysya n ^ n t i tna grmy n va runddhe because he does not
eat any tame animal, therefore he gains tame animals for himself (MS.).
tv v (compounded of t v v ), a particle sometimes occurring
in B., does not perceptibly differ i n sense from vv ( q . v . ) ; e.g.
tryo ha tvv pavo medhy there are just three kinds of animals
unfit for sacrifice (B.).
tvi (compounded of t vi) is sometimes found i n B. meaning
but indeed.

dvit, a particle occurring about thirty times, is restricted

to the RV. There can be no doubt that it is an old instru

mental, etymologically meaning doubly. This sense taken

either literally = in two ways, or figuratively = emphatically,
especially, more than ever, seems to suit all the passages in

which the word occurs ; e. g. bhardvjaya^va dhukata

dvit dhen ca vivdohasam a ca vivbhojasam
on Bharadvja do ye (Maruts) milk down doubly, both the
allmilking cow and allnourishing food (VI. 48 ) ; rj dev n m
13

ut mrtyn dvit bhuvad rayipt ray m as king of

24

gods and mortals may he be doubly lord of riches (ix. 97 ) ;

dvit y vtrahntamo vid ndra atkratu pa no

hribhi sutm may he who above all is known as the best
Vtraslayer, Indra Satakratu, (come) to our pressed Soma
32

with his bays (viii. 93 ) ; gavm e sakhy kuta dvit

(x. 48^) in the search for the cows he especially concluded friend

ship (with me).

a. The word occurs several times with dha, meaning and that too
doubly or especially, e. g. v td vocer dha dvit explain this, and (do so)
particularly (i. 132 ),
3

n has two senses in V. (but only the first of the two

in B.):
1. As a negative particle meaning not it denies an assertion,
appearing in principal sentences with the ind. of all tenses,
with the subj., the opt., the inj. (in the sense of a fut.), but
not with the impv. ; it is also employed in relative and
conjunctional clauses. I t negatives either the assertion of
the whole sentence (when it appears as near the beginning
as possible, in V. even before the relative) or only the
assertion of the verb. I t can only be used in a sentence
which contains a finite verb or in which one is to be supplied.
There seems to be no undoubted example of its negativing
any word (such as a participle or adjective) other than the
verb. The employment of this negative n is much the
same in B. as in V.
a. A verb (such as asti is) has often to be supplied w i t h this
negative in simple sentences, especially with the gerundive, the

infinitive, or a dative equivalent to an infinitive ; e. g. tn n sr

kyam that (is) not to be troubled about (MS.) ; n y vrya who (is) not
for hindering = who is irresistible ( i . 143 ). Or the verb has to be
supplied i n a second sentence from the first ; e. g. n k t a m pa
tishate, n prt he worships at night, (he does) not (worship) in the
morning (TS.).
b. Two negatives express a strong positive ; e. g. n h pavo n
bhujantifor cattle always eat (MS.).
5

2. n is used in V. (very commonly in RV., comparatively

rarely in AV., but never in B.) as a particle of comparison,
exactly like iva as, like. This meaning seems to be derived
from not as negativing the predicate of a thing to which it
properly belongs ; e. g. he (neighs), not a horse neighs
' he, though not a horse, neighs = ' he neighs like a horse '.
This n, being in sense closely connected with the preceding
word, never coalesces in pronunciation (though it does in the
written Sandhi) with a following vowel, whereas n not
generally does. This n always follows the word of com
parison to which it belongs ; or if the simile consists of
several words, the n generally follows the first word, less
commonly the second ; e. g. arn n nem pri t babhva
1

he surrounds them as the felly the spokes (i. 32 ^) ;

kh n like a branch with ripe fruit (I. 8^).

pakv

a. When the object compared is addressed i n the vec. (which is

sometimes to be supplied), the object with which i t is compared is
sometimes also put in the voc. agreeing with i t by attraction ; e. g.
o n ubhra bhar like brilliant Dawn, (0 sacrificer) bring (I. 57 ) ;
ve n citre, arui like a brilliant mare, O ruddy Daum (I. 30 ).
b. When the object compared is not expressed, n means as it were ;
e. g. iv b hir n smyamnbhir gat he has come with gracious smiling
women as it were (i. 79 ).
c. n sometimes interchanges with iva ; e. g. rtha n tova
ttsinya as a carpenter (fashions) a car for him who desires it ( i . 6 l ) ,
3

21

n k i s (not any one) is found in V. only, being almost

restricted to the RV., where it frequently occurs. I t properly
1

N . sing. of interrogative k (Lat. quis) of which the n. km is in

regular use (cp. 113).

means no one ; e. g. nkir indra tvd ttara no one,

O Indra, is superior to thee (iv. 30 ) ; ytha k m nkir
1

ucchiytai that none of the worms shall be left ( A v i i . 31 ).

1

Losing its N. sense, it comes to be used, though less often,

as a strong negative adverb meaning not at all, never ; e. g.
ysya rman nkir dev vryante n mrt in whose
19

protection gods never hinder him nor mortals (iv. 17 ).

Cp.

mkis.
nkm occurs only twice in one hymn of the R v in the
sense of a strong negative adverb = not at all, never : nakm
ndro nkartave Indra ean never be subdued (viii. 78^).
nnu occurs only twice in the RV. where it has the sense
of a strong negative by no means, never. I n B. it occurs
a few times as an interrogative expecting assent ( = nonne),
not?; e.g. nnu uruma have we not heard? (B.),
na-h, as the compounded form of n h, occurs only in v. ,
where it sometimes has the sense of fur not ; e. g. nah tv
tru starate for no foe strikes thee down (i. 129 ). More
commonly it emphatically negatives a statement as something
well known certainly not, by no means, as appears most
clearly at the beginning of a hymn ; e. g. nah vo sty
arbhak, dvsa not one of you, O gods, is small (viii. 30 ).
2

a. This compounded form never occurs i n B., where n h i alone is

found. On the other hand, n h seems never to occur i n V.

nma is Used adverbially in the following two senses :

1. by name ; e.g. s ha rut ndro nma dev that god
famous as Indra by name (if. 20^) ; k n m a^asi who art thou
by name ? (VS. vii. 29). 2. namely, indeed, verily ; e. g. jasro

gharm havr asmi nma I am constant heat, namely the

oblation (iii. 267) ; m dhur ndra nma devta they
2

have placed me among the gods verily as Indra (x. 49 ).

1

Probably because the N. has no longer an independent existence

coupled with the fact that the pronoun k has gone out of use except
in the one form km.
Probably A. n. of nkis with lengthened vowel.
2

n or nu means 1. now; e.g. s nv tyate he is now

implored (I. 145 ) ; ndrasya n vry i pr vocam I will
now proclaim the heroic deeds of Indra (i. 32 ) ; yj nv,
indra, te hr yoke now ( at once), O Indra, thy two bays
(i. 82 ) ; uvso uchc ca n (i. 48 ) Dawn has shone (in
the past) and she shall shine now ( = henceforth) ; asm b hir
u n praticky^abht to us she has just now become visible
(I. 113 ). 2. still: pyema n s r yam uccrantam we
would still see the sun rising (vi. 52^) ; mahn ndra par
ca n great is Indra and still more (i. 8^). 3. pray with
interrogatives : kad nv ntr vrue bhuvni when, pray
( = at last), shall I be in (communion with) Varua (vii. 86),
4. ever w|th relatives : y n kvai whatever (deeds)
I shall accomplish (i. 165 ). 5. ever, at all with negatives :
n^asya vart n tarut nv sti there is none at all to
obstruct, none to overcome him (vi. 66^). 6. with cid it means
(a) even now, still ; e. g. n cid dadhiva me gra even now
take to thyself my songs (i. 10^) ; daasy no, maghavan, n
cit favour us still, Bountiful one (viii. 46 ) ; (b) never ; e. g.
n cid dh parimamn t he asmn for never have ye despised
us (vii. 93 ),
1

11

11

a. The senses of n found in B. are the following :

1. Now actually in affirmative sentences, often correcting a previous
statement ; e. g. nirdao nv abhd, yajasva m^,anena now he is actually

more than ten days old : sacrifice him to me (AB.). 2. then, pray, in exhorta

tions with the subj., the impv., or ma with the inj., e.g. raddhdevo
vi mnur : v n vedva Manu is godfearing; let us two then try him
(B.); m nu me pr hr pray, do not strike at me (B.). When
tha follows such sentences, n may be translated by first : nirdao
nv astv, atha tv yajai let him (the victim) first be more than ten days old,
then I will sacrifice him to you (AB.). 3. pray, in questions with or without
an interrogative ; e. g. kv nu vur abht what, pray, has become of
Viu ? (B.) ; tv n khlu no brhmiho 'si are you, pray, indeed
the wisest of us^ (B.). 4. now, after ti followed by tha ne:rt: iti nu
prva paa1am, athottaram this now is the first section ; next follows the
1
2

Never begins a sentence.

Often begins a sentence.

second (AB.). 5. indeed, i n the first of two antithetical clauses, when

the second is introduced with t or km u ; e. g. y nv v jts
tsmai bruyd, n tv v srvasm iva he may indeed tell it to him who
is known to him, but not to any and every one (B. ).

nunm now has three uses in the RV. :

1. With the ind. pres. it means now as opposed to formerly
or in future (an opposition often expressed by pur before
and aparm after) ; e. g. n nnm sti n v there is no
now and no tomorrow (i. 170 ).
It is a few times used with the perfect in combination
with pur to express that an action has taken place in the
past and still takes place ; e. g. pur nn ca stutya
paspdhr ndre formerly and now the praises of
1

seers have striven to Indra (VI. 34 ).

2. With the subj., impv., opt., or inj., it expresses that an

action is to take place at once ; e. g. v i nnm ueht she
shall now shine forth (I. 124 ) ; pr nn prvandhuras
11

stut yhi praised advanee now with laden ear (i. 82 ),

With the perfect i t is a few times used in the R v to

express that an action has just been completed ; e. g. pa
nn yuyuje hr he has just yoked his two bay steeds
(viii. 4 ).
3. I t occurs sometimes with interrogatives pray ; e. g.
11

kad nn te dema when, pray, may we serve thee?

(vii. 29 ),
3

a. I n B . none of these uses seem to survive, while the new sense of

certainly, assuredly (perhaps once already i n the AV.) has appeared ;
e.g. tath n nun td sajust so assuredly it came to pass (B.).

nd ( = n d and not treated as a compound by the

Padapaha) has two uses in both v. and B. : 1. sometimes
as an emphatic negative, certainly not ; e. g. any nt srr
hate bhrid v attara
3

no other patron indeed is accounted

more liberal (viii. 5 ^) ; ha vadmi nt tvm I am speak

ing, not thou (vii. 38 ) ; nd nuhta prnmi I certainly
do not eat it before it is invoked (B.). 2. much more commonly
as introducing a final clause in order that not with the subj.
4

( = Lat. ne) ; e. g. vy ch, duhitar divo, nt tv tpti

sra shine forth, daughter of the sky, lest the sun scorch thee

(v. 79 ) ; nn m rudr hinsat lest Rudra injure me (B.).

In B. the verb may also be in the inj. : nd id bahirdh
yajd bhvat lest it be outside the sacrifice (B.).
9

a. nvi ( n vi as analysed by the Padapha of the Ts.) occurs not

infrequently i n B. in the sense of indeed ; e. g. ti nv etd br h maam
udyate such indeed is the Brh^naa that is told (B.).

m is the prohibitive negative (Gk. ,u^) regularly used

with the injunctive. I t is never used with the impv. ; with
the opt. only in the single form bhujema (RV.) ; and with
the subj. only once (B.) ; e. g. m no vadn slay us not
(i. 104^) ; m hth abhy asmn be not enraged against us
(viii. 2 ),
19

a. A n interrogative following m in a few cases receives an indefi

nite sense in the RV. ; e. g. m ksmai dhatam abhy mitre na
deliver us not to any foe (i. 120^).

mkis (not any one, Gk. ,a^rt^), occurring about a dozen

times in the R v , to which it is restricted, is used in pro
hibitive sentences with the injunetive in two senses :
1. no one : mkis toksya no riat may no one of our
offspring be injured (viii. 67 ).
2. more often an emphatic negative by no means, never :
mkir devnm pa bh be not at all away from the gods
(x. 11 ). Cp. nkis.
mkm, used as an emphatic prohibitive particle with
the injunctive, occurs only in two passages of the RV. :
mkm s ri kvae let none suffer fr actur e in a pit
(vi. 517),
ytra is employed in two main senses : 1. usually as
a relative adverb, meaning wher e, but sometimes whither ,
e. g. yaj . . nro ytra devayvo mdanti wher e pious
men r ejoice in sacr ifice (vii. 97 ) ; ytra rthena gchatha
11

whither ye go with your

car

(i. 22 ),

generally ttra, sometimes tra or td.

The

correlative is

a. Occasionally as equivalent to the locative of the relative ; e. g.

gba t gacbn ttar yug n i ytra jmya krvann jmi those
later generations will come in which those who are akin will do what befits not
kinsmen (x. 10 ^).
1

2. not infrequently as a temporal conjunction, when, in

both V. and B. ; e. g. ytra pr sudsam vatam when ye
helped Suds (vii. 83^), I n V. dha, tra, td appear as
correlatives ; e. g. ytra ursas tanv vitanvat . . dha
sm yacha tanv tne ca ehard when the heroes strain
themselves (in battle) . . then especially bestow protection on us
1

and our sons (vi. 46 ^). In B. td is generally the correlative,

Sometimes ttas ; e. g. t ytra dev ghnas, tn
mitrm abruvan when the gods killed him, they said to
Mitra (B.).

yth has two distinct uses in both v. and B. :

1. as a relative adverb meaning as; e.g. nn yth
pur now as before (I. 397) ; yth vaym umsi tt kdhi
as we wish that do (x. 38) ; yth vi puru j r yaty evm
agnir hito jryati as a man grows old, so fire when it has
been laid grows old (TS.).

When there is a correlative in the

R v , it is usually ev, sometimes tth ; in B. usually

evm, sometimes tth.
2. as a conjunction meaning in order that, so that, intro
ducing a posterior clause, generally with the subj., rarely
the opt. ; e. g. hav kuva subhgo yth^sasi prepare
the oblation that thou mayest be successful (ii. 26) ; davya

vmah ^vsi, yth bhvema mhe ng (vii. 97)

we crave divine aids that we may appear sinless to the gracious

god ; tath me kuru yath^aham im sen jayni

arrange it so for me that I may conquer this army (AB.) ;

tthaiv hotavy yth^agnm vyaveyt it must be

poured so that it should divide the fire (B.).
a. I n the RV. after verbs of knowing or saying ytha introduces an
explanation = how ; e. g. ks td bryad anudy ytha^,bhavat who
could tell us this, (viz.) how the gift was^ (x. 135 ). Occasionally it is
used thus even without such verbs : n pramye savitr divyasya.
5

td yth vva bhvana dhrayiyti that (power) of the divine

Savit (is not to ----- ) will not decay, (viz.) that he will support the whole world
(iv. 54 ).
4

yd (n. of the relative y) is used in four distinct senses :

1. that, expanding the meaning of a word in the preceding
principal clause ; e. g. g td, indra, te vo yd dhsi
vtrm I praise this mighty deed of thine that thou slayest

Vtra (viii. 62^); km ga sa, varua, jyha yt

stot r a jghsasi skhyam, what has been the chief guilt,
O Varua, that thou wichest to slay thy praiser (who is) thy

friend ? (vii. 86 ). This use is not common in v.

4

a. yad is similarly employed i n B. with reference to a preceding

td (often omitted) ; e. g. td yt pyas r t i : vtr vi sma
st that ( the reason why) he mi^es Soma with milk (is) this : Vtra
was Soma (B.). This use is also found i n B. after certain verbs :
va ka1pate it is suitable, t sahate is able, ichti desires, ynkt bhavati
is intent on^ vda knows, and var it is possible ; e. g. n h td avakl
pate yd bryt for it is not suitable that he should say (B.).

2. when with the ind. pres., imp., perf., aor., fut., and
with the subj. ; e. g. yd dha y n ti mruta s ha
bruvate when the Maruts go along, they speak together (i. 37 ) ;
km apayo yt te bhr gachat whom didst thou see when
fear came upon thee ? (i. 32 ) ; ndra ca yd yuyudh t e
hi ca, maghv v jigye when Indra and the serpent fought,
the bountiful god conquered (i. 32 ) ; citr yd bhr bright
13

14

13

when he has shone forth (i. 66^) ; tigm yd anir ptti,

dha no bodhi gop when the sharp bolt shall fly, then be
1

our protector (iv. 16 7). I t also occurs rarely in anacolutha

with the pres. part. and the past pass. part. much as in
English; e.g. pcanti te vabh n , tsi t yn
maghavan, hymna they roast bulls for th^e, thou eatest
of them, O bounteous one, when being called (x. 28 ),
3

a. I n B. yd occurs with the sense of when with the pres., fut., and
aor and in the sense of whenever or while with the impf.

3. if used with the ind. pres. , the subj., or the opt. ; e. g.

yd, indra, da nyg v hyse, yhi tuyam if,

1

O Indra, thou art called above or below, come quickly (viii. 65 ) ;

yd rdhvs th drvi^ih dhattd yd v kya

if thou shalt stand upright, bestow treasures here, or if thou shalt
1

lie (iii. 8 ), The opt. is used when it is assumed that the

condition will not be fulfilled ; e. g. yd, ague, sym ah
tv, tv v gh sy ahm, sy e saty ih^a
if, O Agni, I were thou, or if thou wert I , thy prayers here
23

would be fulfilled (viii. 44 ).

a. I n B. yd is used with the opt. as in V. (while with ydi the ful
filment of the condition is usually assumed) and w i t h the conditional ;
s yd bhdyeta^ r tim arched yjamna if it were to break, the
sacrificer would fall into misfortune (Ts.) ; yd ev n^vakyo murdh
te vy patiyat if thou hadst not spoken thus, thy head would have fallen to
pieces (B.).

4. in order that, in posterior clauses, with the subj., very

rarely with the opt. in V. ; e. g. vaha devtti rdho
yd ady divy yjsi bring hither the host of the gods that
thou mayest adore the divine throng (iii. 19 ) ; yn nnm
4

ay gti, mitrsya yy path that I may now

3

obtain refuge, I would go on Mitra's path (v. 64 ),

a. I n B. this use of yd is very rare, occurring only a few times
with the subj. ; e. g. tt pr p uhi yt te pr v t am apipdytai
obtain thou this, that thy breath may pass into the wind (B.).

yad when is used in V. and B. with the ind. perf., impf.,

pres., and with the subj. ; with the aor. ind. and the inj. in
V only ; and with the fut. and opt. in B. only.
The
correlative word (when there is one) is in V. d, tha, dha,
td, trhi ; in B. tha and trhi.
1. yad is most commonly used in the RV. with the aor.
ind., when as the beginning of the action is emphasized,
the sense is as soon as ; e. g. yadd devr sahia may,
tha^abhavat kvala smo asya as soon as he had overcome
5

the ungodly wiles, then Soma became his exclusively (vii. 98 ) ;

abh ganti r d ho yad te mrto nu bhgam na they

praise thy wealth as soon as the mortal has obtained thy reward
2

(x. 7 ). When the principal clause contains a historical

tense, the aor. with yad has the value of a pluperfect.
a. The injunetive is found only once with yad in the RV. : yad
mhya d d haro bhgm, indra, d n my kavo vry i when
thou shalt have secured for me my share, O Indra, then thou shalt perform
heroic deeds with my help (viii. 100 ).
1

2. a. with the impf. and perf. ; e. g. yad vus tri

pad vicakram, yad surya div . . dhraya, d t te
hr vavakatu when Viu took his three steps, when thou
didst fix the sun in the sky, then thy two bays grew in strength

(viii.

12-7. )
30

; tsya yad mrma^gachann tha^aceat

as soon as they touched his weak spot, he quivered (MS.) ; s

yad ^ bhym anv c a^tha^asya td ndra ra ci

cheda as soon as he had told them, Indra cut his head off (B.).

b. with the pres. ind. : yad saty kut manym

ndro, vva dh bhayate jad asmt when Indra
shows his true anger, all that is firm, trembling, is afraid of him

(iv. 17 ) ; yad vai paur nirdao bhavaty atha sa

1

medhyo bhavati as soon as the victim is more than ten days

old, it becomesfitfor sacrifice (AB.) ; s yad keamar

vpaty tha snti when he has cut off his hair and beard, he
bathes (^B.).
c. with the subj. (here = future perfect) : yad t
kvo 'tha^m ena pr hiutt pit b hya when thou
1

shalt have made him done, then deliver him to the fathers (X. 16 ) ;

yad tm ativrdh, tha karu khtv tsy ma

bibharsi when I shall have grown too big for it, you shall,
having dug a pit, keep me in it (B.).
3. a. with the fut. : yadaiva hot paridhsyaty atha pn prati
mokymi when the Hot shall have concluded, I shall tighten the cords (AB.).
b. with the opt. : s yad sagrm jyed tha^aindrgn nr
vapet as soon as he may have won a battle, he should sacrifice to Indra and

Agni (Ms.).

ydi if (sometimes when with a past tense) is found with

perf. and impI. in v only; with the ind. pres., aor., fuI.,

and with the subj. in V. and B. ; and with the opt. in B.

only.
1. With the perf. used historically and with the impf.
ydi means when, the verb then having the force of a
pluperfect ; e. g. d astambht samdh nkam agnr ydi
bhgubhya pri mtarv havyav h a samdh Agni
supported the vault with fuel when Matarisvan from the Bhgus
10

had kindled the oblationbearer (iii. 5 ) ; ydi sahsra

mahin gha, d t ta indriy mhi pr vvdhe
when thou hadst eaten a thousand bulls, thy might grew great

(viii. 128). But when the perf. has the pres. perf. sense,
ydi has its ordinary meaning of if: grhir jagr h a ydi
vaitd ena, tsy, indrgn, pr mumuktam enam or if
illness has seized him, from that release him, Indra and Agni
1

(x. 161 ).
2. a. with the pres. : yd mnthanti bhbhir v
rocate when they rub with their arms, he shines (iii. 29^) ;

ady murya ydi ytudh n o smi today I would die, if I

am a sorcerer (vii. 104 ^) ; ydi n anti pitdevatyo
1

bhavati if he does not eat, he becomes dedicated to the

Manes (B.).
b. with the aor. : yd 1 n t r pa svs . . sthita,
adhvaryr modate if the sister (coming) from the mother has
approached, the priest rejoices (ii. 5^) ; ydy ha^ena pr
cam cair, yth prea snya phato 'nndyam
uphret if you have piled it frontways, it is as if one handed
food from behind to one sitting with averted face (B.).

c. with the fut. : ydy ev kariytha, sk devir

yajyso bhaviyatha if ye will act thus, ye shall become
objects of worship together with the gods (i. 161^) ; ydi v

imm abhimasy kny nnam kariye if I shall plot

against him, I shall procure less food (B.).

d. with the subj. : yjma devn ydi aknvma we

13

will worship the gods, if we shall be able (i. 27 ) ; ydi stma

mma rvad, asmkam ndram ndava . . mandantu

if he shall hear my song of praise, let our drops gladden Indra

(viii. I ) ; ydi t v a ^ e t t p n a r brvatas, tv b r t t
if they two shall say that to thee again, do thou say (B.).
1 5

a. W i t h the opt. ydi is (excepting one occurrence i n the Sv.)

found i n B. only, where this use is very common. Here a case is
usually supposed with a rule applicable to i t i n the principal clause ;
e. g. yadi na aknuyt, so 'gnaye puroa nir vapet if he should not
be able to do it, he should ojer a cake to Agni (AB.).
3. after the verb v i d know, ydi is used in the sense of
whether in one passage of the RV. (x. 1297) and often in B. ;
e. g. hnta na ko vttu ydi hat v vtr j v ati v come,
let one of us find out whether rtra is dead or whether he is
alive (B.).
a. ydi v is not only used after a preceding ydi i n the sense of
or if, but also alone i n the sense of or, nearly always without a verb ;
e. g. s ag veda ydi v n vda he alone knows or he docs not know
(x. 129 ) ; y vhanti atm v ydi v sapt whom a hundred
horses draw, or seven (Av. x i i i . 2 ) ; ydi v.^itrath or conversely (B.).
yrhi (at the time) when occurs only i n B where it is used with the
pres. or past ind., and with the opt. I t has almost invariably trhi or
etrhi then as a correlative ; e. g. s trhy ev jyate yrhy agnm
dhatt he is born at the moment when he lays his fire (MS.) ; yrhi praj
kdha nigcheyus trhi navartra yajeta when his people should
suffer from hunger, he should sacrifice with the rite of nine nights (Ts.).
ysmd does not occur as a conjunction i n v., but i t sometimes
appears as such in B. meaning why ; e. g. tha ysmt samia
yaji nma now (follows the reason) why they are called Samiayajus
(B.),
7

yd (an old abl. of y) is found in V. only. I t is used

with the indicative pres. or past, and with the subj. With
the ind. i t means as far as in the RV. ; e. g. rcmasi yd
ev vidm tt tv mah n tam (vi. 21 ) we praise thee, the
great, as far as we know (how to) ; it seems to mean since in
the AV. : y kiyan pthiv yd jyata who ruled the
earth since it arose ( A v xii. 1 7), W i t h the subj. yd means
as long as ; e. g. annuktym apun cakra yt sryms
mith uccrta he has once for all done what is inimitable
as long as sun and moon alternately shall rise (x. 68 ).
6

10

yvat already appears in V. as an adverb meaning as far

as, as long as, an extension of its acc. use ; e. g. yvad
dyvpthiv tvad t tt (x. 1148) as for as heaven and earth,
so far it (extends) ; juhmi havy yvad e I offer
oblation as long as I am able (iii. 18 ) ; jto vi tvat pruo
yvad agn n^dhatt man is so long unborn, as he does
not lay his fire (MS.).
v or is employed much in the same way as ca and.
I t is enclitic, following the word to which it belongs ; and
it connects words, clauses, or sentences ; e. g. ta gahi
div v rocan d dhi come from here or from the shining
realm of heaven (i. 6 ) ; yasya bhry gaur v yamau
janayet whose wife or cow bears twins (AB.) ; p r t i y
ssam nvati, ukth v y abhigti who promotes the law
or welcomes songs of praise (i. 547).
3

a. v ... v is frequently used i n the same way ; e.g. kt v yt te

cakm vid v that we have offered to thee according to our power or
knowledge (i. 3 l ) ; nkta v h dv v vrati for it rains by night
or by day (Ts.) ; yd v^ahm abhidudrha yd v ep ut^ntam
what evil I have plotted or what I have sworn falsely (I. 2.^ ),
b. But v ... v also mean either ... or. When they contrast two
principal sentences i n this sense, implying exclusive alternatives, the
verb of the first is accented even when the second is incomplete ;
e. g. haye v tn praddtu sma v dadhatu nrrter upsthe let
Soma either deliver them to the serpent or place them in the lap of dissolution
(vii. 104 ) ; t d v jaju td va n jajau she either agreed to it or did
not agree to it (sB.) ; tsya v tv mna ich s v tva either do thou
seek his heart, or he thine (x. 10 ).
vv (doubtless a contraction of two particles) is found i n B. only.
I t emphasizes the preceding word i n the sense of certainly, just, being
particularly frequent in the first of two correlated clauses ; e. g. es
vv s 'gnr i t y hu that is certainly the same Agni, they say (Ts.).
18

14

vi is an emphasizing particIe meaning truly, indeed.

1. I n the R v this particle occurs only in 28 passages,
in all but three of which it follows the first word of
the sentence ; e. g. bhadr vi vra vate truly they
make a good choice (x. 164^) ; ti va ti me mna so, indeed,
so is my mind (x. 119 ); n vi strini sakhy n i santi
1

15

there are, indeed, no friendships with lvomen (x. 95 ).

The

stress is laid on the whole sentence, not on any particular

word. The particle is often followed by u (v u) without
any perceptible change of meaning.
a. I n the A v . the use is similar except that here the particle often
appears after a demonstrative or a relative ; e. g. tsmd vi s pr
bhavat therefore, indeed, he perished (xii. 4^ ) ; y vi t vidyt pratyk
a s v ady mahd vadet whoever may know them plainly, he, verily,
may speak aloud today (xi. 8^).
9

2. I n B. vi usually occupies the same position, but often

yields the second place to cd, h, khIu, and of course
always to the enclitics iva, u, ca, sma, ha. When tho
begins a sentence vi occupies the second place.
Here the use of vi in the first sentence of a narrative is
typical ; e. g. ymo v amriyata : t dev yamy ymam
pbruvan Yama died : the gods (then) dissuaded Yam from

(thinking of) Yama (MS.).

a. The particle often appears in the concluding sentence i n discus
sions ; e. g. tsmd v pa pa sprati that is, indeed, why he sips
water (B.).
b. I t is very often placed after the first word of a sentence that
gives the reason for the one that follows ; e. g. raddh d evo vi
mnur : v n vedva now Manu is godfearing : we two will
therefore ascertain (B.). w h e n vi is used i n this way the clause
containing it is often equivalent to a parenthetical one ; e. g. t
vym abruvan (ay vi vyr y 'y pvate) vyo tvm id
viddhi^ti they said to Vyu (now Vyu is he who blows), Vyu, ascertain
this (B.). I n this sense vi is especially frequent i n periods of
three clauses, when that with vi contains the reason, and that with
ev the conclusion ; e. g. t et b his tanu.bhi sm abhavan ; pavo
vi dev n a priy s tanv : pabhir va sm abhavan they were
together with these bodies ; now animals are the bodies dear to the gods . they
were therefore together with animals (Ms.).
c. The differences between the use of vi and of ev i n B. are the
following : vi coming after the first word emphasizes the whole
sentence, while ev emphasizes a particular word in any part of the
sentence ; vi follows the first word of a sentence beginning a narrative, ev never does ; i n a period vi is typical i n the clause stating
a reason, ev i n that expressing the conclusion.

s is often used pleonastically before relatives in B. ; e. g.

s y no vca vyht mithunna n^anunikr m t,
s srva pr jaytai he who shall not follow the word
uttered by us with (another of) the corresponding gender, he shall

lose everything (B.). This use led to s being employed in

a formulaic way not only pleonastically but also without
reference to gender or number ; e. g. tsya tni sr i pr
eicheda. s yt somapnam sa tta kapjala sm
abhavat he struck off his heads. Now that which had been
Somadrinking, from that arose the francoline partridge (B.) ;

s ydi n vindnti km driyeran now if they do not find

it, why should they mind? (B.).

sm is an. enclitic particle restricted to the RV. Originally

the acc. sing. of a pronoun, related to s as km to k, it is
generally used (much like m) as an ace. of all numbers and
genders in the third personhim, her, it, them, representing
a substantive (which sometimes follows) and frequently
placed between a preposition and its verb, occasionally also
after a relative ; e. g. pri nayanti they lead him around
(L 95); pr sm dity asjat the ditya made them (the
4

streams) to flow (ii. 28 ) ; n vtrsya mrmai vjram

ndro appatat Indra has caused it, his bolt, to fall on Vtra's

vital spot (viii. 1007) ; y sm kvan tmase vipce,

t sryam whom they created to disperse the darkness, that
sun (iv. 13 ).
3

a. sm sometimes gives the relative the sense of ever ; e. g. yt sm

ga cakm, irthas tt whatever sin we have committed, remove that
(V.857).

s, su well, used asseveratively thoroughly, fully, verity

and always referring to the verb, is almost restricted as an

independent particle to the Sahits, being common in the
RV., but rare in the others ; e. g. jusva su no adhvarm
thoroughly enjoy our sacrifice (iii. 24) ; nma s te homage
verily (be) to thee (vS. xii. 63) ; jar s gacha go safely to

old age (AV. xix. 24.),

a. W i t h preceding u the particle means right well : im u rudh

gra hear these songs right well (i. 26 ) ; vidm v asya mtram we
know full well his mother (Av. i . 2^).
b. With preceding m i t = by no means, not at all, never ; e. g. m s
tv . . . asmn n rraman let none by any means keep thee from us
(vif. 32 ).
c. s kam is used like the simple s except that i t appears with the
impv. only ; e.g. tihata . . . s kam stand quite still (I. 191^).
5

sma, an enclitic, slightly emphasizing particle, has two

senses in the RV. :
1. It generally emphasizes :
a. demonstrative or personal pronouns, relatives, or nouns,
and may be rendered by just, especially, or simply by stress ;
e. g. tsya sma prvit bhava be his helper (i. 12^) ; s
rudhi y sm p t ansu ksu cit . . . rai sv snit
hear thou, who especially in all battles with heroes dost win the
2

light (i. 129 ).

b. the verb, which or (if it is compounded) the preposition
of which it follows (generally at the beginning of the sen
tence) ; e. g. smsi m vaym em we are indeed theirs
15

(f. 37 ) ; sm rtha tihasi thou mountest indeed upon

12

thy ear (i. 51 ), The verb is in the present ind. or the

impv., rarely the perf ; it appears to have been accented
before sma judging by the only example (vI. 44 ^) in which
it is not the first word in the sentence (App. I I I , 19 A).
e. adverbs and particles ; e. g. ut sma and especially ; n
1

sma and m sma by no means.

a. I n the Av. these emphasizing uses are similar; but in B. they
have entirely disappeared.

2. In a few instances sma occurs in the RV. before pur

with the pres. ind. to express that an action has habitually
taken place in the past down to the present time ; e. g. y
sm pur gtynti who have always aided = who aids now

and formerly did so (i. 169^).

a. This use is not found i n the AV., but has become extremely
common i n B., where sma is always preceded by ha. The meaning

here expressed is that something habitually took place i n the past

(but does not as i n the RV. include the present) ; e. g. n ha sma vi
pura^,agnr aparauvka dahati formerly Agni used not to burn what
was not lopped ojf with the a^e (Ts.).
b. Much more frequently, however, pur is left out and the
particles ha sma, from their frequent association with i t , assume its
meaning ; e. g. t ha sma yd dev surn. jyanti, tto ha sma^,ev^,
enn pnar upttihanti as often as the gods defeated the Asuras, the
latter always opposed them again (B.). This use of ha sma is very
common with the present perfect ha ; e. g. etd dha sma v ha
nrad with regard to this Ndrada used to say (MS.). Other tenses than
the present with ha sma are found i n the AB. where, i n two or
three passages, the perf. and the impf. are used with them i n the
same sense.

svid is an enclitic particle emphasizing the first word of

a sentence, usually an interrogative pronoun or adverb.
It may generally be translated by pray ; e. g. k svid vk
nhito mdhye rasa what tree, pray, was that which
stood in the midst of the sea? (i. 1827). I n one passage of the
R v this particle gives the interrogative an indefinite mean
ing : mt putrsya crata kva svit the mother of the son
that wanders who knows where (x. 34 ). Very rarely (in
double questions) the partic1e appears without an inter
rogative : sti svin n vry tt ta, indra, n svid asti :
td tutn v voea is this thy heroic deed, O Indra, or is it
not : that deelare in due season (vi. 18^),
10

a. I n a few instances svid appears i n noninterrogative sentences :

tvy ha svid yuj vaym abh mo,vajasatayewith thee as companion
we are equipped for the obtainment of booty (viii. 102 ).
b. The employment of svid in B. is similar ; e. g. km u vid t
'dhi vra variyamahe what boon, pray, beyond this shall we choose ?
(MS.) ; tv svin no brhmiho 'si art thou, pray, the most learned of
us ^ (B.) ; yd greu juhti t t svid agnu juhoti what he pours
on the coals, that itself he pours on the fire (Ms.).
3

ha, an enclitic partic1e occurring after all words capable

of beginning a sentence, has a slightly emphasizing and
asseverative force. I t is probably identical in origin with
gha, but unlike that particle hardly ever (only twice) appears

in the RV. with its vowel lengthened. I t is common in the

RV., occurring after personal, demonstrative, interrogative,
and relative pronouns, nouns, verbs, verbal prepositions, and
adverbs.

a. I n B. the use of this particle varies i n frequency: i t is com

paratively rare i n the TS., where i t generally appears with sma or
with perfects; while i n the B. i t is extremely frequent. I t lays
stress on the first word of sentences so as to emphasize the connexion
or to mark a new or important step i n the narrative ; e. g. i t i
marmjyeta : jarasa ha cakumn bhavati ya eva veda with
these words he should wipe (his eyes) : so till old age he who knows this becomes
possessed of vision (AB.).
b. I t is very often used after the first word of a story with or
without vi. I t appears predominantly with the perfect i n those
parts of the B. and the A B . that narrate with the perfect, mostly
with verbs of speaking. Thus sa ha^uvca appears here, while so
bravt is said elsewhere.

hnta occurs three times in the RV. as an interjection in

exhortations ; e. g. yjmahai yajyn hnta devn come,
we will worship the adorable gods (x. 53).
a. I t is similarly used in B. : hanta.^ima yaja sambharma
well, we will prepare the sacrifice (AB.).

h, in origin probably an emphasizing particle, is used

throughout as a subordinating conjunction which regularly
throws the accent on the verb. I t nearly always follows
the first word of the sentence, or the second when the first
two are closely connected. In v. it is used in two ways :
1. in indicative sentences (the verb having sometimes to
be supplied) to express the reason (like yap), meaning either
for, if the clause containing it follows, or because, since, if it
precedes ; e. g. bla dhehi tan u no, tv h balad
si bestow strength on our bodies, for thou art a giverofstrength

(iii. 53 ^); ruv n o h de devs, tn vaha sinee

1

the gods give ear to the pious man, bring them hither (i. 45 ),

2. in exhortative sentences, mostly with the impv., as an

emphatic particle = pray, indeed ; e. g. yukv h ken
hr pray harness thy two long-maned bay steeds (i. 10^),

180l8l]

PARTICLES.

INTERJECTIONS

253

a. I n B. three uses of h may be distinguished :

1. it expresses the reason, as i n the first use i n V., only that the
clause containing h always follows ( for only), and the verb is
much ofteuer omitted than expressed ; e. g. td ndro 'mucyata, dev
h s from that Indra freed hims^if, for he (is) a god (fI.), The particle
vi is often added to strengthen h ; e. g. vjro h v pa for water is
indeed a thunderbolt (B.).
2. i t is sometimes employed to emphasize an interrogative = pray ;
e. g. kath h kariysi how, pray, wilt thou do ^t ^ (B.).
3. i t expresses assent i n answers after a word repeated from
a preceding question ; e. g. t m eva tv payasi^.ti ; t h . do you
see him^' Tes, ( I see) him (B.).
a. I n B., when h appears i n the relative clause of a period explain
ing a previous statement, the verb of the principal clause (to which h
properly applies) is sometimes irregularly unaccented; e.g. id
h yad vraty tha^adhayo j ayante for, when it rains here, then the
plants spring u^7 (B. ).
1SI. A certain number of words having the nature of
interjections occur in the Santhitas. They are of two kinds,
being either exclamations or imitative sounds.
a. The exclamations are : b (RV) truly, bata (RV.)
alasl hnta eome, used exhortatively with the subjunctive
and hay come before vocatives; hruk and h u r k (RV)
away 1 hi ( A v ) ho
b. Interjections of the onomatopoetic type are : kikira
(RV.) used with k make the sound kikir tear to tatters ;
kikki (TS.) used in invocations ; cic (RV.) whiz^ (of an
arrow), used with k make a whizzing sound ; ph (Av., VS.)
crash/ phl ( A v ) splash l bI ( A v ) dash/ bhk (Av.)
bang l l (AV.) clap 1

CHAPTER V I
NOMINAL STEM FORMATION AND COMPOUNDS
A. Nominal Stems.
1S2. Declinable stems, though they often consist of the
bare root (either verbal or pronominal), are chiefly formed by
means of suffixes added to roots. These suffixes are of two
kinds : primary, or those added directly to roots (which
may at the same time be compounded with verbal prefixes) ;
and secondary, or those added to stems already ending in
a suffix and to pronominal roots (which are thus treated as
primary stems).
1. Primary Derivatives as a rule show the root in its
strong form ; e. g. vda m. knowledge (vid know) ; sraa
n. running (s); kr making (k); grbh m. seizer
(grabh). I n meaning they may be divided into the two
classes of abstract action nouns (cognate in sense to infinitives)
and concrete agent nouns (cognate in sense to participles)
used as adjectives or substantives ; e. g. mat I. thought
(man think) ; yodn, m.fighter(yudh fight). Other meanings
are only modifications of these two ; e. g. dna ( = d^ana)
n. act of giving, then gift.

a. When the bare root is used as a declinable stem, it

usually remains unchanged ; e. g. d m. giver, bhd f.
destroyer, yj m. companion, sp m. spy, vdh adj. strengthen

ing. Roots ending in i or u take a determinative t ; e. g.

mt I. pillar, stt I. praise. The root may appear in a
reduplicated form ; e. g. eikt wise, jg singing aloud.
b. Several primary nominal suffixes connected with the
verbal system have already been sufficiently dealt with, viz.
those of the pres. and fut. participles : ant (85 ; 156), na

and mna (158) ; of the perf. act. part. : vas (89 ; 157) ;
of the perf. pass. part. : ta and na (160) ; of the gerundive :
ya, yya, enya, tva, tavy and an y a (162). The forma
tion of stems to which the primary suffixes of the com
parative and superlative, ys and iha, are added has
also been explained (88 ; 103, 2). Of the rest the following
in alphabetical order are the most usual and important :
a : e. g. bhg m. share (bhaj) ; megh m. cloud (mih
discharge water); cod m. instigator (cud); srga m.
emission (sj); ny m. leader (n), priy pleasing
(pr); hav m. invoeation (h); jr m. lover (j);
vevij guich (vij dart), earcar furextending. The sub
stantives are almost exclusively m. ; but yug n. (Gk.
1

^vyo^ ; Lat. jugum).

an : in. agent nouns and about a dozen defective n. stems ;

e. g. ukn m. ox, mrdhn m. head, rjan m. king ;
san n. blood, han n. day, udn n. water, dhan
n. udder.

ana: n. action nouns: bhjana n. enjoyment (bhuj),

sdana n. seat ( sad) ; kraa n. deed (k) ; hvana n.
invocation (h); bhvana n. being (bh), vjna n.
enclosure ; also m. agent nouns : e. g. kara active, md
ana gladdening (mad), sagmana assembling ; tura
speeding.

ana : I. action nouns : jara old age, ya woman,

vadhn slaughter. This is also the I. form of adjectives in
ana ; e. g. tur speeding.
ani : I. action nouns, and m. I. agent nouns ; e. g. ari
I. firestick, vartan I. track ; cara active ; ruruki
willing to destroy (from des. stem of ruj destroy).
1

The second part, ya, of this suffix is secondary (182, 2), but the
whole is employed as a primary suffix (162, 5). The first part, tav is
probably derrved from the old infinitive ending tave (p. 192, 4).
The second half of this suffix, ya is secondary, but the whole is
employed as a primary suffix (162, 6).
2

as : n. action nouns (with accented root) and agent nouns

(with accented suffix) ; e. g. pas n. work (LaI. opus), aps
active ; rkas n. demon, raks m. id.
a : I. action nouns (from roots and secondary conjugation
stems) ; e. g. nind blame ; jig desire to win ; gamay
causing to go ; ava-y- desire for horses.

i : action nouns (nearly always I.) ; agent nouns (adj. and

subst.) ; and a few neuters of obscure origin ; e. g. k I.
tillage, j m. I. contest; ckri active (k), ci bright;

p m. hand ; ki n. eye, sthi n. bone, ddhi n. sour

milk.

is : n. action nouns (mostly with concrete sense) ; e. g.

arcs flame, jytis light, mis raw flesh, barhs straw.
u : agent nouns, adj. and subst. (mostly m., but several
I. and n.) ; e. g. tan thin (Lat. tenuis) ; bh m. arm
(Gk. 7ri^v^), pd m. foot ; hnu I. jaw ; jnu n. knee
(Gk. ^youv).

Una: adj. and m. n. subst. ; e.g. trua young, dhara

supporting, m. n. support, mithun forming a pair, i n . couple ;

vrua m. a god, ak-un m. bird.

us : n. action nouns and m. agent nouns ; e. g. dhnus
n. bow ; jays victorious ; vans m. assailant.
u : I., mostly corresponding to m. and n. in u ; e. g. tan
body ; dhan. sandbank (n. dhnu) ; independentlyformed:
camu dich, vadhu bride.
ka (rare as a primary, but very common as a secondary
suffix) : adj. and m. subst. : -ka dry ; t-ka m. garment,
l-ka m. eall, stok m. dr op ; v c-i-ka m. scorpion.
ta: besides ordinarily forming perf. pass. participles,
appears, in a more general sense, as the suffix of a few
adjectives and of substantives with concrete meaning ; e. g.
t- rough, t cold ; d-t m. messenger, grta m.
car-seat, mr-ta m. mortal, hs-ta m. hand ; gh-t n. ghee,

nk-ta n. night ; with connecting i : s-i-ta black, pal-i-t

grey, rh-i-ta red.

t i : chiefly f. action nouns ; e. g. i desire, t aid

(av), krt praise (k commemorate), rt gift; i
offering, gti motion, d ti

gift ; d d hiti

devotion (dh

think) ; ahat distress, mati indigence. I t also forms

some twenty agent nouns used either as adjectives or as
m. substantives ; e. g. rt willing to give, vi eager ;
jnt m. relative, dti m. skin, dhu.ti m. shaker, mi
m. fist, spti m. steed, abhi m. helper (but abhi
I. help) ; mati poor, arat m. servant, vkti m.
murderer.

t u : chiefly forms the stem of dat., abl.gen., and ace.

infinitives; e.g. dtu : D. dtave and dtavi ; Ab.G.
dtos ; A. dtum ; also a few independent action nouns
and still fewer agent nouns : tu m. weft (v weave), tntu
m. thread ; akt m. ray (aj anoint), t m. season, jant
in. creature; vstu I. morning (vas shine); vstu n. abode
(vas dwell : Gk. ao^rv).

t : agent nouns, often used participially governing an acc.

(when the root is generally accented) ; e. g. gnt going to
(acc.), but kart m. doer, ya sacrificer (yaj), u
ploughing bull ; less commonly with connecting vowel :
codit instigator, savit stimulator ; mart destroyer ;
trut winning, tarut m . conqueror ; vart protector ;
mant and manot inventor. This suffix also forms
several names of relationship ; e. g. pit m. father, mt
f. mother (101).
tnu forms more than a dozen agent nouns, mostly adj. ;
e. g. ktn active ; pyatn reviling ; mdayitn intoxi
cating, stanayitn m. thunder.

tra : agent nouns, a few of them adjectives, the rest nearly

all n. substantives, expressing the instrument or means;
1

This word when the final number of a compound is reduced by

syncope to t t i : bhgatti f. gift of fortune, maghtti f. receipt of bounty,
vsutti f. receipt of wealth.

e. g. jitra victorious, yjatra adorable ; ktra n. field,

ptra n. cup, vstra n. garment; khanitra n. shovel.
There are also a few masculines, as dra tusk (da
bite), mn-tr a prayer, mi-tr friend (but n. friendship).

tr : occurs a few times as the I. form of the preceding :

-r goad (a reach), mtr measure (Gk.

^rpo^).

tha : action nouns, more often m. than n. ; e. g. gth m.

song, bhth m. offering, rtha m. ear, htha, in. slaughter ;
rtha n. goal, ukth n. saying (vac), trth n. ford
(t cross), rikth n. inheritance (ric); with connecting
1

vowel : uctha n. praise, stavtha m. praise.

th : occurs a few times as the I. form of tha : kh

course, gth song, nth trick.

na : besides ordinarily forming peri. pass. participles

(160, 1) appears as the suffix of a number of adjectives (I. n)
and substantives, the latter mostly m., a few n. ; e. g. u
hot, k black, nagn naked ; budhn in. bottom, yaj
m. sacrifice, vra m. colour; par n. wing, vasn n. price.

na : as the I. form of na makes a few substantives : t

thirst, dhn cow, sn missile, sth post.
ni : in. and f. action and agent nouns (some of the latter
adj.): yni m. receptacle, jri I. heat; p -ni speckled,
pre loving ( pr), bhuri excited ; agn m. fire, vhni
m. draught animal.

n u : action and agent nouns (including some adjectives),

nearly always m. ; e. g. kep m. jerk, bhn m. light,
sn m. son; dhen f. cow; dnu. n. drop (m. f. demon).
ma: adj. and (almost exclusively m.) substantives; e.g.
jinm oblique, ag-m mighty ; idh-m m. fuel, ghar-m
m. heat, st-ma m. praise, hi-m m. cold; bl-ma n. chip;
h-m I. winter.
man : action nouns (very numerous), most of which are n.
1

rtha occurs often in the RV., but appears only three times (in
Maala X) as am.; in the later language it is m. only.

accented on the root, whi1e a good many are m. accented on

the suffix ; e. g. jman n. course (Lat. agmen), nman
n. name (Lat. nomen), bh man n. world, s-man n. praise
(Lat. car-men) ; jniman n. birth ; vr--man n. expanse ;

bh-mn m. abundance, vid-mn in. knowledge, prath-i-mn

m. breadth ; also a few rare1y used m. agent nouns, mostly
accented on the suffix ; e. g. vad-mn m. speaker, sad-mn
m. sitter; -man m. stone (Gk. a^^ou) ; jman victorious ;

some of these differ in accent only from corresponding n.

action nouns (cp. as): dmn m. giver: dman n. gift;
d h a r - 1 n n m. ordainer : dhrman n. ordinance ; brahmn
m. priest : brhman n. worship ; sadmn m. sitter : sd
man n. seat.

mi : adj. and in. (also one I.) subst. : jm related ; r

m m. wave, rasm m. ray ; bhmi I. earth.
m : a few I. substantives : bhm earth, lak-1n sign,
srm tube.
yu : a few adjectives and m. substantives : yjyu pious,
sundhy pure, shyu strong ; many m. anger, mt
y m. death ; dsyu m. enemy, yu m. enemy.

ra: many adjectives, mostly accented on the suffix ; e. g.

ugr mighty, patar flying, ajir swift ; gdhra greedy ;
vipra inspired ; also severa1 substantives of different genders
(I. r) ; e. g. kur m. razor, vamr m. ant ; khadir m.
a tree; jra in. field (Gk. vpo^), vjra in. thunderbolt,
sura m. hero ; abhr n. cloud, kr n. milk ; gra n.
point, rndhra n. hollow ; rra n. body ; dhr I. stream,
sr I. intoxicating liguor.

r i : adj. and m. I. subst. ; e. g. bhuri abundant, vdhri

emasculated ; jsuri exhausted ; ghri m. foot, sr m.
patron; -ri f. edge, sri I. dawn; agri I. finger.

ru : adj. and a few n. substantives : cru dear (Lat.

carus), bhr timid ; patru flying ; vand ru praising ;

sanru obtaining ; -ru n. tear, m-ru n. beard.

va : adj. and (mostly m.) substantives ; e. g. rdh-v

(Gk. op0o^), pakv ripe, prva preceding, srva all (Lat.

salvus); -va m. horse (Lat. eq-uu-s), sruv m. ladle; m
v I. disease.

van: adj. and subst. (mostly m., few n.) ; e.g. kvan
praising, k t van active, yjvan sacrificing ; dhvan m.
road, grvan m. stone ; prvan n. joint.

sa : adj. and subst. (all genders) ; e. g. gtsa adroit,

pk dappled (pe); mahi mighty; j rushing;
aru red ; tsa m. fountain, draps m. drop, prua
m. man ; pra n. rubbish ; man f. devotion.
snu : adj. (from root or cans. stem) ; e. g. ji victorious ;
vadhasn murderous ; cari wandering ; mdayi
intoxicating.

2. Secondary nominal Suffixes.

The great majority of these form adjectives with the
general sense of relating to or connected with.

a : forms a large number of adjectives expressing the

sense of relation to or connexion with the primitive word ;
many of them have in the m. become appellatives and in
the n. abstract nouns. The first syllable in the great
majority of instances is strengthened with vddhi (the I.
then always takes ) ; e. g. m r uta relating to the Maruts
(mart) ; diva divine (dev god); p r thiva earthly (pthiv
earth) ; mnav belonging to man (mnu), in. human being ;

tnva belonging to the body (tan) ; darj- n. battle of

the ten kings (daa-rjan) ; mghona n. bountifulness (magh
van bountiful); without vddhi : bheaj adj. healing, n.
medicine; sakhy n. friendship (skhi friend); hotr n. office

of priest (ht).
: forms the I. of adjectives which in m. and n. end in a ;
e. g. nv I., nva m. n. new ; priy I., priy m. n. dear ;
gat I., gat m. n. gone.
n : forms the I. of names of male beings in a, or I.
personifications ; e. g. indr wife of Indra, mudgalan

wife of Mudgala ; aray nymph of the Forest (raya) ;

rjn Strength (rj strength).

yana : forms m. patronymics with initial Vddhi ; e. g.
kvyana descendant of Kava.

i : forms m. patronymics, with initial Vddhi, from

nouns in a ; e. g. purukutsi descendant of Purukutsa ;

s varai descendant of Savaraa. Similarly formed is

srathi m. charioteer (from sartha driving on the same
chariot).

in : forms numerous adjectives, in the sense of possessing,

almost exclusively from stems in a ; e. g. arkn praising
(ark praise); from other stems: arein radiant (arcbeam),
varmin clad in armour (vrman) ; irregularly formed :
retn abounding in seed (rtas), hiran adorned with gold

(hiraya).
iya ( = ya after conjunct consonants): forms adjectives of
relation ; e. g. abhriy derived from the clouds (abhr),
indriy belonging to Indra, samudrya oceanic.

: forms the I. of m. stems made with suffixes ending in

consonants (95), or with t (101 e), and often of stems in u
(98 c) or in a (always when formed with Vddhi) ; e. g.
adat eating, avitr protectress, pthv broad (pth),
dev goddess (dev). Cp. 107.
na : forms adjectives, chiefly expressive of direction,
from the weak stem of derivatives in ac ; e. g. arvcna
turned towards (arvc hitherward) ; also others expressing
the general sense of relation ; e. g. vivajan-na (AV.) con
taining all kinds of people.

ya : forms general adjectives, chiefly in the later Sahits ;

e. g. ghamedh y a relating to the domestic sacrifice, parvat

ya mountainous ; navan y a used for the oblation (hvana),

as a m. sacrificial fire (AV.).

eya: forms m. patronymics as well as a few general

adjectives ; e.g. ditey m. son of Aditi ; purueya
relating to man (prua).

ka : forms adjectives and diminutives ; e. g. ntaka

making an end (nta), drak distant, mmaka my ; pda
ka in. little foot, rjak in. kinglet; with Vddhi and con
necting i : vsantika belonging to the spring (vasant). The
I. of some of the diminutives is formed with ik ; e. g.
kumrik I. little girl (kumrak m. little boy).

tana and (its syncopated form) tna : form adjectives

a temporal sense from adverbs and prepositions ;
n tana and n tna present (n now) ; santna
santna eternal (sn from of old) ; pratn ancient

with
e. g.
and
(pr

before).

tama : forms superlatives (from nominal stems and the

prep. d) and ordinals ; e. g. purutma very many ; uttam
highest ; ata-tam hundredth.

tara : forms comparatives from adjectives, substantives,

and the prep. d : tavstara stronger ; ratn tara better
charioteer ; ttara higher.

t : forms abstract I. substantives with the sense conveyed

by the English suffixes ship and ness ; e. g. bandht
relationship, vast wealthiness; devt divinity, puru
t human nature.

tti and (less often) t t : form abstract I. substantives

(like t) ; e. g. jyentti superiority, sarvtti complete
welfare (Lat. salutti) ; devtt divine service, sarvtt
completeness (Lat. salutdt).

tya : forms a few substantives and adjectives from adverbs

and prepositions : am tyam. companion (am at home); pa
tya n. offspring ; ntya constant, nya foreign (ns out).

tv : forms n. abstract substantives (like t) ; e. g. amta

tv n. immortality, maghavattv

liberality.

tvana ( = tvana): forms n. abstract substantives (nearly

all of them duplicates of others in tva) ; e.g. janitvan
wifehood, sakhitvan friendship.

tha: forms a few ordinals as well as adjectives (from

pronominal stems) with a general numerical sense ; e. g.

c a t u r t h fourth, s a p t t h a seventh ; k a t i t h the how

manieth ?
n : forms the I. of p t i lord and of paru knotty, as well
as of several adjectives in ta denoting colours ; thus ptn
mistress (Gk. ^roruta), pru a river ; variegated (ta),
I n a few of the colour adjectives n is substituted for the
final a, while k takes the place of t ; e. g. s i k n i black
(sita).
bha : forms m. names of animals ; thus abh and
vabh bull ; g a r d a b h and r s a b h a ass.
ma: forms superlatives (partly from prepositions) and
a few ordinals ; e. g. avam lowest ; m a d h y a m middle
most; nava1n ninth (Lat. novimus), daam tenth (Lat.
decimus),
mant : forms adjectives i n the sense of possessing from
substantives (except stems i n a) ; e. g. a s n i m a n t possessing
the thunderbolt, k r t u m a n t powerful ; g m a n t rich in cows,
ekumant possessed of eyes.
maya : forms adjectives (I. ) i n the sense of consisting of;
e. g. m a n a s m y a spiritual, m n m y a made of clay (m d ).
mna : forms a few n. abstracts from nouns or particles :
d y u m n brightness, s u m n welfare.
ya : forms adjectives of relation, in. patronymics and n.
abstracts. Most of the latter two classes take Vddhi of the
first syllable, but only about onefourth of the adjectives do
so ; e. g. paav-y relating to cattle (pa) ; d i t y m. son of
Aditi ; t a u g r y m. son of Tugra, but also t g r y a ; dhipa
tya n. lordship (dhipati overlord).
ra : forms comparatives (from prepositions) and ordinary
nouns, mostly adjectives ; e. g. v a r a lower ; d h m r grey
( d h m smoke) ; r a t h i r riding in a car (rtha).
la : forms adjectives and a few m. diminutives ; e. g.
kapiI (monkeycoloured) brown, b a h u I abundant; val
m. little man, i-Ia m. little child.
vat : forms a few I. abstract substantives, almost exclu-

sively from prepositions, expressing local position ; e. g.

ud-vt height, ni-vt depth.
van : forms adjectives in the sense of possessing and a few
m. substantives ; e. g. magh-van bountiful, ru-vn
obedient, samd-van warlike ; thar-van m. fire-priest.

vaut : forms adjectives, from every kind of nominal stem,

in the sense of possessing ; e. g. v-vant and va-vant
owning horses ; skhivant having friends ; vuvant accom
panied by Viu ; rmavant hairy ; pyasvant containing

milk. Some of these derivatives, especiallythoseformedfrom

pronominal stems, have the sense of resembling ; e. g.
mvant like me ; nvnt manly. From this sense is derived
the use of the n. ace. as an adv. of comparison ; e. g. manu
vt like Manus.

vin : forms adjectives from stems ending in a (which is

lengthened), a, and as ; e. g. ubhayvn partaking of both
(ubhya), arvn obedient to the goad, yaas-vn glorious.
Exceptionally formed are dnadvn bold (dht) and
vgvn eloquent (vc).
a: forms adjectives and m. substantives, sometimes
without change of meaning ; e. g. ta-a variegated (ta id.),
yuva- youthful (yvan id.), roma- hairy (rman hair) ;
aku- m. hook, kal-a m. jar.
1S3. The above lists of suffices practically supply the
rules of gender for the Vedic noun. These may be
summarized asfollows:
Speaking generally, bare roots as stems, if action nouns,
are I., if agent nouns, m.
Derivative stems in , , aref.; stems in a, t, n may be
m. or n. ; stems in i and u may be of any gender.
a. Feminine are all stems formed with the suffixes , .
; t, tt tti, t i , tr.
2

1 Except .seven m. stems i n ; see 100, I b.

But when stems i n t i appear as agent nouns they are m., and
m. f. as adjectives.
2

b. Neuter are all stems formed with is, tva, tvana, and,
unless adjectives or agent nouns, those formed with ana,
as, us.
c. Masculine are (in so far as not used adjectivally) all
stems formed with the suffixes yu, va; yana, i , ka,
bha, la.
d. Masc. or fem. are stems formed with the suffixes ni,
nu, mi, t ; also stems formed with the bare root.
c. Masc. or neut. are stems formed with the suffixes a,
ta, tna, na una, ma, ya, ra, tya, tra, tu, an, man, van ;
also adjectives formed with i n , vin, na, ya, tana, tama,
tara, maya, mant, vant.
f. Masc., fem., neut. are stems formed with i or u.
1

B. Compounds.
I S 4 . I . verbal Compounds are formed by combining
roots with twenty prepositions and a few adverbs. The
compound verb (which, however, in finite forms is actually
compounded only in subordinate clauses when the preposition
immediately precedes the verb) is conjugated like the simple
verb. Thus gam go combines with sam together to sagm
go together, unite; 3. s. sagchati. The compound root
can be used to form nominal stems by means of the primary
suffixes enumerated above (182, 1) ; e. g. sagam m.
union.

a. The prepositions which are compounded with roots are

the following: cha towards, ti beyond, dhi upon, nu
after, antr between, pa away, pi on, abh against, va
down, near, d up, n down, into, ns out, pr away,
6

When they are of course m. as well as n.

When they are m.
I n patronymics.
stems i n tr are always m. when they are agent nouns.
These when used as adj. are occasionally neuter.
The preposition reverses the sense of verbs of going or giving ;
e. g. gm come, d take.
2

4
5

pari around, pr forth, prti towards, v asunder, sm

together.
b. A few adverbs are also compounded with a limited
number of verbs :
ram at hand is combined with k = serve (dat), prepare
(acc.) ; w i t h gam = serve ; w i t h bh = serve, conduce to
(dat.).
vis openly is combined with as, bh and k only ; with
the two former it means become visible, appear; e.g. vis
snti being manifest ; vir agnir abhavat Agni became
manifest ; with k i t means make visible, e. g. v karta
make manifest.
tirs aside is combined with bh be and dh put only ;
e. g. m tir bht may it not disappear.
purs in front is combined with k do and dh put only ;
e. g. ktu rath pur may he place (our) car in the
forefront.
rd, an old word meaning heart (Gk. ^apt^-ia and ^pa^-i^,
Lat. cord-), having acquired the character of an adverb, is
once combined with k and often w i t h dh put i n the sense
of put faith in, credit ( LaI. credo for cred-do), but is nearly
always separated from the verb by other words ; e. g. rd
asmai dhatta believe in him ; rd viv vry kdhi entrust
all boons (to us).
prdr (before the door) begins to appear i n the A V . i n
combination w i t h bh become manifest, appear.
c. A few substantives, after assuming an adverbial charac
ter, appear compounded, like verbal prefixes, with participial
forms i n the A V . These are: stam home with i go:
astaynt setting, astameynt about to set, stamita
set ; nmas obeisance with the gerund of k make : nam.as
k t ya doing homage.
1

1
2

I n the B. and later tirs is also combined with k do.

This word is still a substantive i n tl1e RV.

In the RV. a few substantives designating parts of the

body are compounded with the gerund of grah seize : kara
ghya seizing by the ear, pdag h ya seizing by the foot,
hastaghya grasping by the hand.

d. The interjection h is compounded with k in the sense

of utter the sound h, murmur ; e. g. hikvat lowing.

There are also a few reduplicated interjectional words,

mostly onomatopoetic and nearly always ending in , that
appear compounded with bh and k : aIaIbhvant sound
ing merrily ; jajanbhvant sparkling ; maIm.albhvant
glittering ; bharbhar bhavat became confounded ; bibib

bhvant crackling ; kikir ku tear to tatters ; mama

karam I have crushed; masmas k u r u and msms kuru
crush ; akhkhalk t ya croaking.
a. The latter compound is the only example i n the RV. of
appearing instead of before k or bh. The Av. has vt kta
n. a disease (from vta wind).

I I . Nominal Compounds.
1S5. From the IndoEuropean period the Vedic language
has inherited the power of combining two or more words
into one treated like a simple word as regards accent,
inflexion, and construction. Both in the frequency and in
the length of compounds the Vedic language resembles the
Greek of Homer. I n the RV. and the AV. no compounds
of more than three independent members are met with, and
those in which three occur are rare, such as prvakma
k t van fulfilling former wishes.

The two characteristic features of a compound are unity

of accent and employment of the uninflected stem in the
first member (or members) ; but there are exceptions to
both these rules. Occasionally tmesis of a compound occurs.

Chiefly i n dual compounds, as dyva ha km heaven and earth ;

also in a few others, as nr v sam, for nr-sam. I t takes
place only when the compound is doubly accented.

The Sandhi between the members is, moreover, sometimes

different from that between words in a sentence.
a. The gender of compounds, if they end in substantives,
is with few exceptions that of the last member ; the gender
of collectives is always neuter. The number in compounds
depends on the sense ; that in collectives is always singular.
When the word appearing as the first member has two
stems, the weak stem is used ; when it has three, the middle
stem (73 a). I n substantive compounds the last member
retains, as a rule, its gender, form, and inflexion ; while in
adjectival compounds the gender and inflexion of the last
member are of course variable.
b. Classification. Vedic compounds may be divided into
three main classes according to their syntactical relations :
1. Coordinatives, or those in which the members are
coordinated ; 2. Determinatives, or those in which the
first member determines or limits the sense of the last ;
3. Possessives, or adjectives the general meaning of which
implies possession (as bahvann possessing much food). To
these must be added, in order to classify Vedic compounds
exhaustively, three lesser groups : 4. Governing com
pounds, or adjectives in which the first member governs the
last in sense (as kaydvra ruling men) ; 5. Syntactical
compounds, or irregular formations arising from the juxta
position of two words in a sentence ; 6. Iteratives, or
repeated words treated as compounds in the Sahits
inasmuch as they have only one accent and a special meaning
when thus combined.
1. Coordinative (Dvandva) ^ Compounds.
1S6. These consist of two substantives, far less commonly
adjectives, connected in sense with ' and .
1

This term applied to coordinatives by the later H indu gram

marians, means pair or couple.

LSc]

COORDINATIVES

269

A 1. The most numerous group (about threefourths of all

the Dvandvas) in the Rigveda comprises those compounds
(nearly always names of deities) in which each member is
dual in form and has a separate accent ; e. g. mitrvru
Mitra and Varua; mtrpitr mother and father ; dyv

pthiv heaven and earth. I n the R v the two duals are often
separated, as in the line nkt barhi sadatm us
let Night and Dawn seat themselves upon the litter. The proper

genitive of such compounds is e. g. mitryor vruayo.

But as these coordinate duals early came to be regarded as
a unit, the commonest ending of the first member, that of
the N. A., came to be retained unaltered in the other cases :
G. mitr vruayo, I . mitr vrubhym. A further
step towards unification is taken in a minority of cases in
which the first member loses its accent and the last syllable
of the final member (irrespectively of its original accent)
receives the acute, as srycandrams sun and moon
(candrmas), The last stage in the Rigveda appears in
four examples in which the first member assumes the stem
form, e. g. indravyu Indra and Vyu. I n the later Sa
hits and in B. this is the prevailing type in new formations,
e. g. dakakratu m. will and understanding (TB.).
2. Another type is represented by the pIural Dvandvas
which express pairs of groups. These show the stemform
in the first member and the accent on the final syllable of
the last. The only examples in the RV. occur in Book X ;
1

e.g. ahortr i^ days and nights, ajvyas goats (aj) and

^heep (vi) ; but in the later SanIhits this type becoes

quite general, e. g. bhadrapp (Av.), the good and the bad.
1

Cp. Latin suovetaarilia, a later type representing three groups.

This Dvandva shows a double irregularity : the gender of the first
member has prevailed over that of the second, and the f. stem rtr
has been changed to rtra.
several of the cardinal numerals are old Dvandvas, e. g. dv
daa twelve (two and ten), dva being an old dual ; tryo-daa thirteen
(three and ten).
2

3. There occur in the Sahits a few singular Dvandvas

which express a collective sense and are always neuter, and
accent the final syllable ; e. g. i-prtrn what has been
1

offered or given ; kta.^aktm (AV.) what has been done and

not done ; kea-mar n. hair and beard (AV.) ; bhadra
ppm (AV.) good and evil ; samiayajs (VS.) sacrifice and
sacrificial formula.

B. DvandvaS consisting of adjectives are rare. They are

of three types :
1. The adjectives designate colours, their combination
expressing a mixture of the two, as nlalohit dark blue
and red = dark red.

2. They express a contrast, as utklanikl (VS.) going

uphill and downhill.

3. They are used with dual substantives to express that

each is an attribute of one unit of the kind, as padbhy
dakiasavy b hym
the left.

(AV.) with the two feet, the right and

a. The old dual Dvandvas (A 1) are frequently represented

by elliptical duals which put one of a pair in the dual to
express both, as dyv = heaven and earth ; mitr Mitra
and Varua ; pitr = father and mother ; mtr = mother
and father, parents.

2. Determinatives.
1S7. This numerous class of compounds comprises two
groups. I n the larger group (2 a) the first member has the
value of a substantive dependent, in the sense of an oblique
ease, on the second, which may be either a verbal noun or
an ordinary substantive. This may be called the dependent
determinative group (named Tatpurusa by the later H indu
grammarians). I n the other group (2 b) the final member,
1
2

Cf. the Greek

,^^^o ^.
Originally doubtless i p rt , dual in both members.

DETERMINATIvES

271

if an ordinary substantive, is described adjectivally, or, if

a verbal noun, adverbially, by the first member. This may
be called the descriptive determinative group (called Karma
dhraya by the later Hindu grammarians).
2 a. Dependent (Tatpurua) Determinatives.

A. The first member (substantive or pronoun) may have

the sense (and often even the form) of any oblique case.
When it has an ace., inst., abb, or loc. sense, the final
member is mostly a verbal noun ; when it has a daI. or
gen. sense, it is always an ordinary noun. The compound
may be a substantive or an adjective, according as the last
member is one or the other.
1. In acc. dependents the final member is always a verbal
1

noun ; e. g. h a v i r - d eating the oblation ; go-ghn cow-slaying,

a v a - h a y urging on steeds; devam d ana exhilarating
the gods; g a r a g r ( A v . ) having swallowed poison ; b h r i
d v a n giving much ; b h a d r a v d n uttering an auspicious cry ;
v j asti I. act of winning booty; v t r a h t y a n. act of
slaying Vtra.
2. Inst. : indrap t ama most drunk by Indra ; agni
d a g d h burnt with fire ; d e v t t a 7 given by the gods ; aritra
praa, adj. crossing with oars ; tan ubhra shining (with=)
in body ; balavijy to be recognized by his strength.
5

The subdivision ending in verbal nouns may be called verbal

dependents .
Examples of this sense are very rare. The final member is an
ordinary adjective or substantive.
The final member of genitive dependents is always an ordinary
substantive. ^
The subdivision ending i n ordinary substantives may be called
' nominal dependents '.
Cf. Greek l^o^a^o^ horsetaming.
An example of the rare use of a past pass. part. in a transitive
sense.
7 ttafordatta(l6O,2b).
2

3. Dat. : vakmar j asatya faithful to the ordainers of

hymns ; viv-ambh salutary for all.
4. AbI. : goj produced from cows ; tvrast pressed
from the fermenting mass.

5. Gen. (the commonest sense) : rjaputr king's son ;

vi-pti lord of the elan; devakilbi m. off nee against the
gods ; drupad n. post of wood.
1

6. Loc. : harjta (AY) born in the day ; udaplut (AY)

swimming in the water ; purubh being in many places ;
bandnukit dwelling among relatives.

a. I n their first member many dependent compounds

retain the caseending, most commonly the acc., often the
loc., but the rest rarely. Sing. endings (ace. and inst.) may
express a plur. sense. Plur. endings (ace and loc) some
times occur, but du. endings never in these compounds.
The ace. generally expresses the object of a transitive
verb. The form in am is, in the RV, the rule before the
verbal nouns kara making, caya collecting, jaya conquer
ing, tara overcoming, dara cleaving, bhara bearing, ruja
breaking, sani winning, saha overwhelming ; e. g. abhaya
kar
procuring
security,
dhanajay
winning
booty,
pur
adar.
destroying
forts,
sutabhar
reeeiving
pressed
4

Soma ; it also occurs before other verbal nouns, not infre

quently before such as begin with vowels ; e. g. dhiyadh
devout, vivam-inv all-moving, vam-ii seeking horses.
3

An example of a cognate acc. is ubha-y moving in

brilliance, and of an adverbial acc, ugra-pay (AV.)
looking fiercely. Examples of an ace pi. ending are k-citkar doing all manner of things ; pva-ii desiring kine.
5

A n example of an Objective genitive.

H ere the genitive expresses the material.
^ The singular acc. form with plural sense.
Also im i n pui-bhar bringing prosperity and hari-bhar
bearing the tawny (bolt).
This and vam-ii are Tatpurusa possessives (l89, 2).
2

DEPENDENT DETERMINATIVES

187]

273

Inst. : girv d h rejoicing in song ; neita driven by

dogs

(n) ; vidman p as

working (aps)

with wisdom

(vidmn) ; kudnmr (AV.) m. death by hunger ; vc

2

stena thief by speech, secretly injuring by words.

Dat. : the only example seems to be found in the loose

syntactical compound dsyave vka wolf to the Dasyu, used
as a proper name.
Abl. : divoj produced from
from the sky.

heaven ; divore shining

Gen. : very common before pti husband or lord, as gns

pti husband of a divine woman ; jspti lord of a family ;
3

brhmaaspti lord of prayer.

I t also occurs in the
proper names dvodsa servant of heaven and na-pa
Dog's-tail.

Loc. : common in the R v before agent nouns formed

from the simple root ; e. g. diviyj worshipping in heaven ;
ratheh standing on a ear ; also before several formed
with a ; e. g. divikay dwelling in heaven. There are also
several examples of plurals, as apsu.d dwelling in the
waters; gouydh fighting in (=fur)kine;

ntsvs piercing

the heart. The singular also occurs a few times before an

ordinary adj. or subst., as mderaghu q^uiek in exhilaration ;
svapneduvapny (AV.) n. evil dream in sleep.
a. I f a root forms the last member of a Tatpurua, final long
vowels (a,i,u) undergo no change, while short vowels (I.u ) usually
add a determinative t ; e. g. agrep drinking first ; yajan leading the
4

singular ending with plural sense.

A rare example of an inst. with an ordinary substantive as final .
member.
3 By the false analogy of these words are also formed from a stems
taspati lord of pious works and rthaspti lord of the car. Dmpati
lord of the house probably = dmspati.
Radical a, as a shortened form of , often appears as a final,
hciefiy i n the later sahits, as agreg going in front, nama.dh (Av.)
namegiving.
2

sacrifice ; raja-.-u. king-creating ; but divi-k-t dwelling in heaven ; somast Soma-pressing ; jyoti-k-t light-creating. There is, however, no t
added i n vanar-g forest-roaming.
1

2 b. Descriptive (Karrnadhraya)

Compounds.

1SS. This class of Determinatives is comparatively rare

in the Sahits. The last member is generally an ordinary
substantive, but is sometimes a verbal or an ordinary
adjective. The relation of the first member to the last is
appositional, attributive, or adverbial. I t is expressed in
three ways :
1. ^ By a Substantive. I f followed by a subst., it has an
attributive sense equivalent to an adj. expressing sex or
a compound nature; e.g. purua-mg (VS.) m. (man=)
male antelope ; lka-ytu m. owl demon, i. e. demon in

form of an owl ; purua-vyghr (VS.) m. man-tiger, a kind

of demon ; va-kapi m. man-ape.
I f followed by a verbal adj., the preceding snbst. is usually
appositional in sense ; e. g. na-k t acting as a ruler ;
stmataa fashioned as a hymn of praise. But sometimes
it is adverbial ; e. g. tvj sacrificing. in season = regularly ;
srgatakta speeding with a rush.
a. Before a verbal noun a substantive sometimes implies a com
parison ; e. g. dhravk sounding like a stream, yen-juta speeding like
an eagle. Similarly before an ordinary adjective : kababhru (vS.)
reddish like a parrot.

2. By an Adjective. I f followed by an ordinary subst.,

the adj. has the usual attributive sense ; e. g. candrm s
m. (bright) moon ; ka-akun
1

(AV.) m. raven (lit. black

Final u sometimes appears as a shortened form of u i n some

Tatpurusas, as dn-j inspiring the mind; puru-bh appearing in many
places.
This is the term applied to this class of compounds by the later
Hindu grammarians.
2

bird) ; nava-jvr m. new pain ; mah-grm ^ m. great host ;

yvayat-sakh m. protecting friend. Sometimes the qualify

ing adj. indicates a part of what the last member expresses ;
e. g. adnara-kah (VS.) m. lower (part of the) neck ;
ardha-dev m. demi-god ; prvh m. forenoon ; madhy-dina m. midday.
I f followed by a verbal noun, the preceding adj. is adverbial
3

in sense ; e. g. u-ptvan swift-flying, i . e. flying swiftly ;

3

uhman swiftly-speeding ; sanaj born of old ( = sn) ;

satyayj sacrificing truly ( = satym), dvij (AV.) born
twice. Similarly before ordinary adjectives : viv-candra
all-glittering ; hri-candra glittering
(AV.) ruddy in three places.

yellow ; tryarua

a. A t the end of Karmadhrayas the final n of an stems is dropped'^

in ekav (AV.) m. only bull, mahvr (Av.) m. great bull, bha
drh (Av.) n. auspicious day.
9

3. By an Adverb (inclusive of particles and prepositions) :

akaydrh injuring wrongly ; amutrabhya (AV.) n.
state of being there ; evra quite (ev) ready (ra) ; pnar
nava renewing itself; punarbh arising again; puroy v an
going before ; purhita placed in front ; satmahat equally

(sats) great; satymugra truly mighty;

1

syabhav

As first member of Karmadbrayas (and Babuvrhis) maht

appears as mah ; but the Av. has mahatk great section.
H ere skhi friend becomes sakha. Cf. 189, 4d and 189 A. 2 a.
H ere ban day is syncopated and extended with a ; also in apar
h (Av.) afternoon, nyhna (Av.) decline of day.
W i t h caseending retained i n the first member.
^' The sense is rather appositional i n purvap drinking (as) first,
vamjata born as one dear, i . e. dear by nature.
Cf. Gk. ^l^7r^r,^ swiftflying.
H ere the cardinals are used for the numeral adverbs dvs^
tris.
^' This is much commoner in Bahuvrhis (189, 4).
Also in aah ( A v ) m. period of six days (189, 4).
2

( A v ) m. becoming evening; pacI.do (vS.) m. later part

of the evening; idvatsar ( A v ) m . the present year; pur
agni (VS^) m. fire in front; sud giving willingly; du
va unfavourable ; amtra m. nonfriend, enemy ; suvasan
n. fair garment ; tika excessively dark ; prapt in.
great grandson ; adhirj m. supreme king ; prvra m.
great hero ; savatsar m. full year.
1

3. Possessive (Bahuvrhi) Compounds.

1S9. These compounds are secondary adjectives. They
are determinatives (generally Karmadharayas), ending in
substantives, which have been transformed into adjectives
agreeing in gender, number, and case with another substan
tive expressed or understood. The transformation is accom
panied by a shift of accent from the final member to the
first. The term ' possessive ' is probably the most appropriate
as applied to these compounds, for it expresses their general
meaning in the vast majority of cases ; in a few instances
the more comprehensive sense of ' connected with is required
to indicate the relation between the substantive and the
Bahuvrhi compound agreeing with i t ; e.g. viva-nara
belonging to all men. Possessives are of two kinds :
1. Karmadhraya Possessives, in which the first member
is an attributive adj. (including participles), an appositional
subst., or an adverb (including particles and prepositions) :
e. g. ugr-bhu powerful-armed ; hat-mt whose mother has
been slain ; rad-vatsa having a shining calf; va-para
horse-winged, i. e. whose wings are horses ; ndra-atru having
Indra as a foe ; rjputra having kings as sons ; hraya
nemi whose fellies are (made of) gold ; apad eightfooted,
dvipd twofooted ; itthdh having such thought, devout ;
purorath whose car is in front ; vgrva wrynecked ;
2

H ere the adverbs preceding ordinary substantives are

Gk. b^r^-7roc^.

Lat. biped.

adjectives.

anudr waterless ; apd footless ; kyava causing a bad

harvest ; dupd illfooted ; supar beautifulwinged.
a. I n some possessives based on appositional Karmadhrayas a
comparison of the first with the final member is implied ; e. g. varjya
( A v ) whose rain is (like) butter ; vk-kea whose trees are (like) hair,
tree-haired ^ wooded (mountain).
b. The superlatives jyha chief and rha best, the comparative
bhuyas more, and pra higher, are used substantively as final member
of possessives : ndra-jyeha having Indra as chief, yam-reha (Av.)
of whom Yama is best, sthibhuys (AV.) having bone as its chief
part ^chieflybone, avaraspar (VS.) in which the lower is higher, topsyturvy.
2

2. I n Tatpurua Possessives the first member most

commonly has a gen., not infrequentIy a loc., but rarely an
inst. or ace. sense. The easeending is in several instances
retained. Examples are: ryskma having a desire for
wealth ; divyoni having (his) origin in heaven ; bhs ketu
recognizable by light ; tvkma having a desire for thee.
a. I n possessives based on gen. Tatpuruas, the first member often
implies a comparison, but never with a caseending ; as agntejas
(Av.) having the brightness of fire, firebright ; kagrva bearnecked ;
gvapus cowshaped ; mnojava having the swiftness of thought, swift as
thought ; mayuraroman having the plumes of peacocks.
b. When a loc. sense is intended, parts of the body appear as the
last member; e.g. aru-mukh (Av.) having tears on her face, tear
faced ; ghrtprha having butter on his back, butter backed ; p t rahasta
(Av.) having a vessel in his hand ; maigrv having pearls on the neck ;
mdhujihva having honey on his tongue ; vjrabhu having a bolt on
his arm.

3. Bahuvrhis come to be used substantively, when the

noun with which they agree is dropped : thus supar
fairwinged, in. bird. Of this use there are three appli
cations :
a. These compounds very frequently appear as m., some
times as I., proper names, the adjectival sense often not
1

Gk. a^v^os.
H ere the s of the nom. survives from the use of the two words in
syntactical juxtaposition. Cp. the later paraspara and anyo.^nya.
2

occurring at all. Thus bhduktha adj. having great praise,

m. a seer ; bhddiva adj. dwelling in high heaven, m. a seer,
I. bhaddiv a goddess ; m. as names only, Priymedha
(to whom sacrifice is dear) and Vmdeva (to whom the gods
are dear).
b. They appear not infrequently as n. substantives with
an abstract (sometimes a collective) sense, especially when
the first member is the privative particle a or an, or the
adjective srva all; e.g. anapaty, adj. . childless (Av),
n. childlessness ; sarvavedas ( A v ) n. whole property ;
nikilbi n. deliverance from sin ; mtbandh (Av.) n.
maternal kinship.
e. With numerals, from d v i two upwards, as their first
member, they form sing. neuters (always ending in ac
cented ) with a collective sense ; e. g. triyug n. period of
three lives ; dvirj (Av.) n. battle of two kings ; dagul
n. length of ten fingers (4 d),
4. The final member of Bahuvrhis is liable to various
changes tending to make i t end in a.
1

a. The n of several words in an, krman, dh m an, n m an, prvan,

van, sakthn, is frequently dropped in ordinary Bahuvrhis, and that
of han i n numeral collectives ; e. g. viv-karma performing all work,
priy-dhma occupying desirable places, chando-nm (vs.) named metre,
metrical, vi-parva jointless, dvi-v (vs.) having two bulls, lomasaktha (vS.) having hairy thighs ; a-ah (Av.) m. period of six days.
b. The suffixes a and ya are frequently added, and sometimes ka ;
e. g. catur-ak four-eyed, su-gv-a having fine cows, anydar-ya born
from another womb (udra), da-ms-ya ten months old, mdhuhastya
honeyhanded, trymbaka having three mothers, vmanyuka (Av.)free
from anger, akarka (TS.) earless.
c. The suffix i n (possessing) is sometimes pleonastically added :
mahhastn having large hands, kunakhn (Av.) having bad nails,
3

Except those formed with ah ^y which are m as aah m.

series of six days.
But this word retains its n i n seven compounds i n the RV.
But also vivkarman.
But aparvn and v aparvan.
2

l^]

BAHUVRIHI COMPOUNDS

279

yao-bhag-n (vs.) rich in glory, sa-rath-n (vS.) riding in the same

chariot.
d. a is substituted for i in kav-sakh having a niggard for a friend,
and i n daagul n. length of ten fingers (agli). On the other hand,
i is substituted for a i n some compounds of gandh smell, and i n
a few others: dhmgandhi smelling of smoke, krrdhi (Av.)
attaining success (rdha) in agriculture, prtyardhi to whom the half
(rdha) belongs.
e. I n the f. of Bahuvrhis pti husband or lord, instead of remaining
unchanged, takes the f. form of the subst. (ptni wife) i n dspatn
having a demon as faster, devpatn having a god as a husband, va
patn ruled by a mighty one, surapatn having a hero as a husband.
1

4. Governing Compounds.
1S9 A. I n this class, which embraces a considerable
number of compounds, the first member, being either a
preposition or a verbal noun, governs the last in sense.
They resemble Bahuvrihis in form as well as in their
adjectival character.
1. I n the prepositional group, in which about twenty
examples occur in the RV., the first member is a preposition
capable of governing a case ; e. g. atirtr lasting overnight ;
anukm according to wish ; apathi and path being on
2

the way ; paromtr going beyond measure, excessive.

a. Like Bahuvrhis, compounds of this type may become substan
tives ; e. g. upnas adj. being on a wagon, n. (Av.) space on a wagon.
o. The final member, when i t does not end i n a, adds the suffix a,
and ya sometimes even when i t already ends i n a; e.g. nupatha
going along the road, adhaspad being under the feet, parka (Av.)
away from the eye (k), purogav m. leader (going before the cows) ;
1

Otherwise sakhi remains unchanged i n both Bahuvr1his and

Karmadhrayas (but 188, 2) in the RV. ; op. 189, 2 a.
But the meaning is entirely different ; for in the prepositional
class the first member has the sense of a prep. (not an adj), and i n
the verbal class, i t has a transitive (not an intransitive) sense. I n
the latter class the final syllable of a part. is always accented (but
in Bahuvrhis only when that is the natural accent).
H ere rtr night becomes rtra, as i n the Dvandva ahortr n.
day and night.
2

dhi-gart-ya being on the car-seat (grta), anta-parav-y (VS.) being

between the ribs (pru), pamsya (Av.) occurring every month (msa),
tirahnya (being beyond a day), belonging to the day (han) before
yesterday.

2. I n the verbally governing class the first member is an

agent noun or an action noun governing the last member as
an object. With a single exception they never add a suffix.
Three types (in all of which examples of proper names
occur) may be distinguished.
1

a. I n the commonest type, which is almost restricted to the RV.,

the first member is a participle ending in t formed from transitive
present stems i n a, , or ya ; e. g. rdhdvra increasing goods, tard
dveas overcoming (trat) foes, dhraytkavi supporting the wise, man
daytsakha gladdening his friend. The following are used as proper
names: r d h d r a y (increasing wealth), j a m d a g n i (going to Agni),
bhardvja (carrying off the prize).
b. Only three or four examples occur of a second type, i n which the
first member consists of a simple present stem (probably representing
an imperative) : radvasu dispensing wealth, iknar helping men;
as the name of a man : tras.dasyu (terrify the foe).
c. some half dozen examples occur in the RV. of a third type, in
which the first member is an actionnoun i n t i : d t ivra giving
treasures, vtrdhas enjoying the oblation, v.dyav causing the sky to
rain ; as tlIe name of a man : pigu m. (rearing kine),
2

5. Syntactical Compounds.
IS9 B. A certain number of irregular compounds are
formed in a manner differing from that of any of the four
classes described above. They may be treated as a class,
since all of them have been produced by the same cause:
frequent syntactical juxtaposition in a sentence.
ik-nar- ; see below, note 6.
rdht aor. part. of dh increase.
^ sakhi friend becomes sakha in two other governing compounds :
dravayt-sakha speeding his friend and rvayt- sakha making his
friend famous. Cf. 188, 2, note 2.
jamat is a palatalized form of an aor. part. of gam go.
I n this and the following example tile a of rad and ika is
metrically lengthened.
H ere the stem of the final member is extended with a.
1

189]

SYNTACTICAL COMPOUNDS

281

a. The relative adverb yd (a nominally formed abl.) in so

far as has come to be compounded with a superlative in the
adj. ycchreh the best possible (lit. in so far as best), and

with a gerundive in the adv. ydrdhym as quickly as

possible (lit. in so Jar as attainable).

b. The initial words of a text begin to be compounded

in the later Sahits as a substantive to designate that text.
Thus yeyajmah (VS.) m., used i n the N. pi., means the
text beginning with the words y yjmahe.
e. Several subst. or adj. compounds have resulted from
phrases consisting of two words in juxtaposition. Thus
ahamuttar (AV.) n. dispute for precedence (from ahm
ttara I am higher) ; mamasaty n. dispute as to owner

ship (from mma satym it is certainly mine) ; m-pay

( A v ) designation of an aphrodisiac plant (from m paya
look at me) ; kuvt-sa some one (from kuvt s is it he ?) ;
na-sana (voc.) rapacious (from ah san I will obtain) ;
aha-prv eager to be first (from ah prv I should
be first) ; ki-tv (VS.) asking garrulously (from k tvm
what are you doing ?).
6. Iterative Compounds.
1S9 C. Substantives, adjectives, pronouns, numerals,
adverbs, and prepositions are often repeated. They are then
treated as compounds, the second member losing its accent
and the two words being written in the Pada text with the
Avagraha between them, as in other compounds. This class
resembles other compounds in having a single accent, but
differs from them in having not the stem but the fully
inflected form of nominal words in the first member.
In the RV. the iteratives number over 140, rather more
than half of them being substantives. The sense conveyed
by the repetition is frequency, or constant succession in
time, or distribution in space. Examples of the various
kinds of iteratives are the following :

limb
sya

a. Substantives: h a r - a h a r , div-dive, d y v i - d y a v i
every day, m s - m s i month after month ; gh-ghe, d m e dame, vi-vie in every house ; g d - a g t from every
di-dia (AV.) from every quarter ; yajsyayaja
every
sacrifice
;
prvaiparvai
in
every
joint
;
a g n m a g n i m (duvasyata), (worship) Agni again and again ;
n n a m a n n a m (AV.) food in perpetuity.
b. Adjectives: p n y a p a n y a . . s m a m Soma who is
again and again to be praised ; p r c p r c p r a d a m
each eastern direction ; t t a r m u t t a r s m m (AV.) each
following year.
c. Pronouns : t v t v a m a h a r y a t h thou didst ever
rejoice ; y d y a d y m i whatever I ask ; t t t a d . . dadhe he
always bestows that.^
d. Numerals : p c a p a c a five each time ; s a p t s a p t a
(tredh three times) seven in each ease ( = 21),
e. A d v e r b s : y t h y a t h as in each case; ady d y
v - v a on each to-day, on each to-morrow.
2

;
of

f. Prepositions : the four which are found used thus are

p a , p r , p r , s m ; e. g. p r - p r a . . a s y a t e it is ever
proclaimed.

g. The only example of a verbal form occurring as an

iterative is p b a - p i b a drink, drink. Otherwise a repeated
verb is treated independently ; e. g. s t u h s t u h i praise, praise.
6

har-divi day after day, is a kind of mixed iterative.

For div-divi and vis-vii, owing to the influence of tl1e frequent
loc. i n e from a stems.
I n the B. such words are repeated with v : y v ad v yvad v
and yatam v yatame v.
Such iteratives led to the formation of regular compounds i n B. :
kaeka (AV.): kaika (B.); dv dv (RV.): dvandvm (MS.)
in twos, dvandv pair (B.).
I n a few instances repeated adverbs are not treated as compounds,
both words being accented : n n now, now ; ihh (Av.) here, here,
but always ihha i n RV.
I n the B. also occurs yjasva-yajasva.
1

CHAPTER V I I
OUTLINES OF SYNTAX
190. H aving in the preceding parts of the present
grammar dealt with single words in their phonetic, their
derivative, and their inflexional aspects, we now turn to
their treatment in syntax, which regards their arrangement
and mutual meaning when they are combined to form a
sentence, which is the expression of a connected and definite
unit of thought. The parts of which the sentence may
consist are either inflected words : the noun (substantive
and adjective) and the verb, the participle which shares the
nature of both, and the pronoun ; or uninflected words :
prepositions, adverbs, and conjunctions. A comparison of
the syntax of the RV. with that of classical Sanskrit shows
(1) that the use of the middle voice, the tenses, the moods,
the inflected participles, the infinitives, and the genuine
prepositions is much fuller and more living in the former,
while (2) that of the passive voice and of indeclinable par
ticiples is much less developed, that of absolute cases and of
adverbial prepositions with caseendings is only incipient,
and that of periphrastic verbal forms is nonexistent. The
later Santhits and the Brhmaas exhibit a gradual transition
by restriction or loss in the former group and by growh in
the latter to the condition of things prevailing in classical
Sanskrit.
The Order of Words.
191. Since metrical considerations largely interfere with
the ordinary position of words in the Sahits, the normal
order is best represented by the prose of the Brhmaas,

and as it there appears is, moreover, doubtless the original

one.
The general rule is that the subject begins the sentence
and the verb ends it, the remaining members coming
between.
a. The subject begins the sentence ; e. g. va katry
ya bal haranti the peasants pay tribute to the prince (B.).
I t may, however, be preceded by a particle like u t or
occasionally by any other member of the sentence intended
to be strongly emphasized ; e. g. prayjir vi dev
svarg lokm yan by means of the Prayjas the gods went
to the heavenly world (B.).

b. The verb occasionally moves to the beginning of the

sentence when it is strongly emphasized ; e. g. ynti v pa
ty dity, ti candrm, ynti nkatri the waters
move, the sun moves, the moon moves, the stars move (B.).

A predicative noun with the copula (which may be omitted)

being equivalent to a verb, naturally occupies the same
position ; e. g. srve ha vi dev gre sad su all the
gods in the beginning were similar (B.); mitr vi iv
devnm Mitra, indeed, is the kindly one among the gods (TS.).

Nevertheless the predicative noun, being emphatic, is as a

rule the first word in the sentence ; e. g. mrty ha v gre
dev su the gods were originally mortals (B.) ; pruo vi
yaj the sacrifice (is) a man (B.).
e. As regards the cases, the acc. is placed immediately
before the verb ; e. g. chndsi yukt n i devbhyo yaj
vahanti the metres, when they are yoked, take the sacrifice to

the gods (B.). Adverbs and indeclinable participles occupy

a similar position. Occasionally such words move to the
beginning ; e. g. div vi sma sd, tha^ih dev in
heaven was Soma, but here the gods (B.).

d. The apposition, including patronymics and participles,

follows the word which it explains or defines ; e. g. smo
rj Soma, the King. A participle, in its proper sense, if

ORDER OF WORDS

191]

285

emphatic may be placed at the beginning ; e. g. svapnta

vi dkit rksi jighsanti it is when he sleeps that
the Rak^ases seek to slay the initiated man (TS.).

e. The attribute, whether adjective or genitive, precedes

its substantive ; e. g. hirayyena rthena with golden ear
(I. 35 ) ; devn ht the priest of the gods. Only when
adjectives are used in apposition, especially as epithets of
the gods, do they follow ; e. g. mitr y a satyya to Mitra,
the true (TS.). Also adjectives designating the colours of
certain animals, especially horses and cows, are found after
the subst. The subst. belonging to a gen. is placed before
the latter only when it is emphatic.
f The preposition belonging to a verb precedes it, always
in B., generally in V., where, however, it also sometimes
follows ; e. g. jyema s yudn spdha we would conquer
our foes in battle (I. 8 ). The preposition as a rule imme
diately precedes the verb, but is often also separated from it
by one or more words ; e. g. s y aka maghv^adatta
2

the Bounteous One seized his missile (i. 32 ); pa tma

ppm n a hate she drives away darkness and sin (TS.).

When a compound verb is emphatic, the preposition alone
as a rule moves to the front occupying the position that the
simple verb would occupy ; e. g. pr prajy jyeya I would
increase with progeny (TS.).

When used with substantives the genuine prepositions as

a rule follow their ease, while the prepositional adverbs
precede it. The reason of this doubtless is that the former
supplement the sense of the case, while the latter modify
the sense much more emphatically.
g. Multiplicative adverbs precede their genitive ; e. g.
tr savatsarsya three times a year.

h. Enclitics cannot, of course, begin a sentence. I f they

belong to a particular word they follow it ; otherwise they
tend to occupy the second position in the sentence. The
enclitic particles that follow the word with which they are

most closely connected are ca, v, iva, cid ; kam is

restricted to following n, s, h in V., and sma to follow
ing ha in B. The other unaccented particles, u, gha,
ha, svid, which refer to the statement of the whole
sentence, occupy the second (or third) position in the
sentence.
i. Even accented particles for the most part cannot
begin a sentence. They either follow the word they em
phasize in any position in the sentence : , ev, km ; or
they occupy the second position in the sentence, as empha
sizing the whole statement : ag, ha, d, kla, khlu, t,
n, vi, hI.
The only particles that can begin the sentence are tha,
pi, ut ; also n if it negatives the whole sentence, but if
it negatives the verb only, it follows that.
j . Forms of the pronoun t tend in B. to occupy the first
position, especially s when it anticipates a proper name in
dialogues, or td as an acc. when famous authorities are
quoted ; e. g. s h.ovca grgya (SB .) Grgya spoke (as
follows) ; td u hovca^ s uri

with regard to this suri

said (B.), The order is similar when tha or pi are used :

pi hovca y j avalkya (B.).
k. I n relative and interrogative sentences there is nothing
peculiar except that, as these two classes of words tend to
begin the sentence, cases of them come to occupy the first
position which in ordinary sentences do not occupy it ; e. g.
k h s tir ghi kury t what indeed should he do with
this house ^ (B.).
a. The last position i n the sentence is exceptionally occupied i n the
following ways : 1. very often by final datives as a supplement to
the sentence ; e. g. tt paun ev^asmai pri dadti gptyai thus
he hands the cattle over to him for protection (B.) ; 2. by the subject either
when it is the name of an authority quoted or when i t is equivalent
to a relative clause; e. g. s ha^uvca g r gya so said Grgya ; aindr
car nr vapet pakma one (who is) desirous of cattle should assign
a pap for Indra (TS.).

192193]

ORDER OF WORDS

287

192. There is neither an indefinite nor a definite article

in the Vedic language. Their meaning is inherent in the
substantive much as personal pronouns are in forms of
the definite verb. Whether the one or the other is meant
is made sufficiently clear by the context ; e. g. agnm He
1

purhitam I pr aise Agni the domestic pr iest (i. I ) ; agn

manye pitram Agni I deem a father (x. 7 ), In B. the
3

anaphoric use of t is sometimes very nearly equivalent to

the definite article (cp. 195 B 3b, p. 294).
Number.
193. 1. Singular words with a plural or a collective sense
are always treated strictly as singulars, being never con
strued with a plural form of the verb (cp. 194).
2. The dual number is in regular use and, generally
speaking, in strict application. But in certain parts of the
R v the plural is often used instead of the dual of natural
pairs ; sometimes also otherwise ; e. g. sm ajantu vve
dev, sm po h d ayni nau let all the gods, let the waters
unite the hearts of us two (x. 85 7),
4

a. A m. or I. du. is sometimes used to express a male and

female of the same class ; e. g. pitr = father and mother ;
mtr mother and father. This type of the dual has its
widest application in naming pairs of deities by means of
one of them and is equivalent to dual compounds containing
both names ; e. g. dyv heaven and earth ( = dyvpthiv) ;
us Dawn and Night ( = u s nkt) ; mitr Mitra and
Varua ( = mitr vru). Sometimes the other member
of the pair is added in the N. sing. ; e. g. mitr tn n
rathy vruo y ca sukrtu Mitra (and Varua) and
2

the very wise Varua, lik^ two constantcharioteers(viii. 25 ).

3. a. The plural is sometimes used (analogously to the

dual) so as to include the other two of a group of three ;
e. g. dyva

the (three) heavens = heaven, air, and earth ;

pthiv the (three) earths = earth, air, and heaven. This

inclusive plural is also found with the names of the two
other members of the group added in the N. sing. ; thus
abh samrjo vruo ganty, abh mitrso aryam
saj to it the universal sovereigns Varua, to it the Mitras

( = Mitra, Varua, Aryaman), and Aryaman, accordant, sing

(vii. 38 ).
b. The 1. pers. pl. is sometimes loosely used instead of
the sing. or du. ; thus Yama in his dialogue with Yam says
n yt pur cakm kd dha nnm t vdanto nta
4

rapema how pray can we, what we have never done before,
speaking of righteous things now talk of what is unrighteous ?
4

(x. 10 ). The plur. of personal pronouns is also occasionally

used in a similar way ; thus in the dialogue of Yama and
Yam (x. 10 ) nas alternates with the correct nau : s no
nbhi, param jmi tn nau that is our bond of union,
that our highest kinship. This occasional looseness is probably
due to the situation for the moment being regarded more
generally so as to include others ; we would then mean I and
4

those present, we two and others in like circumstances.

I n B.

the use of the pi. for the sing. of the first pers. of the
personal pronoun is not infrequent both when the pronoun
is expressed and when it is latent in the verb ; e. g. s ha^
uvca : nmo vay brhmihya kurma he replied :
we ( = I) show reverence to the most learned man (B.) ; vra

bhvate gautamya dadma we (= I , Jaivali) offer a boon

to his Honour Gautama (B.),

Concord.
I 9 4 . The rules of concord in case, person, gender, and
number are in general the same as in other inflexional
languages.
To this use is probably due the conception of the three heavens
and three earths in Vedic cosmology.
1

A. 1. To the rule that the verb agrees with its sub

stantive in person and number the exceptions are very rare.
Thus the sing. of the word tva many, having a pi. sense,
appears once with a pi. verb : jyn u tvo juhvati many a
one sacrifices for victories (MS.). On the other hand, there
are a few examples in the RV. of a neut. pi. taking a verb
in the sing. ; e. g. dhve dhyate dhn to the bold man
3

booty accrues (I. 81 ).

2. a. When two Sing. subjects have one verb, the latter in

most cases is in the dual ; e. g. ndra ca yd yuyudh t e
hi ca when Indra and the dragon fought (1. 32 ) ; rja
13

no dyu ca pthiv ca pinvatm may heaven and earth

increase our strength (vi. 70^) ; ndra ea sma pibata
bhaspate do ye two, Indra and (thou), O Bhaspati, drink Soma
10

(iv. 50 ),
When one only of two subjects is expressed, the other
having to be supplied, the verb is also in the dual ; e.g.
yd ndra

ca

ddvahe when (I) and Indr a r eceive

(viii. 34 ) ; b h aspate yuvm ndra ca vsvo divysya^

16

the O Bhapati, ye two, (thou) and Indra, dispose of

10

heavenly wealth (vii. 97 ). I n B. this usage seems to be

found only when the verb is in the third person ; e. g.
praj p ati praj asjata : t b h aspti ca^anvvaitm
Prajpati created beings : (he) and Bhaspatifollowedthem (TS.).
a. I n a minority of cases two sing. subjects take a sing. verb when
they are equivalent in sense to a dn. compound ; e. g. tok ca tsya
^naya ca vardhate his ofispring and family prosper (ii. 25).
^. I n B . when two sing. subjects are connected by ca the verb is
in the du. ; but i f a contrast is intended, in the sing. ; e. g. tsy
1ht ca^aryam ca^ajyetam from her Dht and Aryaman were born
(MS.) ; but prthivy vi mdhya ca^,amedhym ca vyd akrmat
from the earth there issued on the one hand the pure and on the other the
impure (Ms.).

b. When there are more than two subjects the verb is not
necessarily in the pi., but may agree with only one of them.
1. I f each of the subjects is sing. the verb is sing. ; e. g.

mitrs tn no vruo rdas ca dybhaktam

aryam dadtu let Mitra, Varua, Rodas,
Aryaman give us this divine wealth (vii. 40 ),

Indra

ndro
and

2. I f the subjects are of different numbers the verb may

agree with either one or the other ; e. g. vad ndra
yamn t t sava ea Yamuna and the Ttsus helped Tndra

(vii. 18 ^) ; ndro vidur girasa ca Indra and the Agirascs

know it (x. 108 ).
The du. and pl. take the du. or the pi. ; e. g. girya ca
dh dyv ca bhm tujete the firm mountains and heaven
and earth trembled (i. 61 ) ; dyv ca ytra ppyann n
1

10

14

ca where heaven and earth and the days have given abundance

(vii. 65),
a. I n B. a sing. and a du. subject take a verb in the sing. or pf. ;
e. g. vymamtru paku ca pcha ca bhavati both the wings and
the tail are a fathom in length (Ts.) ; tv avnau ca srasvat ca^ap
phen vjram asican the Avins and Sarasvat moulded the foam of the
waters into a bolt (B.) ; a sing. and a pi. take the verb in the p l . ; e. g.
dev ca vi yam ca^,asmin loke 'spardhanta the gods and Yama
fought for (the possession of) this world (Ts.).
^. I n B. any 'ny one another takes the verb i n the sing., du., or
pl. according as one, two, or several agents are intended ; e. g.
t b hya s nr chd y na pratham 'ny 'nysmai drhyt of these
he shall be deprived who first of us may cheat another (TS.) ; nd any 'ny
hinsta lesttheyinjure each other (B.) ; t n i srny any ' n y n a ^
aspardhanta being created they fought with one another (B.).

3. When two or more subjects of different persons take a

verb in the du. or pi. the first person is preferred to the
second or third, the second to the third ; e. g. ah ca
11

tv ca s yujyva I and thou will unite together (viii. 62 ) ;

t yy vay ca^ayma may you and we obtain him

(ix. 98 ). Occasionally, however, the third person is pre
ferred to the first ; e. g. am ca y maghvno vay ca
mha n sro ti n atanyu may these patrons and we
1

13

pierce through as the sun the mist (i. 141 ),

B. 1. An attributive adjective agrees with its substantive

in gender, number, and case. The exceptions are few

and unimportant, being chiefly due to the exigencies of

metre.
a. The cardinals from five to nineteen, being adjectives, show some
peculiarities of concord : i n the oblique cases they appear i n V. not
only i n their inflected form, but often also the uninflected form of
the nom. and acc. ; e. g. saptbhi putri and sapt htbhi,
pacsu jneu and pca ku. I n B . only the inflected forms
are used.
b. The cardinals from 20 upwards being substantives i n form may
govern a G. ; e.g. am vnm sucty horses, at gnm a hundred
kine, sahsri gvm thousands of kine. They are, however, generally
treated like adjectives ; but being collectives they take sing. endings
in concord with pi. cases ; e. g. trid dev thirty gods, trita
yjanni thirty yojanas (acc.), trit hribhi with thirty bays, tra
yastriato devnm of thirty gods (AB.). atm hundred and sahsram
thousand are used as the nom. acc. form i n agreement with plurals ;
e. g. at pra a hundred forts, sahsra hraya a thousand bays,
sahsra pa n a thousand beasts (TS.) ; they also appear i n the same
sense in the plural ; e. g. at pra a hundred forts, sahsry dhi
rathni a thousand wagon loads (x. 98 ), atm and sahsram are also
found (but not i n B.) with an inst. pi., as at prbh with a
hundred forts beside atna hribhi with a hundred bays, sahsram ibhi
with a thousand seer s. The noun accompanying sahsra occasionally
appears by a kind of attraction i n the sing. : na cic chpa
ndita sahsrd y p d amuca thou didst deliver unaepa, who was
bound, from a thousand posts (v. 2 ) : this use does not seem to occur
in B.
9

2. A predicative adjective used with as or bh (often to

be supplied) agrees in gender and number with its subject.
a. The nom. of var capable used thus i n B. is equivalent to
a verb = be able. The concord here is i n the majority of cases normal ;
e. g. var v v 'yat 'pratihita pr parvta gnto
a horse if unbridled and unobstructed can go to an extreme distance (TS.) ;
s ^ enam var pradha she can burn him (TS. ) ; varu v etu
nirdha both of them can burn (B.) ; t n y enam var i pratinda
they can drive him away (MS.). sometimes, however, the concord of
either number or gender, or of both, is neglected ; e. g. tm var
rksi h n t o the demons can kill him (TS.) ; tsya^var praj
ppyas bhvito his offspring can degenerate (B.) ; var ha^et
nagnicita satpto these (f. pl.) are liable to weigh heavily upon one
who has not built a fire altar (B.). I n the last two examples quoted

and i n others the masc. sing. has become stereotyped as a nom. of all
genders and numbers.
b. The use of a predicative adjective referring to two or more
substantives differing i n gender is very rare ; i t then seems to agree
in gender with the subst. nearest it, or the masc. seems to have been
preferred to the neut. ; e. g. tray vi nirt ak strya svpna
(Ms.) dice, women, and sleep (are) the treble pernicious (things) ; ev hy
sya kmy stma ukth ca sy thus indeed his two favourites,
stoma and uktha, are to be recited ( i . 8 ). A predicative adj. dependent
on k agrees w i t h its subst. ; i f there are two, the du. is used ; e. g.
div ca v v ^asm etd via mnu ca^nuvartmnau karoti
so he makes the divine andthehuman folk obedient to him (Ms.).
10

3. As in Greek and Latin, a demonstrative pronoun

agrees with a predicative noun in gender and number ; e. g.
ye tu s tvak what (are) the husks (that =) those (are) the

skin (AB. ) ; yd ru skritam st tni vysi^

abhavan what was the concentrated tear (those =) that became

the birds (B.).

Pronouns.
195. A. Personal. a. Owing to its highly inflexional
character the Vedic language, like Latin and Greek, uses
the nominatives of personal pronouns far less frequently
than modern European languages do. Being already inherent
in the first and second persons of the finite verb such
pronouns are expressed separately only when they require
emphasizing.
b. The unaccented forms of ahm and tvm (109 a) being
enclitic, can be used neither at the beginning of a sentence
or metrical line (Pada), nor after vocatives, nor before em
phasizing, conjunctive or disjunctive particles.
e. Bhavn Your Honour, the polite form of tvm, which
first comes into use in B., properly takes a verb in the
3. sing. But being practically equivalent to a personal
pronoun of the 2. pers., it occasionally appears with a verb
in that person ; e. g. ti vv kla no bhvn pur ^

anui n voca (B.) in this sense then you have formerly

spoken of (us =) me as instructed (cp. 194, 1).

B. Demonstrative. 1. aym this (here) is a deictic

pronoun used adjectivally of what is in the neighbourhood,
presence, or possession of the speaker, and may often be
translated by here ; e. g. ay ta emi tanv purstt here
1

I come with my body before thee (viii. 100 ) ; iy mtir

mma this my hymn ; ay v t a the wind here (on earth) ;

ay jna the people here (vii. 55 ) ; id bhvanam this
world ; aym agn Agni here (present). I n the R v aym is
sometimes used even with div heaven and dity sun as if
they were included in the environment of the speaker.
2. Opposed to aym is asu that (there), applied to objects
remote from the speaker, as heaven and its phenomena,
immortals, persons who are not present or are at a distance ;
e. g. am y dev sthna tri^ rocan div ye, O gods,
5

who are there, in the three bright realms of heaven (I. 105^);

ami ea y maghvno vay oa those (absent) patrons and

we (i. 14 l ) ; asu y i vrak you who go there, a
mannikin (viii. 9l ),
13

a. I n . the usage is similar, only the contrast is more definite :

it is typical i n referring to the earth (iym) and the heavenly world
(asu), and i n the phrases y 'y pvate he who blows here ( = Wind),
and y su tpati he who burns there ( = sun), and asv dity the sun
there. I n B. asu is besides used in a formulaic way ( = so and so)
when the actual name is to be substituted ; e. g. asu n m a^aym
idrpa he here, having this form, is so and so by name (B.). I n
addressing a person the voc. form sau is also used thus : y th v
id nmagr h am s s ti hvyati as one here (in ordinary life)
by way of mentioning the name calls : ' you there, youthere (Ms.).

3. t, like asu, can be translated by that, but in a different

sense. I t is not like asu essentially deictic and local, nor
does it imply a contrast (that there as opposed to this here) ;
but it refers to something already known either as just
mentioned or as generally familiar.
a. A very frequent application of this meaning is its

reference as a correlative to what is made known by an

antecedent relative clause ; e. g. y yaj paribh r si,
s d devu gachati the sacrifice that thou encompassest, that
4

certainly goes to the gods (i. I ). Often, however, an ante

cedent clause is lacking and must be mentally supplied in
some such form as whom we have in mind. Then t is
equivalent to the well known. This use comes out most
clearly in the first verse of a hymn ; e. g. s pratnth
shas j y amna, sady k v yni b adhatta vv
(i. 96 ) he (who is in our thoughts, the famous Agni) being
1

engendered in the ancient way with strength, lo ! has straightway

assumed all wisdom ; t v vvasya gop yajase (viii. 25 )

1

you two famous guardians of the universe I worship.

b. t has a very frequent anaphoric use, referring back

to a noun or a pronoun of the third or second person (in B.
also of the first), and may then be translated by as such, so ;
e. g. tv vjasya rtyasya rjasi : s no ma thou
rulest over glorious spoil : as such be gracious to us (i. 36^) ;

s tath^ity abravt: s vai vo vara v i t i she said,

yes : I as such ( = in the proposed circumstances) will choose

a boon of you (AB.). This usage is a prominent and some

what monotonous feature of the narrative style in B. ; e. g.
prajpates tryastad duhitra san, t smya
rje dadt, ts rhim pait, t ryant pnar
agachan Prajpati had thirty daughters; he gave them to King
Soma ; of them he visited Rohi (only) ; they (the others),

being jealous, went back (TS.). When this t is widely

separated from the antecedent noun to which it refers
(sometimes only indirectly) it may he translated by the
definite article ; thus the opening of the story of Urvas :
urv ha^apsar purrvasam ai cakame an
Apsaras

Urva loved Purravas,

the son of I is some

sentences later referred to with : td dha t apsarsa

tyo bhtv pri pupluvire then the Apsarases swam about
in the form of water birds (B.).

a. I n its anaphoric use t is frequently followed by personal pronouns

of all persons (regularly i n their enclitic form when they have one) ;
e. g. t m s sja vrcas unite me as such with glory (i. 23^ ), m
yajd antr agta : s vo 'hm ev yajnm ammuham ye have excluded
me from the sacrifice ; so I have thrown your sacrifice into confusion (B.) ;
havimanto vidhema te : s tv no ady sumn ih^avit bhva
bringing oblations we would serve thee: so do thou be for us today a benevolent
helper (i. 36 ) ; ydi t v ^ e t t pnar brvata, s tv b r t t (B.)
if they (two) shall say this to you again, then do you say (to them) ; asy
ptv ghan vtr am abhavas . . . t tv vjyma having drunk
of this thou becamest a slayer of Vtras : so we strengthen thee (I. 4 ). similarly
used are : sing. A. t tvm (here exceptionally not enclitic),
D. tsmai te, G. tsya te, tsyas te ; du. t vm ; pl. A. tn vas,
G. t vas.
^. Four demonstrative pronouns are found following t i n this
way : idm, ads, t itself, and oftenest of all etd ; e. g. s ^ iym
asm sanaj ptry dh this here is among us an ancient hymn of our
forefathers (iii. 39 ) ; tsya vlo ny saji : tm am vto dhunoti
its tail hangs down : that the wind tosses to and fro (sB.) ; t h a ^ e v
n ^ t i dadha : t ha sma t pur brhma n taranti that
(river) he (Agni) did not burn across : that same one the Brhmans used not
formerly to cross (B.), bhavaty asya^anucaro ya eva veda : sa v
ea ekatithi, sa ea juhvatsu vasati he who knows this has a follower ;
that (follower) is this one guest ; this same (follower, the sun) abides
among the sacrificers (AB.).
^v. The N . sing. s is sometimes used adverbially i n B. (see 180,
p. 249).
3

4. et this is used like t but is more emphatic. I t refers

to something known to the listener as present either to his
senses or his thoughts.
a. The corrective use of et seems to be limited to B.,
tlie relative clause here usually following ; e. g. patho v
ea praiti, yo yaje muhyati he diverges from the path who
goes wrong in the sacrifice (AB.). I t is somewhat peculiar
when the relative in the neuter sing. and without a verb is
added solely for the purpose of emphasizing a particular
word ; e. g. svarga v etena lokam upapra yanti yat
pryaya people go to the heavenly world with that which (is)

the preliminary sacrifice (AB.), I n these circumstances et

when alone always agrees in gender with the noun in the

relative clause ; but when it is accompanied by a substantive,

with the latter ; e. g. paavo v ete yad pa water is
equivalent to cattle (AB.). In this usage yd often loses its
inflexional character to such an extent that it becomes like
an explanatory particle ( = that is to say), the substantive
that follows it agreeing in case with that which precedes;
e.g. etir tra^ubhyair rtho bhavati yd devi ca
brhmai ca there is need here of both, that is, of the gods

and the Brhmans (B.).

The use of et without an antecedent, parallel to that of
t, is common both in v . and B. ; e. g. e u vy chati
this Dawn (whom we see before us) has shone forth ( i . 46^) ;

t ha^sur asynta iva^cur: yvad evi vur

abhite tvad vo dadma ti the Asuras said somewhat
displeased : as much as this Viu (here present) covers lying

down, so much we give you (B.) ; yuvm et cakrathu

sndhuu plavm ye two have made that boat (present to our

thought) in the ocean (1. 182^) ; tna^etm uttar girm

ti dudrva therewith he passed over that (well known)

northern mountain (B.) ; t et my asjanta supar

ca kadr ca they created these two (wellknown) miraculous

beings, Supar and Kadru (B.). In the last example ete

requires the addition of the two following names to supple
ment its sense.
a. somewhat similarly this pronoun is sometimes followed i n B.
by words or a sentence explaining i t ; e. g. s et b hir devtbhi
sayg bhutv mardbhir vi ^ agnn^nkena^upapl y ata he, united
with these deities, the Maruts as the fighting folk and Agni as the head,
approached (Ms.) ; s h a ^ e t d ev dadara :^anaantay vi me
praj pr bhavanti^ti he saw this: in consequence of hunger my
creatures are perishing (B.).

b. I n its anaphoric use et expresses identity with that

to which it refers back, more emphatically than t does ;
e. g. peta vta v ca sarpata^to : asm et pitro
lokm akran go away, disperse, depart from hence: this place

(on which you have been standing) the fathers have pr e

pared for him (x. 14 ) ; in the final verse the expression e
stma indra tbnyam (i. 173^) this praise is for thee, O Indr a,
refers to the whole preceding hymn ; td nbhya sam
bhtya mda ca^ap ca^akm akurvas : tsmd
etd ubhyam ak bhavati mc ca^pa ca having
brought both those together, clay and water, they made the brick :
therefore a brick consists of both these, clay and water (B.).
5. ty occurs only in the sense of that (well known) ; e. g.
kv tyni nau sakhy babhvu what has become of those
friendships of us two? (vii. 88^). I t often follows forms of
the demonstrative pronouns et and idm ; e. g. et ty
bhnva usa gu here those (familiar) beams of Dawn
have come (vii. 75 ) ; imm u tym atharvavd agn
manthanti they, like Atharvan, rub forth that (famous) Agni
here (vi. 15 ^). The neuter tyd is sometimes used after the
relative y, and often after the particle ha, in an adverbial
sense ; e. g. ysya tyc chmbara made dvodsya
randhya in the exhilaration of which (Sonia) thou didst at
that time subject Sambara to Divodasa (v1. 43^).
6. The pronoun a that in its substantive sense ( = he, she,
it, they), when it is unaccented, not infrequently appears as
an unemphatic correlative (while the accented form is a
deictic adjective); e.g. ysya devir sado harhr agne,
hni asmai sudn bhavanti on whose litter thou, O Agni,
hast sat down, fair days arise for him (viI. 11 ); y v
sat niyta scante, bhir ytam arvk the hundred
teams that accompany you, with them do ye two come hither
(vii. 91 ) ; nkir e nindit mrtyeu, y asmka
pitro gu yodh there is among mortals no reproacher of
them who, (being) our fathers, werefightersfor cows (iii. 39 ),
9

T H E CASES.

Nominative.
196. The nominative, as in other languages, is mainly
used as the subject of a sentence.
a. A second nominative is employed as a predicate
with certain verbs beside the subject, that is, with verbs
meaning be, become, seem or be accounted, think oneself; e. g.
tv hi ratnadh si for thou art a bestower of treasure

(i. 15 ) ; ivsa snto iv bhvan being friendly they

3

have become unfriendly (v. 12^) ; kaviati s padyante

they become twentyone (TS.) ; gkm me achadayan they
1

10

seemed to me desirous of cows (x. 108 ) ; i k vpra ohate

who counts as a seer, as a singer ? (viii. 3 ) ; apratr mnya
mna thinking himself irresistible (v. 32 ) ; sma manyate
14

papivn he believes he has drunk Soma (x. 85 ) ; parbhavi

ynto manmahe we think we are about to perish (TS.).

a. I n B. the predicative nom. also appears with verbs meaning to
call oneself (br, vac, vad i n the middle) ; e. g. :ndro brhma
bruv Indra calling himself a Brahman (TB.) ; hntvocath thou
hast described thyself as a slayer (Ts.).
^. W i t h verbs of naming the predicative acc. may also be expressed
in B. by the nom. with ti ; e. g. r s abha ti hy tm ay 'vadan
for the seers called him ass' (Ts.).

b. With passive verbs the predicative nom. takes the

place of the acc. object of the active verb ; e. g. tvm . .
ucyase pit thou art called a father (i. 3.F ),
c. Instead of the predicative nom. the voc. is sometimes
used ; e. g. yy hi h, sudnava fur ye are liberal
4

(i. 15 ) ; bhr ko, rayipate ray m thou alone hast been

I n B. the phrase rp k to assume a form, because i t is equiva

lent to bh become, takes a predicative nom. ; e. g. v rp ktv
assuming the form of Viu (Ts.).

the lord of riches (vi. 31 ) ; gutama bruva thou who callest

thyself Gautama (B.). (Cp. 180 under n, 2 a.)
a. since apparently two vocatives cannot be connected with ca, the
nom. often appears instead of the first or the second vocative ; e. g.
vyav ndra ca cetatha O Vyu and Indra, ye know (i. 2 ) ; ndra ca
sma pibata bhaspate Indra and Bhaspati, drink the Soma (iv. 50 ),
Cp. 180 under ca 1 a, b.
5

10

Accusative.
197. A. This case is usually employed in connexion
with verbs in various ways. Besides its ordinary use of
denoting the object of transitive verbs, the acc. is employed
to express :
1. the goal with verbs of motion, chiefly gam, also i ,
much less often y, car, and s and some others. The ace.
may be a person, a place, an activity or a condition ; e. g.
yam ha yaj gachati to Yama goes the sacrifice (x. 14 ) ;
devm i d ei pathbhi sugbhi to the gods thou goest by
paths easy to traverse (i. 162 ); ndra stm caranti
13

21

to Indra fare the songs of praise (x. 477) ; sraj jr n

yam he sped like a lover to a maiden (ix. 101 ) ; ma tvt
ktry rani ganma may we not go from thee to strange
fields (vi. 61 ) ; sabhm eti kitav the gambler goes to the
assembly (x. 34^) ; jaritr gachatho hvam ye two go to the call
14

14

13

of the singer (viii. 35 ) ; tva krtubhir amtatvm yan by

4

thy mental powers they (went to =) attained immortality (vi. 7 ).

a. The usage in B. is similar; e.g. prajpati praj asjata, t
vruam agachan Prajpati created creatures;theywent to Varua (TS.) ;

s n dvam apatat he did not fly to heaven (B.); rya gacheyam

may I (go to ----.) attain prosperity (B.).

2. duration of time (in origin only a special form of the

cognate acc.) ; e. g. at jva ardo vrdhamna live
prospering a hundred autumns (X. 161 ) ; s avatth sa
vatsarm atihat he remained in the Avattha tree for a year
4

(TB.) ; tsmt srvn tn varati therefore it rains during

all the seasons (TS.) ; savatsaratam r t rim gachatt
(B.) for the night a year hence thou shalt come (to me).

3. extension of distance (in origin only a special form

of the cognate acc.), a use rare in both v and B. ; e. g. yd
bhi ptasi yjan p u r when with the swift ones thou

fliest many leagues (ii. 16^) ; s bh m i vivto vtv ^ ty

extended

daa

atihad dagulm he cov ering the earth on all sides

beyond (it) a distance of ten fingers (x. 90 ) ; sapt
1

pravydhn

they

dhvanti

run

race

(a

distance

of) seventeen arrowflights (TB.),

4. the cognate object of intransitive verbs, which may

be allied to the latter etymologically or only in sense ; e. g.
samnm aj^ajate they deck themselves with like adorn
ment (vii. 57^) ; yad agne ysi dtym when, O Agni, thou
4

goest on a message (i. 12 ); tvy^dhyakea

ptan

jayema with thee as witness we would conquer in battles

1

(x. 128 ) ; tsmd rj sagrm jitv ^ udjm d ajate

therefore a king, having won a battle, chooses booty for himself

(MS.) ; tisr r t rr vrat caret he should perform afastfor

three nights (TS.).
a. verbs meaning to stream or to shine in v . take a cognate ace. with
a concrete sense ; e. g. tsya jihv pavate mdhu the tongue of the rite
(soma) streams mead (ix. 75 ), tsm po ghtm aranti for him the
waters stream ghee (i. 125 ), v y t sryo n rcate bhd bh when,
like the sun, he beams forth lofty light (vii. 8 ).
2

5. an adverbial sense. Adverbs of this form all originated

in various uses of the acc. which have acquired an indepen
dent character. They are formed from :
a. substantives ; e. g. nktam by night (not during the
night like the acc. of time) ; kmam at will (still rare in the
RV.), e.g. kma tad dhot ased yad dhotrak
prvedyu aseyu the Hot may, as he likes, recite what
the assistants of the Hot may recite the day before (AB.) ;

nma by name ; e.g. m

dhur ndra nma devt

(x. 49 ) me they have placed as Indra by name (or verily) among

the gods.

b. various kinds of adjectives. They have an attributive

origin when they express the senses of quickly or slowly
(kiprm, cirm), much or greatly (bah, blavat), well or
badly, boldly (dh), or direction (as nyk downward, &c.) ;
e. g. bIavad vti it blows hard (B.) ; bhadr j v anta
6

living happily (x. 37 ).

a. The acc. adverbs from ordinals seem to have been appositional
in origin; e.g. t n v etn saptn vivmitra prathamam
apasyat (AB.) these same Sapta hymns Vivmitra inventedfirst( as the
first thing).
^. several ace. adverbs are from comparatives and superlatives in
tara and tama formed from prepositions and adverbs ; e. g. dr g hya
yu pratar ddhn obtaining longer life furthermore ( i . 53 ^ ).
A good many such have a fem. acc. form i n later use, but there is only
one found i n the RV. : satar pduku hara put your two little feet
closer together (viii. 33 ).
^. A special class is formed by adverbs i n vat expressing that an
action takes place like that performed by the noun preceding the
suffix; e.g. tv d tso manuvd vadema ( i i . 10 ) having thee as our
messenger we would speak like men (as men should speak : properly some
thing that belongs to men).
^. Another class of acc. adverbs is formed from various adjectival
compounds. A number of these are formed with the privative particle
a, being of the nature of cognate accusatives ; e. g. dev chndobhir
iml lok n anapajayym abhy jayan the gods (unconquerably .)
irrevocably conquered these worlds by means of the metres (Ts.).
^.Another group comparatively rare i n V., but very common i n
B., are those formed from prepositionally governing adjectival com
pounds; e.g. anukm tarpayethm satisfy yourselves according to
desire ( I . 17 ), adhidevatm with reference to the deity (B.). Probably
following the analogy of some of these were formed others i n which
the first member of the compound is not a preposition, but an adverb
derived from the relative y ; e. g. yathkm n padyate she turns
in according to her desire (x. 146 ), yvajjvm (as long as = ) for life (sB.),
Some other adverbial compounds are used like gerunds i n am; e.g.
stuksrga sr bhavati it is plaited like a braid of hair (B.).
1

19

197. B. The acc. is largely used with verbal nouns.

Besides being governed by all participles, active and middle.

and by genuine infinitives, in V. it is used with agent

nouns formed from the root or other verbal stems by means
of about ten primary suffixes. Such nouns are made from
the simple root (when compounded with a preposition), and
with the suffixes a (when the stem is compounded with a
preposition), ani (from the aor. or desid. stem), i (generally
from the reduplicated root), yas and iha (comparatives
and superlatives), u (from desiderative stems), uka (very
rare in V.), tar (when the root is accented), van (when com
pounded), snu (from causative stems) ; and a few with the
secondary suffix in. Examples of the ace. with such agent
nouns are : devs tv paribhur asi thou eneopassest
the gods (v. 13^) ; dn cid ruj breaking even what is

firm (iii. 45 ) ; tv no vv abnmt saki thou

overeomest all our adversaries (viii. 24-^) ; at pro ruruk
2

i ready to destroy a hundred forts (ix. 48 ) ; ndr ha

rtna vru dhh Indra and Varua bestow treasure

most abundantly (iv. 4l ) ; vats ca gh t uko vka (AV.

xii. 47) and the wolf slays the calves ; dt rdhsi um
bhati giving riches he shines (i. 22^) ; prtaryvo adhvarm
3

coming early to the sacrifice (i. 441 ) ; sthir cin namayi

ava O ye who desire to bend even what is rigid (viii. 20 ) ;
1

km h vr sdam asya ptm for the hero always desires

1

a draught of it (ii. 14 ).
a. some adjectives formed with anc from prepositions governing
the acc. are also used with that ease. Such are pratync facing,
anv's following ; e. g. pratyn usam urviy v bhti facing the
Dawn (the fire) shines forth far and wide (v. 28 ), tasmd anc patn
grhapatyam aste hence the wife sits behind the 6^arhapatya jlre (AB.).
The acc. is found even with samyc united ; e. g. adhr ev^ena
samyca dadhti he puts him into contact with the plants (MS.) ; but
this adj. also takes the inst., the natural ease with a compound
of sm.
^. I n B. the only nouns taking the ace seem to be the des. adjec
tives i n u and the ordinary adjectives in uka (which are very
common) and those in i n ; e. g. ppmnam apajighsu wishing
to drive away sin (AB.), sarp ena gh t uk syu the snakes might bite
1

^im (Ms.) ; aprativdy ena bhrtvyo bhavati his enemy does not
contradict him (PB.).

e. The ace. is governed by more prepositions than any

other case. The genuine prepositions with which it is
exclusively connected in both V. and B. are ti beyond, nu
after, abh towards, prti against, tirs across; and in V.

only cha towards. I t is also taken secondarily by others

which primarily govern other cases (cp. 176. 1, 2). The acc.
is further taken exclusively by the adnominal prepositions
antar between, abhtas around, upri above, sanitr apart
from ; and secondarily by some others (cp. 177. 13).
a. The preposition vn without, except, which first occurs i n B. (and
there has only been noted once), takes the acc. ; and rt without,
which i n the RV. governs the abl. only, i n B. begins to take the acc.
also (as i t often does in post vedic sanskrit).
^. I n B. a number of adverbs (inst. of adjectives and substantives
or formed with tas from pronouns expressive of some relation in
space) take the acc. ; such are grena in front of ntarea within,
beiween, ttarea north of dkiena to the right or the south of, prea
beyond ; ubhaytas on both sides of.
^. I n B. the ace. is taken by two interjections. One of them, d
lo behold.^ (cp. Lat. en), is always preceded by a verb of motion,
which, however, has sometimes to be supplied ; e. g. yya vyr :
d dhat vtrm Vayu came (to see): behold, Vtra (was) dead (B.) ;
pnar ma ti dev : d agn tirbhutam we are coming back', said
the gods ; (they came back, and) behold l Agni (had) disappeared.^ (B.).
The other interjection dhik jie .^, used with the acc. of the person
only, is still very rare i n B. ; e. g. dhik tv jlma^astu fie on you,
rogue (KB.).

Double Accusative.
19S. A second acc. appears in apposition with various
verbs ; e. g. prua ha vi dev gre pam lebhire
the gods in the beginning sacrificed a man as a victim (B.).

It is further used :
1. predicatively with verbs of saying (br, vac), thinking
(man), knowing (vid), hearing (ru), making (k), ordaining
(vi-dh), choosing (v), appointing (nidh) in both V.

and B. ; e. g. vna bast bcdhayit r am abravt the

13

hegoat said (that) the dog (was) the wakener (i. 161 ); yd

any ^ny ppm avadan that the one ealled the other
wicked (B.) ; agn manye pitram Agni I think a father
3

(x. 7 ) ; mariynta ed yjamna mnyeta if he thinks

the sacrificer (is) going to die (B.) ; cir tn mene he thought
that too long (B.) ; vidm h i tv purvsum we know thee
(to be) possessed of much wealth (i. 81^) ; n vi hat vtr

vidm n jvm we know not (whether) Vtra (is) dead nor

(whether he is) alive (B.) ; revnta h tv mi I hear
(about) thee (that thou art) rich (viii. 2 ) ; vnty enam
11

agn eikynm (TS.) they hear (about) him having piled the

fire (altar) : asmn s jigya kdhi make us thoroughly

victorious (viii. 80 ) ; t pam adhipm akarot he
0

made Pan their lord (MS.) ; tsm hutr yaj vy

dadhu they made ( = ordained) the oblations (to be) the

sacrifice for him (MS.) ; agn htra pr ve I choose

Agni priest (iii. 19 ) ; n tvm agne mnur dadhe jytir
1

jnya vate Manu has appointed thee, O Agni, as a light

for every man (i. 361^).

2. to express the person as a direct object beside the

thing wdth verbs of addressing (vac), asking (prach), begging
(yc), approaching with prayer (, y), milking (duh), shaking
(dh), sacrificing to (yaj), doing to (k) ; e. g. agn mahm
avocam suvktm to Agni we have addressed a great hymn

(x. 807) ; pchmi tv pram nta pthivy I ask thee

34

about the farthest limit of the earth (i. 164 ); y j avalkya

dvu pranu prakymi I will ask Yjavalkya two questions

(B.) ; ap ycmi bheajm I beg healing from the waters

(x. 9^); td agnihotry gn ycet that the Agnihot should

beg of Agni (MS.) ; vsni dasmm mahe we approach the
10

wondrous one for riches (i. 42 ) ; tt tv ymi I approach

thee for this (i. 24 ) ; duhnty dhar divy n i they milk
celestial gifts from the udder (i. 64^) ; imm ev srvn
k m n duhe from her he (milks ) obtains all desires (B.) ;
11

vk phla d h n u h i shake down fruit from the tree

(iii. 45 ) ; yj devm t bht sacrifice to the gods the
lofty rite (I. 75^) ; k m karann abal asya sn what
can his feeble hosts do to me ? (v. 30^).
4

a. Of the above verbs vac, and y, dh, yaj and k do not seem
to be found w i t h two acc. i n B. ; on the other hand gam approach,
dh milk, j i win, jy wrest from are so used there ; e. g. agnr vi
vrua brahmacryam gachat Agni (approached) askedVaruafor
the position of a religious student (Ms.) ; iml lokn adhayad yaya
kmam akmayata from these worlds he extracted whatever he desired (AB.) ;
devn sur yajm ajayan the Asuras won the sacrifice from the gods
(Ms.) ; ndro maruta sahasram ajint Indra wrested a thousand from
the.IIaruts(PB.).
1

3. to express the agent with causative verbs beside the

acc. which would be taken by the simple verb also ; e. g.
un devm uat pyay hav eager thyself cause the
eager gods to drink the libation (ii. 37 ) ; t yjamna
vcayati he makes the sacrificer name them (TS.). With
verbs of motion the other ace. expresses the goal (which is,
however, never a person) ; e. g. prm ev parvt
saptn gamaymasi to the extreme distance we cause the
rival wife to go (x. I45 ) ; yjamna suvarg lok
gamayati he causes the sacrificer to reach the celestial
world (TS.).
6

a. I n B. the agent is frequently put in the inst. instead of the acc.

with various causatives, especially that of grah seize ; e. g. t vru
ena^agrhayat (MS.) he caused Varua to seize them ( he caused them
to be seized by Varua).
b. I n B. a second acc. expresses the goal (with n lead) or duration
of time beside the acc of the object ; e. g. evm ev^ena krm
suvarg lok nayati thus the tortoise leads him to the celestial world
(TS.), tisr r t rr vrat caret he should observe a fast for three nights
(TS ).
1

Which would be expressed by the nom. with the simple verb ;

e. g. dev hav pibanti the gods drink the libation.
When the goal is a person i t is expressed by the loc. or a Joe.
adverb; e.g. agnv agn gamayet he would send Agni to Agni (B.) ;
devatr^ev enad gamayati he sends it to the gods (B.).
2

Instrumental
199. A. The fundamental sense of this case is con
comitance, which may variously be rendered by with, by,
through, according as it expresses accompaniment, instru
mentality^ or agency, causality, motion through space or
duration of time.
1. I n its soeiative sense the instrumental expresses the
companion or accompaniment of the subject in any activity ;
e. g. dev devbhir gamat may the god eome with the gods
(i. 1^) ; ndrea yuj nr apm aubjo aravm with Indra
1

as thy eompanion thou didst release the flood of waters (ii. 23 ^) ;

ndro no rdhas^ gamat may Indra eome to us with wealth
10

(iv. 55 ).
a. similarly in B. : agnir vasubhir ud akrmat Indra departed with
the Vasus (AB.) ; yna mntrea juhti td yju the s,oell to the accom
paniment of which he offers the oblation is the Yajus (B.); td asya
shas^, d itsanta they tried to take it from him by force (TS.).

2. I n its instrumentai sense it expresses the means

(person or thing) by which an action is accomplished ; e. g.
vaym ndrea sanuyma vjam we would win booty through
Indra (i. 101l ) ; han vtrm ndro vjrea Indra smote
1

Vtra with his bolt (i. 32^),

a. similarly in B. : kna vra by whom as champion (B.) ; rs
bja haranti they carry corn (with =) on the head (B.); tsmd
dkiena hstena^nnam adyate therefore food is eaten with the right
hand (MS.).

3. I n its causal sense it expresses the reason or motive

of an action by reason of, on account of for the sake of;

e. g. smasya pty . . . gatam come hither for the sake of

the Soma draught (i. 46 ); aatrr jan sand asi thou
13

art by thy nature without foes from of old (i. 102^).

a. similarly i n B. : s bh n lilye he concealed himself through
(B.), ; so n m n by name.

4. In its local sense of through or over it is used with

verbs of motion to express the space through or over which

an action extends ; e. g. div ynti marto bhumy^agnr
ay vto antrikea yti the Maruts go along the sky,
14

Agni over the earth, the Wind here goes through the air (i. 161 ) ;

antrike pathibhi ptantam flying along the paths in the

air (x. 87^).
a. I n B. the inst. is constantly used in the local sense w i t h words
meaning path or door, but rarely with others ; e. g. yth^ketrajno
'nyna path nyet as if one who does not know the district were to lead by a
wrong road (B.) ; srasvatya yanti they go along the Sarasvat^ (Ts.).

5. I n its temporal sense the inst. expresses the time

throughout which an action extends ; e. g. prvbhir dad
im ardbhi we have worshipped throughout many autumns

(i. 86^), Sometimes, however, the sense of duration is not

apparent, the inst. being then used like the loc. of time ;
thus tn and tbhi mean in due season.
a. I n B. the temporal meaning is rare ; e.g. sv iumtrm ov h n
tiryh avardhata he grew in the course of a day quite an arrow's length in
width (Ms.).

6. Many instrumentais (chiefly of the sociative and local

classes) have come to be used in a purely adverbial sense.
Such are formed from either substantives or adjectives (of
which sometimes no other form occurs) ; e. g. jas straight
way, mhobhi mightily, shas and shobhis suddenly ;
ntarea within, ttarea to the north ; uecis above, cis
below, parcis sideways, prcis forwards, nais and anis,
anakis slowly.
a. I n a number of these instrumentais the adverbial use is indicated,
not only by the sense, but by a shift of accent ; e. g. dv by day ; dak
i to the right ; madhy between ; naktay by night ; svapnay in a
dream ; akay across (B.) ; anomalously formed from u stems : uy
quickly, dhruv boldly, raghuy swiftly, sdhuy straightway, mithuy
falsely (mithy B.), anuhuy immediately (anuy B.); and from a
pronoun, amuy in that way.

199. B. Besides having the above general and indepen

dent uses the inst. also appears, in special connexion with

different classes of words by which it may be said to be

' governed ' :
1. with verbs expressing :
a. association or contention with ; in R v : yat marshal,
yd combine, yuj join (mid.), sac accompany ; yudh fight,

spdh strive, hs race, kr play; in B. : yudh fight, viji

contend victoriously (with).

b. separation from (compounds with vi) ; in RV. : viyu

dissever from, vivt turn away from, vyavt separate (intr.)

from ; in B. : vyvt id., vidh be deprived of visth be

removed from, vva i go away from = lose.
c. enjoyment ; in RV. : kan find pleasure in, mad be
exhilarated with, uc be fond of, tu be satisfied with, mah
delight in, h rejoice in, bhuj enjoy ; in B. : tp be pleased
with, nand be glad of bhuj enjoy.
d. repletion ; in RV. : p fill (acc.) with, p swell with ;
1

in B. : cans. of p : praya fill, pass. purya be filled with.

e. purchase for (a price) ; in v. : vikr bargain away for ;
in B. : nikr ransom for.

f. adoration or sacrifice (the victim or object offered), With

yaj sacrifice to the deity is in the acc. in both v. and B. ;

in B. the sacrificial date also is put in the (cognate) acc. ;

e. g. amvasy yajate he celebrates the feast of new moon.

g. procedure: the verb car in both V. and B. ; e.g.

dhenv carati myy he acts with barren craft (x. 71^) ;
upu vc carati he proceeds in a low tone with his voice

(AB.).
h. ability to do : the verb k in both V. and B. ; e. g. km
3

c karyati what will he do with a hymn ? (i. 164 ^) ; k

s tir ghi kury t what could he do with that house?

(B.),

I n B. the phrase rtho bhavati there is business with

= there is need of (Lat. opus est aliqua re) is similarly used ;

1

sometimes also with the gen.: the past part. pass. pr with the
gen. = full of but with theinst.filled with.

e. g. yarhi vva vo mayrtho bhavit if you (gen.) shall

have need of me (AB.).

1. dominion: only (in V.) the verb patya be lord of(lit.

by means of) ; e. g. ndro vvair vryi ptyamna
1

Indra who is lord of all heroic powers (iii. 54 ^).

j . subsistence : only (in B.) the verb jv live on, subsist by ;

e. g. yy manuy jvanti (the cow) on which men subsist
(Ts.).
a. W i t h passive forms of the verb (including participles) the inst.
expresses either the means (as w i t h the active verb) or the agent (the
nom. of the active verb) ; e. g. ghtna^agn sm ajyate Agni is
anointed with ghee (x. 118 ) ; u uchnt ribhyate vsihai Uas when
she dawns is praised by the Vasisthas (vii. 76 ). similarly in B. : prajpa
tin sjyante they are created by Prajpati (MS.) ; p t rair nnam adyate
food is eaten with the aid of dishes (Ms.).
^. Nominal forms connected with the verb, when they have a passive
sense, as gerundives and infinitives, take the same construction ; e. g.
nbhir hvya to be invoked by men (vii. 22 ) ; rip n^avacke not to
be observed by the enemy (iv. 58 ) .
4

2. with nouns :
a. substantives and adjectives (especially those com
pounded with sa) expressive of association or equality ; e. g.
nsunvat sakhy vai ra the hero desires not friend
4

ship with him who does not press Soma (x. 42 ) ; si sam
19

devi thou art equal to the gods (vi. 48 ) ; ndro vi sad

devtbhir st Indra was equal to the (other) deities (TS.) ;
jyena mir mixed with butter (B.).
b. other adjectives, to express that by which the quality
in question is produced ; e. g. o vjena vjini O Dawn
1

rich in booty (iii. 61 ) ; bah prajy bhaviyasi thou wilt

be rich in offspring (B.).

e. numerals accompanied by n, to express deficiency ;

e. g. eky n viat not twenty by (lack of) one
nineteen.

3. with prepositions : genuine prepositions are virtually

not used with the instrumental. The only exceptions in

the RV. are the employment of dhi with the inst. of sn

height ; of pa in three passages with dybhis and dhrma
bhis ; and possibly of sm with in a few passages with the
inst. But prepositional adverbs are found thus used ; in
the RV. only avs below and pars abov e ; and in both V.
and B. sah and skm with. Cp. 177, 2.
Dative.
200. The dative expresses the notion with which an
action is concerned. I t is either connected with individual
words or is used more generally as a complement to the
whole statement.
A. Dative in a special sense with :
1. verbs (mostly as affecting persons) having the sense of
a. giv e ; in v . B. da giv e, yam extend, dh bestow, bhaj

apportion ; e. g. ddhti rtna vidhat he bestows treasure

on the worshipper (iv. 12 ) ; in v . also many other verbs
expressing a modification of the sense of giving : di assign,
3

va-duh milk down on, pr bestow fully, pc bestow abundantly,

mah give liberally, m measure out, r procure (fur), n-yu
bestow permanently, V i d find (for), san obtain (for), s set in
motion (for), sj shed (for), and others.

b. sacrifice ; in v . a-yaj offer to (while yaj takes the aec.) ;

and in v

B. k when make an offering to ; in B. -labh

(catch and tie up ) offer ; e. g. agnbhya pan labhate

he sacrifices the animals to the Agnis (TS.).
e. say = announce, explain (but with ace of person if

address) : in v B. ah, br, vac, vad (in B. also cak) ; in

v. also are and g sing to, stu utter praise to, gir, rap,

as praise anything (acc.) to. I n B. also : ni-hnu apologize

to ; e. g. td u devbhyo n hnute thereby he craves pardon of

the gods (B.).

d. hear : in RV. a few times ru listen to ; also ram
linger for = listen to.

e. believe, have confidence in: rd dh ; e. g. rd asmai

dhatta believe in him (ii. 12^) ; in B. also 1gh trust in.
f help, be gracious to, pay homage to : in v. ak aid, sidh
avail ; s-nam be complaisant to ; daasya pay honour to,

saparya do anything (ace.) in honour of (a god) ; d, vidh,

sac pay homage to (a god), am serve (a god) ; in v. and B. :
m be gracious to.

g. bring : n, bh, vah, hi, h ; e. g. am sat vahasi

bh r i vmm for him who is at home thou bringest much
12

wealth (i. 124 ) ; devbhyo havy vahanti they take the

oblation to the gods (TS.) ; t harmi pityaj y a devm
that god I bring to the sacrifice for the Manes (x. 16 ) ; va
10

katryya bal haranti the peasants bring the taxes to the

nobility (B.). I n v. only there are many other verbs, with

this general sense, that take the dative, such as , inv, cud
set in motion for, and figurative expressions such as abhi-kar
stream to, d and uc shine on, pru sprinkle on, abhi-v

waft to : in v. also the verb i go is used with the dat. ; e. g.

pr vave m etu mnma let my strong hymn go forth
3

in honour of Viu (i. 154 ).

h. please : svad be sweet to and chand be pleasing to ; e. g.
svdasva^ndrya ptye be sweet to Indra as a draught
9

(ix. 74 ) ; ut td asmai mdhv c cachadyat and may that

9

mead be pleasing to him (x. 73 ).

i. succeed : in B. dh and kp ; e. g. n ha^ev^asmai tt

sm ndhe he did not suceeed in that (B.) ; klpate ^smai
he succeeds (TS.).
j . subject to : radh ; e. g. asmbhya vtr randhi subject
9

our foes to us (iv. 22 ).

k. yield to: radh succumb, nam and nih bow before,

sth obey, mrad and kam (B.) yield to, -vrac fall a victim

to ; e. g. m ah dviat radham may I not succumb to

13

my enemy (i. 50 ) ; tasth savya te they obey thy command

(iv. 54^).
l. be angry with : in V. h (hte) ; in V. and B. : asya

and krudh ; in B. also artya be hostile and gl be

averse to.
m. seek to injure : in v . and B. druh ; e. g. yd dudrhitha
striyi pums what mischief thou hast done to woman or man
(AV.).
n. cast at : v . sj discharge ; v. B. as throw ; B. prah
hurl at ; e. g. sjd st didym asmai the archer shot a
lightning shaft at him (i. 71^) ; tsmai tm um asyati he
shoots the arrow at him (MS.) ; vjra bhr t vyya pr
harati he hurls the bolt at the foe (TS.).
o. exist or be intended for, accrue to : as be, bh become ;
e. g. gambhr cid bhavati gdhm asmai even in deep
water there is a ford for him (vi. 24 ) ; ndra tbhyam d
abhma we have become thine own, O Indra (TS.) ; tha k
mhya bhg bhaviyati then what share will accrue to
me (B.),
3

a. The dative is used with gerundives and infinitives to express the

agent, and w i t h the latter also the object by attraction instead of the
acc. ; e. g. y stotbhyo hvyo asti who is to be invoked by singers (i. 33 ) ;
v rayant prayi devbhya let (the doors) open wide for the gods to
enter (i. 142 ); ndram arkir vardhayann haye hnta v u they
strengthened Indra with hymns to slay the serpent (v. 3 l ) .
2

2. The dative is used with a certain number of sub

stantives.
a. Such are words that invoke blessings, especially nmas
homage (with the verbs k do or as be, which are often to be
supplied) ; e. g. nmo mahdbhya homage to the great
(i. 27 ) ; nmo 'stu brhmihya adoration to the greatest
Brahman (B.). Similarly used are the sacrificial formulas
svh, svadh, va hail ! blessing ! e. g. tbhya svh
blessing on them (Av.).
13

a. The indeclinables m i n V. and km i n B. meaning welfare are

used as nom. or acc. with the dat. ; e. g. yth m sad dvipde
ctuspade in order that there may be welfare for biped and quadruped
(i. 114 ) ; hutayo hy agnye km for the oblations are a joy to Agni (B.) ;
n^asm -ka bhavati it does notfare ill with him (Ts.).
1

1n V. the substantives kma desire and gat path may perhaps be

regarded as taking a dative without a verb to be supplied ; e.g. kv
nso amtatvya gtm procuring for themselves a path to immortality
(I. 72^),
^v. I n the name Dsyave v k a Wolf to the Dasyu (RV.) the dat. is to be
explained as due to its use i n the sentence he is a very wolf to the Dasyu.

3. The dative is used with adjectives meaning dear, kind,

agreeable, beneficial, willing, obedient, illdisposed, hostile ; e. g.

iv skhibhya ut mhyam st she was kind to friends

and also to me (x. 34-) ; tithi crur yve a guest dear to
man (ii. 28) ; yd vv jvbhyo hit tt pit b hya what
is good for the living is good for the Manes (B.) ; s rtman

vrscanya bhavati (B.) he is ready for felling (the tree) ;

pratyudymn ha katr y a va kuryt he would
make the peasantry hostile to the nobility (B.),
a. The adj. ngas sinless often seems to take the dative of the name
of a deity, but i t is somewhat uncertain whether the case should not
be connected with the verb ; e.g. ngaso ditaye syma may we be
sinless (to =) in the eyes of Aditi ( i . 241) may perhaps mean may we, as
sinless, belong to Aditi.
5

4. The dative is used with a few adverbs.

a. ram often takes the dat. ; e. g. y ra vhanti
43

manyve who drive in accordance with (thy) zeal (vi. 16 ).

This use of ram is common in combination with the verbs

k, gam, and bh. When used with the dat. ram is not
infrequently equivalent to an adj. ; e. g. ssm ram he is
ready for him (ii. 18) ; ay smo astu ra mnase
yuvbhym let this Soma be agreeable to your heart (i. 108).

In B. lam appears in the place of ram and is often

similarly used ; e. g. nlam huty sa, nla bhakya
he was not suitable for sacrifice, nor suitable for food (B.).

b. The adverb vs visibly is used with the dat. in V. and

B., but only when accompanied by the verbs k, bh or as
(the latter sometimes to be supplied) ; e. g. vr ebhyo
abhavat s r ya the sun appeared to them (i. 146 ) ; tsmai v
vr asma we will appear to him (B.).
4

B. The dative also in a general sense complements the

statement of the whole sentence.
1. I t expresses the person for whose advantage or
disadvantage the action of the sentence takes place ; e. g.
devn devayat yaja worship the gods for the benefit of the
pious man (i. 15 ) ; tsm et vjram akurvan for him
12

they made this bolt (B.) ; tasm upktya niyoktra na

vividu (AB.) for him when he had been brought near they eould

find no binder (i.e. they could find no one willing to bind him).
2. I t expresses the purpose for which an action is done
(final dative) ; e. g. rdhvs tih na tye stand up for
our help = in order to help us (I. 30^) ; n svim ndro vase
mdhti Indra will not leave the pious man in the lurch for
0

help (vi. 23 ) ; svargya 1okya viukram kramyante

the Viu steps are taken for the sake of(= in order to gain)
heaven (TS.) ; agn hotr y a prvata they chose Agni for

the priesthood in order that he should be priest (B.). The

final sense is commonly expressed by abstract substantives
(including in v. many infinitives) ; e. g. dhi riy duhit
sryasya rtha tasthau the daughter of the sun has mounted
the car for beauty = so as to produce a beautiful effect (vi. 63^) ;
tna^ev^ena s sjati ntyai with him (Mitra) he unites
him (Agni) for appeasement (TS.),
a. This final dat. is particularly used with as and bh ;
e. g. sti h m mdya va there is (something) fur your
intoxication, i. e. to intoxicate you (I. 37 ^) ; mdya sma
1

(sc. asti) Soma (is for =) produces intoxication (B.).

3. The dative is used, though rarely, in expressions

of time like the English for ; e. g. nn na indra^
aparaya ca sy now and for the future mayst thou be ours,

O Indra (vi. 33^) ; savatsarya sm amyate for a year an

alliance is made (MS.).
a. The iterative compound divdive day by day, though apparently
dat. of div, is probably i n reality meant for the loc. of the transfer
stem div.

4. Two datives connected in sense often appear together.

This occurs in V. when an ace is attracted by a dative
infinitive ; e. g. vtr y a hntave = vtr hntave to slay
Vtra (cp. 200. A. 1 o a).
a. There is an analogous use i n B., where, however, an abstract
substantive takes the place of the infinitive; e.g. yth.^id pi
bhym avanjanaya^hranty evm just as they bring it for washing the
hands (B.). Two datives are here often found with the verb stha,one
expressing the purpose, the other the person affected by the action ;
e.g. devebhya paavo 'nndyyalambya na^atihanta the animals
did not present themselves to the gods for food, for sacrifice (AB.).

5. The adverbial use of the dative is very rare : k m ya

and rthya for the sake of may be regarded as such ;
kmacrsya k m ya for the sake of unrestrained motion
(B.) ; asmkrthya jajie thou hast been born for our

sake (AV.).
Ablative.
2O1. The ablative, expressing the startingpoint from
which the action of the verb proceeds, may as a rule be
translated by from. I t is chiefly connected with various
classes of words, but is also used independently.
A. I n its dependent use the ablative appears with :
1. verbs a. expressing a local action, as go, proceed, drive,
lead, take, receive ; pour, drink ; call, loosen, ward off, exclude ;

e. g. yr gvo n yvasd gop they went like unherded

kine from the pasture (vli. 18 ) ; vtrsya vasthd a
1

m fleeing from the snorting of Vtra (viii. 967) ; sata

sd ajyata from nonbeing arose being (x. 72 ); abhr d va
pr stanayanti vya from the cloud as it were thunder the
3

rains (x. 75 ) ; tv dsymr kasa ja thou drovest the

enemies from the house (vii. 5 ) ; bhujy samudr d ha
6

thu ye two have borne Bhujyu from the sea (vi. 62 ) ; do

0

hirayapi n dvodsd asniam ten lumps of gold I

23

have received from Divodsa (vi. 47 ) ; pd dhotr d u t

potrd amatta he has drunk from the Hot's vessel and has
intoxicated himself from the Pot's vessel (ii. 37 ) ; mruto yd
vo div hvmahe O Maruts, when we call you from heaven
(viii. 7 ) ; na cic chpa y p d amuca thou didst
release Sunaepa from the post (v. 27) ; y u y u t m asmd
nirm mvm ward off from us sickness and calamity
(vii. 7l ),
4

11

^. Examples from B. are : yd dh v ed ann d yd dhvet if he were to

run, he would run away from his food (Ts.) ; s rtht papta he fell from
his car (B.) ; div v ir rte rain comesfromthesky (Ts.) ; raya kavaam
ailsa somd anayan the seers led Kavaa Aila away from Soma, i. e.
excluded him from i t (AB.) ; enn asml lokd anudanta they drove them
away from this world (AB.) ; tsmd nasa ev grhyt therefore he should
take it from the cart (B. ) ; keavt prut ssena parisrta krti
he buys the Parisrut from a longhaired man for lead (B.) ; s ev^ena
varuapa n mucati he releases him from the fetter of Varua (Ts.);
suvarg l lokd yjamno hyeta the sacrificer would fall short of heaven
(Ts.). The two verbs antr dh hide and nl conceal oneself are used
with the abI. i n B. only : vjrea^ena suvarg l lokd antr dadhyt
he would exclude him from heaven with the bolt (Ts.); agnr devbhyo n
lyata Agni concealed himselffrom the gods (Ts.).
b. expressing rescue, protect ; fear, dislike ; transcend, prefer :
verbs with the latter two senses as well as uruya protect,
rak guard, and rej tremble take this construction in V. only ;
p and t r protect and bn fear in both V. and B. ; gopya
protect, bbhatsa be disgusted with in B. only ; e. g. haso
no mitr uruyet may Mitra rescue us from distress (iv. 55 ) ;
s ns trsate durit t he shall proteet us from misfortune
(I. 128^) ; indrasya vjrd abibhet she was afraid of Indras
bolt (x. 138 ) ; p r sndhubhyo ririce, p r kitbhya he
reaches beyond rivers and beyond lands (x. 89 ) ; smt sutad
ndro avta vsihn Indra preferred the Vasisthas to
(Padyumna's) pressed Soma (vii. 33 ).
5

11

a. With bh two ablatives are found, the one being the

object feared, the other the action proceeding from it ; e. g.
indrasya vjrd abibhed abhintha she was afraid of

^0l]

ABLATIvE

317

Indras bolt, of its crushing (x. 138 ), i . e. that i t would crush

her; asurarakasbhya sagd bibhay cakru they
were afraid of the Asuras and Rakasas, of their attachment =
that they would attach themselves to them (B.).
2. substantives when derived from, or equivalent to,
verbs used with the ablative ; e. g. rma no yasan triv
rtnam hasa they shall grant us thriceprotecting shelter
from distress (x. 66^); pa chy m iva g h e r ganma
rma te vaym we have entered thy shelter like shade (that
protects) from heat (vi. 16^); rkobhyo vi t bh
vcam ayachan they restrained their speech from fear of the
demons (B.).
3. adjectives : in v. and B. comparatives and adjectives
of cognate sense, when i t means than ; e. g. ghtt sv d ya
sweeter than butter (viii. 24 ) ; vvasmd ndra t t a r a
Indra is greater than every one (x. 861) ; jt n y vary asmt
born later than he (viii. 96^) ; purv vvasmd bhvand
abodhi she has awakened earlier than every being (i. 123 ) ;
p p yn vd gardabh the ass is worse than the horse
(TS.) ; brahma h i prva katrt the priesthood is superior
to the warrior class (PB.) ; anyo v ayam asmad bhavati
he becomes other than we (AB.),
20

a. I n B. several local and temporal adjectives: arvc n a below,

rdhv above, jihm aslant ; arv c before, par c after ; e. g. yt k
ca^,arvc n am dity t whatever is below the sun (sB.) ; etsmc c t vald
rdhv svarg lokm upd akraman upward from that pit they
ascended to heaven (sB.) ; yajnj jihm yu they (would go obliquely
firom =) lose the sacrifice (AB.)., daa v etasmd arvcas trivto, daa
parca ten Irivts occur before it and ten after it (AB.).
b. i n B. adjectives i n uka, which with bhu are equivalent to
a verb ; e. g. yajamnt paavo 'nutkrmuka bhavanti the animals are
not inclined to run away from the sacrificer (AB.).
c. i n B. numerals, both ordinals and cardinals : with the former
the abf. expresses the point from which the reckoning is made ;
e.g. varo na^asmad dvityo v ttyo v brhmaatm abhyupaito
the second or third (in desCent)from him can obtain Brahminhood (AB.) ; with
the latter i t expresses the figure by which the complete number is
defective ; e. g. kn n atm not a hundred by one - ninety-nine.

Analogously with words meaning incomplete the abl. expresses the

amount of the deficiency; e.g. kasmad akrd naptam (a verse)
incomplete by one syllable (Ts.); tm alpak d ev^agnr sacita sa
their fire (altar) was not completely piled up by a little only, i.e. was almost
completely piled up (B.).

4. adverbs meaning before, beyond, outside, below, for from,

without are used prepositionally with the abl. Those

occurring in V. only are : adhs below, avs down from, r
without, purs before ; in V. and B. : t without, tirs apart

from, pars outside, pur before ; in B. only : abhyardhs

far from; bahs outside.

Cp. 177, 3.

a. I n B. some other adverbs with a local or temporal

sense ; e. g. dr ha v asmn mtyr bhavati death is
for from him (B.) ; tsmn madhyam c chakr daki
peadaa vikram n pr krmati he strides forward fifteen
steps to the right of this middle peg (B.) ; prg ghomt before

(making) the oblation (AB.).

B. The abl. is used independently of any particular class
of word to express the reason of an action in the sense of
on account of; e.g. m nas tsmad naso deva rria
5

let us suffer no harm, O god, on account of this sin (vii. 89 ) ;

ntdvi t praj vruo 'gnt by reason of their guilt

Varua seized creatures (MS.). Similarly in B. : tsmd
therefore; ksmt wherefore

Genitive.
2O2. The genitive is a dependent ease, being in its main
uses connected with verbs and substantives, but also appear
ing with adjectives and adverbs.
A. With verbs the gen. has a sense analogous to that of
the acc., but differs here from the latter in expressing that
the action affects the object not as a whole, but only in part.
It is used with verbs having the following senses :
a. rule over, dispose of: always with k i and rj, nearly
always with irajya and (rarely ace). In B. the only verb

with this sense taking the gen. is have power over ; e. g.

tha^e srva e then every one has power over them (MS.).
b. rejoice in : always with tp, pr, vdh ; optionally with
kan and mad (also inst. and loc.), and with the caus. of pan
(also ace.).
a. I n B. the only verb of this group taking the gen. is tp i n a
partitive sense; e.g. nnasya tpyati he refreshes himself with (some) food
(B.).
e. take note of: always with 2. k speak highly of and
-dh think about, care for ; alternatively with acc. : cit
observe, attend to, budh take note of; adhi-i, -gam, -g
attend to, eare for ; v i d know about (with acc. know fully) ;
ru hear (gen. of person, acc. of thing, heard). I n A v .
krtaya mention and sm remember take the gen.
a. I n B. only three verbs of this class are thus construed : vid and
ru as i n RV. , and krtaya mention.
d. partitiveness (while the
expresses full extent) :

acc.

with

the

same verbs

1. eat, drink : a eat of, ad eat (almost exclusively with

acc.) ; p drink ; -v fill oneself full of, v and jus enjoy.
a. I n B. only a and p besides bhak eat (in RV. with acc. only)
take the partitive gen.
2. give, present, sacrifice: d give of, -daasya and ak
present with; pc give abundantly of; yaj sacrifice (acc. of
person, gen. of offering), e. g. smasya tv yaki I will
worship thee (with a libation) of Soma (iii. 53).
a. I n B. yaj may be used without acc. of the person ; e.g. tsmad
jyasya^ev yajet therefore he should sacrifice some butter (SB).
^. I n B. several verbs having the general sense of giving and taking,
not so used i n V., come to be used with the gen. of the object i n
a partitive sense : vap strew, hu offer, abhighar pour upon, avad cut off
some of, -cut drip, upa-st spread over, ni-han (Av.) and pra-han strike,
vi-khan dig up some of; grabh take of and i n the passive be seized
= suffer in (a part of the body); e. g. n ckuo ghe he does not suffer
in his eye ( M s ) : y vc ght who suffers in his voice (Ms).

^. I n B. anu-br invite is used with the dat. of the god and the gen.
of that to which he is invited ; e. g. agn-mabhy mdas 'nu
brhi invite Agni and Soma to the fat (B.).

e. obtain, ask for : bhaj participate in (with acc. obtain) ;

bhik beg for. and 1 implore for (generally acc. of thing as

well as person) ; e. g. tm mahe indram asya ry we
3

implore Indra for some of that wealth (vi. 22 ) ; iyate vs

nm he is implored for some of his riches (vif. 32 ) ; also yu
take possession of
5

a. Of these verbs bhaj remains in use in B. : with gen. = have a share

in (with ace. receive as a share).

f belong to: as and bn, with the gen. of the possessor in

both v. and B. ; e. g. asmkam astu kvala let him
exclusively be ours (i. 7 ) ; tha^abhavat kvala smo
10

asya then Soma became exclusively his (vii. 98 ); mnor ha

v abh sa Manu had a bull (B.) ; tasya ata jy

babhvu he had a hundred wives (AB.).
B. The genitive is used with two classes of substantives.
1. I t depends on verbal substantives and is then allied to
the gen. with verbs (especially those expressing possession).
a. The subjective gen., which is equivalent to the agent
of the action expressed by the cognate verb ; e. g. uso
vyau at the break of dawn when the dawn breaks ;
apakram d u ha^ev^em etd bibhay eakra he
was afraid of their departure (B.) thatthey would run away.
I t very often occurs with datives ; e. g. yajsya smd
dhyai for the success of the sacrifice (TS.) = that the sacrifice
might succeed.
b. The objective gen., which is equivalent to the object
expressed by the cognate verb ; e. g. ygo vjna the yoking
of the steed = he yokes the steed ; pur vtrsya vadht
before the slaughter of Vtra (B.) before he slew vtra.
I t often occurs with datives ; e. g. yjamnasya^hisyai
for the non-injury of the sacrificer (MS.) in order not to

injure the sacrificer.

a. This genitive is common with agent nouns, especially those i n

tr ; e.g. ray data giver of wealth (vi. 23 ) ; p pan prajanayit
Puan is the propagator of cattle (Ms.). But i n V. the agent nouns in t r
with few exceptions take the acc. when the root is accented ; e. g.
data vsu one who gives wealth (vi. 23 ).
10

2. The gen. commonly depends on nonverbal substantives.

It may then have two senses :
a. The possessive gen. ; e. g. v parm the wing of the
bird = wing belonging to the bird ; devn dt the
messenger of the gods. I t also appears with abstract nouns
derived from such words ; e. g. d i d devnm pa
sakhym yan then they came to friendship with the gods

(iv. 33) then they became friends of the gods.

a. The gen. used with the perf. pass. part., felt to be the agent, is a
variety of the possessive gen. Already appearing a few times i n the
RV. it is common in B. ; e. g. ptyu krt (MS.) the bought (wife) of
the husband (the wife) bought by the husband.
^. The gen. is similarly used. with the gerundive ; e. g. anyasya
balikrd anyasya^adyah paying taxes to another, to be devoured by another
(A1^.
^v. The gen. is frequently used possessively where we would use a
dative ; e. g. tasya ha putro jaje a son of his was born = a son was born
to him (AB.).
^. The gem is occasionally used for the dative with rad dh believe
and da give i n the AB. This use may have started from the possessive
sense.

b. The partitive gen. expresses a part of the whole ; e.g.

mitr vi iv devnm Mitra is the kindly one among the
gods (TS.). I f the gen. is a plural of the same word as that
on which it depends it is equivalent to a superlative ; e. g.
skhe skhnm O friend

among friends = best of friends

11

(i. 30 ) ; mantrakt mantrakt best of composers of

hymns (B.).
a. This gen. is i n particular used with comparatives and superla
tives (including pratham first, caram last, ^c.) ; e.g. n pr jigye
katar canino not either of the two of them conquered (vi. 69^-) ; gardabh
pan bhrabhartama the ass is the best bearer of burdens among
animals (Ts.).

^. I t is used with numbers above twenty (in B. only with sahsram)

and words expressive of a division or a measure ; e. g. am vnm
(an aggregate of) si^ty horses; gnm ardhm half ofthecows; gva
yth n i herds of cows. sometimes this gen. is used by transference to
express not a part, but the whole ; as in mart ga the h oSt (con
sisting) of the ^Iaruts.
^. The gen. sometimes expresses the material ; e. g. kr n a
vrha car rapayati he cooks a mess of black rice (B.) ; et
vka bhavanti they (the fences) are (made of the wood) of these
trees (B.). I t is used i n this sense w i t h the verb k ; e.g. y ev k
ca vk phalagrhis tsya kry whatever tree bears fruit, of (a part of)
that it is to be made (Ms.).
C. The gen. is used w i t h a few adjectives meaning
attached to, like, capable of knowing, offering, abounding in:
priy dear, nuvrata obedient ; p r t y a r d h i standing at the
side of; n u r p a similar ; svar able to, nvedas cognisant
of; PPr bestowing abundantly (partitive gen. of the thing
offered, e. g. ndhasa of the juice (I. 52 ) ; and with the
participles, used like adjectives, pr full of, p p i v s
abounding in.
3

D. The gen. is used w i t h certain adverbs having 1. a local

sense : in v . agrats before (AV.) ; in V. and B. : dakiats
to the right of; avstd below, parstd above, purstd before ;
in B. : uprid behind, pacd behind, purs before ;
antikm near, ndyas nearer, ndih.am. nearest.
a. I n theRV.ar far from takes the gen. (also the abl.).
^. I n B. the local adjective (like the local adverbs) dac northward
of takes the gen.
2. a temporal sense : id and idnm now are used in V.
with the genitives hnas and hnm = at the present time of
day; p r t r early with the gen. hnas in V. and with
r t rys in B. ; e. g. ysy r t ry p r t r yakymna
syt in the morning of which night he may be about to sacrifice
(MS).
3. a multiplicative sense: in V. sakt once with hnas
once a day ; trs thrice in t r r hnas, t r r a divh thrice

a day and t r i r akts three times a night ; in B. : dvs twice

and tris thrice with savatsarsya, twice, thrice a year.
a. The adverbial use i n v. of the gen. in a temporal sense is perhaps
derived from that with multiplicatives : akts, kpas and ksaps
of a night ; vstos and ussas of a morning.

Locative.
203. This case expresses the sphere in which an action
takes place, or with verbs of motion the sphere which is
reached by the action. Its sense includes not only locality
(both concrete and abstract) but persons and time. I t may
therefore be variously translated by in, on, at ; beside, among,
in the presence of; to, into.

A. The loc. appears in a general and independent way in

the following senses :
1. Place : a. concrete ; e. g. div in heaven, prvate in or
on the mountain (i. 32-) ; srasvatym at the Sarasvat

(iii. 23 ) ; yudh in battle (i. 8 ), sagrm id. (B.).

b. abstract : asya sumatu syma may we be in his good
graces (viii. 48 -) ; td indra te ve that, O Indra, is in
thy power (viii. 93 ) ; y dity n bhvati prtau who
4

13

is in the guidance of the dityas (il. 27 ) ; vjrasya yt

ptane pdi a when upon the flight of the bolt ua

fell (vi. 20^) ; ghtakrtu at the mention of (the word)

ghee (B.).
2. Persons : e. g. yt k ea durit myi whatever sin
there is in me (I. 23 ) ; ppya s rvas 1 n r t y e u he
22

abounds in fame among mortals (vi. 10 ) ; yt sth druhyvy

navi turve ydau, huv vm whether ye two are beside

(with) Druhyu, Anu, Turvasa (or) Y adu, I call you (viii. 10^) ;

vay syma vrue ng may we be guiltless in the eyes

of Varua (vii. 877) ; asmn puyantu gpatau let them
3

prosper under this herdsman (X. 19 ).

3. Time : here the lee expresses that an action takes

place within the limits of the time mentioned; e.g. uso

vyuau at the flush of dawn ; usi in the morning (in B.

prtr is used instead) ; dyvidyavi every day (not used in

B.) ; trr han three times in the day (in B. gen. only) ; jyate
msmsi he is born (once) in every (successive) month
(x. 52 ).
3

a. This temporal use sometimes comes to mean that something

happens at the end of the period ; e. g. savatsar idm ady vy
khyata ye have opened your eyes now today (for the first time) in a year
(i. 161 ) = at the end of a year ; tta savatsar prua sm abhavat
thence arose in (^ at the end of) a year a man (B.).
13

4. Adverbially. A few substantives and adjectives are

thus used ; e. g. gre often occurs in the sense of in front
and at first,, appearing even in compounds (e. g. agreg
going before, agrep drinking first) ; in B. the loc. of

kipr quick is several times thus employed, e. g. kipr

ha yjamno 'm lokm iyt the sacrificer would speedily
go to yonder world.

2O4. B. The lee. is connected with different classes of

words by which it may be said to be governed.
1. I t is specially connected with verbs expressing :
a. in V. : rejoice in ; grow, prosper ; bless, injure in respect
of; implore, invoke for (, h) ; receive from ; e. g. vive dev
havi mdayadhvam do ye, O allgods, rejoice in the oblation

(vi. 52^) ; tviu vvdhe he grew in strength (I. 52) ;

y e bhtym dhat s jvt he .who will sueeeed in
1

their support, shall live (i. 84 ^) ; prva nas tok bless us in

12

children (viii. 23 ) ; m nas tok rria injure us not in our

children (I. 1148) ; agn tok tnaye vad mahe Agni
we constantly implore for children and for grandchildren

(viii. 7P ) ; dh h tv hvmahe tnaye gu^aps for

3

12

we invoke thee for offspring, cows, water (vi. 19 ) ; devu^

amtatvm naa ye received immortality (among =) from the
gods (iv. 36 ) ;
4

in V. and B. : let share in (bhaj) and struggle for (spdh,

rarely in V . ) ; e. g. yn bhajo marta indra sme the

325

LOCATIvE

204]

Maruts whom thou, O Indra, didst allow to share in Soma

(iif. 35^) ; nu no 'sy pthivy m bhajata let us have

a share in this earth (B.) ; dity ca ha v agirasa ca
svarge loke 'spardhanta the dityas and the Agirases
struggled for (the possession of) the heavenly world (AB.) ;
in B. : request (i), ask (prach), call in question (mms) ;

e. g. s ha^iy devu sutyym apitvm e she re

quested from the gods a share in the Soma feast (B.) ; te devev
apchanta they inquired of the gods (PB.).

b. in v. and B. : motion, to indicate the place that is

reached. The case may here be translated by to, into, upon.
Such verbs in v. are : go (gam), enter (vi), ascend (-ruh),
descend (ava-vyadh), flow (ar, dhv), pour (sic, hu), put
(dh, k) ; e. g. s d devu gachati (i. 1 ) that goes to
(= reaches) the gods (while devn gachati wou1d mean goes
in the direction of the gods) ; y mrtyev i t kti devn
who brings the gods to mortals (i. 77) ; vry yjamne
dadhti he puts energy into the sacrificer (TS.) ; n v e
grmyu pau hit he (is not placed among =) does not
belong to the tame animals (TS.). I n B. verbs meaning to
throw at are especially common with the loc.
e. desire, to indicate the goal or object aimed at : gdn be
eager, yat strive, -as hope ; e. g. nneu jgdhur they are
eager for food (if. 23 ) ; divi svan yatate the sound soars to
heaven (x. 75 ) ; tu na indra asaya gv veu pray
give us hope, Indra, of cows and horses (i. 29 ) ; agninOtri
devt a asante the gods place their hope in the maintainer
of the sacrificial fire (MS.),
2. The lee. is also used to some extent connected with
nouns :
a. verbal nouns (substantives and adjectives) derived from
verbs taking that case ; e. g. n tsya vcy pi bhg asti
he has no share in speech (x. 71^) ; smo bhtv avap n ev
bhaga let Soma be a participator in drinking bouts (i. I 3 6^) ;
sut i t tv nmiIa indra sme thou art attached, O Indra,
4

16

to the pressed Soma (vi. 23 ) ; tsminn ev^et nmilatam

1

iva to him these (women) are most devoted (B.).

b. ordinary adjectives : in V. priy and cru dear ; e. g.

priy srye priy agn bhavti he will be dear to Srya,
dear to Agni (v. 37^) ; crur mitr vrue ca dear to Mitra
9

and Varua (ix. 61 ) ; in B. dhruv firm ; e. g. rrm ev^

asmin dhruvm aka he has made the sovereignty established
in him (TS.).
3. The loc. is used with a few prepositions : in V. a in,
at, on, and (rarely) pi near, in, and pa near to, at, upon, as

well as the prepositional adverb sc beside, with ; in V. and

B. dhi on and antr within (cp. 176, 2 ; 177, 5).
Locative and Genitive Absolute.
2O5. 1. The absolute construction of the loc., in which
the case is always accompanied by a participle, started from
the ordinary use of the loc. Combined with a participle it
came to be regarded as a temporal or qualifying clause
where the case alone could not be employed. Thus beside
usi at dawn could appear uchntym usi at dawn as it
shines forth, which then acquired the independent sense
1

when dawn shines forth (i. 184 ).

As regards the participles

used in this construction, the future never occurs ; the perf.

act. is quite isolated ; the perf. pass. part. is somewhat
doubtful in V., but undoubted in B. ; while the pres. part.
is in fully developed use in V. as well as B.
a. An example of the perf. part. act. in vant used
absolutely is : aitvaty tithv anyt (Av. ix. 6 ) the
33

guest having eaten, he may eat (cp. 161).

b. The perf. part. pass. appears in the RV. in several

expressions, such as jt agnu, str barhi, sut sme,
in which the loc. probably still has its ordinary sense ; e. g.
vvam adhg yudham iddh agnu he burnt every weapon
in the kindled fire (ii. 15 ) ; y vasya dadhikr v o krt
4

205]

LOCATIVE

ABSOLUTE

327

smiddhe agn uso vyau who has honoured the steed

Dadhikrvan beside the kindled fire at the flush of Dawn (iv. 39 ),
possibly when the fire is kindled. I n other examples the
absolute sense seems more likely : yd m enm uat abhy
vart ty v ata p r v y gatym when it has rained
upon the eager thirsty ones, the rainy season having come
(vii. 103 ) ; especially in yn maruta s r y a dite mdatha
when ye, O Maruts, are exhilarated at the rising of the sun
(v. 54^), H ere srye could not be used alone, while the
loc. of time would be expressed by dit s r yasya at
sunrise.
3

a. I n B. the absolute use with the perf. part. pass. is much more
pronounced ; e. g. diteu nkatreu vca v srjati whenthestars
have risen he sets free his voice (Ts.) ; s en v bhut yaj ate he sacrifices
to them when the morning has appeared (TS.) ; krt sme maitrvaru y a
da pr yachati when the Soma has been bought he hands the staff to the
Maitrvarua priest (TS.); tsmd gardabh pur ^ y ua prmte
bibhyati therefore one is frightened when a donkey has died before its time
(TS.). The substantive has sometimes to be supplied ; e.g. s hovca :
hat vtr ; yd dhat kury t a tt kuruta^,ti he said .. Vrtra is dead ;
what you would do, if he were dead,thatdo (B.).
c. Of the pres. part. with the loc. in the absolute sense
there are many examples in V. ; e. g. indra prtr hav
maha ndra prayat^adhvar Indra we invoke early.
Indra when the sacrifice proceeds (i. 16 ) ; srasvat deva
ynto havante srasvatm adhvar tymne men devoted
to the gods invoke Sarasvat, Sarasvat while the sacrifice is
extended (x. 17 ) ; t vm ady tv apar huvema^
uehntym usi so you two today, so you two infuturewe
would invoke when Dawn shines forth (f. 184 ).
3

a. Similarly in B : yajamukhyajamukhe vi kriyme yaj

rkasi jighsanti always when the commencement of the sacrifice
is being made, the Rakases seek to destroy the sacrifice (TS.) ; sme hany
mne yaj hanyate when Soma is destroyed, the sacrifice is destroyed (Ts.) ;
1

Because the sense rejoice inthesun would be unnatural, though the

construction of mad with the loc. is normal (cp. 204, 1 a).

t s m d a g n i c d v r a t i n d h v e t therefore the firepiler should not run

when it rains (Ts.) ; t m e t t p r a t y y a t y r t r a u s y m p t i h a n t a

so they approached him in the evening when night returned (B.),

2. The genitive absolute is unknown in v , but has

already come into use in B. I t arose from the possessive
genitive which acquired an independent syntactical value
when accompanied by a (pres. or perf. pass.) participle much
in the same way as the loc. The substantive is sometimes
omitted. Examples are: tsya^ l abdhasya s vg pa
cakrma he beingsacrificed,this voice departed (B.) ; tsmd

ap tapt n phno jyate therefore, when water is heated,

foam arises (B.); s et vipro 'janayata y m
skymnasya viprvante he (Agni) produced those sparks
which dart about when (the fire) is stirred (MS.) ; te ha^
uttihatm uvca while these stood up he said (AB.). I n

the first three of the above examples the close relationship

of the absolute to the possessive case is still apparent.
Participles.
206. Participles are of a twofold nature inasmuch as
they share the characteristics of both noun and verb.
In form they are adjectives both in inflexion and concord.
On the other hand they not only govern cases like the verb,
but also indicate differences of voice and generally speaking
retain the distinctions of time expressed by the tenses to
which they belong. They are as a rule used appositionally
with substantives, qualifying the main action and equiva
lent to subordinate clauses. They may thus express a rela
tive, temporal, causal, concessive, final, or hypothetical
sense. The verbal character of participles formed directly
from the root (and not from tense stems) is restricted (with
certain exceptions) to the passive voice in sense, and to past
and future time ; while owing to their passive nature they
are not construed with an acc. of the object, but only with
the inst. of the agent or means.

207208]

PARTICIPLES

329

207. The pres. part. is occasionally used in V. by anaco

luthon as a finite verb ; e.g. asmd ah tavid ama
ndrd bhiy maruto rjamna I (am) fleeing from this
4

mighty one, trembling with fear of Indra, ye Maruts (f. 171 ).

This use does not seem to be found in B.

a. The pres. part. is used with the verbs i go, car move,
s remain, sth stand as auxiliaries to express continued
duration in V. and B. ; e. g. vvam any abhicka eti
the other (Pan) goes on watching the universe (ii. 40^) ;

vickaac candrm nktam eti the moon goes on shining

brightly at night (i. 24 ) ; t 'sya gh pava upamry
10

m yu his house and cattle would go on being destroyed

(B.) ; tv h . . . ko vtr crasi jghnamna for thou

alone goest on killing the Vtras (ill. 30 ) ; t 'rcanta rm
yanta ceru they went on praying and fasting (B.) ; c
4

tva pam ste pupuvn the one keeps producing abundance

of verses (x. 71ll) ; smam ev^ett pibanta sate they thus
keep on drinking Soma (TS.) ; ucchvcamn pthiv s
tihatu let the earth keep on yawning wide (x. 18 ) ; vith
12

s tihanti they keep conflicting (TS.).

2OS. The past passive particip1e in ta is very frequently
used as a finite verb ; e. g. tat me pas td u tyate
pna my work is done and it is being done again (I. 110l) ;

n tvvm indra k ean n jt n janiyate no one is

like thee, O Indra, he has not been born, and he will not be born

(i.81^) ; used impersonally : rddhita te mahat indriy y a

confidence has been placed in thy great might (1. 104^),
similarly i n B. : i devt tha katam et the gods have been wor
shipped, but which are these gods ? (TS.); also i n subordinate clauses:
tsmin yd panna, grasitm ev^asya tt what has got into him, that
has been devoured by him (TS.).

a. The perf. pass. part. is not infrequently used with

forms of as and bh as auxiliaries constituting a periphrastic
mood or tense in V. ; e. g. yukts te astu dkia let thy
right (steed) be yoked (i. 82^) ; dhms te ketr abhavad

div rit the smoke, thy banner, (was raised = ) arose to

heaven (v. 11 ).
3

b. Such forms (pres. and aor. ind. of bh, impf. and perf.
ind. and opt. of as) make regular past and present tenses and
the opt. mood in B.; e.g. bhyasbhir ha^asya^hutibhir
ia bhavati by him sacrifice has been made with several

offerings (AB.) ; devsur syatt san the gods and

Asuras were engaged in conflict (TS.) ; td v m nu

rutam sa that was heard by the seers (B.) ; tsmd vdht

dhvno 'bhvan therefore the roads have been divided (TS.).

2O9. Future Participles Passive. There are six of

these : one, that in yya occurs in the RV. only ; three,
those in enya, ya, and tva in v. and in B. ; two, those in
tavya and anya in v . (but not in the R v ) and in B.
The commonest sense expressed by these verbal nouns is
necessity ; but various allied meanings, such as obligation,
fitness, certain futurity, and possibility, are also frequent.
Four of them are construed with the inst. of the agent (the
gen. and dat. sometimes appearing instead), while the forms
in tva and anya are never found connected with a case.
1. The commonest of these gerundives is that in ya ;
sady jajn hvyo babhva as soon as born he became
one to be invoked (viii. 96 ). I t often appears without a
verb ; e. g. vv h vo namasy n i vndy nmni dev
21

ut yajyni va all your names, ye gods, are adorable,

worthy of praise, and worshipful (x. 63 ). The agent may be
2

expressed by the inst., dat., or gen.; e.g. tv nbhir

hvyo vivdh^asi thou art always to be invoked by men

(vii. 227); asm b hir n praticky^abht she has

become visible (by) to us (i. 113 ) ; skh skhibhya ya
11

a friend to be praised by friends (i. 75 ) ; y ka d dhvya

caranm who alone is to be invoked of men (vi. 22^),
a. I n B. the agent may be i n the inst. or gen., but not i n the dat. ;
thus tsmai dyam means to him gifts should be given (B.). This
example also illustrates the impersonal use of this gerundive i n B.,

^ j

GERUNDIVE

331

a use unknown to the RV. This gerundive is always without a verb,

being unaccompanied by forms of as or bh in B. ; e.g. bah dyam
much (is) to be given (MS.).
2. The gerundive in tva in the RV. implies necessity or
possibility and is often used in contrast with the past ; but
it is not found accompanied by a verb (as or bh) or a noun
expressing the agent ; e. g. ripvo hntvsa the enemy are
to be killed (iii. 30i^) ; y nntvny naman ny jas who
by his might bent what could be bent (ii. 24 ) ; td vivam
abhibhr asi yj jt yc ca jntvam thou surpassest all
that has been born and that is to be born (viii. 89^),
2

a. The only meaning that seems to be expressed by this gerundive

in B. is possibility ; e.g. sn t vam udakm water that can be bathed in
(B.); n asya^anyd dhtvam st pr t and he had nothing else that
could be offered but breath (MS.).
3. The gerundive in yya, found in the RV. only, some
times appears accompanied by an agent in the inst. or the
dat. ; e. g. dakyyo n b hi to be propitiated by men (i. 129 ) ;
dakyyo dsvate dma a who is to be propitiated by the
pious man in his house (ii. 4 ),
2

4. The form in enya, almost restricted to the R v , may

be accompanied by an agent in the inst. ; e. g. agnr nyo
gir Agni to be praised with song (I. 79^) ; abhyyasny
bhavata manbhi be willing to be drawn near by the
devout (i. 34 ).
1

a. It is once or twice also found in B. ; thus vcam udysa ur

yam I would utter a speech worthy to be heard (Ts.).
5. The gerundive in tavya, which is not found in the
RV. at all, occurs only twice in the A v . ; thus n brhma
hisitavy a Brahmin is not to be injured (Av. v. 18^),
a. I n B. it is frequent and used much i n the same way as the form
in ya ; here i t is also used impersonally and with the agent i n the
inst. ; e. g. putr yjayayitavy a son must be made to sacrifice (MS.) ;
agnict pako n^aitavym an Agnicit should not eat (any part) of a
bird (Ms.), pavratena bhavitavym (MS.) he should act afterthemanner of

cattle (more literally : action should be taken by him as one following the
manner of cattle).
6. The form in anya, which is rare in both v . and B.,
does not occur at all in the R v , and only twice in the prose
of the A v . Expressing only suitability or possibility, and
never used either with an inst. or impersonally, it has
hardly attained the full value of a gerundive even in B. ;
' e. g. upajvanyo bhavati he is one who may be subsisted on
( A v ) ; abhicaraya liable to be bewitched (B.) ; havan y a
suitable to be offered to (AB.).
Gerund or Indeclinable Participle.
21O. The forms of the gerund, ending in tv tv, tvya
(cp. 163) and in ya or tya (164) are synonymous, expressing
an action that is past before that of the finite verb begins.
I t regularly refers to what is regarded as the subject of the
sentence ; e. g. ghv tmo jyti^u abodhi having
hidden away the darkness, Dawn has awakened with light
(vii. 80); yuktv hribhym p a ysad arv k having
yoked (them) may he come hither with his two bays (v. 40 ) ;
strya dv y a ktav tatpa having seen a woman it
pains the gambler (x. 34 ) the gambler, having seen a woman,
is pained ; pb nidya drink, after having sat down (i. 177 ) ;
y h n t i trum abhtya who slays the foe after having
attacked him (ix. 55 ).
4

11

a. The usage in B. is similar ; e. g. tsmt suptv praj pr budh

yante therefore creatures awake after having slept (Ts.); t ha^,ena
dv bhr viveda having seen him fear seized him = having seen him he
became afraid (B.). The gerund is, however, here found loosely con
strued i n various ways not occurring i n V. Thus i t refers i n sense to
the agent implied by the future part. pass. in tavya or ya used predi
catively as a finite verb ; e. g. agnihotrahvan pratpya hsto
'vadhya his hand (is) to be put into it (by the holder) after having heated
the firesacrifice ladle (MS.). still looser is the connexion i n such sen
tences as the following : t pava adhr jagdhv ^ ap ptv tta
e rsa s bhavatithebeasts having eaten the plants and drunk water

210-2ll]

GERUND

333

then this vital sap ari^cs (SB)

then acquire this vital sap. The past sense
of the gerund is often emphasized by the particle tha then being
placed immediately after it. The gerund is here sometimes equiva
lent to the finite verb of a subordinate clause ; e. g. tithyna vi
dev iv tant samd avindat after the gods had sacrificed with the rite of
hospitable reception, discord came uponthem(B.); similarly with the verb
man think : etd vi dev pr p ya raddhv ^ iva^amanyanta the gods,
having obtained this, thought that they had as good as won (B.).

b. The gerund in am, which is always a compound, and

the first member of which is nearly always a preposition,
expresses a simultaneous action performed by the subject of
the finite verb of the sentence. Being a cognate ace. used
adverbially it is only beginning to be used as a gerund in
late V. ; e. g. tantr yuvat abnykr m a vayata the
two maidens weave the web while going up to it (Av.).
a. I n B. it has become common ; e. g. abhikr m a juhoti (Ts.)
he sacrifices while approaching (the fire). This gerund is sometimes used
with s, i , or ear to express continued action ; e. g. t parp t am
asata they keptflyingaway (MS.).

Infinitive.
211. The normal use of this form is to supplement the
general statement of the sentence in a final (in order to) or
a consequential (so as to) sense. The infinitive is, however,
sometimes dependent on a particular word in the sentence,
usually a verb, occasionally a noun : it then loses some of its
full meaning, as in other languages after an auxiliary. The
object when it is expressed is generally in the accusative.
1. Dative Infinitive.
a. The various forms of this infinitive govern either an
acc. or (by attraction) a dat., sometimes (according to the
nature of the verb) another case ; e. g. ndrya^ark
juhv sm aje, vr dnukasa vanddhyai for
Indra I with my tongue adorn a song, to praise the bountiful

hero (i. 61^) ; tvm akor durtu sho vvasmai shase

shadhyai thou didst display irresistible power to overcome

every power (vi. 1 ) ; va sya ra^dhvano n^nte 'smn

n ady svane manddhyai unyoke, O hero, as at the end
1

of a journey, to delight in this our Soma pressing today (iv. 16 ) ;

bnd u prm tave pnth the path has appeared, to

(enable us to) go to the farther shore (i. 46 ) ; no nv
matn yt pr y a gntave do ye two come to us with
11

the boat of our hymns, to go to the farther shore (i. 467) ; ndra
eodaya dtave maghm urge Indra to give bounty (ix. 75^) ;

ndram avardhayann haye hntav u they strengthened

4

Indra to slay the dragon (v. 31 ) ; ta etu mna pna

jvse jyk ca srya d let thy spirit return (to live =)

that thou mayest live and long see the sun (x. 57 ) ; ite ge
rksase vinke he shar pens his hor ns in or der to pierce the
4

demon (v. 2 ) ; sady cin mhi dvne to give much at

9

25

once (viii. 46 ) ; pr yd bhradhve suvit y a dvne

4

when ye proceed to give welfare (v. 59 ) ; amtrn pts

turve to overcome foes in battle (vi. 46^) ; tha^pa pr^
aid yudhye dsyum then he advanced to fight the demon
9

(v. 30 ) ; tv asmbhya dye s r yya pnar dtm

sum may these two give us back our breath that we may see
12

the sun (x. 14 ) ; dev no tra savit n^rtha pr s vd

dvpat pr etupad ityi here god Savit has now urged on
our bipeds, on our guadrupeds to go to their work (i. 124^) ;

bodhi ht yajthya devn the priest has awakened to

2

worship the gods (v. 1 ).

b. The dat. inf. not infrequently depends on a particular

word in the sentence ; e. g. t v v s tni^usmasi g
madhyai we desire to go to those abodes of you two (i. 154^) ;

ddhvir bhradhyai strong to carry (vi. 66 ) ; cikd nay

dhyai understanding to destroy (viii. 97 ) ; agn dvo
3

14

ytavi no gmasi we implore Agni to ward off hostility

1

from us (viii. 71 ^) ; t h putr s o diter vidur dvsi

ytave for those sons of Aditi know how to ward off hostilities

(viii. 18^) ; tvm indra sravitav aps ka thou, O Indra,

3

hast made the waters to flow (vii. 21 ); vidyma tsya te

INFINITIVE

211]

335

vaym kprasya dvne may we know this of thee who art

inexhaustible to give (v. 39 ) ; bhiyse mg ka he has
2

made the monster to fear (v. 29 ) ; jajan ca rjse and they

4

10

ereated (him) to rule (viii. 97 ); kavmr

ichmi sad e

I wish to see the poets (iii. 38 ).

1

a. The dat. inf. has sometimes a passive force ; e. g. vo v h iho

vahatu stavdhyai rtha may your most swift car bring you hither to be
praised (vii. 37 ) ; grbh sakh y a g n dohse huve with songs I
call my friend like a cow to be milked (vi. 45 ) ; es purutm dr km
she here that constantly returns (so as) to be seen (i. 124 ). This sense is
especially noticeable i n the infinitives i n tavi, tave, and e, which
when used predicatively (as a rule with the negative n) are equiva
lent to a future part. pass. with the copula ; e. g. stus s va r a t
that bounty of yours is to be praised (i. 122 ) ; ni gvytir pabhartav u
this pasture (is) not to be taken away(x. 14 ); ysya n r d na pryetave
whose treasure is not to be surpassed (viii. 24 ) ; n^asm k am asti t t
tra dityso atikde this our zeal, O dityas, is not to be overlooked
(viii. 67 ) ; n pramye savitr divyasya tt this (work) of the divine
Savitr (is) indestructible (iv. 54 ).
^. The agent (or instrument) of the action expressed by the inf. is
put in the inst. or gen. when there is a passive sense ; e. g. n ^ a n y n a
stmo vasih nvetave va your laudation, O Vasihas, is not to be
equalled by another (vif. 33 ) ; bhd agn samdhe m n um Agni
has appeared to be kindled of men (vii. 77 ). When there is no passive
sense the agent is expressed by the dat. ; e. g. v rayant prayi
devbhyo mah may the great (gates) open (for the gods to = ) thatthegods
may enter (i. 142^); dabhr pyadbhya urviy vicka u ajgar
bhvanni vv ( i . 113 ) Dawn has wakened all creatures (for those who
now see little to ) that those who see little now may look far and wide ;
ah rudr y a dhnur tanomi brahmadvse rave hntav u
I stretch the bow for Rudra (for the arrow to =) that the arrow may strike the
hater of prayer (x. 125 ).
.y. The infinitive i n dhyai is not infrequently employed elliptically
to express an intention, the subject being either expressed or requir
ing to be supplied in the first or third person ; e. g. prti v rtha
1

21

19

I n Latin the gerundive actually appears to have taken the place

of the I E . predicative infinitive : see Brugmann, Grundriss, 4, 2,
pp. 461 and 488.
Which i n Latin would be : laudanda (est) vestra benignitas.
The inf. is similarly used i n Greek i n the sense of a 2. pers. impv.;
e. g. ^ra^ra ab^ a^y^Aa^
^^a^.^Ao^
tell all this c^n^l b^ not afals^
messenger (Homer, Od) ; ^'s^p.^ai
T^o^ tell me, ye Trojans (ibid.).
2

jardhyai the chariot of you two ( I purpose) to invoke (vii. 67 ); va

auij huvdhyai sam the son of Uij (intends) to proclaim your praise
(i. 122 ).
^. I n B. the inf. i n tavi has three uses : I. with a final sense ;
e. g. ta pra harati yo'syastrtyas tasmai startavai he hurls it in or der
to strike down him who is to be struck down by it (AB.). 2. predicatively
with n, often with a passive sense, sometimes impersonally ; e.g. n
vi yaj iva mntavi it is not to be regarded like a sacrifice (B.) ; n
pur suryasya detor mnthitavi one should not rub fire before sunrise
(Ms.) ; tsmd etna^ru n krtavi therefore tears should not be shed
by him (MS.). 3. with a pass. sense after an acc. governed by aha,
uvca and bryt ; e. g. agn pristartav ha he says that thefireis
to be enclosed (MS.) ; gopl n shvayitav uvaca he said that the cow
herds should be called together (B.) ; td avm netavi bryt then he
should order the horse to be brought (B.). Perhaps, however, the acc. here
depends on the inf. alone : he should give orders to bring the horse.
5

2. Accusative Infinitive.
a. The form in am is used to supplement statements con
taining a verb of going or in dependence on verbs meaning
be able (arh a, ak), wish (va), or know (vid) ; e. g. po
emi cikito vip c ham I go to the wise to inquire (vii. 86 ) ;
iytha barhr sdam thou hast gone to seat thyself on the
straw (iv. 9 ) ; akma tv samdham we would be able to
kindle thee (I. 94 ) ; s veda dev nma devn he, the god,
knows (how) to guide hither the gods (iv. 8 ).
3

a. I n B. this form of the inf. appears only i n dependance on the

verbs arh, v i d , and ak when they are combined with the negative n.
e. g. avarndha n,^aaknot he was not able to keep back (Ms.).
b. The inf. in tum in the RV. expresses the purpose with
verbs of motion and also appears in dependence on the
verbs arh be able and ci intend ; e. g. k vidvasam pa
gt prum ett who has gone to the wise man to ask him
this? (I. 164 ) ; bhyo v dtum arhasi or thou canst give
more (v. 79),
1

The use of this inf. is restricted to dependence on such verbs i n

the Latin supine i n tum.

INFINITIVE

2.ll]

337

a. I n B. the use is similar, this inf. expressing the purpose

with verbs of motion, or in dependence on the verbs dh
intend and (generally accompanied by the negative n) arh
and ak be able, kam desire, dhs dare, -d trouble, -as

expeet ; e. g. htum eti he goes to sacrifice (TS.), drum a

gachati he comes in order to see (B .) ; anyd eva krtu
dadhrire 'nyd vi kurvanti they have purposed to do one
thing, but do another (B.) ; kathm aakata md t j v itum
how have you been able to live without me ? (B.) ; n cakame

hntum he did not wich to kill (B.).

3. Ablative-Genitive Infinitive.
a. The form in as (which is always compounded with
prepositions) is almost exclusively abl. as is shown by its
being used with words governing that case, viz. the pre
positions t without, pur before, and the verbs pproteet,
tr rescue, bhfear ; e. g. t cid abhira pur jatrbhya
t d a without binding, before the cartilages being pierced

(viii. 1 ) ; tr d hva kart d avapda (ii. 29^) save us

12

from falling into the pit (lit. from the pit, from falling down).

There is one example of its being a gen., as it is governed

by the verb : nah tvd r nima can^ e for without
thee I am not able even to blink (ii. 28^).
a. I n B. i t appears only as a gen. governed by var ; e. g. svar
yjamnasya pa n nirdha he is able to burn the cattle of the sacrificer
(MS.),

b. The form in tos is abl. when it is governed by the

prepositions pur before and till or by verbs of saving and
preventing ; e. g. pur hntor bhyamno vy ra fearing
he withdrew, before being struck (iii. 301) ; yuyta no anapa
tyni gnto save us from coming to childlessness (iii. 54^),

The gen. form is found only in dependence on the verb

be able (with the object by attraction in the gen.) or on
the adverb madhy in the midst of; e. g. e ry suvr
yasya dto he can give wealth and heroic offspring (vii. 4^) ;

m no madhy rriata^ y ur gnto injure us not (in the

midst of) before our reaching old age (I. 89 ),
9

a. I n B. the abl. inf. is found with prepositional words only. I t

usually occurs with till and pur before, both the subject and the
object being i n the gen. The object may, however, by attraction be
i n the abl., and a predicate is in the abl. ; e. g. s r yasya deto
(Ms.) till the sun's rising till the sun rises ; tis dgdho (B.)
till .the milking of three (cows) till three (cows) are milked; mdhyad
bhvito till becoming pure ; pur suryasya^deto before the sun's rising
(Ms.)----- before the sun rises; pur vgbhya sapravadito before the
voices' uttering (PB.) = before the voices are uttered. The abl. form is also
sometimes used with the prepositional adverbs purstd and arvc
nam before; e.g. purstd dhto before sacrificing (MS.); arvcna
jnito before being born (MS.).
The gen. form occurs only i n dependence on var able, the object
being i n the acc. (sometimes by attraction i n the gen.), and the predi
cate i n the nom. ; e.g. s var rtim rto he can fall into misfortune
(Ts.); t var yjamna hsito these two can injure the sacrificer
(Ms.). Occasionally var is omitted ; e. g. tto dkit paman
bhvitoh hence the initiated man (can) become scabby (B.).
4. Locative Infinitive.
The only loc. forms to which a genuine inI. use (cp. 167, 4)
can be attributed are the few in sni. These supplement
the general statement of the sentence or depend on a
particular word in it, and (like the form in dhyai) express
an intention or exhortation (with the ellipse of a verb in
the 1., 2., or 3. pers.) ; e. g. v na path citana yave,
asmbhya vv ass tari do ye open up for us the
paths to sacrifice, (for us to ) that we may conquer all regions
(iv. 377) ; nyih u no nei, prih u na pary
ti dvi the best guides to guide us, the best leaders to lead
us through our foes (x. 126 ) ; td va ukthsya barh^
ndrya^upasti this song of praise ( I will) spread out
with power for your In^lra (v1. 44^) ; priy vo tithi
gi (do ye) extol your dear guest (vI. 15 ) ; jn
bh m ir abh p r a b h i (let) Earth assist the sacrificer
(x. 132 ).
3

212]

TENSES AND MOODS

339

TENSES AND MOODS.

212. Two or more roots of cognate meaning sometimes
supplement each other in such a way as to be used for
different tenses of what is practically one verb. Such are :
1. as and bh be : the pres., impI., and perf. are formed by
as ; the fut. and aor. by bh alone. I n its proper sense
bh means to become (originally to grow), but unless opposed
to as be, it has the same sense as the latter, the pres. and
perf. of both being used promiscuously. The contrast
appears clearly when the pres. is opposed to the aor. ; e. g.
yam v idm abhd yd vay sm Yama has become
that which we arc (TS.). I t also appears in the impf. : y
vipr sas t rkar abhavan what were sparks
beeame gravel (MS.).

2. dhv and s run : in theRV.occur the plup. dadhvat

and the pres. ssarti ; in B. the pres. dhvati, the impI.
sarat, and the perf. sasra.
3. pa and d see : the former appears in the pres. only,
the latter in the aor., fut., and perf. only ; khy see is used
in the same tenses as d, but as opposed to the latter means
discern.

4. b r and vac speak: the former is used in the pres.

stem only ; the latter in the aor., fut., perf. (v. has also the
pres. vvakti).
5. han and vadh slay: the former has the pres., impf.,
fut., perf. only, the latter the aor. only.
a. I n B. a few additional pairs of roots supplement each other to
some extent. such are ad and ghas eat; aj and v drive; i and g
(aor.) go ; pra-yam and pra-d present ; ad and s fall.

Present.
A. I n v. a number of verbs form two or more present
stems, in which, however, no differences of meaning are
traceable. I n B. this multiplicity is for the most part lost.

The only type here showing any development is that in ya,

which tends to have an intransitive sense. Such present
stems are formed in B. from more than a dozen roots
that do not form it in the RV ; e. g. tpyati grows hot
(RV. tpati).
1. As in other languages, the present is used to indicate
an action that is taking place when the speaker makes his
statement.
2. In the RV. the simple pres. is sometimes employed of
past actions in narration to add a new statement in a vivid
manner ; e. g. purutr vtr aayad vysta : amuy
ynam ti yanti^pa Vtra lay scattered in many places :
over him as he thus lies the waters flow (i. 327).

This use does not seem to occur in B.

a. pur formerly is used with the pres. to indicate an
action which has extended through the past down to the
present ; e. g. kv t n i nau sakhy babhvu, scvahe
yd avk pur cit where has that friendship of us two
gone, inasmuch as we have hitherto associated inoffensively

(vii. 88^) ; s
tham
yjatha

ha^agnr uvca^tha yn m pur

kv^ah
bhavni^ti
so
Agni

pra
said:

now that you have hitherto honoured me at the sacrifice as the

first where shall I be? (^B.).
a. I n B. pur is also used without reference to the actual present
from the speaker's point of view, to express a previous stage i n typical
conditions ; e. g. hot v^ e pur bhavati yad^ev^ena prav
t 'tha ht he is previously a nonHot ; as soon as he chooses him, then
he is a Hot (SB) ; naddh^iva v asya^ta pur jna bhavati
previously his origin i^ as it were uncertain (B.).

b. sma pur with the pres. ind. expresses that something

used to happen in the past; e.g. sahotr sma pur
nr smana v^va gachati formerly the woman used to
go down to the common sacrifce or the assembly (x. 861 ),
a. The same usage is common i n B. with ha sma pur ; e.g. n ha
sma vi pur ^ agnfr parauvka dahati formerly Agni used not to
burn what was not cut off with the axe (TS.). H ere, however, the pur is

212213]

PRESENT

341

much more usually omitted, ha sma alone expressing the same sense,
especially often w i t h the pres. perf. ha ; e. g. etd dha sma v ha
nrad (Ms.) with regard to this Nrada used to say. (The AB. uses the
perf. and the impf. with ha sma i n the same sense.) The particles ha
sma, which originally only accompanied it, have thus acquired, when
used alone, the sense which is inherent i n pur only.

e. The pres. ind. is also sometimes used for the fut. or

the subj. ; e. g. ham pi hammi^ti ha^uvca he said :
I too will slay him (B.) ; indra ca rusama ca^aa
prsyet : yataro nau prvo bhmi paryeti sa jay
ati^iti Indra and Rusama proposed a wager : whichever of us
shall go round the earth first shall win (PB.).

Past Tenses.
213. Each of the past tenses (except the pluperfect) has
a distinctive meaning of its own, though occasional examples
of aor. and perf. forms occur that are almost indistinguish
able in sense from the impf.
A. The perfect characteristically expresses the condition
attained by the subject as the result of a preceding action.
I f that action (often a repeated or continuous one) is con
tinued into the present so as to include the latter, it may be
translated by the present ; if it is regarded as concluded
before the present, by the present perfect. I t can express
both these senses when accompanied by the adverbs pur
formerly and nnm now ; e. g. pur nn ca stutya

paspdhre the praises of the seers have vied together

in past times and (do so) now (vi. 34 ) ; vad dh va tbhir

vay pur nn bubhjmhe we have constantly enjoyed
your aids and (do so) now (viii. 67 ) ; the same sense appears
with the adverb satr always ; e. g. tbhya brhmi
gira indra tbhya satr dadhire : jusva to thee
1

16

prayers, O Indra, to thee songs have always been offered (and

6

still are): accept them kindly (iii. 51 ). But even without

a particle this double sense is not infrequently apparent :

n sma ndram suto mamda (vii. 26 ) unpressed Soma

has not (in the past) intoxicated Indra (and does not now) ;
n bhoj mamrur n nyarthm y u r : n riyanti n
vyathante ha bhoj the liberal have not died (and die not),
they have not fallen into calamity (and do not now) : the liberal
are not injured and waver not (x. 107^) ; ndra . . . ubn
paprau rdas manitv Indra has with his greatness filled
(and still fills) the two worlds (iii. 54^),
a. Thus a number of perfects (since their action includes
the present) can be translated by the present, as is indicated
by their often occurring by the side of actual present forms.
Such perfects are formed from verbs meaning to know ;
be pleased, sad, or afraid ; stand, sit, tie ; rest upon, hold fust ;
have, possess ; encompass ; surpass ; prosper ; become ; show
oneself; e. g. kv^id n srya : k ciketa where is now
the sun : who knows ^ (I. 357) ; yn na ndro juj yc ca
vi what Indra likes from us and what he desires (iv. 22 ) ;
k ate, tujyte, k bibhya who flees (and) speeds, who is
afraid ^ (i. 84 7) ; n methete n tasthatu they (night and
morning) clash not and stand not still (i. 113 ) ; vne-vane
iriye takvav r iva on every tree he sits like a bird (x. 91 ) ;
yth^iy pthiv mah ddh r a^im n vnasptn ev
ddhra te mna as this great earth holds these trees, so he
holds thy spirit (x. 60^) ; n te prve n^parso n vry
n t ana k can^pa not earlier men, not future men, no
man of the present (has attained =) equals thy heroism (v. 42 ) ;
pr h i ririk jas div ntebhyas pri, n tv vivyca
rja indra p r thivam thou extendest beyond the ends of
heaven with thy might, the terrestrial space does not contain thee
(viii. 88^) ; ndrea uuve nbhir ys te sunti^ through
Indra he who presses (Soma) for thee prospers in men (vii. 32^) ;
sd u rj kayati caranm, arn n nem pri t
babhva he rules as king over men, he encompasses the worlds
(t) as the felly the spokes (i. 32^) ; bhadr dadka urviy
v i bhsi, t te ocir bhnvo dym apaptan brilliant
1

213]

PERFECT

343

thou appearest, thou shinest afar, thy light, thy beams, have shot
up to heaven (vi. 64 ).
b. Other perfects, which sum up past action but exclude
the present, may be translated by the present perfect ; e. g.
yt sm ga cakm tt s matu whatever sin we have
committed, let him forgive that (I. 179^) ; y vtrah parvti
sn nv ca cucyuv, t sastsu pr vocata what old
and new deeds the Vtraslayer has set going in the distanee,
those proclaim in the assemblies (viii. 45 ^) ; uvsa^u uchc
ca n Dawn has flushed (in the past) and she shall flush now
(1. 48 ) ; kim ga sa varua jyha, yt stot r a
jghsasi skhyam what has that chief sin been (in niy
past life) that thou desirest to slay the praiser, thy friend?
(vii. 86 ) ; y y p r vatarm payan vyuchntm
usa mrtysa ; [ = u] t yanti y paru. psyn
those mortals have gone who saw flushing the earlier dawn;
those are coming who shall see her in the future (I. 113 ).
c. The perf. often expresses a single action that has been
completed in the recent past, when it can be translated by
the pres. perf. ; e.g. no yta divs pri : putr
kvasya vm in suva somy mdhu come to us from
heaven : the son of Kava has here pressed for you the Soma
mead (viii. 8 ). This use of the perf. comes very near that
of the aor. The distinction seems to be this : in the above
passage the perfect means come because the Soma has been
pressed, i . e. is ready for you ; the aor. would mean come
because of the fact that the Soma has just been pressed for you.
d. The perf. is not infrequently used of a single action in
the remoter past, when it cannot be translated by the perf.
pres. I t occurs thus beside the impf. of narration, when
the story is interrupted by a reflexion which often expresses
the result of the action previously related. Thus in the
story of the Vtra fight the poet says : jayo g jaya
ra smam ; vsja srtave sapt sndhn thou didst
win the kine, thou didst win the Soma, O hero, thou didst let
2

11

12

loose the seven streams to flow (i. 32 ) ; he then adds ndras

ca yd yuyudn t e hi ca^ut^apar b hyo maghv v i

jigye when Indra and the serpent fought, the bounteous god

conquered ( remained conqueror) for the future. This use

of the perf. is hardly distinguishable from the impf.
a. I n B. the perf. ind. appears i n three different uses :
1. in a present sense based on the pres. perf., chiefly i n forms that
have a strengthened reduplicative vowel and thus seem to have an
intensive meaning. I t is the pres. perf. that includes the present,
expressing that an action takes place in the present as a result of its
repetition i n the past ; e. g. ddhra (he has constantly held and now)
holds; e.g. yt sy juhti r t ryai tna ddhra if he offers in the
evening, he thereby holds (Agni) for the night (MS.). Other perfects of this
kind are .. ddya shines ; upa dodrva rashes at ; yoyva wards of ;
lelya quivers ; bbh y a (beside bibh y a) fears (while the periphrastic
bibhay cakra has always a preterite sense). Besides these verbs
veda knows and ha says always have a present sense.
several other perfects with ordinary reduplication often have the
present sense : na (has obtained =) has (MS., TS.); pryya (has
acquired ) possesses (TS.); babh v a (has become =) is (MS.); vivyca
(has encompassed =) contains; dad (has been seen -^) appears (while
dadra always has a past sense) ; also the perfect of grah and pra-p :
y h paavo lma jaghs t mdha pr p u the cattle which have hair
have also fat (MS.).
2. i n a preterite sense, expressing that an action once occurred i n
the past (but not i n the narrative sense of the impf.). This use most
often appears i n the form uvaca, which may be translated by once
said or has said ; e. g. etna v paker rardha : dhnti y etna
yjate by this sacrifice Upakeru once prospered; he who sacrifices with it
prospers (MS.). I t often occurs i n the AB. at the conclusion of a story
related in the impf., in the phrase tad etad i payann abhyan
vca seeing this a seer has uttered with reference to it (the following verse).
A somewhat different connexion w i t h the narrative impf. appears i n
the following example : et ha viyajsena cti vid cakara :
ty vi s pan vrnnddha this method of piling Yajasena once in
vented : by means of it he acquired cattle (Ts). This perfect is found con
trasting what is past with the present and future i n the following
successive sentences : yd v asy k c r canti yd ncr ; yd
ev k ca vc ^ ncr yd t 'dhi^arcit r a whatever prayers they
offer on it (the earth) or have offered ; whatever prayers they have offered with
the voice or will offer in future (Ts.).
3. i n an historical sense, equivalent to that of the impf. i n narrative,

2l3]

PERFECT.

IMPERFECT. AORIST

345

in certain parts of the AB. (vi-viii) and the B. (i--v ; x i , xii, xiv),
while the impf. is used elsewhere i n B. (MS., TS., K.,TB., PB AB. i--v ;
B. vi-x, xiii), Thus i n the former uvca said and dev ca^sur
ca paspdhire the gods andtheAsuras were in conflict, i n the latter abravt
and aspardhanta would be used. There are, of course, exceptions i n
both groups.

B. The imperfect is the past tense of narration, never

having any relation to the present as the perf. and the aor.
have ; e. g. hann him . . . pr vak abhinat prva
tnm he slew the serpent; he pierced the bellies of the mountains
1

(i. 32 ) ; n vi tv td akaror yd ahm bravam you

did not do what I said (B.). The impf. has also to do duty
for the pluperfect, as in the relative clause of the preceding
example, which is equivalent to what I had told you.
C. The aorist ind. expresses that an action has occurred
in the past with reference to the present. I t neither
describes nor indicates duration, but simply states a fact.
I t may nearly always be translated by the English present
perfect.
The aor. usually expresses the immediate past ; e. g. prti
div adari duhit the daughter of heaven has appeared
(iv. 52 ) ; ysmd duvpnyd bhaima^pa td uchatu
1

let her (Dawn) drive away with her light the evil dream that we
1

have feared (viii. 47 ^).

a. I n B. three uses of the aor. ind. may be distinguished : 1. i t
expresses what has occurred i n the speaker's experience, very
commonly i n the statement made by the witness of an action ; e. g.
tto ha gandharv sm dire : jyk v iym urv manuyev
avtsit then the Gandharvas spoke together : this Urva has dwelt long among
men (B.). As compared with the impf. i t never narrates ; e.g.yajo
vai devebhya ud akrmat; te dev abruvan : yajo vai na ud
akramt the sacrifice went away from the gods ; the gods then said : the sacri
fice has gone away from us (AB.) ; t yd prchant sbravd : ady^,
amta^ti when they asked her, she said : he has died today (MS.) ; t m
apchan : ksmai tvm ahaur ti they asked him : to whom have you
sacrificed ^ (MS.); t dev abruvan: mah n va aym abhd y
vtrm vadhd ti the gods said of him : he has shown himself great who has
slain Vtra (TS.) ; t h a ^ c u r : agnye t i h a ^ t i ttas tasthv, agnye
va asthad ti tm agnv ajuhavu they said: stand still for Agni ; then

it stood still ; thinking it has stood still for Agni, they sacrificed it in Agni
(B.).
2. i t is employed by the author with regard to what from his own
point of view has either just happened or has occurred i n the more
remote past ; e. g. s bndhur unsrysya y purvm vocama
this is the import of the unsrya oblation which we have explained above
(B.) ; puro va etn dev akrata yat puros tat puron
puroatvam because the gods have madethesecakes their castles, the cakes
are so called ( A B ) . The adverb pura is not infrequently used with
these aorists ; e. g. n v etsya brhma pur ^ nnam akan
Brahmins have never hitherto eaten his food (Ts.).
3. i t expresses what results from a ritual act or is antecedent to i t ;
e. g. putrsya nma ghti : prajm ev^nu sm atant he gives his
son a name : hc has thus extended his race (MS.) ; etd vi trt y a yajm
pad yc chndsi.^pnti thereby he has obtainedthethirdsacrifice when
he obtains the metres (Ts.) ; yd dh^asya^amedhym bht td d h i ^
asya^etd avadhnti what has been impure in it, that in it he shakes off in
this way (B.).

D. The pluperfect, as an augmented perfect, is equivalent

to the corresponding Greek tense in form only. I t cannot
be distinguished in syntactical use from the impf. in some
examples and from the aor. in others ; e. g. tr samudr
ghm sur yam ajabhartana then ye brought the sun
hidden in the sea (x. 727) ; d u y dev savit yayma
hirayym amti ym iret that god Savit now has
1

raised up the golden sheen which he has spread out (vii. 38 ).

Future.
214. A. I. The simple future is in comparatively rare
use in V., being formed from only fifteen roots in the RV.
and from rather more than twenty others in the A v . This
limited employment is accounted for by its sense being
partly expressed by the subjunctive and to some extent by
the present. I t means that, according to the opinion,
expectation, intention, hope or fear of the speaker, an action
is to take place in the near or the remote future. The
sphere of the future includes that of the will, the specific
meaning of the subjunctive, but the stress is here laid on

FUTURE

214]

347

the futurity rather than the purpose ; e. g. atha^ata paor

vibhaktis: tasya vibhga vakyma next (comes) the
division of the (sacrificial) animal : (now) we will (shall) state

its division (AB.).

Examples from the RV. are : staviymi tvm ahm I shall praise
thee (I. 44^) ; k svid vakymi km u nu maniye what pray shall
I say, what shall I now think ^ (vi. 9^) ; ydy ev kariytha sk
devir yajyso bhaviyatha if ye will do so, you will be partakers of the
sacrifice with the gods (I. 161 ) ; n tvvm indra k ean n jt n
janiyate no one equal to thee, O Indra, has been born or will be born.
2. I n B. the simple future is frequently used after verbs of speaking,
knowing, thinking, hoping, fearing, which are sometimes also to be
supplied; e.g. s 'bravd : id myi vry, tt te pr dsymi^
ti he said : here is heroism in me, that I will give thee (Ts.) ; t h a ^ c u
kna rja, kna^nkena yotsyma ti they said : with whom as king,
with whom as leader shall wefights(B.); ttra vidyd : varsisyati^,ti
in regard to that he should know : it will rain (B.) ; ndro ha v ks
cakre : mahd v it 'bhv janiyate Indra rejlected : a great abuse
will arise from this (B.) ; sarv devat asanta : m m abhi prati
patsyati^iti allthegods hoped : he will begin with me (AB.) ; ydi bibhy d
ducarm bhaviymi^ti if he should fear, ' I shall suffer from skin disease'
(TS.) ; sur v ak acinvata : dvam rokyma ti the Asuras
built up the bricks (thinking) : we shall scale heaven (MS.).
a. After an impv., the fut. is often used with t h a ; e.g. pti n
me pnar yvna kurutam : tha v vakymi (B.) make my
husband young again : then I shall tell you (two).
^. After the impv. of a-i or pra-i the I. pers. fut. is equivalent to
an exhortation ; e. g. pr^ita, td esyama come, we will go there (B.).
W i t h the negative n, the 2. and even the 3. pers. may have the
value of a prohibition ; e. g. devn rksi . . ajighsan : n yak
yadhva ti the Rakases wished to slay the gods (saying) : you shall not sacri
fice (B.); t n vive dev anonudyanta neha psyanti neha^iti all
the gods drove them back (saying) : they shall not drink here, not here
(AB.^.
B. The periphrastic future though not occurring i n V., is frequent
in B. I t expresses that something w i l l take place at a definite point
of time i n the future. I t is therefore often accompanied by such
words as prtr early in the morning, vs tomorrow (but never by ady
today). The point of time, however, need not be expressed by an
adverb ; it may be defined by a clause. Examples are : savatsara
tam rtrim gachatt, tn ma k rtrim nte ayitse, jt u
te 'y trhi putr bhavit come for the night of this day year, then you
5

will lie beside me for one night, then too this son of thine will be born (B.) ;
ydi pur sasthnd d r yeta^ady variyati^ti bruyad ; ydi
ssthite v vra ^ ti bryt if it (the vessel) should be broken before
the completion (of the sacrifice) he should say: it will rain today; if it has
been completed, he should say .. it will rain tomorrow (Ms.) ; yarhi vva vo
may^artho bhavit, tarhy eva vo 'ha punar agantasmi when you will
have need of me, then (on that particular occasion) I will come back to yon
(AB.).
a. Sometimes this form is used to express not that an action will
take place at a definite time, but that i t w i l l take place with certainty ;
e.g. s ^ ev^iym ady^pi pratih , sa^,u e v ^ p i ^ t 'dhi bhavit
this is the foundation today, and it will also (certainly) be so in future (B.).

A. Imperative.
215. The only pure impv. forms are those of the 2. 3. sing.
and 3. pi., represented by bhva and bhvatt, bhvasva ;
bhvatu ; bhvantu, bhvantm. The forms later regarded
as imperatives of the 1. pers., bnvni, bhvva, bhvma
are subjunctives (cp. 131): while the 2. 3. du. and 2. pi.
bhvatam, bhvatm, bhvethm, bhvetm ; bhvata,
bhvadhvam, are injunctives (cp. 122 a a).
a. The impv. does not express commands only, but also
a desire in the widest sense, such as a wish, a request,
advice, a direction ; e. g. devam ih^ vaha bring hither the
gods (i. 14 ) ; heamno bodhi be not angry (1. 24 ) ;
im n i^asya ri chinddhi cut off these heads of his (MS.) ;
vk nva prti badhnva tie the ship to the tree (B.) ;
12

11

pr vm anotu suuti may the hymn of praise reach you

9

two (i. 17 ) ; hnta na ko vettu come, let one of us find

out (B.).
b. The sphere of the ordinary impv. is the present ; it
may, however, still be used for the later of two opposed
actions ; e. g. vra vsva^tha me pnar dehi choose
a boon and then give it me back (TS.).

The form in td,

however, has a tendency in v. to express the more remote

future, and in B. does so distinctly ; e. g. ih^ev m
thantam abhyhi^ti brhi, t t na gat pratipr

215]

IMPERATIvE

349

brtt tell her : come to me as I stand here ; when she has

come, you shall (then) tell it us (B.), As this form is only

active, the subj. takes its place in middle verbs ; thus t
vva = do thouchooseit (now) as opposed to t vsai
choose it then (B.),
a. The genuine impv. seems never to be found in negative sen
tences ; thus i t never appears i n V. with the prohibitive particle m
(which is used with injunctive forms only, and in B. almost exclu
sively with the aor. inj.). I t is employed i n positive principal clauses
only ; e. g. v no dhehi yth j v ma so dispose usthatwe may live (B.),
A subordinate clause with ind., subj., or (very rarely) opt. may pre
cede or follow ; e. g. ys tv dt saparyti, tsya sma prvit
bhava be the promoter of him who adores thee as a messenger (i.123); s
vid naya y . . anu s ati bring us together with one who knows, who
may give us directions (vi. 54 ) ; id me haryat vco ysya trema
tras at hma gladly accept this word of mine by the force of which we
would pass a hundred winters (v. 54 ). I n such periods the form with
tad would regularly be used i n B.
^. The RV. has a number of 2. sing. forms made with si added
directly to the root, which are clearly used imperatively, as is indicated
by their being generally accompanied by imperatives (sometimes by
subjunctives and imperatives) ; e.g. devbhir yhi yki ca come
with the gods and sacrifice (i. 14 ). These forms are confined to the RV.
(and passages borrowed from it) except satsi (Av. vi. 110 ) ; and they
are restricted to positive principal sentences.
1

15

B. Injunctive.
Formally this mood corresponds to an unaugmented past
tense (including the 2. 3. du. and 2. pl. as represented by
act. bhvatam, bhvatm, bhvata ; mid. bhvethm,
bhvetm, bhvadhvam, which later came to be regarded
as imperatives). Its use constitutes one of the chief
difficulties of Vedic grammar and interpretation, because it
cannot always be distinguished from the subjunctive (e. g.
gamat might be the subj. of gan or the inj. of gamat)
or from an unaugmented indicative (e. g. cra might be =
.cara). Judged by its uses the inj. probably represents
a very primitive verbal form which originally expressed an
action irrespective of tense or mood, the context showing

which was meant. The addition of the augment gave the

sense of a past tense to one set of forms, while the rest
finally became incorporated with the impv. The general
meaning of the inj. expresses a desire, combining the senses
of the subj., the opt., and the impv. As compared with the
subj., the inj. is essentially appropriate in principal clauses,
though it sometimes appears in subordinate clauses intro
duced by relatives or the relative conjunctions yd and
yad.
a. The first person expresses an intention the execution
of which lies in the power of the speaker ; e. g. ndrasya
n vrya^i pr vocam now I will proclaim the heroic deeds of

Indra (i. 321). Sometimes, however, the execution depends

on another ; e. g. agn hinvantu no dhyas : tna jema
dhnadhanam let our prayers urge Agni : through him we
shall assuredly win booty after booty (x. 156l).

b. The second person is used exhortatively, very often

beside an impv. ; e. g. sug na suptn ku ; puann
ih krat vida do thou make fair paths for us easy to
traverse ; O Pan, here procure us wisdom ; ^ ady no deva

sv subhaga, pr duvpnya suva today, O god,

proeure us good fortune;

drive away evil dream (v. 82 ).

A parallel opt. is much less common ; e. g. etna gt

vido na ; no vavty suvitya by reason of that find
13

for us the path; mayst thou bring us to welfare (i. 173 ).

e. The third person also is used exhortatively, very often

beside an impv. ; e. g. sm vetu vaktim ; agnr
juata no gra let him come to this Vaa call; may Agni

accept our songs (vii. 15^) ; it is often accompanied by a

2. sing. impv. ; . g. ^id barhr yjamnasya sda ;
th ca bhd ukthrn ndrya astm seat thyself upon this
straw of the sacrificer ; and then may the hymn be sung to Indra
3

(iii. 53 ). I t appears less frequently with the subj. ; e. g.

pa brhmi ava im no, th te yajs tanv vyo
dht mayst thou listen to these our prayers, and then let the

2l5]

INJUNCTIvE

351
4

sacrifice bestow vigour on thyself (vi. 40 ),

A parallel opt. is

not common ; e. g. pri no het rudrsya vjy, pri

tvesya durmatr mah gt would that the dart of Rudra
pass us by, let the great malevolence of the impetuous one avoid
4

us (ii. 33 ).
d. The injunctive is very frequently used alone (unaccom
panied by any other modal form) in an impv. sense ; e. g.
im havy juanta nah let them accept these oblations of
11

ours (vi. 52 ) ; the preceding verse has the regular impv. :

junt yjya pya let them accept the suitable milk.

I n negative sentences the inj. is the only mood (with the

exception of the single opt. form bhujema) with which
the prohibitive particle m can be used ; e. g. m na indra
pr vak do not, O Indra, abandon us (viii. 977) ; vivyan
1

m na gan let not any swelling thing come near us (vii. 50 ) ;

m tntu chedi let not the thread be cut (ii. 28 ), The aor.
form is Commoner than the impf. form in the RV., but its
relative predominance has greatly increased in the AV.
e. The inj. not infrequently expresses a future sense like
the subj. (215 C) in two types of sentences:
1. in positive interrogative sentences ; e. g. k no mahy
5

ditaye pnar dt who will give us back to great Aditi?

1

(i. 24 ), The subj. itself is here sometimes found beside it ;

e. g. kad mrtam ardhsa pad kmpam iva sphurat,
kad nah uravad gra when will he purn the niggardly
mortal like a mushroom with his foot ; when will he hear our
songs ? (i. 84^),

2. in negative sentences with n ; e. g. ym dity abhi

druh rkath, nm agh naat whom, O dityas, ye
proteet from harm, him misfortune will not reach (viii. 47 ),
1

a. I n B. the use of the inj. in positive sentences has almost entirely

disappeared. The B., however, preserves several examples ; e. g.
dev n avat let it refresh the gods ; also sometimes i n subordinate
clauses, especially with n d ; e.g. nd id bahirdh yajd bhvat
lest it be outside the sacrifice.
On the other hand the inj. is very frequent i n negative sentences,

in which i t constantly appears with m, i n the vast majority of cases

in the aor. form. Only a few examples of the impf. form occur : ma
vadhadhvam slay not (Ts.); m bibhta fear not (AB.); kilbia nu
m ytayan letthemnot reprove it as a fault (AB.) ; and from the perfect :
m suupth sleep not (SB).

C. Subjunctive.
The meaning of the subj. is best brought out by contrast
ing its use with that of the opt. From this it appears that
the fundamental sense of the subj. is will, while that of the
opt. is either wish or possibility (this mood being therefore
alternatively called optative or potential). This distinction
appears clearly from the fact that in the first person in
independent sentences one group of verbs in the RV. employs
the subj. exclusively or almost exclusively, while another
employs the opt., because in the former the execution is
dependent on the will of the speaker, while in the latter
it is not in his control, but is only possible. With the subj.
are thus used the verbs nan strike, k make, su press, br
speak. With the opt. on the other hand appear : j i conquer,
t overcome, sah conquer ; as and na obtain, vid acquire,
be master of; sac be associated with ; vt attract (to the
sacrifice) ; ak be able ; mad be happy ; dh prosper ; pa live

to see; as be (with predicates such as prosperous, &c.); also

certain sacrificial verbs : idh kindle (with the co-operation of
the god), d worship, vac and vad speak (effectively), vidh
serve, sap please obtain the favour of(a god), h call (= bring
hither).

1. The meanings expressed by the different persons of the

subj. are the following:
The first person declares the will of the speaker ; e. g.
svastye vyum pa bravmahai for welfare we will invoke
Vyu (v. 51 ), I t is often accompanied by the particles n
and hnta ; e. g. pr n voc sutu vm I will now praise
you two at the libations (v. 691), The I. du. and pl. may also
express an exhortation to another to share an action with
12

the speaker, an impv. usually then preceding; e.g. daki

at bhav me : dh vtri jaghanva bhri stand on
my right : then we two will slay many foes (x. 837) ; or an

exhortation to aid the speaker; e.g. jma^indra tvy

yuj we will eonquer ( let us conquer) with thee as our ally
1

(viil. 63^ ).
I n B. the usage is the same ; e. g. vra vrai I will choose a boon
(Ts.) ; h a n t a ^ i m n bhayai well, I will terrifytht^m(AB.) ; vay dev
abruvan : sma r j na hanma^ti the gods said to Vdyu : let us slay
king Soma (TS.).

The second person is used exhortatively : hno vtr,

jy ap slay Vtra, win the waters (i. 80 ), I t often
follows a 2. pers. impv. ; e. g. agne uni ; devbhyo
3

bravasihear, O Agni, do thou say to the gods (f. 139 ) ; sometimes

it follows a 3. pers. impv. ; e. g. v vahantu . . v,

pibtho asm mdhni let the horses bring you two ; do ye
drink the honied draughts beside us (vii. 67^).

When an

expectation is indicated, the subj. is almost equivalent to

a future ; e. g. chnta me, chadyth ca nnm ye hav e
pleased me and ye shall please me now (i. 165l-),
In B. the 2. pers. subj. is used only when the speaker makes a condi
tion or gives a direction relating to the (not immediate) future ; e. g.
atho eta varam avta : may^eva prc dia pra janatha^iti
so he made this condition : thr ough ^ne ye shall (in future) discover the eastern
quarter (AB.).

The third person is as a rule used in exhortations to the

gods, though the subject is not always the name of the deity;
e.g. im na avad dhvam he shall hear this our
call (viii. 43 ); pri o ho vruasya vjy ; ur
na ndra kavad u lokm may the wrath of Varua
22

avoid us; Indra shall procure us wide space (vii. 84 ); s

dev. ^ih vakati he shall bring the gods hither (i. 1 ) ; pr
te sumn no anavan thy good intentions shall reach us
2

(viii. 90^), The subj. sentence is sometimes connected with

a preceding one ; e.g. agnm He : s u ravat I praise Agni:
he shall hear (viii. 43 ). The subj. here often approaches the
24

future in sense, being then usually opposed with nnm or

n to another verb : d u y dev savita . . astht :
n n devbhyo v h i dh t i rtnam god Savit has just
arisen : he will now distribute bounty to the gods (ii. 38 ) ;
uvsa^u uchc ca n Dawn has flushed (in the past) and
she will flush now (I. 48 ), Sometimes there is no opposition ;
e.g. gh t gaehn ttar yugni, ytra jmya k
van jmi there shall eome those later generations when those
who are akin will do what befits not kinsmen (x. 10 ).
1

10

I n B. the 3. pers. subj. is not found i n the hortative sense, appearing

only when a condition, promise, or curse is expressed; e.g. vva^
i t y abruvan ; so 'bravn : maddevaty^eva samid asad i t i they said ..
choose a boon ; he replied :thefuel shall be sacred to me (MS.) ; s ^ abravd :
vra vrai ; kht t parbhaviynt manye : tto m par bhuvam
ti ; pur te savatsard pi rohd ty abravt she said : I will make a
condition ; I think I shall perish in consequence of digging ; let me not perish.
He replied : beforethelapse of a year for you, it (the wound) shall heal up
(Ts.) ; devs t n aapan : svena va kiku vajrea vrcn i t i the
gods cursed them (the trees) : they shall destroy yot^ with your own handle
with a bolt (TB.). The 3. pers. subj. often also expresses the purpose of
a ceremony ; e.g. rd ti aramya barhr bhavati (MS.) the litter is
made of reeds withtheintention : it shall destroy him (the adversary).
2. The syntactical employment of the subj. is twofold.
a. I t appears in principal sentences :
a. with interrogatives, either the pronoun or the adverbs
katha how ? kad when, and kuvd ; e. g. km n va
kavma what, pray, shall we do for you ? (ii. 29 ) ; kath
mah rudryya bravma how shall we speak to the great
Rudrahost? (v. 41 ^); kad na uravad gra when will
he hear our prayers? (i. 848). kuvd nearly always accen
tuates the verb (which is thus treated as in a subordinate
clause) ; e. g. avna s e stuhi : kuvt te rvato hvam
the Avins praise well, O seer: shall they hear thy call?
(viiI. 26 ).
3

10

I n B. first persons only seem to be met with i n this use, and an

interrogative word is sometimes lacking
^ . I n negative sentences with n not ; e. g. n t naanti ;

n d a b h t i t s k a r a they perish not; no thief shall (can) harm

them (vi. 28 ),
3

In B. n is similarly used ; e. g. n^at 'para k can sah r

rea^amto sat from now onwards no one shall be immortal with his body
(B.). Once only, in a command, is the subj. used with m : akm
sma m n padysai you shall not approach me (in future) against my will
(B.).

b. I n dependent clauses the subj. is used either with a

negative or with relatives (pronominal or adverbial) :
a. in a final sense with the negative particle n d that not,
lest. The antecedent clause has either an ind. or an impv. ;
e.g. hotr d a h varua b b h y a d y a , n d ev m
y u n j a n n t r a dev fearing the office of Hot, O Varua,
I went away, lest the gods should appoint me thereto (x. 51 ) ;
v y c h duhitar divo m c i r t a n u t h p a , n t tva
s t e n y t h r i p t p t i s r o arci shine forth, daugh
ter of the sky, delay not long thy work, lest the sun scorch thee,
tike a hostile thief with his ray (v. 79 ).
4

I n B. the antecedent clause has either an ind. or an opt. ; e. g. tha

yn n prkate, nn m rudr ninsad ti now (the reason) why he does
not look is lest Rudra should injure him (B.) ; tn n dadbh khded,
nn ma id rudrya dat hinsad ti he should not chew it with his
teeth, lest this that belongs to Rudra injure his teeth (B.). A gerundive i n
the antecedent clause has also been noted in the AB.

^ . in relative clauses :
1. such a clause normally precedes if it contains a suppo
sition determining the sense of the principal clause ; the
latter usually has an impv., not infrequently a subj., seldom
an inj. or ind.; e.g. y na p t a n y d , p a ttam d
dhatam whoever shall combat us, him do ye two slay (i. 132 );
y s t b h y a d n n t m ho a n a v a t who shall serve
thee, him no distress can reach (ii. 23 ); u t n n y d in
d r i y kariy indra p u s y a m , ady n k i d
minat and what heroic, manly deed thou, Indra, shalt now do,
that let no one belittle today (iv. 30 ) ; y s m a i t v suk t e
j t a v e d a , u l o k m agne k v a s y o n , s r a y
6

23

naate svast the righteous manforwhom thou shalt procure,

O Agni Jtavedas, a comfortable place, he obtains riches for
welfare (v. 4 ).
11

I n B. the use of the subj. i n relative clauses is similar; but here

the subj. is by far the commonest form in the principal clause, the
impv. and ind. (sometimes omitted) being rare., e.g. tny abru
van, vra vrmahai : yd sura jyma, tn nah sah^asad ti
they said, we will make a condition : what we shall win fromtheAsuras that
shall be ours in common (TS.) ; ys tv k ca^up y at, tu m ev^sva
whoever shall come towards you, sit still ; yd vind s ai t t te 'gnihotr
kurma what thou shaltfind,thatwe (shall) makethyfireoblation(Ms.) ;
td vi smrddha y dev sdhve krmae ju n tai that, indeed,
(is) excellent,ifthegods shall be pleased with him for a good work (B.), I n
the last example the relative clause exceptionally follows.
2. The relative clause follows i f i t expresses a final or
consequential sense (in order that, so that) arising from the
principal clause ; the latter usually has an impv., but some
times an inj., opt., or ind. ; e.g. s pan vid naya,
y jas^anu s ati, y ev^idm t i brvat assoeiate us,
O Psan, with a wise (guide) who shall at onee direet us and
who shall say : here it is (vi. 54 ) ; asmbhya td rdha
gt, y t stotbhya pye bhvti let that wealth eome
for us which shall be a blessing to thy praisers and thy kinsman
(ii. 38 ); t d ady vc pratham Inasya yna^su
rm abhi dev sma I would today think of that as the
first (point) of my speech whereby we gods shall overcome the
Asuras (x. 53 ) ; im bibharmi skta te aku
yna^rujsi maghava chaphrja I bring to thee this
wellfashioned weapon (with which =) in order that thou shouldst
break the hoofbreakers (x. 44 ). The subj. of these relative
clauses sometimes comes to have a purely future sense ;
e. g. (=a^ju) t yanti y p a r u pyn thosearecoming
who in future days will see her (i. 113 ).
1

11

11

I n B. this type of relative clause with the subj. is rare ; e. g. yn ma

dhinvat tn me kuruta procure for me that which shall refresh me (B.) ;
h n t a vay t t sjmahai yd asmn anvsad ti come, let us create
what shall come ater us (sB^),

^y. with relative conjunctions :

I . yd, which, if the clause is determinative, means when ;
the dependent clause then precedes, while the principal clause
usually contains an impv., but sometimes an inj., a subj.,
or an opt. ; the conjunction means in order that, so that, if the

dependent clause is final or consequential ; the dependent

clause then follows, while the principal clause contains an
impv., a subj., or an ind., e.g.
if yd = when : o yd ady bhnn v i dvrv
vo div, pr no yachatd avkm O I)awn, when to
day with thy beam thou shalt open the doors of heaven, then

bestow on us safe shelter (i. 48i^); yd ady bhg vibhj

si nbhya, o dev no tra savit dmn ngaso
vocati s r yya when thou shalt today distribute a share to men,
O Dawn, god Savit, the house friend, shall declare us guiltless
3

to Srya (i. 123 ); yd va ga purut krma, m vas

tsym pi bhma when we shall commit a sin against you
after the manner of men, let us not have a part in that (shaft) of
4

yours (vii. 57 ) ; yd didyva p t ansu prakr n, tsya

v syma ^anitra j when shafts shall play in battles, of
that conflict of yours we would be the winners (iv. 41 ).
11

if yad in order that, or so that : s vaha devtti

yaviha, rdho yd ady divy yjsi ^o bring hither the

gods, O youngest, that thou mayst adore the heavenly host today

(iii. 19 ); tavd u t sukrty 'sann ut prastaya,

4

yd indra mysi na these laudations and praises shall

be thine, that thou, O Indra, mayst be merciful to us (viii. 45 );
33

n ppso manmahe, yd in nv ndra skhya kv

mahai we deem not ourselves. wicked, (so) that we can now
11

make Indra our friend (viii. 61 ), In such posterior clauses

the yd sometimes comes to express the content of the
principal clause ; e. g. n te skh sakhy vay ett,
slakm yd vurp bhvti (x. 10 ) thy friend wishes
2

not this friendship, that she who is of the same type (= akin)
shall become of a different kind (not akin), This yd may

once be translated by till : kiyty yt samy bhavti

y vyur y ca nn vyuchn in what time will it be
that ( hO^v long will it be till) she shall be between those that
have shone forth and those that shall now shine forth? (i. 113 ).
10

I n B. the subj. is rarely found in these clauses with yd ; e.g. tt

prpnuhi yt to pr vtam apipdytai attain this that your breath
shall transfer itself tothewind (B.).

2. ytra when seems not to occur in v with the subj.

when it is a genuine conjunction (that is, when it is not
equivalent to the loc. of the relative pronoun).
In B., however, it is found with the subj. in the sense of
a future perfect : e. g. ytra nt chndasa pr gcht,
tt pratiprastht prtaranuvkm up kurutt when
the Hot shall have got to the end of the metre, then let the Prati
prastht start a Prtaranuvka (B.).

3. yth with the subj. as an antecedent clause means as,

the principal clause containing an impv. or a subj. ; as a
posterior clause it has the sense of in order that, so that, the
principal clause containing either a demand (generally impv.,
occasionally inj., opt., or gerundive) or a statement (ind.
pres. or aor., act. or pass.). Examples of the first use are :
yth hotar mnu devtt yjsi, ev no ady yaki
devn as thou canst, O priest, worship at the divine service of man,
so do thou for us today worship the gods (VI. 4 ). This use does
1

not seem to occur in B. Examples of the second use are : ghn

gacha ghpatn yth^sa go to the house that you may be
mistress of the house (x. 85 ) ; idnm hna upav c yo
nbhi, rha no tra^drvia yth ddhat at this
20

time of day he is to be addressed by men that he may here bestow

1

on us the best wealth (iv. 54 ); mahat m vmah 'vo,

yth vsu nmahai we implore the favour of the great, in
order that we may obtain riches (x. 36 ^); id p t ram apyi
mtsad yth saumanasya devm this bowl has been drunk
1

up, in order that it may exhilarate the god to benevolence

10

(vi. 44 ),

The negative in such clauses is n or n.

a. I n B. the usage is similar: the principal clause here contains

either an impv. or a subj. ; e.g. tath me kuru yath^aham im
sen jayni so arrange for me that I may conquer this army (AB.) ; sa
dh n s dadhvahai yth tvm ev pravinti now let us two
make an agreement in order that I may enter into thee (Ms.).

yad

4. yad when, with the subj. (pres. or aor.), which then

has the value of a fut. perf., is regularly antecedent, the
principal clause containing an impv. or a subj.; e.g. t
krasi jtavedo, tha^m ena pri dattt pit

bhya when thou shalt have made him done, then deliver him to

the fathers (x. 16); yad gchty suntim et m , tha

devn vaanr bhavti when he shall have gone to that
spirit world, then he shall become subject to the gods (x. 16 ).
2

yad kad ca whenever seems to give the verb the same

sense : yad kad ca sunvama smam, agn v dt
dhanvty cha whenever we shall have pressed Soma, Agni
shall hasten to thee as a messenger (iii. 53 ).
4

^. The usage of B. is the same ; e. g. s yad tm ativrdh, tha

karu khtv tsya m bibharsi when I shall have outgrown that
(vessel), then having dug a trench you shall keep me in it (B.).

5. ydi if with the subj. generally precedes the principal

clause, which contains an impv., a subj., (rarely) an opt., or
an ind. (sometimes to be supplied); e.g. ydi stma
mma rvad, asmkam ndram indavo mandantu if he
shall hear my praise, let these drops of ours gladden Indra

(viii. 1^) ; yjma devn ydi aknvma we will adore the

gods, if we shall be able (i. 27 ) ; ydi prti tv hry . .
1

13

ap en jayema if thou shalt accept (it) gladly, we might thereby

11

win the waters (v. 2 ); indr ha vru dhh, ydi

smai . . mdyaite Indra and Varua (are) the most
liberal, if they shall delight in the Soma offerings (iv. 4l ).
3

a. I n B. the subj. with ydi is very rare ; an example is : ydi t v ^

ett pnar brvatas, tv brtt if they two shall saythisagain to thee, do
thou say (B.),

6. yd so long as occurs twice with the subj. in the RV. :

annuktym apun cakra yt sryms mith ucc

rta he has once for all done what is inimitable so long as sun
and moon alternately shall rise (x. 68 ) ; vsiha ha vru
o . . i cakra . . yn n dyvas tatnan, yd usa
Varufta has made Vasiha a seer, so long as the days shall
extend, so long as the dawns (vii. 88 ), I n B. yd does not
occur.
^. The subj. is sometimes used i n an antecedent clause
with ca in the sense of if, which is then treated as a subor
dinate conjunction and accentuates the verb ; e. g. ndra
ca myti no, n na paed agh naat if Indra
shall be gracious to us, no evil shall afterwards touch us(ii. 41 ).
10

11

D. Optative or Potential.
216. I. The meaning of the opt. is predominantly a
wish, which is modified according to the person of the verb.
The first person, which is very common, expresses the
wish of the speaker, generally addressed to the gods ; e. g.
as tm asy yasa raym O Dawn, I would obtain
that glorious wealth (i. 928); vidh.ma te stmai we would
worship thee with songs of praise (ii.9 ); vay yma ptayo
raym we would be lords of riches (iv. 50^).
3

I n B. the sense of the first person is similar, but its occurrence,

owing to the nature of the subjectmatter, is far less common; e.g.
vi ca katr y a ca samda kurym I should like to create enmity between
people and nobility (MS.).

The second person is much less common. I t is almost

exclusively used to express a wish or a request addressed to
a god ; e.g. no mitr v ru hotr y a vavty pray bring
Mitra and Varua to our oblation (vi. 11 ); ty me hvam
jagmytam so, pray, do ye two come to my call (vi. 50 ) ; pr
s na yur jvse tiretana do ye, pray, extend fully our
allotted span that we may live (viii. IS ), We might here
often rather expect the impv., which indeed frequently
either precedes or follows the 2. opt. ; e.g. dhiv vjra
rakohtyya : ssahh abhi spdha take the bolt for
1

10

the slaughter of the demons : mayst thou overcome our foes

(vi. 45 ^) ; im me samdha vane; im rudh

1

gra pray accept this my fuel; graciously hear these songs

(. 6 ) .
I n B. the second person is used almost exclusively i n wishes; e. g.
asmfn yjamne bahvyah syta may you be numerous besidethissacrifice^
(B.),

The third person is used in the three different senses of

wish, precept, or supposition ; e. g. mhvm asmka
babhyt may he be bountiful to us (i. 27 ); imm amta
2

dt kvta mrtya this immortal the mortal should make

19

his messenger (viii. 23 ) ; pnn pir pantam abh yt

the friend who bestows would prevail over him who does not

bestow (x.1177). In the sense of a supposition (regarded as

possible or probable) the opt. seldom appears independently,
but often in an apodosis.
In B. it is common in all three senses .. expressing a wish ; e. g. apa
syt may he be bereft of cattle (TS.) ; a general precept (where a
gerundive may also be used) ; e. g. kume vsn agnm dadhy
t t adhvaryve dye wearing linen garments the tno should lay the
fire ; the two (garments) should be given to the Adhvaryu (Ms.) ; a supposition
in the apodosis of periods, but seldom independently ; e.g. n^asya
t r t rm ap grhn pr hareyur ; po vi n ti : amyeyur eva
(Ms.) they should not during that night bring water into his house ; for water
is extinction : they would thus extinguish (if they did this). The protasis
in this example must be supplied.

2. The syntaetical employment of the optative is two

fold:
a. it appears in principal sentences (for the most part re
taining the sense of a wish) with interrogatives, either the
pronoun or the adverbs kath how kad when ^ and kuvd ;
e.g. ksmai devya hav vidhema what god would we
worship with oblations (x. 121 ); kad na indra ry
1

daasye when wouldst thou, O Indra, bestow riches upon us ?

(vii. 37^); kuvt tutujy t stye dhya (f. 143^) would he

not stimulate our prayers for gain ? (cp. p. 354, 2 a).

A possi

bility is sometimes thus repudiated ; e.g. kd dha nnm

t vdanto nta rapema how could u.e now speaking

righteous words utter unrighteousness ^ (x. 10 ).
4

I n B. the optative with interrogatives may express a wish, precept,

possibility, or the repudiation of a suggestion ; e.g. kath n pr
jyeya how should I propagate myself^ (B.) ; ymm eva prva aset
he should jirst pronouncethejbrmula addressed to rama (AB.); k mma
tta syat (B.) what would then accrue to me (if I did this)'^ ks td
driyeta who would pay attention to that ^ (B.).
a. The opt. appears in negative sentences with n not,
sometimes n eid never. The sense is either optative or
potential ; e. g. n riyema kad ean may we never suffer
harm (vi. 54 ); nu ein n vyr amta v i dasyet may
the nectar of Vyu never^foil (vi. 37 ) ; n td dev n mr
tyas
tuturyd
yni
prvddho
vabh
eakra
no
god,
no mortal could surpass what the mighty bull has done (viii. 96 ).
The only opt. form with which the prohibitive m occurs is
bhujema: m va no anykta bhujema may we not
suffer before you for a sin done by others (VI. 517).
9

I n B. the opt. is used with n to express either a general prohibition

or a potential sense ; e. g. tsya^etd vrat : n^nta vaden, n
msm anyat this is his vow : he should not speaktheuntruth, he should
not eat meat ; n^ena dadhikr v a can pvay kriyt Dadhikrvan
himself could not make him pure (Ms. ).
b. I n dependent clauses the opt. is used with relatives
(pronominal or adverbial) :
a. such a clause having a determining sense, usually
precedes. This type is very rare in v ; e. g. srya y
brahm vidy t , s i d v d hyam arhati a priest who should
know Sry deserves the bridal garment (x. 85 ),
34

I n B., on the other hand, clauses of this type, which always imply
a supposition, are very common. The opt. here expresses a precept
or a potential sense ; the principal clause most often has the opt.
also ; e. g. y dviy t , t dhyyet whom he may hate, he should think
of (Ts.) ; y v imm lbheta, mcyeta^asm t ppmna he who were
to offer this (bull), would be delivered from this sin (TS.), I n the principal
clause a gerundive occasionally appears or the verb to be has to be

supplied ; e. g. y rr d pabhuta syt tsai hotavy this should

be offered for him who should be deprived of his kingdom (Ts.) ; yasya^agnayo
grmyea^agnin sadahyeran, k tatra pryacitti if any one's fires
should be united with a village fire, what expiation (is) there ^ (AB.).

^. the relative clause, if it has a final or consequential

sense (in order that, so that) follows. The principal clause
contains an impv., a subj., or an opt. ; e.g. revtr na
sadham d a indre santu ybhir mdema (i. 30 ) let our feasts
13

beside Indra be rich (by which = ) that we may rejoice (in them) ;

dhsatho ray yna samtsu shimhi bestow wealth on

1

us (by which = ) that we may be victorious in battles (viii. 40 ) ;

yy^ti vv durit trema sutrmam dhi nva

ruhema we would ascend the rescuing ship (by which = ) that we
may cross over all misfortunes (viii. 42 ),
3

I n B. final relative clauses with the optative are rare.

y. with relative conjunctions :

1. yd if : in the antecedent clause of pres. conditional
periods, the condition being generally regarded as unful
filled. The apodosis normally contains a potential opt.
(though isolated examples of the impv., inj., and ind. occur);
e. g. yd agne sym ah tv, tv v gh sy ah,
sy e saty h^ ia ifI, O Agni, were thou, and thou
wert I , thy prayers would be fulfilled (viii. 44 ) ; occasionally
23

the fulfilment of the condition is expected ; e. g. yc chu

ruy im hva durmra cakriy ut, bhver pir
no ntama if thou shouldst hear this call and shouldst not
forget it, thou wouldst be our most intimate friend (viii. 451 ) .
3

The temporal sense of when with the opt. seems to occur

only once in the R v (iif. 33 ),
11

I n B. (as i n V.) yd ifwith the opt. is very common i n the protasis,

when the fulfilment of the condition is not expected (ydi with opt.
being used when i t is expected); e.g. s yd bhdyeta^ r tim r^hed
yjamna if it should be broken, the sacrifice^ would fall into calamity (Ts.).
The infinitive with var may take the place of the opt. in the prin
cipal clause ; e. g. yad et ased vara parjanyo 'varo if he
were to repeat this (formula), Parjanya might not rain (AB.). sometimes the

verb (opt. of as be) is omitted i n the apodosis. The opt. with yd here
rarely expresses a purely hypothetical case (that is, without the im
plication that the condition w i l l not be fulfilled) ; e. g. yn m
pravi k m bhujya (Ts.) if you were to enter me,of what use would
you be to me ? (afterwards he does enter Indra).

a. yd with the opt. in the final sense of in order that is

very rare ; e.g. yn nnm ay gti, mitrsya yy
path in order that I might now obtain a refuge, I would go on
the path of Mitra (v. 64 ).
3

^. I n B. yd with the opt. in the sense of that is frequently used

after va kalpate is suitable, t sahate endures, ichti desires, vda
knows, yukt bhavati is intent, in posterior clauses ; e. g. n h td
avaklpate yd bry t for it is not fitting that he should say (B.) ; n v
ahm idm t sahe yd vo ht sym (B.) I cannot endure this that
should be ( ----- I cannot be) your Hot; t d dhy v br h maena.^evya
yd brahmavarcas syt for that is to be aimed at by the Brahmin, that he
should be pious (B.); svay v etsmai dev yukt bhavanti yt
sdh vdeyu for the gods themselves are intent on this, that they should say
what is right (B.); ks td veda yd vrataprad vratm upotsicet
/or who knows (this that = ) whether he who hands the fast-milk (should add )
adds (fresh milk) to it (B.). I n the B. var also is used with this
construction (in other Brahmaas with the infinitive only) to express
a possible consequence (though the yd is nearly always omitted) ;
e. g. pr asmd yajn 'bhd ti^var ha yt tth^ev syt the
sacrifice has turned away from him : it is possiblethatthisshould be so (B.).
Otherwise the phrase regularly appears in the form of ti^var ha
tth eva syt, perhaps because var came to be regarded as a kind
of adverb possibly this might be so.
^y. I n B. yd introducing a clause with the opt. accompanied by n
and ending with ti, dependent on a verb of fearing or similar expres
sion, is equivalent to lest ; e.g. dev ha vi bibhay cakrur yd vi
na . . asurarakasni,^im grha n h a n y r ti the gods feared
lest the Asuras and Rakases should destroy this draught (B.); ndro ha v
k eakre yn m t n n^abhibbved ti Indra pondered (fearing)
lest that should vanquish him (B.).

2. ydi if with the opt. does not occur in the RV. and
AV. at all, and only once in the S v
I n B. it is very common, expressing a condition the fulfilment of
which is assumed (while yd with opt. implies non-fulfilment of the
condition). The clause with ydi generally precedes. The apodosis
has :

a. usually the opt., which expresses a precept applicable when the

condition is fulfilled ; e. g. ydi pur sasthnd dryeta^ady var
iyati^ti bryt if (the vessel) should be broken before the completion (of
the sacrifice), he should say : it will rain today (Ms.); yadi na aknuyt
so 'gnaye puroa nir vapet if he should not oe able to do so, he should
ofier a c^.ke to Agni (AB.). The precept occasionally has a potential
sense ; e.g. ydy katayu dvay u v^,avagched, apardhuk ena
syu (MS.) ifhe (the banished man) should return after one or two libations
they might exclude him from the sovereignty (but not i f he returns at the
conclusion of the ceremony).
var with the infinitive ; e. g. varo ha yady apy anyo
yajeta^atha hotra yao 'rto evenifanother should sacrifice (instead
of him), it is possible that fame should come to the Hot (AB.).
^. a gerundive ; sa yadi na jyeta, rakoghnyo gyatryo 'ncy
if it (the fire) should not be kindled,thedemonslaying verses are to be repeated
(AB.),
^. an ind. (sometimes omitted if it is a form of as be);
e. g. tasmd yadi yaja kta rti syd brahmaa eva n i
vedayante therefore if at the sacrifice there should be any failure
with regard to a c verse, they inform the Brahman priest (AB.);
yadi no yaja kta rti syt, k pryacitti if we shall
have an accident at the sacrifice in regard to a c verse, what (is)
the penance (AB.),
^. The difference between yd and ydi with the opt.
may be illustrated by the following example : yn no jye
yur im abhypa dhvema, ydy u jyema^im abhyup
vartemahi^ti if they were to conquer us (not to be assumed),
we should take refuge with these (friends), but if (as is to be
assumed) we should conquer, we could again betake ourselves to
them (MS.),
3. yth used in v . only in the sense of in order that,
generally following the principal clause, which contains an
impv an inj., or an ind. ; e. g. pa vvm amtrn nudasva,
ytn tva rman mdema drive away all foes that we may
rejoice in thy protection (x. 131 ) ; tvya yth gtsamad s o
. . parm abhi y, sribhyo gat td vyo dh
bestow on the patrons and the singer this blessing that through
thee the Gtsamadas may be superior to their neighbours (ii. 4 );
1

 divy vmah ^vsi, yth bhvema mhe ng we implore the divine aids that we may be sinless before the
gracious one (vii. 97 ).
2

a. I n B. yth with the opt. has two uses : ^. i n antecedent clauses

in the sense of as, as if, with a correlative meaning so in the principal
clause, which contains an opt., an ind., or no verb ; e. g. yatha^eva
chinn naur bandhant plaveta,^evam eva te plaveran just as a boat
cut from its fastening would drift, so they would drift (AB.) ; s yth nad
yi
pr
parpyed
ev
svsya^yua
pr
pr
cakhyau
as
if he were looking across to the farther bank of a river, so he sawtheend of his
life from afar (B.) ; tho yth bruy d etn me gopya^jti td g ev
t t then it (is) so as if he were to say : guardthisfor me (TS.).
^I. i n posterior clauses i n the sense of how, sothat; e. g. pa jnta
yth^iy pnar gchet do ye find out how she could come back (B.) ;
tt ttha^evhotavy yth^agn vyavey t hence it is to be so poured
that it may divide thejire (MS.).

4. ytra and yad are not found with the opt. in v., and
yrhi does not occur at all in the RV. and A v .

I n B. all three conjunctions are used hypothetically with the opt. i n

the sense of when.
^. ytra, besides having the sense of when, in case, often seems to
mean at the moment when, as soon as ; the principal clause has the opt. or
the ind. : e. g. mrut saptkapla nr vaped ytra v r j na
jjyset he should offer a cake on seven dishes to the .^Maruts in case the people
were to oppresstheking (MS.) ; s ytra prastuy t td etni japet as soon
as he (the priest) begins to sing, one should mutter the following prayers (B.).
yad as soon as seems often to imply that the action of the opt.
should be assumed to be past ; i t seems always to be followed by tha
then ; e. g. s yad sagrm jyed tha^aindrgn nr vapet as
soon as he may have won a battle, he should sacrifice to Indra and Agni (Ms.).
^. yrhi when is generally followed by the correlative trhi then i n
the principal clause, which usually has the opt. also ; e. g. yrhi
praj kdha nigcheyus, trhi navartra yajeta when his people
should be exposed to hunger. then he should sacrifice with the rite of nine night

(Ts.).
5. cd if is used with the ind. only in the R v and only
once with the opt. in the A v .

In B. it is used with the opt. like ydi (with which it may inter
change) ; e. g. et cd anysm anubrys, tta ev te ra chindyam if you were to communicate this to another, I would cut off your head (B.)

217218]

PRECATIvE, CONDITIONAL

367

Precative.
217. This form, which occurs in the RV. and A v . in
principal clauses only, and never interrogatively, expresses
a prayer or wish addressed to the gods almost exclusively, as
is to be expected from the nature of those texts ; e. g. y no
dvy dhara ss pada may he who hates us full to the
ground (iii. 53 i). When a negative is used i t is n ; e. g.
bhgo me agne sakhy n mdhy may my good fortune,
O Agni, not relax in (thy) friendship (iii. 54 ).
In B. the precative is almost restricted to verse or prose formulas
quoted and to paraphrases of such formulas ; e. g. bhuyasnm tta
r sm kriysam ti gv lkma kuryt would that I may do
(this) to more next year : so saying he should make the mark of the cows (Ms.).
at hm ti at vari jvysam ty ev^etd ha by the expres
2

21

sion a hundred winters ' he says this : would that I may live a hundred y^ars '

(SB). I t is, however, sometimes found in genuine prose narrative

also ; e. g. s ha vk prajpatim uvca : havyav ev^ah
tbhya bhuysam Vc said to Prajpati : I would like not to be a con

ductor of sacrifice for thee (B.); tm aapad: dhiydhiy tv vadhy

su him (Agni) cursed (saving) : I wish they may kill thee with repeated

deliberation (TS.).
Conditional.
2

21^. I n v . the conditional occurs only once (RV. ii. 30 ) in

a somewhat obscure passage, though the form abhariyat
used after a past tense appears to mean would take away
(in place of the future which would have been used after
a present tense).
In B. the conditional is once found in a simple interrogative sen
tence : tta ev^asya bhay v1yaya : ksmd dhy bhesyat there
upon his fear departed: for of what should he have been afraid^ (B.),

Otherwise it occurs only in compound sentences :

1. usually in both protasis and apodosis of conditional sentences,
expressing what might have happened in the past, but did not happen
because the condition was not fulfilled. The conditional clause is
generally introduced by yd, rarely by ydi (216) ; e. g. s yd dha^pi
mkhd droyan, n ha^ev pryacittir abhaviyat if it (Soma) had

alsoflowedout of his mouth, there would not have been a penance (B.); yd ev

n^vakyo murdh te vy patiyat if you had not spoken thus, your

head would have split asunder (B.) ; pdau te 'mlsyat ydi ha n^
gamiya your feet would have withered,ifyou had not come (B.).

a. When yd is used with the opt. the supposed condition

refers to the present (216).
2. in relative clauses dependent on negative principal
clauses containing a past tense (always of v i d find); e.g. s
td ev n^avindat praj p atir yd hoyat Prajpati
found

nothing that he could sacrifice (MS.); s vi t

n^avindad ysmai tm dkim neyat he found no

one to whom he should give this sacrificial fee (TB.).

3. in a clause introduced by yd that dependent on a

negative (or equivalent) clause ; e. g. cir tn mene yd
vsa parydnsyata he thought it too long (that =) till he
should put on the garment (B.) = he thought the time was not
short enough till he should put on the garment.

APPENDIX I
L I S T OF VERBS.
The order of the parts of the verb, when all are given, is : Present
Indicative (PR.), Subjunctive (B.), Injunctive (INJ.), Optative (OP.),
Imperative (IPV.), Participle (PT.), Imperfect (IPF.) ; Perfect (PF.);
Pluperfect (PPF.) ; Aorist (AO.) ; Precative (PRC.) ; Future (FT.) ;
Conditional (co.), Passive (Ps.), Present, Aorist, Past Participle (PP.) ;
Gerundive (Gnv) ; Gerund (on.); I n f i n i t i v e (1NF.); Causative (es);
Desiderative (ns.) ; Intensive (1.NT.),
The Roman numerals indicate the conjugations class of the verb ;
P. signifies that the verb is conjugated i n the Parasmaipada (active)
only, . that i t is conjugated in the tmanepada (middle) only.

a attain, v : PR. anti; sn. anvat; IPv. antu;

PT. anuvnt. PF. na and na ; nam, na,
nar ; nas ; sB. anamahai ; oP. naym ; PT.
nan ; PP. also a, tur, r ; . du. t he,
te. AO. root : . 3. s. a, p l . ata ; iNJ. aa,
pl. aata; oP. ayt, PRC. 3. s. ays (=ay s t); s: sB.
kat; a : at. iNF. ave.
ak mutilate, v. : PR. iPv. akuh. PP. PT. ak. AO.
i : kiur.
ac bend, I . : PR. cati. 1Pv. 2. s. ca ; casva. Ps. acyte ;
PT. acymna ; 1PF. acynta ; PP. akn (B.), GD. acya.
aj drive, I . : PR. jati, jate ; sB. jni, jsi, jti ; oP.
jeta; 1Pv. jatu; PT. jant. iPF. jat. Ps. ajyte;
PT. ajymna. 1NF. je.
aj anoint, v l l . : PR. ankti, akt ; sn. anjat ; 1Pv. adh
( = agdh), a n k t u ; PT. ajnt, ajn. 1PF. jan.
PP. anja ; naj, najr ; sB. anaj ; OP. anajyt ;
PT. anajn. Ps. ajyte; PT. ajymna; PP. akt.
GD. aktv (B.), ajya (B.),

ad eat, I I . : PR. dmi, tsi, tti ; adnti ; B. dat, pl.

dn (Av.) ; oP. adyt ; IPv. addh, ttu ; attm, attm ;
att, adntu ; PT. adnt, adn. 1PF. dat. FT. atsyti.
PP. nna n.food. GD. attvya (B.). 1NF. ttum, ttave,
ttos (B.), cs. dyati (B.).
an breathe, P. : L nati (Av.) ; V I . : anti (AV.) ; I I . :
niti ; 1Pv. anih ; PT. annt. I P F . nt. P F . na.
Ao. niur. FT. aniyti (B.). PP. anit(B.). anya(B.),
1NF. nitum (B.). cs. anyati.
am injure, I I . : PR. mi, mti ; I . : PR. me ; INJ. manta ;
1Pv. mva ; PT. mamna. iPP. mt. PP. mir (B.).
Ao. mamat. Ps. amyte. cs. myati.
arc praise, L : PR. rcati; sB. re, rct; rema, rcn;
iNJ. arcat; rcan; iPv. rcatu; PT. rcant. 1PF. rcan.
PF. ncr ; nc. Ps. cyte ; PT. cymna. 1NF.
cse. es. arcyati.
arh deserve, I . : PR. rhati; s n . rht; PT. rhant. PP.
anhr (TS.) ; arhir. INF. arhse.
av fuvour, I . P. : PR. vati ; sB. vt ; 1NJ. vat ; oP. vet ;
1pv. vatu; PT. vant. 1PF. vat. PP. vitha, va.
Ao. root : oP. 2. avys; PRC 3. avys (=avyst) ; is : vt;
sB. viat; 1NJ. vt; 1Pv. avih, viu; avim,
avi m ; avina. FT. aviyti; PT. aviynt. PP.
ta. GD. avya. 1NF. vitave.
a eat, I X . : PR. anti, annti ; ant, ante ; oP.
any t ; iPv. an; PT. annt. i P F . nm, nt;
nan, anan. PP. a. Ao. i : iam, s, t;
INJ. at. FT. aiyti (B.). Ps. ayte; PP. ait.
GD. aitva (B.), -ya (B.). cs. yati (B.). Ds.
aiiati (B.).
1. as be, I I . P. : PR. smi, si sti ; sths, sts ; sms,
sth and sthna, snti ; sB. sni, sasi and sas, sati
and sat; sathas; sma, satha, san; 1NJ. 3. pl.
sn; oP. sym, sys, sy t ; sytam, sy t m; syma,
syta and sy t ana, syr ; 1Pv. edh, stu ; stm, stm ;
st, sntu; PT. snt. 1PF. sam, ss, s (^st) and

st; as tarn, stm; san. PP. sa, sitha, sa; s

thur, stur ; sim., sr.
2. as throw, IV. : PR. symi, syati and syate ; symasi,
syanti; IPv. sya and syatt, syatu; PT. syant.
1PF. syat. P F . Sa. FT. asiyt1. Ps. asyte ; PP. ast.
GD. asya. INF. stave, stavi (B.).
ah say, P. : PP. ha, ttha (B.) ; htur (B.) ; hr.
p obtain, V. : PR. pnti. P F . pa, pitha ; pir ; PT.
pn. Ao. red.: pipan (B.) ; a: pat; o P . p y a m
(AV.). FT. psyti, te (B.) ; pt (B.). Ps. pyte (B.) ;
Ao. pi (B.) ; PP. pt. GD. ptv (B.), pya (B.). 1NF.
ptum (B.). cs. pyati (B.). Ds. psati, psate (B.) ;
Ao. ipst (B.) ; Ds. of es. pipayiet (B.).
s sit, I I . . : PR. ste ; sthe, ste ; smahe, sate ;
sB. sate ; oPT. sta ; 1Pv. s. 3. stm, pl. 2. dhvam ;
PT. sn and sna. iPF. pl. 3. sata. PP. s cakre
(B.). Ao. sia (B.). FT. siyti, te (B.). Pp. sit
(B.), GD. sitv (B. ), 1NF. situm (B.), cs. syati (B.),
i go, I I . : PR. t i ; ynti; . I. s. iye, du. 3. iyte, pl. 1.
mahe ; sB. y, yasi and yas, yati and yat ; yama,
yan ; 1NJ. pl. 3. yn ; oP. iym, iyt ; iyma ; rPv. ih,
tu ; itm, itm ; it and eta, itna, yntu ; PT. ynt,
iyn. 1PF. yam, is, it ; itam, itm ; ita, yan ;
. 3. pl. yata. I . : yati, yate; 1NJ. yanta; 1Pv.
3. du. yatam, pk yantm. V. : PR. inti ; invir.
1PF. inos, inot.
PF. iytha and iytha, iy y a; ythur, ytur; y r ;
PT. yiVs. PPF. iyes. FT. eyti; ayiyati (B.);
et (B.), PP. it. GD. itv, tya. 1NF. tum (B.) ;
tave, tavi, ityi, iydhyai, yase ; tos.
idh kindle, V I I . . : PR. inddh; indhte and indhat;
sB. indhate; 1pv. indhm (=inddh m ); indhvm
(=inddhvm), indhtm; PT. ndhna. 1PF. indha.
PF. dh ; dhir. Ao. sB. idhat ; oP. idhmhi ; P T .
idhan. Ps. idhyte; iPv. idhysva; Pr. idhymna;
PP. iddh. 1NF. dham; dhe. From the nasalized

root, indh, the i s Ao. i s f o r m e d in B. : 1ND. indhia;

oP. indhiya.
inv go, I . P. ( = V . inu+a) : PR. invasi, nvati; nvathas,
nvatas. sB. nvt ; 1Pv. nva, nvatu ; nvatam, n
vatm ; PT. nvant.
1. is desire, V I . : PR. ichti, t^ ; sB. icht ; 1NJ. ichs ;
ichnta; oP. ieht; ichta; 1Pv. ich, ichtu; ichta;
ichsva, ichtm ; PT. ichnt ; ichmna. 1PF. ichat.
PP. (B.) iya, r; 1, ir. Ao. (B.) it; iiur.
FT. (B.) eiyti, te. PP. i. GD. ya. 1NF. um
(B.) ; avi (B.).
2. i send, IV. : PR. yati, te ; 1Pv. yatam ; yata ;
PT. yant. I X . : PR. iti ; PT. int ; in. V I . :
PR. i ^ 1NJ. inta ; oP. ima ; 1PF. ianta. PP. thur,
r; , ir. PP. iit. GD. iya(B.). 1NF. idhyai.
cs. iyai, te ; 1NF. iaydhyai.
k see, I . . : PR. ke ; PT. kama. 1PF. ikata ;
iketm ; ikanta. PER. P F . k eakre (B.). Ao. i :
lkii. F T . kiyti, te (B.). PP. kit (B.). GDV.
key. GD. kitv (B.). cs. kyati, te.
kh swing: es. khyati, te; sn. khytai (AV.),
khayvahai ; 1Pv. khya ; P T . khyant. P P .
khit.
praise, I I . A. : PR. 1. e, 3. e ; ate ; sB. mahai
and mahe; 1NJ. ata (3. pl.) ; OP. ta; 1Pv. iva;
PT. na. PP. (3. s.). PP. it. GDv. ya, nya.
r set in motion, I I . : PR. rte ; rate; sB. rat; 1Pv. rva;
rthm; rdhvam, ratm; PT. ra. 1PF. iram,
irat, du. 2. iratam ; . airata (3. p l . ) . PP. r (B.).
cs. ryati; sB. rymahe; 1NJ. ryanta; 1Pv. rya,
ryatam; ryasva; ryadhvam; PT. ryant. 1PF.
irayat; irayata; 1NF. raydhyai. PP. rit.
be master, I L . : PR. 1. e, 2. ke a n d ie, 3. 1e,
e a n d (once) ate; the; mahe, idhve, ate;
1NJ. ata (3. s.) ; 0P. ya, ta ; PT. na. P P .ire;
PT. n.

 move, I . : PR. ati, te ; ati ; INJ. as ; Ipv. atu,

atu; pT. ant ; ama. P F . (1. 3.), pp. ita.
1. uk sprinkle, v L : PR. ukti, te ; ipv. uktam, ukta ;
ukthm ; PT. ukma. A0. i : ukiam (B.). F T .
ukiyti (B.). ps. ukyte (B.) ; p p . ukit. G D .
kya.
2. uk (=vak) grow, I . and v L : PR. PT. kant ; ukma.
i P F . ukat. Ao. s : uks. pp. ukit. cs. ukyate.
uc be pleased, I v . P. : PR. ucyasi. P F . uvcitha, uvca ;
ci, e ; PT. okivs, c. PP. ucit.
ud wet, v I L : PR. u n t t i ; undnti; undte (3. pl.). 1Pv.
undhi (=unddhi); u n t t a ; PT. undnt. v I . P.: PR.
undti (B.). IPF. unat. P P . dr. Ps. u d y t e ;
PP. utt (B.). GD. udya (B.).
ubj force, v I . P. : PR. ubjti ; 1Pv. ubj, ubjtu ; ubjtam ;
ubjntu; PT. ubjnt. 1PF. 2. ubj as, 3. ubjat. P P .
u.bjit. GD. ubjya (B.).
ubh confine, v I I . P. : I P F . unap (2. s.), nmbhan (TS.).
V I . P. : 1Pv. umbhta (2. pl.) ; I P F . umbhat. I X . P. :
1PF. ubhn s , ubhnt. PP. ubdh.
us burn, I . P. : PR. ati ; 1NJ. as ; 1Pv. a and att,
atu ; atam ; PT. ant. I X . P. : PT. unt. 1PF.
un. P F . uva (B.). Ao. ut (B.). PP. u (B.).
1. h remove, L : PR. hati ; iPv. ha. iPF. uhat ; uhata,
uhan; . uhata (3. s.). Ao. uht (B.); 0P. uhyat
(B.). PP. h (B.). GD. uhya and hya (B.). 1NF.
hitavi (B.).
2. h eonsider, I . . : PR. hate. I I . . : pR. hate (3. pl.) ;
PT. hna and ohn. PF. h; 2. du. hythe (=h
the ?). AO. uhia ; PT. hasna.
go, V I . P. : PR. chti (te, B.) ; sB. eh t ; 1pv. chtu;
chntu. I I I . P. : PR. iyarmi, iyri, yarti ; 1pv.
iyarta (2. pl.). V. : PR. mi, ti ; vnti ; v ;
vir ; 1NJ. s ; vn ; . ut (3. s.) ; sB. vas ;
1Pv. : . vtm (3. pl.) ; PT. vnt. IPF. vn. PF.
ritha, ra ; rthur, rr ; PT. arivs ; ara. Ac.

root : rta ; rata ; 1NJ. arta ( . 3. s.) ; oP. aryt (TS.) ;

arta ; PT. ar ; a : ram, arat ; rata, aran ; . rata
(3. s.) ; ranta ; sn. arma ; iNJ. aram ; aran ; . ar
mahi, aranta; 1Pv. aratam, aratm. FT. ariyti (B.).
PP. t. GD. tv, tya. Cs. arpyati ; AO. red. :
arpipam ; PP. arpit and rpita. GD. rpya, arpayitv
(AV.). 1NT. ari, larti.
j direet, V I . : PR. jti, te ; 1Pv. jta ; PT. jnt.
V I I . . : PR. j; jte (3. pl.); I V . : PR. jyate ;
PT. jyant. I . : PR. rjati (B.). Ao. PT. jasn.
1NF. jse.
d stir, V I . P. : 1Pv. dntu. 1PF. rdan. I . : PR. rdati
(AV.). Cs. ardyati; sn. ardyti.
dh thrive, V. P. . PR. dhnti ; 1PF. rdhnot. IV. : PR.
dhyati, te ; 1Pv. dhyat.rn. V I L P. : sB. dhat ;
OP. ndhy m ; PT. ndhnt. PF. nardha (K.) ; ndhr ;
ndh. AO. root : rdhma (B.) ; sB. dht ; . dh t he
(2. du.); OP. dhy m , dhys, dhy m a; dhmhi;
PRC dhy s am; PT. dhnt; a: oP. dht, dhma;
i : rdhia (B). FT. ardhiyte (B.) ; ardhit (B.).
Ps. dhyte; 1Pv. dhytm; PP. ddh. Gnv. rdhya.
cs. ardhyati. Ds. rtsati ; PT. rtsant.
rush, L : PR. rati, te ; sB. rt ; 1NJ. rat ; 1Pv.
ra, ratu; rata, rantu; PT. rant. V I . P.: PR.
ti ; PT. nt. PP. .
ej stir, I . P. : PR. jati ; sB. jti and jt ; 1Pv. jatu ;
PT. jant. 1PF. ijat. es. ejyati (B.).
edh thrive, I . A. : PR. dhate (B.) ; 1Pv. dhasva, dhatm
(B.). PER. PP. edh eakrire (B.). Ao. i : oP. edhiya.
kan, ka ejoy, I V . : PR. PT. k y amna. PF. cak; sn.
eaknas, caknat; eknma; 1NJ. cknanta; OP.
cakanyat; 1Pv. ckandh, ckntu; PT. cakn;
PPF. ckn (2. s ) . Ao. kniam ; sB. knias.
kam love: PP. PT. cakamn. Ao. r e d . : ckamata (B.).
FT. kamiyte (B.); kamit (B.), Cs. kmyate; sB.
kamyse; PT. kamyamna.

k appear, I . : PR. k ate (B.), INT. c k ami, c k ati;

ekayte (B.) ; sB. ckan (AV.) ; PT. ckaat. i P F .
ekaam. es. kyati.
kup be angry, IV. : PR. PT. kpyant. PP. kupit. cs.
kopyati.
I. k make, v : PR. kmi, ki, kti ; kuths, k
uts ; kmsi, kuth, kvnti ; . kv, ku,
kut ; kmhe, kvte ; 1NJ. kvta (3. pl.) ; sn.
kv, kvas, kvat; kvva; kvma,
kvtha (VS.), kvan ; . kvai, kvase,
kvate; kvvahai, kvite ( f o r kvaite);
kvmahai, kvanta; o P . kvt; 1Pv. k,
kuh and kut t , ktu; kutm, kut m ;
kut, kta, and ktana, kvntu ; . kuv,
kut m ; kv t hm ; kudhvm ; P T . kvnt ;
kvn. 1PF. kavam, kos, kot; kutam;
kuta, kota and kotana, kvan; . k
uta
(3.
s.)
;
kudhvam,
kvata.
VIII. : karmi, karti ; kurms, kurvnti ; kurv, ku
rut; kurvte; sB.karvas, karvt; 1Pv. knr,kartu;
. kurvtm. PT. kurvnt ; kury. 1PF. karos,
karot ; kurvan ; . kuruth s , kuruta ; kurvata.
I I . : PR. k r i ; k t h s ; k t h ; A. k.
PP. cakra, cakrtha, eak r a; eakrthur, cakrtur;
eakm, cakr, cakrr ; . eakr, eak, cakr ; ca
kr t he, eakr t e ; cakrir ; oP. cakriy s ; PT. cakv s ;
eakr. P P F . cakram, eakrat; cakriran. Ao. root:
karam, kar, kar ; krtam, kartm ; karma,
karta, kran ; . kri, kths, kta; krata; 1NJ.
kram, kr ; sB. kri, krasi and kras, krati and
krat ; krathas, kratas ; krma, kranti and kran ;
. krase, krate ; krmahe ; o P . kriy m a ; PRc.
kriy s ma; iPv. k d h ; ktm and k r t a m ; kt and
krtana; . kv; kdhvm; PT. k r n t ; kr.
Ao. a : karas, karat ; 1Pv. kara ; karatam, karatm ;
s^ krt (B.) ; . ki (B.), F T . kariyti; te (B.) ;

sB. kariys. co. kariyat (B.). Ps. kriyte ; PT. kri

yma ; AO. kri ; PP. kt. GDv. krtva. GD.
ktv , ktv, ktv y a. 1NF. krtave, krtavi ; krtos ;
krtum. cs. kryati, kryate (B.). ns. eikrati.
1NT. PT. krikrat and erikrat.
2. k commemorate : Ao. s : krarn ; is : kriam, krt.
1NT. erkarmi; sB. crkiran; Ao. erke (3. s.); GDv.
carktya.
kt cut, V I . P. : PR. kntti ; 1NJ. kntt ; 1Pv. knt ;
PT. kntnt. iPF. kntat. PF. cakrtitha, eakrta.,
Ac. a : ktas ; PT. ktnt ; red. : cktas (B.), FT.
kartsy m i. Ps. ktyte ; PP. ktt. GD. k t ya.
kp lament, I . . : PR. k p ate ; PT. k p ama. IPF. kp
anta. PF. cakpe (K.). PPF. cakpnta. Ao. root : kp
ran ; i : krapia. cs. PT. kpyant ; 1PF. kpayat.
k be lean, IV. P. : PR. k yati (B.). PP. cakra. PP.
kit (B.). es. karyati.
k plough, I . : PR. krati ; te (B.) ; 1NJ. krat ; 1Pv.
kra. VI. : PR. kti ; 1Pv. ktu ; kntu ; . k
sva; PT. knt. PP. eakra (B.). Ao. red. : cl^am ;
sa : kkat (B.). FT. kraky (B.). Ps: kyte ; PP.
k. GD. kv (B.), INT. 3. pl. erkati; B.
crkat; PT. crkat; 1PF. carkur.
k scatter, V I . P. : PR. kirti, te ; sB. kir s i ; 1Pv. kir,
kirtu. iPF. kirat. Ao. i : sB. kriat. Ps. kryte
(B.); PP. kr (B.),
kp be adapted, I . : PR. kIpate; 1Pv. klpasva; PT. klp
amna.
1PF. kalpata, kaIpanta.
PP. ckpr ;
ckpr. Ao. red. : ekpat ; sB. ckptI. FT. kalp
syte (B.). PP. klpt. es. kalpyati; sn. kalpyti;
kalpyvahai ; iPv. kalpya, kalpyatu ; kalpyasva ;
PT. kalpyant ; IPF. kalpayat. Ds. ckalpayiati (B.) ;
GD. kalpayitv .
krand ery out, I. P. : PR. krndati ; INJ. krndat ; 1Pv.
krnda, k r n d a t u ; PT. krndant.
I P F . krandas,
krndat.
PP. cakrad. PPF. cakradas, cakradat.

Ao. a : INJ. kradas ; red. : eikradas, eikradat ; ci

kradan; INJ. cikradas; s : krn (2. 3. s.), cs. krand
yati. INT. knikranti (3. s. = knikrantti) ; PT.
knikradat.
kram stride, I . P. : PR. kr m ati ; oP. kr m ema ; 1Pv. kr m a ;
PT. kr m ant ; i p F . krmat ; . : krmate ; sn. krm
ma; i p v . krmasva. PF. cakrma, cakramr; ca
kram ; cakram t he ; P T . eakram. P P F . ckram
anta ; A o . r o o t : kran ; kramur ; 1NJ. kramur ; a :
kramat, kraman; s: . krasta; krasata; sB.
krsate ; i : kramiam a n d kramm, krams,
kramt ; kramia (3. s.) ; I N J . krams ; 1Pv. kramim.
F T . krasyte ; kramiyti, te (B.) ; PP. krnt. G D .
krntv (B.), krmya. INF. krme ; krmitum (B.) ;
krmitos (B.). cs. krmyati (B.). 1NT. I P v . cakra
mata (2. pl.) ; cakramyte (B.),
kr buy, I X . : PR. kr t i ; krt ; sB. kr v ahai.
i P F . kran. PT. kreyti, te (B.). Ps. kryte (B.) ;
PP. krt. GD. krtv , krya (B.).
krudh be angry, I v P. : PR. krdhyati. P F . cukrdha (B.).
Ao. r e d . : cukrudhat ; sB. cukrudhma ; 1NJ. cukrudh
am ; a : 1NJ. krudhas. PP. kruddh. es. krodhyati.
kru ey out, I . : P R. krati ; I P v . kratu ; PT. krant ;
kramna. Ao. sa : krukat. PP. kru (B.).
kad div ide, I . . : PR. kdmahe. PP. cakad ; PT.
cakadn. 1NF. kdase.
kam endure, I . . : o p . kmeta ; i p v . kmadhvam.
PT. kmama.
P F . cakam (B.) ; o p . cakamths.
kar flow, L P. : PR. krati; 1NJ. krat; 1pv. kra;
krantu ; PT. krant. 1PF. karat ; karan. Ao. s :
kr. pp. karit (B.). INF. kradhyai. cs. kr
yati (B.),
1. k i possess, I I . P. : PR. ki, kti ; kits ; kiynti ;
sB. kyas, kyat; kyma; PT. kiynt. I . P. : PR.
kyati; o p . kyema (Av.) ; PT. kyant. I v P.:

PR. kyati; op. kyema; ipv. kya. Ao. s: sB. kat.

FT. PT. keynt. Cs. IPv. kayya; INJ. kepyat.
2. k i destroy, I X . : PR. ki t i ; kinti ; iNJ. ki m .
1PF. kis. V. : PR. kimi. IV. . : PR. kyate ;
kyante.
Ao. s: iNJ. kea ( A v ) . P s . kyte;
PT. kyma; PP. kit; k(Av), GD. k y a(B.).
1NF. ketos (B.), Ds. ekati (B.).
kip throw, v l . P. : PR. kipti ; iNJ. kipt ; 1Pv. kip ;
PT. kipnt. ^o. red. : 1NJ. eikipas ; cikipan. PP.
kipt. 1NF. keptos (B.).
ku whet, I I . : PR. ku.mi ; PT. kuvn. PP. kut
(B.), GD. kutya (B.).
khan, kh dig, I . : PR. khnati; sB. khnma; oP. khn
ema; PT. khnant. iPF. khanat; khananta. PP.
cakh n a; cakhnr. PP. PT. khaniynt. Ps. khyte
(B.) ; PP. kht. GD. khtv (B.) ; khtv (TS.), khya
(B.). 1NF. khnitum.
khd chew, I . P. : PR. kh d ati ; 1Pv. khda ; PT. kh d ant.
PF. cakh d a. PP. khdit (B.). GD. khditv (B.).
khid tear, v l . : PR. khidti ; 1NJ. khidt ; oP. khidt.
1Pv. khid ; khidnt. iPF. khidat. PF: PT. khidv s.
GD. khidya (B.).
khy sec: PP. cakhythur. Ao. a: khyat; 1NJ.. khyt;
1Pv. khytam ; khyta. F T . khysyti (B.). Ps.
khyayte (B.) ; PP. khyt. Gnv. khyeya. GD. khy y a.
1NF. khy t um (B.) ; khyi. cs. khypyati, te (B.).
gam go, I . : PR. gchati, te ; sB. gchsi and gchs,
gchti and gcht; gchtha, gchn; . gchai;
oP. gchet ; gchema ; 1Pv. gcha and gchatt, gchatu
and gchatt; gchatam, gchatm; gchata, g
chantu ; A. gchasva (Av), gchatm ; gchadvam ;
PT. gchant; gchamna. 1PF. gachat; gachnta.
PF. jagma, jagntha, jagma ; jagmthur, jagmtr ;
jaganm, jagmr; jagm; oP. jagamy m , jagamy t ;
jagamy t am, jagamyr; PT. jaganv s, jagmiv s;
jagmn. Per. PP. gamaya cakra (AV.). ppF. jagan

(2. s.) ; jaganta ; A. jagmiran. Ao. root : gamam, gan

(2. 3. s.) ; ganma, gman ; gaths, gata ; gnvahi ;
ganmahi, gmata ; sB. gmni, gmas, gmat ;
gmathas, gmatas; gmma, gmanti; 1NJ. gn;
op. gamy s ; gmya (B.) ; pRc. 3. s. gamys ; 1Pv.
gadh a n d gah, gntu; gatm and gantm, gantam;
gat, gnta a n d gntana, gmantu ; PT. gmnt ;
a : gamat, gaman ; sn. gamtas ; gamtha ; INJ. gm
an; gamyam, gams, gamt ; gamma; gammahi;
red. : jgamam, jgamat; s : gasmahi; i : gamiam;
gmiya (vS.). FT. gamiyti (Av.); gant (B.). ps.
gamyte; Ao. gmi; PP. gat. GD. gatv, gatvya,
gatv, gtya. iNF. gntave, gntavi, gmadhyai,
gamdhye (TS.); gntos, gmas. c s . gamyati and
gmyati. DS. jigsati; jgamiati, te (B.). 1NT.
gnganti; PT. gnigmat.
1. ggo, I l l . P.: PR. jgsi, jgti; 1NJ. jgt; 1Pv. jgtam;
jgta; PT. jgat. 1PF. jigt. PP. oP. jagyt. Ao. root:
gm, gs, gt ; gtam, gatm ; gma, gata,
gur ; sB. gni, gs, gt ; gma ; iNJ. gm ; gma, gr ;
IPv. gt and gtna; s : iNJ. gesam(vS.) ; gema(Av).
Ds. jgsa (SV). 1NF. gtave.
2. g sing, IV. : PR. gyasi, gyati ; g y anti ; . gye ;
1NJ. g y at; 1Pv. g y a; gyata, g y antu; PT. g y ant.
1PF. gayat. PP. jagn (B.). Ao. s : 1NJ. gsi (1. s . ) ;
si: gsiur; sn. gsiat. FT. gsyti (B.), Ps. PT.
gymna; PP. gt. GD. gtv (B.); gya (B.) and
gya (B.). 1NF. gtum (B.). cs. gpyati, te (B.).
Ds. jigsati (B.).
gh plunge, I . . : PR. ghase, g h ate; oP. g h emahi;
1Pv. g h ethm; PT. ghamna. 1PF. ghaths. INT.
jgahe.
gur greet, V I . : PR. 1Pv. gursva. PF. sB. jugurat; OP.
jugury s , jugury t . AO. root : grta (3. s. A.). PP. gurt.
GD. gurya.
guh hide, I . : PR. ghati, te; 1NJ. guhas; guhaths;

1pv. ghata; PT. gnant; ghamna. 1PF. ghat.

AO. a: guhs; 1NJ. guhs; PT. guhnt; guhmna;
sa : ghukat. Ps. guhyte ; PT. guhymna; PP. gh;
GDv. ghya, -gohya. GD. ghv. Ds. jgukatI.
1. g sing, IX. : PR. gmi, gti ; gts ; gmsi,
gnti ; . g, g, gt (and g), gmhe ;
1NJ. gt (3. s. .) ; 1Pv. ghi, gtu ; gtm,
gtm; gt, gntu; PT. gnt; gn. GD.
-grya (B.). 1NF. gi.
2. ^ wake : AO. red. : 2. 3. jgar ; 1Pv. jigtm ; jigt.
1NT. jgarti; jgrati; sB. jgarsi (AV.), jgarat; op.
jgriyma(VS.), jgyma(TS.); 1Pv. jgh and jgtt;
jgtm, jgtm ; PT. jgrat. 1PF. jgar. PP. 1. s. jgra. 3. jgra. PT. jgvs ; FT. jgariyti, -te
(B.); PP. jgarit (B.), cs. jgaryati (B.),
gdh be greedy, IV. P. : PR. PT. gdhyant. PP. jgdhr.
Ao. a : gdhat ; 1NJ. gdhs ; gdht.
g swallow, VI. P. : PR. girti. PF. jagra. A o . root :
sB. grat, gran; red.: jgar (2. s.); i s : 1NJ. gr1t.
FT. gariyti (B.). PP. gr. GD. -grya (AV.). 1NT.
sB. jlgulas ; PT. jargur.
grabh seize, I X . : PR. gbhmi, gbhti; gbhnti;
gbh; gbhte; sB. gbhs ; INJ. gbht (3. s . ) ;
1Pv. gbhhI. 1PF. gbhs, gbht; gbhan;
gbhata (3. pl. .). PF. jagrbha (1. s.) ; jagbhthur ;
jagbhm, jagbhr ; . jagbhr and jagbhrir ; op.
jagbhyt; pT. jagbhvs; PPF. jagrabham, jagrabht. Ao. root : grabham ; gbhran ; PT. gbh ;
a: gbham; red.: jigrabat; i : grabhm (TS.),
grabht; grabhma, grabhur; gbhata (3. pl. .).
INJ. grahha (2. pl.). pp. gbht. GD. gbhtv,
-gbhya. 1NF. -grabh, -gbh. es. PT. gbhyant.
gras devour, I. . : PR. grsate ; oP. grsetm. PF. op.
jagrast ; PT. jagrasn. pp. grasit.
grah seize, IX. : ghmi, ghti ; ghnti ; gh ;
ghmhe, ghte ; op. ghyt ; ipv. ghhi (AV.),

ghtt and gh ; ghtu ; ghtm ; ghntu ;

PT. ghnt; ghn. iPF. ght, ghan. PF.
jagrha, jagr h a; jaghm, jaghr; jagh. Ao. a:
1NJ . ghmahi ; i : graht ; graha. FT. grahyti
(B.); co. grahyat (B.), grahaiyat (B.). ps. ghyte;
PP. ght. GD. ghtv, ghya. 1NF. grhtavi (B.).
grhtos (B.). Cs. grhyati (B.). Ds. jghkati,
te (B.),
ghas eat: PF. jaghsa, jagh s a; oP. jaky t ; PT. jaki
vs (Av). Ao. root : ghas (2. 3. s.), ghat (3. s., B.) ;
ghastm (3. du., B.) ; ghasta (2. pl., B.), kan;
sB.ghsas, ghsat ; iPv. ghstm (3. du.); s : ghs (2. s.) ;
red. : jgbasat. PP. gdha (TS.). Ds. jighatsati.
ghu sound, I . : PR. ghati, ghate ; sB. ght ; ghn ;
PT. ghant. PP. jugha (B.). Ps. Ao. ghi. GD.
ghya. cs. ghoyati.
cak see, I I . : PR. eke ( = eke), ce; ckthe;
ckate; P. ek ( = cki) ; iPF. cakur. I . . : PR.
ckate (3. s.) ; 1PF. ckata (3. s.). PP. cacka ; ca
eak (B.), PPF. cacakam. GDv. ekya. GD. ckya.
1NF. cke, ckase ; cki. es. cakyati.
car move, I . P. : PR. crati ; sB. cri ; crva, cratas ;
crn ; crtai (Av.) ; 1NJ. crat ; oP. cret ; 1Pv. cra,
cratu; crata, crantu; PT. crant. 1PF. carat.
PP. cacra ; cerim, eerr. Ao. red. : ccarat ; s : cr
am (B.) ; i : criam; 1NJ. crt. FT. cariymi.
Ps. caryte (B.) ; PP. earit ; GDv. carya. GD. caritV
(B.) ; crya (B.). iNF. carse, critave, cardhyai ;
critavi (B.) ; critum (B.) ; critos (B.), cs. cryati,
te (B.). Ds. cicarati (B.), cieariati (B.), 1NT. crcarti ;
PT. carcryma.
cy note, L : PR. cyati (B.) ; PT. c y amna. PER. PF. cy
cakrur (B.). Ao. i : cyiam.
Ps. cyyte. GD.
cyitv ; cyya.
1. ci gather, v.: PR. einti; cinvnti; cinut; sB. cinv
at; oP. cinuy m a; 1Pv. cinuh, cintu; cinvntu;

cinuv ; PT. einvnt ; einvn. I . : PR. cyase, cyate ;

cyadhve ; 1NJ. cyat ; oP. eyema. PP. eikya ; ciky ;
eikyir. Ao. root : cet ; 1Pv. citna, ciyntu ; s :
caiam (B.) ; i : cyiam. FT. eeyti, te (B.).
Ps. oiyte(B.); PP. eit. GD. citv(B.). 1NF. ctum (B.) ;
ctavi (B.), Ds. ckate (B.).
2. c note, I I I . : PR. ciki (AV.) ; 1Pv. cikh (AV.), ciketu
(TS.) ; . (3. s.) cikitm (AV.) ; PT. cikyat. 1PF. ciket ;
eikayur (B.). PP. cikya ; cikytur ; c i k y r ; . 2.
du. eikthe (for cikythe). AO. root : cet ; . ci
dhvam. PP. cit. Ds. ckate.
cit perceive, I . : PR. ctati ; ctathas ; ctatha ; A. ctate ;
ctante; 1NJ. ctat; iPv. ctatm; PT. ctant; 1PF.
cetat. I I . . : PR. eit (3. s.). PP. cikta ; cikitr ;
. cikit; cikitr and eikitrir; sn. cikitas, ciketati
and eketat ; eketathas ; iPv. cikiddh ; PT. cikitv s ;
eikitan; PPF. ciketam; ciketat. AO. root: cet;
PT. ctna ; Ps. : ceti ; s : cait. 1NF. citye. es. cetyati,
te and cityati, te ; sB. cetyni, eetytai (TS.) ; oP.
eityema. Ds. 1NJ. ckitsat. INT. ckite (3. s. ) ; sB. c
kitat ; PT. ckitat.
cud impel, I . : PR. cdmi ; cdate ; 1NJ. cdat ; 1Pv. cda,
cdata; cdasva, cdethm. es. sn. codysi, cod
yt ; codyse, codyte ; PP. codit.
cyu move, I . : PR. cyvate ; 1NJ. cyvam ; eyvanta ; 1Pv.
cyvasva ; cyvethm ; eyvadhvam. PP. ^ cicyu,
cucyuv (3. s. ) ; 1NJ.cucyavat ; oP. cucyuv1nhi, cucyav
rta. PPF. cueyavat, cucyavt ; cucyavtana, cu
cyavur. Ao. s : cyohs. FT. cyoyate (B.). PP. cyut.
es. cyavyati, te.
chad or chand seem, I L : PR. chntsi. PP. cachnda;
or. cachady t . Ao. s: chn; ehnta (=chntsta),
chntsur; sB. chntsat. es. chadyati; chandyase;
1NJ. chadyat ; sB. chadytha ; chandyte ; 1rF.
chadayan.
ehid eut off, V I I . : PR. chindmi, ehintti ; ipv. chindh

(=ehinddh), chinttu; chintm (=chinttm). PP. c i

chda; cichid (B.). Ao. root: chedma; a: chidat;
ehidan ; s : chaitst (B.) ; 1NJ. chitth s . FT. chetsyti,
te (B.). Ps. chidyte ; PT. ehidymna ; Ao. chedi ;
PP. chinn. GD. chidya; chittv (B.). 1NF. chttavi
(B.) ; chttum ^(B.). Ds. cchitsati, te (B.).
jan generate, L : PR. jnati; s n . j n a t ; 1NJ. jnat; 1Pv.
j n a t u ; PT. jnant; jnamna. 1PF. janat; jnata
(3. s . ) ; jananta. PF. jaj n a; jajtur; jajr and
jajanr ; . jaji, jaj ; jajir ; PT. jajan. AO.
root : jani (1. s.) ; red. : jjanat, jjanan ; 1NJ. jjanam ;
jijananta ; is : jnim (3. du.) ; . janihs, jania ;
op. janiy, jani. FT. janiyti, te ; janit (B.) ;
co. janiyata (B.). Ps. : Ao. jani ; jni, jni. GDv.
jntva and jnitva. GD. janitv . 1NF. jnitos. cs. jan
yati, te ; sB. janys ; OP. janyes ; 1Pv. janya,
janyatu ; janyatam ; janyata. ns. jijaniate (B.).
jambh chew : Ao. red. : jjabham ; i : sB. jmbhiat.
PP. jabdh. es. : 1Pv. jambhya ; jambhyatam ; PT.
jambhyant. 1NT. jajabhyte (B.) ; PT. jjabhna.
jas be exhausted, I . : PR. PT. jsamna ; IV. : 1Pv. jsyata.
PP. jajsa; 1Pv. jajastm. Ao. red. : j1jasata (3. s., B.).
es. jsyati (B.),
j be born, IV. . : PR. jyate; 1NJ. jyata; oP. jyemahi;
1Pv. jyasva, j y atm; j y adhvam;
PT. j y amana.
1PF. jayaths, jyata ; jyanta. PP. jt.
1. j i conquer, I . : jyati, te ; sB. jysi, jys, jyti ;
jyva, jyatha; . jytai (AV.); 1NJ. jyat; oP.
jyema; 1Pv. jyatu; A. jyantm; PT. jyant. 1PF.
jayat. I I . P. : PR. ji. PP. jigtha, jigya ; jigythur ;
jigyr ; A. jigy ; PP. jigv s ; jigiv s (B.) ; Ao. root :
1NJ. j s ; 1Pv. jitm; s : jaiam, 3. jais (=jaist);
jaima; s n . jas, jat; jma; 1NJ. jam (VS.),
js; jma, jiur (AV.). FT. jeyti; PT. jeynt.
PP. j i t ; GDv. jtva. GD. jitv (B.) ; jtya. 1NF. j i ;
jtave (B.); jtum (B.). c s . jpyati (B.); jjapata

(VS.) and jjipata (TS.). Ds. jigati, te; pT. jg

ama.
2. j quicken, V. : PR. jini; jinv. 1PF. jinot (B.).
jinv quieken (=v jinu+a), I. : PR. jinvasi, jnvati; jnva
tas ; jnvatha, jnvanti ; . jinvate ; iPv. jnva, jnv
atu; jnvatam ; jnvata ; PT.jnvant. IPF. jinvat; jinv
atam. PP. jijinvthur. FT. jinviyti (B.). PP. jinvit.
jv live, I . P. : PR. jvati ; sB. jvni, jvs, jvti and jvt ;
j v tha, jvn ; oP. jvema ; 1Pv. jva, jvatu ; jvatm ;
jvata, j v antu; PT. j v ant. PP. jijva (B.). Ao. r o o t :
PRC. jvy s am; i : iNJ. jvt. FT. jviyti (B.). Ps.
jivyte (B.) ; PP. jvit. Guv. jvanya.
Gn. jvitv
(B.), 1NF. jvse; j v itavi, jv t ave (Ts. v s . ) ; jviturn
(B.). es. jvyati. Ds. jjviati (B.) ; jjy ati (B.) ;
rP. jijyit (B.).
j u enjoy, V I . : PR. jute ; oP. juta ; jurata ; PT.
juma ; 1PF. juat ; juata. PP. juja ; juju ;
sB. jjoati, jjoat; jjoatha, jjoan; . jjoate;
1Pv. jujuana ; PT. jujuv s ; juju. PPF. jujoam.
AO. root : juran ; sB. jati, jat ; . jase ; PT.
ju; i : sB. jiat. PP. ju gladdened and ja
welcome. GD. juv. es. joyate ; sB. joyse.
j speed, I X . P. : PR. jun t i; junnti; sn.jun s . I . . : PR.
jvate. PF. jujuvr; sB. jujuvat (=jjavat); PT. j
juvas ; jjuvn. PP. jt. INF. javse.
jrv consume, I . P. : PR. jurvati ; sB. j r vs ; 1Pv. jurva ;
PT. jrvanI. Ao. is : j r vt.
j sing, I . . : PR. jrate ; sB. jrte ; oP. jreta ; 1Pv.
jrasva, jratm ; PT. jrama. iNF. jardhyai.
j , jur waste away, I . P. : PR. jrati ;^ 1Pv. jratam ; PT.
jrant. v l . P. : PT. jurnt. I v . P. : PR. j r yati, juryati ;
PT. j r yant ; 1PF. jryan. PP. jajra ; PT. jujurv s.
AO. is : jriur. PP. jr, jr. es. jaryati, te ;
PT. jaryant and jaryant.
j know, I X . : PR. jn t i ; jnms, jnth, jnnti ;
jnt ; jnte ; sB^ jnma ; jn m ahai ; oP. jnthas ;

1Pv. jnh, jnt t , jn t u; jnt, jnntu; jndhvm,

jantm; PT. jnnt; jnn. 1PP. jnm, jnt;
jnan; . 3. pl. jnata.
PF. jaju; jaj; PT.
jajiv s and jniv s. Ao. r o o t : oP. jey s (Gk.
.yuo^); s: jsam (B.); jsths ; 1NJ. jeam ;
sis : jsiam. FT. jsyti, te (B.) ; jt (B.).
Ps. j y t e ; Ao. jyi; PP. j t ; GDv. jeya (B.).
GD. jtv (B.), jya (B.). 1NF. j t um (B.), jtos (B.),
cs. japyati; Ao. jijipat (TS.); Ps. japyte (B.) ;
PP. japt (B.) ; jpyati (B.). Ds. jjsate.
jy overpower, I X . : PR. jin t i; oP. jiny t ; PT. jinnt.
I v . . : PR. jyate. PP. jijyu (B.). Ao. si : jysiam
(B.). FT. jysyti, te (B.). Ps. jyte; PP. jt. Ds.
jjysati.
jval flame, I . P. : PR. jvIati (B.). PP. jajvIa (B.). Ao.
jvlt (B.). PT. jvaIiyti (B.). PP. jvaIit (B.). es.
jvaIyati (B.).
tas shake : PP. tatasr. PPF. tatasatam. Ao. a : tasat.
cs. tasyati, te ; INF. tasaydhyai. 1NT. sB. tantas
ite; GDv. tantas y ya.
tak fashion, I. P. : PR. tkati ; sB. tkma ; INJ. tkat ;
IPv. tkatam; tkata, tkantu; PT. tkant. iPP.
takat. I I . P.: PR. ti(B.), tkati (3. pl.) ; IPv. talh.
iPF. takma, taa. v . P. : PR. takuvanti (B.). PP.
tatka (takthur, takr) ; tatak. Ao. i : takiur.
PP. ta.
tan stretch, v I I L : PR. tanti ; tanmsi, tanvnti ; tanut ;
sB. tanvavahai; iNJ. tanuth s ; i P v . tan, tanuh,
tantu; . tanuv; tanudhvm; PT.tanvnt; tanvn.
1PF. tanuta; tanvata. PP. tatntha, tatna and
tt n a; . 1. tatan, 3. tatn and tat (t); tatnir
and tenir ; sB. tatnat ; tatnma, tatnan ; iNJ. tatn
anta ; oP. tatanyr ; PT. tatanvas. Ao. root : tan ;
. 2. taths, 3. tata ; tnata (3. pl.) ; a : tanat ;
INJ. tanat; s: tn and tst; tasi (B.); tas
mahi (B.) ; i : tnt. FT. tasyte (B.). Ps. tyte ;

AG. tyi (B.). PP. tat. on. tatv (B.), tatv y a (vS.),
ttya (B.). 1NF. tntum (B.).
tap heat, I. : PR. tpati, te ; sB. tpti ; 1NJ. tpat ; 1Pv.
tpatu ; PT. tpant. 1PF. tapat. I v P. : PR. tpyati (B.).
PF. 1. tatpa. 3. tat p a; tep; sB. tatpate; PT. tepn.
AO. root : PT. tapn ; red. : ttipe (3. s.) ; sB. ttipsi ;
s : tpst ; tapths ; INJ. tpst ; tptam. FT. tapsyti
(B.). Ps. tapyte ; AO. tpi ; PP. tapt. GD. taptv (B.),
tpya. INF. tptos (B.). c s . tpyati, te ( A v ) ; Ps.
tpyte (B.).
tam faints Iv. P. : PR. t m yati (B.). PP. tat m a (B.). AO. a :
1NJ. tamt. PP. tnt (B.). 1NF. tmitos (B.). tam
yati (B.).
tij be sharp, I. . : PR. tjate ; PT. tjamna. PF. 1Pv. titig
db (B.). PP. tikt. Ds. ttikate. 1NT. ttikte.
t u be strong, I I . P. : PR. tvti. PP. tt v a. PPF. tutos,
ttot. INT. PT. tVltVat ( = tvtuat).
tuj urge, v i l . : PR. tujnti ; tujte (3. pl.) ; PT. tujn.
v L : PR. tujte; PT. tujnt. PP. op. tutujy t ; PT. t
tujn and tutujna. ps. tujyte. 1NF. tujse, tujye,
tje. cs. PT. tujyant.
tud thrust, v L : PR. t u d t i ; 1pv. t u d ; t u d n t u ; PT.
tudnt. 1PF. tudt. PF. tutda. pp. tunn.
tur^(= t) pass. v I . : PR. turti, te; I v P. : 1Pv. turya;
I L P. : op. tury m a. PF. OP. tutury t ; tutur.^ma. pp.
trt (B.). GD. trya. 1NF. turve. cs. turyate.
Ds. ttrati.
td split, v l l . : PR. tdmi, ttti ; tntte (B.) ; 1PF. tat;
tndan. PF. tatrditha, tatrda; PT. tatdn. AO.
root : sB. tardas. pp. t (VS.), GD. tdya. 1NF. t d as.
tp be pleased, V. P. : PR. tpti ; sB. tpvas ; 1pv. tpuh ;
tputm; tput; VI. P. : PR. tmpti; 1pv. tmp;
IV. : PR. t p yati. PF. ttpr ; PT. ttp. AG. root :
PRC. tpy s ma ; a : tpat ; PT. tpnt ; red. : ttpas ;
ttpma. Co. tarpsyat (B.). pp. tpt. c s . tarpyati,
te ; Ds. ttarpayiati. Ds. titpsati ; B. ttpst.

t be thirsty, IV. : PR. tyati, te ; PT. tyant. PP. tat

r ; PT. tt and tat. Ao. root : PT. t ;
a : t t ; r e d . : ttma ; 1NJ. ttas. pp. tit. cs.
taryati (B.).
th crush, v l L P. : PR. thi; thnti; 1Pv. thu;
sB. thn ( A v ) ; PT. thnt. PF. tatrha. AG. a:
tham. Ps. thyte ; PP. th, th. GD. thv .
t cross, I. : PR. trati, te; SB. trthas ; 1NJ. t r a t ; OP.
tret ; 1Pv. tra ; PT. trant. 1PF. tarat. VI. : PR. tirti,
te; sn. tir t i ; 1NJ. tirnta; OP. tirta, tana (2. pl.); 1Pv.
tir ; tirta^ tirntu ; tirdhvam ; PT. tirnt. iPP. tirat.
I I I . : PT. ttrat. v l H . . : tarute. PP. tat r a ; titirr ;
PT. tatarus (weak s t e m ) a n d titirv s.
AO. r e d . : t
taras ; is : trt ; trima and trima, triur ; sB.
trias, triat ; 1NJ. trs, trt ; 0P. trimahi. Ps. Ao.
tri ; PP. tr. GD. trtv . 1NF. tiram, tire ; tar
dhyai ; tari. Cs. tryatI. Ds. ttrati (B.), 1NT.
trtarti ; tartrynte ; PT. tritrat.
tyaj forsake : PP. tityja ; 1Pv. tityagdh. PP. tyakt (B).
GD. tyjya (B.).
tras be terrified, I . P. : PR. trsat1. Ao. r e d . : titrasan ;
is : trss (B.). PP. trast (B.). INF. trasas. Cs. tras
yati. 1NT. ttrasyte (B.).
tr rescue, Iv. . : PR. tr y ase ; tr y adhve, tr y ante ;
1Pv. tr y asva, tr y atm ; tr y ethm, tr y etm ; trya
dhvam, tr y antm ; PT. tr y ama.
I I . . : 1Pv.
trasva ; tr d hvam. PP. tatr. Ao. s. : trsmahi (B.).
sn. trasate ; tr s the ; oP. tr s thm. FT. trsyte (B.).
PP. trt (B.). 1NF. trmae.
es. GDV. traya
y y ya.
tvi be stirred, I L P. : iPF. tviur. VI. . : tvianta.
PF. titvi ; PT. titvi. PPF. titvianta. PP. tviit.
1NF. tVi.
tsar approach stealthily, L P. : PR. tsrati. PF. tats r a.
AG. s. . tsr ; - is : ts^riam (B.). GD. tsrya (B.).
da, da bite, L P.:^ PR. dati ; 1pv. da; pr. dant. P F .

PT. dadavs. pp. da. GD. dav (B.). 1NT. PT.

dndana.
dak be able, I. : PR. dkati, te ; 1pv dkata ; PT. dk
ama. PF. dadak (B.). Ao. red. : dadakat (B.),
FT. dakiyte (B.), Guv. dakyya. es. dakyati (B.).
dagh reach to, V. : PR. op. daghnuy t (B.). Ao. root : 1NJ.
dhak (2. 3. s.) ; daghma; PRC. daghys (3. s . ) ; 1Pv.
dhaktm. FT. daghiynte (B.). 1NF. dghas (B.),
dghos (B.).
dab, dambh harm, I . P. : PR. dbhati ; sn. dbhti ; 1NJ.
dbhat. V. P. : PR. dabhnuvnti ; 1Pv. dabhuhi. PP.
dad b ha, dadmbha ; debhr ; 1NJ. dadabhanta.
Ao. root : dabhr ; 1NJ. dabhr.
Ps. dabhyte ; PP.
dabdh. GDV. dbhya. 1NF. dbhe;. dbdhum (B.).
cs. dambhyati. Ds. dipsati; sn. dpst; PT. dpsant;
PR. dh p sati (B.).
das, das lay waste, IV. P. : PR. dsyati ; oP. dsyet. L P. :
PR. dsati ; sB. dst ; 1NJ. dsat ; PT. dsant. PP. PT.
dadasvs.
Ao. a : 1NJ. dasat ; PT. dsamna ; is :
dst. PP. dast (B.). cs. dasyate; dsyati.
dah burn, I . P. : PR. dhati ; SB. dhti. I L P. : PR.
dhki. PP. dadha (B.). Ao. s. : dhkt ; dhk
(3. s . ) ; 1NJ. dhk (3. s.); PT. dhkant a n d dkant.
FT. dhakyti ; PT. dhakynt. Ps. dahyte ; PP.
dagdh. GD. dagdhv (B.) ; dhya (B.). 1NF. dhas
(B.), dgdhos (B.), dgdhum (B.). Ds. dhkate (B.).
1. d give, I I I . : PR. ddti ; dtte ; sB. ddas, ddat ;
ddan; ddtai(AV), ddmahe; 1NJ. dads, dadt; oP.
dady t ; dadmhi, dadrn ; 1Pv. daddh, deh, datt t ,
ddtu ; dattm, dattm ; datt and ddta, ddtana,
ddatu ; . datsv ; PT. ddat ; ddna ; 1PF. dadm,
dads, dadt ; dattam ; dadta, dattana, dadur ;
. datta. I. : dadati ; dadate ; 1NJ. dadat ; 1Pv. da
datm (3. s.) ; 1PF. dadat ; dadanta. PF. dadtha,
dadu ; dadthur, dadtur ; dad, dadr ; . dad,
dad t he, dadrir ; PT. dadvs, dadivs (Av), dad

v1ns (AV.) ; dadn.

Ao. root : ds, dt, dt ;
dma, dur, dr. . di diths (B.), dita (B.) ;
dimahi (TS.) and dmahi (VS.) ; sB. ds, dti, dt ; 1NJ.
dr ; op. deym; 1pv. d t u; dtm, dt m ; dt; dv
(VS.) ; a : dat. s. : dii ; sB. dsat, d s athas ; i N J .
dema (VS.) ; i : dadia (Sv). FT. dsyti ; te (B.) ;
dadiy (K.) ; dt (B.). ps. dyte ; PT. dadymna ;
AO. dyi ; PP. dta, datt, tta. GDV. dya. GD. dattv ,
dattv y a ; dya, dadya (Av.). 1NF. di, dtave,
d t avi, d 1 nane, dvne ; dm (B.), d t um ; dtos.
Cs. dpyati. Ds. PT. dtsant, ddsant.

2. d divide, I L P. : PR. dti ; dnti ; 1Pv. dntu. v l . P. :

PR. dymi, dyti; dy 1 nasi; IPv. dytu; dytm; I v . :
PR. dymasi ; 1Pv. dyasva, dyatm ; . PT. dyamna.
1PF. dyanta. PP. dadir (B.). Ao. root : dimahi (B.),
admahi (VS., K.) ; s : oP. diy. Ps. dyte ; PP. din ;
tta (B.). GD. dya.
3. d bind, V I . P. : PR. dyti ; 1PF. dyas. Ps. Ao. dyi ;
PP. dit.
d make offering, L P. : PR. d ati ; sB. d t ; oP. dema ;
1PF. dat. I I . P. : PR. di ; PT. d at. V. P. : PR.
dnti. PP. dada. sn. dadas, ddati and d
dat; PT. dadvs, dvs, divs (SV.). Cs.
dayat (B.).
di point, VI. : PR. dimi. ipv. ditu ; PT. dint ; di
mna. PF. dida ; sn. ddeati ; 1pv. didih, ddeu ;
didina. ppF. didia (3. s. . ) . Ao. root : dia;
s. : diki ; sa : dikat (B.). pp. di. GD. -dya.
iNF. de. iNT. ddii; 1PF. dediam; dedia;
dediyte.
dih smear, I L : PR. dgdhi ; dihnti ; sB. dhat ; PT. dihn.
1PF. dihan. Ao. s. : dhikur (B.). pp. digdh.
1. d fiy, IV. : PR. dyati ; te ; 1NJ. dyat ; 1pv. dya. IPF.
dyam. 1NT. 1NF. d d 1 y i t a v i .
2. d, dd shine : PR. ddyati (3. pl.) ; sB. d d ayat ;
1pv. didhi and ddihi; PT. d d yat; d d yna. 1PF.

ddes, ddet. PF. didthe, ddya ; ddiyr ; sB.

ddyasi and ddyas, ddyati and ddyat. PT.
ddivs.
dk be consecrated,I. . : PR. dikate (B.). PF. didk and
didkr (B.). Ao. red. : didkas (B.); is : dkia (B.).
FT. dkiyte (B.). PP. dkit. GD. dkitv (B.). es.
dkyati (B.). Ds. didkiate (B.).
dip shine, I v . : PR. d p yate. Ao. red. : didpat ; d
dipat (B.) ; 1NJ. didpas. es. dpyati.
dv play, I v : PR d v yati; dvyate (B.). PF. didva.
PP. dyt. GD. ^dvya.
du, d burn, v. P. : PR. dunti ; dunvnti ; PT. dunvnt.
AO. is : sB. dvii (or from du go ?). PP. dn.
dus spoil, I v . P.. : PR. dyati (B.). AO. red. : dduat;
a: dut (B.) ; is: doiam (B.). C s . dyati; FT.
dayiymi.
duh milk, I L P. : PR. dgdhi ; duhnti ; . dugdh ; duhte
and duhat, duhrate and duhr ; sB. dhat; dhate;
oP. duhyt, duhyn ; 1Pv. 3. du. dugdham ; . 3. s.
duh m ; 3. du. duhthm ; 3. pl. duhr m (Av.) and
duhrtm (Av.) ; PT. duhnt; dghna, dhna, and
duhn; IPF. dhok; d u h r ; duhan (B.) and duhran
(Av.). I. . : PR. dhate. VI. : 1PF.duhat (TS.). PF. du
dha, dudhitha; duduhr; A. duduh ; duduhr and
duduhrir ; PT. duduhan. Ao. s : dhukata (3. pl.) ;
1NJ. dhukata (3. pl.) ; oP. dhukmhi; sa: dhukas,
dukat and dhukat ; dhukan, dukn and dhuk
n; . dhukata, dukata and dhukata; 1NJ.
dukas ; . 3. dukata and dhkata ; pl. dhuknta ;
1Pv. dhuksva. Ps. duhyte; PT. duhymna; PP.
dugd. GD. dugdhv (B.). 1NP. duhdhyai; dohse;
dgdhos (B.). cs. dohyati (B.). Ds. ddukati.
I. d pierce, I I . P. : PR. dri. I X . P. : oP. dyt(B.). PF.
dadra ; PT. dadv s. AO. root : dar ; s : sB. drasi,
drat ; . drate ; OP. dar. Ps. dryte (B.) ;
Ps. dr (B.). GD. drya (B.), cs. daryati ; drayati

(B.). 1NT. drdarmi, drdarti; sB. drdirat; 1Pv.

dardhi a n d ddhi, dardartu; PT. drdrat; dridrat
(TS.); 1PF. dardar, dardar (2. 3. s.) ; dardtam;
dardirur.
2. d heed : AO. dths (B.) ; s : dhvam (B.). Ps. driyte (B.). GD. dtya.
dp rave, IV. P. : PR. dpyati. AO. a : dpat (B.). FT.
drapsyti (B.) a n d drapiyti (B.). PP. dpt a n d
dpit.
d see: PF. dadra; . dadk, dde; ddre,
dadrire (TS.); 1Pv. (3. pl. . ) dadrm (AV.); PT.
dadvs ; ddna. A O . r o o t : daram (B.) ; darma
(TS.), dma (B.), darur (B.) ; . 3. pl. dran,
dram; sB. drati, drathas, dran ; 1NJ. dram;
PT. dn and dna ; a : dan ; 1NJ. dan ; oP. d
yam; s: drk (B.) and drkt (B.) ; . dkata (3.
pl.) ; sB. dkase ; sa : dkam (K.) ; r e d . ddat (B.).
FT. drakyti (B.). Ps. dyte ; Ao. dari a n d dri ;
PP. d ; GDv. dnya. GD. dv, dvya, -dya.
iNF. d, dye ; drum.
c s . daryati.
ns.
ddkase.
dh make firm, I . P. : ipv. dha ; dhata ; iPF. dhat.
v l . . : PR. dhthe ; 1pv. dhntm ; PT. dhnt.
1PF. dhta (3. s.). Iv. : Ipv. dhya ; dhyasva.
PF. PT. ddh. PPF. dadhanta. Ao. is : dhs,
dht. pp. dh. c s . dhyati.
dyut shine, I . . . pR. dytate. PF. diyta ; didyutr ;
A. didyut ; PT. didyutn. A o . r o o t : PT. dyutnt ;
dytna a n d dyutn ; a : dyutat (B.) ; r e d . : didyutat ;
INJ. didyutas ; s. : dyaut. FT. dyotiyti (B.). PP.
dyutt. GD. -dyutya (B.). Cs. dyutyati (shine), dyotyati (illumine). 1NT. dvidyutati (3. pl.) ; sB. dvidyutat ;
PT. dvidyutat; iPF. dvidyot.
1. dra run, I I . P. : IPv. drntu. PF. dadrr ; PT. dadr.
Ao. s : sB. drsat. es. drpyati (B.) ; Ds. ddrapayiati
(B.). INT. PT. dridrat.

2. dr sleep, I I . P. : PR. drti (B.). Ao. sis: drst (B.),

PT. drsyti (B.). PP. dr.
dru run, I . P. : drvati. PP. dudr v a (B.) ; sB. dudrvat.
PPF. dudrot. Ao. red. : dudruvat (B.), PT. droyti
(B.). PP. d m t (B.). GD. drutv (B.) ; drtya (B.).
cs. dravyati (flows) ; drvyati. 1NT. PP. dodrva.
druh be hostile, IV. P. : PR. drhyati (B.). PP. 1. dudrha,
2. dudrhitha. Ao. a : druhs ; INJ. druhs ; druhn ;
sa : drukas (B.). FT. dhrokyti. PP. drugdh. GD.
drhya. 1NF. drgdhavi. Ds. ddrukat.
dvi hate, I L : PR. dvi ; dvims ;B.dvat ; dvma ;
. dvate ; 1Pv. dvu ; PT. dvint. PP. didva (B.).
Ao. sa: 1NJ. dvikt; . dvikata (3. s.). PP. dvi.
GDv. dVya, dvieya. 1NF. dvos (B.).
dhan run : PF. sB. dadhnat ; oP. dadhanyr ; PT. dadhan
vs. cs. dhanyan; . dhanyante; dhanyanta.
dhanv run, L P. : PR. dhnvati ; sn. dhnvti ; iPv.
dhnva. PF. dadhanv ; dadhanvir. Ao. i : adhanv
iur.
dham, dhm, blow, I . P. : PR. dhmati ; PT. dhmant.
1PF. dhamat. Ps. dhamyte; dhmyte (B.) ; PP.
dhamit and dhmt. Gn. dhmya (B.).
1. dhput, III. : PR. ddhmi, ddhsi, ddhti; dhat
ths ; dadhmsi and dadhms, dhatt, ddhati ; .
dadh, dhats, dhatt ; dadh t he, dadh t e ; ddhate ;
sB. ddhni, ddhas, ddhat; ddhathas; ddhma,
ddhan; . ddhase, ddhate; ddhvahai; oP. d
dhta and dadht ; dadhmhi ; 1Pv. dheh and dhattt,
ddhtu ; dhattm, dhatt m ; dhatt and dhattna,
ddhatu; . dhatsv; ddhatm. PT. ddhat; d
dhna. 1PF. dadhm, dadhs, dadht ; dhattam ;
dhatta, dadhur; . dhatths, dhatta. PF. da
dhtha, dadhu; dadhtur; dadhim, dadhr; .
dadhi, dadh ; dadhthe, dadhte ; dadhidhv, da
dhir and dadhr ; 1Pv. dadhiv ; dadhidhvm. Ao.
root : dhm, dhs, dht and dhat ; dhtam, dhtm ;

dhur ; . dhiths, dhita ; dhtm ; dhmahi ; sB.

dhs, dhti and dht ; dhma ; dhthe, dhithe ; dh
mahe; 1NJ. dhm; dhr; . dhmahi; op. dheym;
dheyr; 1Pv. dh t u; dhtam; dh t a, dhtana, and
dhetana, dh n tu ; . dhiv ; a : dhat (Sv), dht ;
s : dhii (B.) ; dhiata (B.) ; sB. dh s athas ; dh s atha ;
iNJ. dhsur ; oP. dhiy (B.), dhey (MS.). FT. dh
syati, te(B.); dht(B.). Ps. dhyte; Ao. dhyi; PP.
hit, dhita. GD. dhitv (B.), dhya. 1NF. dhe, dh
tave, dh t avi, dhiydhyai; uh m ; dh t um (B.);
dhtos. cs. dhpyati ; sB. dhpythas. Ds. didhiati,
te ; 1NJ. ddhianta ; oP. didhiema ; ddhieya ; 1Pv.
ddhiantu ; PT. ddhia ; dhitsati, te ; GDv. didhi
yya.
2. dh suck, I v P. : PR. dhyati. Ao. root : dht. PP.
dht. GD. dhtv (B.), dhya (B.). 1NP. dh t ave.
Cs. dhpyate ; ti (B.).
1. dhv run, I . : PR. dh v ati, te. PPF. dadhvat. Ao:
i : dhvt (B.). Cs. dhvyati.
2. dhv wash, I . : PR. dh v ati, te. Ao. i : dhvia.
PP. dhaut. es. dhvayati, te(B.).
dh think, I I I . : PR. ddhye ; ddhythm and ddhthm
(Av.) ; sB.ddhayas; ddhayan ; PT.d d hyat; d d hyna.
iPP.ddhet, ddhet; ddhayur; A. ddhta. PP. ddh
y a ; ddhim, ddhiyr and ddhyr; ddhir. PF.
dht. INT. dedhyat (TS.).
dh shake, v. : PR. dhnti ; dhnut ; sB. dhnvat ;
1Pv. dhnuh and dhn ; dhunu.t ; . dhnuv ; PT.
dhnvant ; dhnvn. 1PF. dhnot ; . dhnuths,
dhnuta. v I . P . : PR. dhuvti; oP. dhvt. PF. dudhuv;
oP. dudhuvt. PPF. ddhot. Ao. root: pr. dhuvn;
s : . dhata (3. pl.). FT. dhaviyti, te (B.). Ps.
dhyte ; PP. dht. GD. dhtv (B.), dhuya. 1NT.
ddhavti ; PT. ddhuvat and dvidhvat ; PF. davi
dhva.
dh hold : PP. ddhrtha, ddh r a ; dadhr, dadhrir.

AO. root : 1NJ. dhth s ; red.: ddharat; ddhr (2. 3. s.);

1NJ. d d harat; iPv. didhtm; didht. FT. dhariyte.
Ps. dhriyte; PP. dht. on. dhtv (B.), dhtya (B.),
1NF. dhrmae; dhartri; dhrtavi (B.). cs. dhr
yati, te; FT. dhrayiyti ; Ps. dhryte (B.), 1NT.
d r d h a r i ; iPP. dardhar; dadharti (B.); 3. pi. da
dhrati (B.); 1Pv. ddhartu (B.).
dh dare, v . : PR. dhti ; 1Pv. dhuh. PP. dadhra ;
ddhr. sB. dadhrsati and dadhrat; . dadh
ate ; 1NJ. dadhart ; PT. dadbv s ; PPF. ddhanta.
AO. a : 1NJ. dht ; PT. dhnt ; dhma ; dha
(Av.) ; is : dhariur (B.). PP. dh and dhit.
GDv. dhya. GD. dhya (B.). 1NF. dhe ; dhas.
Cs. dharyati (B.).
dhy think, I v . P. : PR. dhy y ati. PF. dadhyn (B.).
Ao. s i : dhysiam (B.). PER. FT. dhyat (B.), PP.
dhyt (B.). GD. dhytv . Ds. ddhysate (B.).
dhraj, dhrj sweep, I . : PR. PT. dhrjant ; dhr j amna.
1PF. dhrajan. AO. i : oP. dhrji1y.
dhvas scatter, I . P. : PR. dhvsati, te(B.). PP. dadhvas.
Ao. a: dhvasn. PP. dhvasta (B.). Cs. dhvasyati;
dhvasyati, te (B.).
dhvan sound : Ao. i s : dhvant. PP. dhvnt. Cs. dhvan
ayat ; Ao. 1NJ. dhvanyt.
dhv injure, I . P. : PR. dhvrati (B.). Ao. s : . dhurata
(3. pl.). 1NF. dhrvae. Ds. ddhrati.
nak attain, I . : PR. nkati, te ; 1NJ. nkat ; 1Pv. nk
asVa; PT. nkant; nkama. 1PF. nakan. PF.
nanakr ; nanak.
nad sound, I . P. : PR. ndati. Cs. nadyati. 1NT. nnad
ati (3. pl.); nnadyte (B.); PT. n n adat.
nam bend, I . : PR. nmati, te. PF. nn m a ; nem. PPF.
nanmas. AO. red.: i N J . nnamas; s: nn (K.) ;
. nasata (3. pl., B.). sB. nsai, nasante; PT.
namasn. FT. nasyti (B.). PP. nat ; GDv. nntVa.
GD. ntya (B.). 1NF. nmam, nme. Cs. namyati.

L I S T OF v E B B S

395

1NT. nnnamti ; nnnate (3. s.) ; PT. nnnamat ; nn

namna ; 1PF. nannata (3. s.).
1. nas be lost, I v . P. : PR. nyati ; I . : PR. nati, -te.
P F . n a n a ; nesr(B.). Ao. red. : nnaat; nat; 1NJ.
nnaas ; nat. FT. naiyti. PP. na. cs. n
yati ; 1NF. naydhyai.
2. na attain, I . : PR. nati, -te. Ao. root : na (2. 3. s.),
n (3. s.) ; nam ; 1NJ. nk and n (3. s.) ; . ni ;
oP. namhi ; s : sB. nkat. INF. ne. Ds. nakasi ;
1NJ. nakat.
nas unite, I . . : PR. nsate ; nsmahe ; 1NJ. nsanta.
Ao. root : oP. nasmhi.
nah bind, I v . : PR. nhyati; i P v . nhyatana (2. pl.); PT.
nhyamna. PP. nanha. Ps. PT. nahymna; PP.
naddh. GD. nhya (B.).
nth, ndh seek aid, I . . : PR. n t hate (B.) ; PT. ndha
mna. PP. nthit ; ndhit.
nij wash, I L . : PT. nijn. I I I . : 1Pv. ninikt (2. pl.).
Ao. a : nijam ; s : naikt ; 1NJ. niki. PP. nikt.
GD. niktv ( B.), nijya(B.). 1NF. nije. Cs. nejyati(B.).
1NT. nenikt; 1Pv. nenigdhi.
nind, revile, I . P. : PR. nndati ; sB. nindt ; 1Pv. nindata.
PP. nindim ; ninidr.
Ao. root : PT. nidan ; is :
nindiur ; sB. nndiat. Ps. nindyte ; PP. nindit.
Us. sB. ninitst.
n lead, I . : PR. nyati, te ; B. nyti, nyt ; . nysai
(Av.); 1NJ. nyat; nyanta; iPv. nyatu; . nyasva ;
PT. nyant; nyamna; 1PF. nayat. I I . : PR. n s i ( =
IP v.) ; neth ; IPF. ntm (3. du.). PP. nintha, ninaya ;
ninythur; ninye (B.) ; sB. ninths; oP. ninyat; 1pv.
nintu. Ao. s : naia (2. pl.) ; neata (3. pl.) ; sn.
nati, nat ; natba ; INJ. naia (2. pl.) ; . nea
(3. s.); i : nayt (AV). FT. neyti; te (B.); nayi
yti (B.). ps. nyte ; pp. nt. GD. ntv (B.), nya.
INF. nei; ntavi (B.); ntum (B.), nyitum (B.);
ntos (B.). Ds. ninati (B.). 1NT. nenyte.

nu praise, I . : PR. nvati ; nvmahe, nvante ; 1NJ.

nvanta; PT. nvant; nvamna. IPP. navanta. I I .
P. : PT. nuvnt ; 1PF. nvan. PPF. nnot, nunot ;
Ao. s : . ni ; ntm ; nata ; I N J . nata
(3. pl.) ; i : . navia. GDv. nvya. 1NT. nnavti ;
nonums a n d nonumsi ; sB. nnuvanta ; iPF. nvnot ;
nonavur ; PP. nnva ; nnu.vur.
nud push, v l . : PR. nudti, te ; PP. nunud ; nunudr.
A o . r o o t : 1NJ. nuttn s ; i : i N J . nudih s .
FT. not
syte (B.). PP. nutt ; nunn (Sv.). INF. nde ; nudas.
1NT. nonudyanta (B.),
nt danee, I v . P. : PR. n t yati ; 1Pv. ntya, n t yatu ; PT.
n t yant. Ao. r o o t : ntur (PP. ?) ; a : PT. ntmna ; i s :
nartiur. PP. ntt. Cs. nartyati.
pac cook, I . : PR. pcati, te ; sB. pcni, pcti, pct ;
1NJ. pcat ; 1Pv. pcata, pcantu. I v . . : PR. pcyate.
PF. papca ; pec. PPF. peeiran. Ao. s : sB. pkat.
FT. pakyti, te (B.) ; pakt (B.). PS. pacyte. GD.
Paktv. 1NF. pktave. Cs. pcyati, te (B.),
pat fly, I . P. : PR. ptati ; sB. ptti, ptt 1NJ. ptat ;
oP. ptet ; 1Pv. ptatu ; PT. ptant. 1PF. patat. PP.
papta ; petthur, pettur ; paptim, paptr ; oP.
papatyt; PT. paptivs. Ao. red. : paptat a n d p
patat; paptma, paptan; 1NJ. paptas, paptat; paptan;
1Pv. paptata. FT. patiyti ; Co. patiyat (B.). Ps. Ao.
pti (B.) ; PP. patit. GD. patitv, ptya (B.). 1NF.
pttave; ptitum (B.). Cs. patyati, te; ptyati.
Ds. ppatiati. INT. p p atti ; sB. p p atan.
pad go, I v . : PR. pdyate ; padyati (B.) ; 1Pv. pdyasva;
PT. pdyamna ; iPP. padyanta. PF. pap d a ; ped
(B.). A o . r o o t : padmahi, padran ; sB. padti^, padt ;
PRC. pad; r e d . : ppadma; s : 1NJ. patsi (1. s.),
patth s . FT. patsyati (B.). Ps. Ao. pdi, p d i; PP.
pann. GD. pdya. 1NF. pdas ; pttum (B.), pttos
(B.). Cs. pdyati, te ; Ps. pdyte (B.) ; Ds. ppda
yiati (B.).

pan admire, I . . : PR. 1NJ. pnanta. PF. papna (1. s.) ;

papn. Ao. i s : pania (3. s.). ps. panyte ; PP.
panit. es. panyati, te; GDv. panay y ya. 1NT. PT.
pnipnat.
pas see, I v : PR. pyati, -te ; sB. pyni, pysi and
pys, pyt ; pyma, pyn ; INJ. pyat ; oP.
pyet ; pyeta ; 1Pv. psya ; pyasva ; PT. pyant ;
pyamna ; iPF. payat ; payanta. Cp. sp.
1. p drink, I . : PR. pbati, te ; sB. pbsi, pbti and
pbt ; pbva, pbthas, pbtas ; 1NJ. pbat ; 1Pv.
pbatu ; pbasva ; pbadhvam ; PT. pbant ; 1PF. pibat.
I I I . : PR. pipte (B.), pipate (B.) ; op. pipya (B.) ; 1PF.
pipita(B.); 1pv. pipatu (K.) ; PT. pipn and ppna
(Av.). PF. pap t ha, papu ; papthur, p a p r ; .
pap ; papir ; oP. papy t ; PT. papiv s ; papn.
Ao. root : pm, ps, pt ; pma, pur ; sB. ps ;
pths; p n ti; PRC. peys (3. s . ) ; iPv. ph, p t u ;
ptm, ptm ; pt and ptna, p n tu ; PT. pnt ; s :
1NJ. psta (3. s.). FT. psyti, te (B.). Ps. pyt ; Ao.
pyi ; PP. pt. GD. ptv, ptv ; pya. 1NF. ptye,
p t ave, p t avi ; ptos (B.) ; pbadhyai. cs. payyati ;
Ds. ppyayiet (K.). Ds. ppsati; ppati; PT.
pipant.
2. p proteet, I I . : PR. pmi, psi, pti ; pths, pts ;
pth, pthna, p n ti ; sB. pt ; ptas ; 1Pv. ph,
ptu ; ptm, ptm ; pt, p n tu ; PT. pnt ; pn ;
1PF. pm, ps, pt ; pma, pur. Ao. s : sB. p s ati.
pi, p swell, L . : PR. pyate. I L . : PT. pyna. v :
PR. pinvire ; PT. pinvnt, I. pinvat ; pinvn. PF. p
ptha, ppya; pipythur; pipyr ; pipy (3. s.); sn.
ppyas, ppyat ; ppyatas ; ppyan ; ppyata ;
ppyanta ; 1NJ. pipes ; 1Pv. ppih, ppaya ; pipyatam,
pipyatam ; pipyata ; PT. ppiv s ; p p yana and
ppyn. PPF. pipet; pipema, ppyan; ppayat;
ppayanta. PP. pn (Av.).
pinv fatten, I . : PR. pnvati, te ; INJ. pnvat ; pnvanta ;

1Pv. pnva; pnvatam; pnvata; . pnvasva, pnv

atm ; pnvadhvam ; PT. pnvant ; pnvamana ; 1PF.
pinvam, pinvas, pinvat; pinvatam; pinvata,
pinvan; . 3. s. pinvata. PP. pipinvthur. PP.
pinvit (B.). Cs. pinvyati (B.). Cp. p i swell.
pi adorn, v I . : PR. piti, -te. PF. pipa ; pipir ; A.
pipi ; pipir. AO. root : PT. pian. Ps. piyte ;
Pp. pi ; piit. INT. PT. ppisat ; ppina.
pi crush, V I I . P. : PR. pini ; pinti ; INJ. pik (2. 3.
s.) ; 1pv. pinana ; PT. pint ; 1PF. pik. v l . P. :
1PF. pan (v.). PF. pipa ; pipi. Ao. sa : pik
an (B^). Ps. piyte (B.) ; pp. pi. GD. piva (B.).
1NF. pavi (B.) ; pum (B.).
p press : PF. pip. Cs. pyati.
pus thrive, I v . P. : PR. pyati. PF. pupa ; oP. pupuys ;
PT. pupuvs. Ao. root : PRC puysam (B.) ; pus
ysma (B.) ; a : oP. puyam ; puma. PP. pu. 1NF.
puyse. es. poyati.
p cleanse, IX. : PR. punmi, punti; punnti; punte; pu
nte (AV.)and punat; 1Pv. punh and puntt, puntu ;
puntm ; punt, puntna and punta, punntu ; PT.
punnt ; punn ; 1PF. punan. I . A. : PR. pvate ;
sB. pvte ; 1Pv. pvasva, pvatm ; pvadhvam,
pvantm ; PT. pvamna ; 1PF. pavaths. PF. pupuv
r(B.); pupuv (B.). PPF. pupot. Ao. i : pviur;
1NJ. pavia (3. s.). Ps. puyte; PP. pt. GD. ptv ;
ptv ; pya (B.). 1NF. pavitum (B.), Cs. pavyat,
te (B.), pvyati (B.).
ppass, I l l . P. : PR. ppari, pparti; pipths; pipth,
pprati ; 1Pv. piph and piptt, ppartu; piptm; pi
pt and ppartana. AO. red. : pparam, pparas ; p
paran ; 1NJ. p p aras, p p arat and pprat ; s : sB. prati,
Prs^t; 1Pv. para; i : sB. priat. 1NF. par1. Cs.
pryati ; sB. pryti ; PT. pryant.
pc mix, V I L : PR. pki ; pcnti ; . pc, pkt ;
pcte (3. pl.) ; 1NJ. pk (3. s.) ; OP. pct ; 1Pv.

pdh (= pgdh), pktu; pktm; PT. pcnt;

pcn ; 1PF. pak (3. s.). I I I . P. : 1Pv. pipgdh ;
pipkt. PF. papcr (B.) ; sB. papcsi ; oP. papeym,
papcyt ; PT. papcan. Ao. root : sB. prcas ; oP.
pcmhi ; PT. pcn ; s : prk ; . pki, pkta.
Ps. pcyte; PP. pkt; pga. INF. pce; peas.
p fill, v l . : PR. pti ; sB. pithe (du. 2.) ; 1Pv. p ;
pta ; psva ; pdhvam ; 1PF. pat. 1NF. p
dhyai. Cp. p fill.
p fill, IX. : PR. pmi, psi, p t i ; pts ; pnti ;
sB. p t i, pt ; oP. pyt ; 1Pv. ph, p t u ;
ptm ; pt, ptna ; . pv ; PT. pnt ;
1PF. ps, pt. I I I . : PR. pparmi, pparti ; p
prati (3. pl.) ; 1Pv. ppartu ; pipt m ; pipartana ; 1PF.
piprata (3. s. pipta). PF. oP. pupury s ; PT. pap
vs. AO. r o o t : 1Pv. prdh ; PRC. priysam (Av.) ;
red. : ppuram (B.) ; 1NJ. pparat ; 1Pv. pupurantu ; i :
prihs (B.). Ps. pryte (B.) ; PP. pur ; purt.
1NF. puras (K.), es. puryati ; sB. pryti.
py fill up, IV. A. : PR. pyyase ; 1Pv. pyyasva, pyyatam ;
pyayantm ; PT. py y amna. A0. si : oP. pyasimahi
(AV.). PP. pyt. Cs. pyyyati; Ps. pyyyte (B.).
prach ask, v l . : PR. pehti, te ; sn. pcht ; pchn ; .
pehi. PF. paprcha ; papraehr (B.). A0. s : prak
am p r ; prkt. FT. prakyti (B.). Ps. pch
yte ; PP. p ; GDv. papkya. 1NF. pcham,
pche ; prum.
prath spread, I . . : PR. prthate. PF. 2. papr t ha ( = pa
prttha ^) ; . paprath and pprathe (3. s.) ; sB.
paprthas, paprthat; paprthan; INJ. paprathanta;
PT. paprathn.

A c . root : PT. prathn ; i : 3. s. .

prathia ; prthia. es. prathyati, te.

pr fill, I I . P. : PR. prsI. PF. papr t ha, papr and papru ;
paprthur, paprtur ; paprr ; . pap, papr ; PT.
papv s. Ao. root : prt ; sB. prs ; s : 3. s. pras.
Ps. Ao. pryi ; PP. prta.

pr please, I X . : PR. pr t i; prt ; PT. prnt ; prn.

1PF. prt. PF. pipriy ; sB. pipryas, pipryat ; 1Pv.
piprh ; pipryasva ; PT. pipriy. PPF. piprayam,
pipres (B.) ; piprayan.
Ao. s : prait (B.) ; B.
prat. PP. prt. GD. prtv (B.). Ds. pprati.
pruth snort, L : PR. prthati ; PT. prothnt ; prthamna.
GD. prthya. INT. PT. ppruthat.
pru sprinkle, V. : PR. pruuvnti ; pruut ; sB. pru
vat. VI. P. : IPv. pru ; PT. prunt. IV. P. : iPF.
pruyat (B.). I X . P. : PT. prunt (B.). FT. PT.
proiynt. PP. pruit.
pu float, I . : PR. pivate; pIvati (B.). PP. pupIuv (B.).
Ao. red. : pipIavam (B.) ; s : ploa (B.). FT. pIoyti,
te (B.), PP. pIut. GD. pIya (K.). cs. pIvyati (B.).
1NT. popIyte (B.).
ps devour, I I . P. : PR. pstI. PS. psyata (B.) ; PP. pst.
GD. psya (B.).
pha spring : Cs. phyati. INT. PT. pnphaat.
bandh bind, I X . : PR. badhn m i ; badhnms, badhnnti ;
. badhnte (3. pi.) ; IPv. badhn, badhntu ; badh
nntu ; . badhntm (3. s.). 1PF. badhnt ; badh
nan ; . badhnta (3. s.). PP. babndha ; bedhr. FT.
bhantsyti. Ps. badhyte ; PP. baddh. GD. baddhv ;
baddhvya (B.); bdhya (B.), 1NF. bdhe. Cs. bandh
yati (B.),
badh oppress, I . A. : PR. b d hate. PP. babdh. Ao. i s :
1NJ. bdhia. PP. bdhit. GD. bdhya. 1NF. bdhe.
cs. bdhyati. Ds. b b hatsate; bbdhiate (B.). 1NT.
hhadhe (3. s.) ; badbadh ; PT. bbadhna ; bad
badhn.
budh wake, L P. : PR. bdhati ; sB. bdhti ; 1NJ. bdhat ;
1Pv. bdhatu. I v : PR. bdhyate ; oP. bdhyema ;
1Pv. bdhyasva; bdhyadhvam; PT. bdhyamna. PF.
bubudh; sB. bubodhas, bhodhati; bbodhatha;
PT. buhudhn. Ao. root: . 3. pl. budhran, bu
dhram; IPv. bodh (2. s.); PT. budhn; a: INJ.

budhnta; r e d . : bbudhat ; s : . bhutsi; bhutsmahi, bhutsata; is :B.bdhiat. FT. bhctsyti(B.). Ps.

Ao. bodhi; PP. buddh. GD. budhya (B.), 1NF. bhe.
cs. bodhyati; bodhyate (B.). 1NT. hbudhiti (B.),
bh make big, v I . P. : PR. bhti. I . : PR. h hati, te
(B.). PP. babrha ; PT. babh. Ao. is : 1NJ. brhs,
brht. cs. barhya. INT. sn. brbhat; iPv. barbhi.
br say, I I . : PR. brvmi, brvi, brvti ; brms,
bruvnti ; . bruv, br, brt a n d bruv ; bruv t e ;
bruvte ; sn. brvi and brv, brvasi and brvas,
brvat ; brvma, brvtha (Av.), brvan ; . brv
vahai, brvaite ; brvmahai ; oP. bry t ; bry t am ;
. bruvt; bruvmhi; iPv. brh and brt t , brvtu ;
brtm ; brt and brvtana, bruvntu ; PT. bruvnt ;
bruv. IPF. bravam, bravs, bravt ; brtm;
bravta, bruvan.
bhak eat: Ao. r e d . : babhakat (B.) ; cs. bhakyati;
bhakyate (B.) ; Ps. bhakyte (B.).
bhaj divide, I . : PR. bhjati, te. I I . P. : PR. bhki
( = IPv.), PP. 2. s. babhktha (B.), 3. s. babh j a; .
bhej; bhejte ; bhejir; PT. bhejn. Ao. r e d . : b
bhajur (B.) ; s : bhk a n d bhkt ; . bhaki,
bhakta ; sB. bhkat ; INJ. bhk (2. 3. s.) ; oP. bhak
y, bhakt ; bhakmhi ; PRe. bhak. FT. bhak
yti, te (B.). Ps. bhajyte ; PP. bhakt. Gn. bhaktv ;
bhaktv y a ; bhajya (B.). cs. bhjyati ; Ps. bhjyte.
bhaj break, v I L P. : PR. bhankti ; iPv. bhadh, bha
nktu ; PT. bhajnt. 1PF. bhanas (for bhanak, Av.).
PF. babhja. ps. bhajyte.
bhan speak, I . : PR. bhnati ; bhnanti ; 1NJ. bhnanta.
1PF. bhnanta.
bhas devour, I I I . : PR. bbhasti; bpsati ; sB. bbhasat;
bpsathas ; PT. bpsat. V I . P. : PR. bhasthas. I . P. :
1NJ. bhsat.
bh shine, I I . P. : bhsi, bhti ; bh n ti ; 1Pv. bhh ; PT.
I. bhtI. FT. bhsyti (B.).

bhik beg, I. . : PR. bhkate ; INJ. bhkanta ; oP. bhk

eta ; PT. bhkama. PP. hibhik (B.).
bhid split, vH. : PR. bhindmi, bhintsi, bhintti ; bhind
nti ; sB. bhindas, bhindat ; 1NJ. bhint (2. 3. s.) ;
oP. bhindy t ; 1Pv. bhindh, bhinttu. ; bhintt ; PT.
bhindnt ; bhindn. 1PF. bhint (2. 3. s.) ; bhinat
(3. s.) ; bhindan. P F . bibhda; bibhidr. Ao. r o o t :
bhedam, bht (2. 3. s.), bhet (3. s.) ; sB. bhdati ; 1NJ.
bht (2. s ) ; PT. bhidnt ; a : oP. bhidyam ; s : 1NJ.
bhitth s . FT. bhetsyte (B.). Ps. bhidyte (B.) ; AO.
bhedi (B.) ; PP. bhinn. GD. bhittv ; bhdya. 1NF.
bhttavi (B.) ; bhttnm (B.). Ds. bbhitsati.
bh fear, I I I . P. : PR. bibhti; bbhyati; 1NJ. bibhs ; oP.
bibhy t ; 1Pv. bibht, bibhtna ; PT. bbhyat ; 1PF.
bibhs, bibhet. I . . : PR. bhyate ; sB. bhyte ;
1Pv. bhyatm (3. s.) ; IPF. bhayanta ; PT. bhyamna.
PF. bibhya (1. s.), bibhya (B. also bbhya) ; bibhy
tnr ; bibhyr ; PT. hibhvs ; PER. PF. bibhaya
cakra. AO. root : INJ. bhs (TS.) ; bhema ; PT. bhiy
n; red.: bbhayat ; bbhayur (Kh. ) ; bbhayanta;
s : bhais (Av.) ; bhaima, bhaiur ; PT. bhiysna
(Av). Co. bheyat (B.). PP. bht. 1NF. bhiyse. Cs.
bhyate (B.) ; Ao. hbhias; bbhiaths.
1. bhuj enjoy, VII. . : PR. bhukt ; bhujte and bhuj
at ; sB. bhunjmahai ; PT. I. bhujat. PF. bubhuj ;
bubhujmhe, bubhujrir. Ac. root : sB. bhjate ; 1NJ.
bhjam; a : OP. bhujma; 1Pv. bhuj (TS.). ps. bhuj
yte (B.), 1NF. bhuj ; bhjase. Cs. bhojyati.
2. bhuj bend, V I . P. : 1NJ. bhujt ; 1pv. bhuj (VS.). PPF.
bubhojs. GD. bhujya (B.).
bhur quiver, V I . : 1NJ. bhurnta ; 1pv. bhurntu ; PT.
bhurma. 1NT. jrbhurti; PT. jrbhurat; jrbhur
a.
bh be, I . : PR. bhavati ; bhvate (B.). PF. babhuva,
habhutha and babhuvitha, babhuva; babhvthur,
babhuvtur; babhvim, babhuv, babhvr; or.

babhy s , babhy t ; 1Pv. babh t u ; PT. babhvs.

Ao. root : bhuvam, bhus, bht; bhutam, bhutam ;
bhma, bhta and bhtana, bhvan ; sB. bhvni,
bhvas, bhvat; bhuths, bhtas; bhvan; rNJ.
bhvam, bh s , bh t ; bhma; oP. bhy s , bhyt ;
bhy m a ; PRC bhy s am, 3. bhys ; bhy s ma,
bhy s ta ; ^ 1Pv. bodh (for bhdh), bhtu ; bhtm ;
bht and bhtna ; a : bhvas, bhvat ; red. : b
bhuvas. FT. bhaviyti; bhavit (B.). PP. bht.
GDv. bhvya a n d bhvy ; bhvtva.
GD. bhtv ,
bhtv ; bhuya. 1NF. bhuv, bhve, bhv ; bhi ;
bhvitum (B.) ; bhvitos (B.). os. bhvyati. Ds. b
bhuatI. 1NT. bbhavti.
bh bear, L : PR. bhrati, te. I I I . : PR. bbharmi, b
bhari, bbharti ; bibhths, bibhts ; bibhmsi and
bibhms, bibhth, bbhrati ; sB. bbhari, hbharat ;
oP. bibhyt ; i P v . bibhh, bbhartu ; bibht m ;
bibht (TS.) ; PT. bibhrat ; IPF. bibhar. PP. jabhrtha,
jabh r a ; jabhrr ; . jabh, jabhr ; jabhrir ; ba
bhra (B.) ; . babhr ; PT. babhr ; sn. jabhrat.
PPF. jabhartana.
Ao. r o o t : P R C bhriy s am ; 1Pv.
bhtm; s : bhram, 3. bhr; bhram ; s n .
bhrat ; 1NJ. 3. s. bhr ; i : bhriam. FT. bhari
yti ; bhart (B.). co. bhariyat. Ps. bhriyte ; s n .
bhriyte ; AG. bhri ; PP. bht. GD. bhtya. 1NF.
bhrtum ; bhrtave, bhrtavi ; bhradhyai ; bhr
mae. Ds. bbhrati (B.). 1NT. jarbhts ; bhri
bhrati (3. p1); sB. bhribharat; PT. bhribhrat.
bhra full, I . : PR. 1NJ. bhrat. Ao. a : 1NJ. bhraat.
pp. -bha ; bhra. es. PT. bhryant.
bhraj chine, I . . : PR. bhr j ate; PT. bhrajamana. Ao.
r o o t : bhr; P R C bhrjy s am.
ps. Ao. bhraji.
mah, mah be great, I . : PR. mhate ; mhe (3. s.) ; op.
mhema, mheta ; 1pv. mhatam ; PT. mhamna.
IPF. mahata. PF. mmah (1. 3.) ; sB. mambas ;
1NJ. mmahanta ; 1pv. mamahasva, mmahantam ; PT.

mmahn. pp. mahit (B.). 1NF. mah, mahye. Cs.

mahyati, te ; INJ. mahyam ; PT. mahyant ;
mahyamna.
majj sink, I . P. : mjjati. AO. root : op. majjyt (B.). FT.
makyti, te (B.). GD. mjjya. Cs. majjyati (B.).
math, manth stir, IX. : PR. mathn m i ; mathnt (B.) ;
1pv. mathnt, mathnntu ; PT. mathnnt ; iPF. math
nt ; L mnthati, te ; mthati (AV.). PF. mam t ha ;
methr (B.) ; A. methir (B.). Ao. root : sB. mthat ;
is : manthim (3. du.) ; mathiata (B.) ; INJ. mths,
mtht. FT. manthiyti (B.) ; mathiyti, te (B.).
ps. mathyte ; pp. mathit. Gn. mathitv ( B.) ; mthya
(B.), iNF. mnthitavi ; mthitos (B.),
mad be exhilarated, I . : PR. mdati; te. I I I . P.: PR. ma
matsi. I I . P. : PR. 1ntsi ( = 1Pv.). I v P. : PR. m d yati
(B.). PF. mamda ; sB. mamdas, mamdat ; mamdan ;
1pv. mamaddh, mamttu; mamattna.
PPF. ama
madur. AO. root: 1pv. mtsva ; red.: mmadas; .
mmadanta; s : matsur ; . matta (3. s.) ; matsata
(3. pk); sB. mtsati and mtsat; mtsatha; 1NJ. mat
sata (3. pk) ; i s : mdiur. ps. PT. madymna ; PP.
matt. GDv. mdya. 1NF. 1 n d i t o s (B.). Cs. mad
yati ; mdyati, te ; sB. mdyse, mdyte ;
mdyaite; mdyadhve and mdydhvai; 1NF.
mdaydhyai; PP. 1nadit.

man think, I v . : PR. mnyate. v I I L . : PR. manv ;

manmhe, manvat ; sB. manvai, manvate ; 1NJ.
manvata (3. pk) ; CP. manvt ; 1Pv. . : manut m (3. s.) ;
PT. 1 n a n v n ; 1PF. manuta (3. s.) ; manvata (3. pl.).

PF. men (B. ) ; mamn t he, mamn t e ; OP. mamany t ;

1Pv. mamandhI. PPF. maman (3. s.). AO. root : mata ;
manmahi; sB. mnmahe, mnanta ; PT. mann;
s : . masta ; mastm ; masata ; sn.
msai, msase, msate and msatai (TS.) ;
msante ; 1NJ. msths, masta and msta (Av.) ;
OP. masy, mashs, mas;
mamsmhi;

masrata ; 1pv. mandhvam (B.). FT. maniy ; ma

syte (B.). PP. mat. GD. matya (B.), INF. 1nntave,
mntavi; mntos (B.). cs. mnyati; oP. mnyet.
Ds. mmsate (AV.), ti (B.) ; Ao. is : mmsihs
(B.). PP. mmsit (AV.),
mand exhilarate, I . : PR. mndati, te. PP. mamnda ; B.
mamandat ; PT.I.mamand. PPP. mamandur. Ao.
root : mandr ; PT. mandn ; is : mandt; mandiur ;
mndia (3. s. .) ; manditm (3. du. .) ; oP. mandi
mhi (VS.). 1NF. manddhyai. es. mandyati ; 1NF.
1nandaydhyai .
1. m measure, III. : PR. mime, m imite ; mimte ; mim
mahe, mimate; oP. mimys, mimyt; 1Pv. mimh,
mmtu ; mimtm, mimtm ; . imva ; mimthm ;
PT. mmna. 1PP. mimths, mimta. PF. mamtur ;
mamr ; mam (1. 3.) ; mamte ; mamir ; Ao. root :
iPv. mh ; msv ; PT. mna (TS.) ; s : msi ; s n .
mstai (AV.). Ps. Ao. myi; PP. mit; Gnv. mya
(AV.). GD. mitv ; 1nya. INF. m, mi.
2. m bellow, I I I . P. : PR. 1nmti ; mimanti. PF. mim y a;
sn. mmayat. PPF. mmet. 1NF. m t avi. 1NT. PT.
mmyat.
mi fix, v. P. : PR. minmi, minti ; sB. minvma ; 1NJ.
minvn ; 1Pv. mintu. 1PF. minvn. PP. mimaya ;
mimyr. Ps. 1nyte; PT. mymna; PP. mit. GD.
mitya (B.).
mik mix : PP. mimikthur, mimiktur ; mimik ;
mimikir. 1Pv. mimikv. cs. mekyati (B.).
mith alternate, I . : PR. mthmasi ; . mthete. v l . P. :
PT. mithnt. PP. mimtha. PP. mithit.
mi mix : Ds. mmikati ; 1Pv. mmika ; mmikatam,
mmikatm.
mi wink, v l . P . : PR. miti ; minti ; PT. mint. 1NF.
-misas.
mih shed water, L : PR. mhati ; PT. mhant ; mghamna.

AO. sa : mikat (B.). PT. mekyti. pp. m h . 1NF.

m i h . cs. m e h y a t i . INT. 1n1nihat (B.).
m i damage, I X . : PR. min m i, min t i ; m i n m s i , m i n n t i ;
sB. minat ; min m a ; iNJ. m i n t (Av.) : minan ; PT.
m i n n t ; m i n n . 1PP. m i n s , m i n t ; m i n a n t a .
I v . . : PR. m y ase, m y ate ; oP. m y e t a (B.). PP. mim y a ;
m m a y a (AV.). Ao. s : 1NJ. mei, mehs, mea.
Ps. m y t e ; Ao. m y i (B.) ; PP. m t . INF. m t o s (B.) ;
m y a m , mye. INT. PT. m m y n a .
m v push, I . P. : PR. m v ati ; PT. m v ant. PP. muta ;
m v i t (B.). GD. m v ya (B.).
muc release, V I . : PR. m u c t i , te ; sB. m u c s i , m u c t ;
1Pv. m u c t u ; . m u c t m ; PT. m u e n t ; muc
m n a . 1PF. m u c a t ; . m u c a t a . I v . : PR. m c
yase ; sB. m e y t a i ( A v ) . PP. m u m u e m h e , m u m u c r ;
sB. mumucas ; m m o c a t i , m m o c a t , mumueat ; 1Pv. mu
m u g d h , m u m k t u ; 2. du. m u m u k t m , m u m c a t a m ;
m u m c a t a ; PT. m u m u c n . PPF. m u m u k t a m . AO.
root : m o k ; m u k t a m ; . m u g d h v a m ; PRC. m u c a ;
a : m u c s , m u c a t ; sn. muc t i ; mue t e ; 1NJ. m u c s ,
m u c t ; 1Pv. m u e ; . m u c d h v a m ; ^ : m a u k (B.) ;
. m u k i , m u k t h s ; 1NJ. mauk (VS.) ; . mukata
(3. pl.) ; oP. m u k y a .
FT. mokyti, te (B.).
Ps.
m u c y t e ; Ao. moci ; INJ. m c i ; PP. m u k t . GD.
muktv (B.); m c y a .
1NP. m o k t u m (B.). Ds. m
m u k a t i , te; mkate (B.); PT. m m u k a m a .
m u d be merry, L . : PR. m d a t e . PF. m u m d a . Ao. root :
oP. m u d m h i ; is : PRo. . modihs. Ps. Ao. m o d i .
1NF. m u d . Cs.mcdyati, te (B.) ; Ds. mmodayiati(B.).
mus steal, I X . P. : PR. mu t i ; PT. m u n t ; 1PF. m u s
s , m u t ; m u t a m . L P. : PR. matha. AO.
is : 1NJ. ms. PP. muit. GD. mya. 1NP. mu.
m u h be dazed, I v P. : PR. m h y a t I . PP. m u m h a (B.).
AG. a : m u h a t (B.) ; red. : m m u h a t . FT. mohiyti
(B.), PP. m u g d h ; m h (AV.). 1NF. m u h . Cs.
m o h y a t i ; GD. mohayitv .

mrch, mr thicken, I . P. : 1PF. mrehat. PP. mrt (B.).

es. mrchyati (B.).
1 . m die, I . : PR. mrati, mrate ; mrmahe ; sB. mrati ;
mrma ; . mrai. PF. mamra ; mamrr ; PT.
mamv s. Ao. root : mta ; INJ. mths ; oP. mur
iy ; red. : mmarat (B.). FT. marisyti ( A v ) . Ps.
mriyte ; PP. mt. GD. mtv (B.). es. mryati.
2. m crush, I X . P. : 1Pv. mh ; PT. mnt. Ps. mr
yte (B.) ; PP. mr (Av.). 1NT. 1Pv. 1nar1nartu.
1nc injure : Ao. s : PRC. mk. PP. mkt. Cs. marc
yati ; sB. mareyt.
mj wipe, I I . : PR. m r i ; mjnti; mj; mjmhe; 1Pv.
m r u ; . mkv ; mhvm ; PT. mjn ; 1PF.
m (3. s. .) ; mjata. v I I . : oP. mjyt (B.) ; 1Pv.
injni (B.) ; iPF. mjta (3. pl.), PF. mam r ja;
mmjr ; mamj and mmj ; oP. mmjt. Ao. sa :
mkat ; mkma ; . mkanta ; 1Pv. mkatam ;
r e d . : mmjanta (B.) ; s : mrkt (B.) ; i : mrjt
(B.). PT. mrakyte (B.), markyte (B.); mra (B.).
Ps. mjyte; PP. m; Gnv. mrjya. GD. mv ;
mrjitv (B.) ; mjya. INF. mjas (B.). cs. marjyati,
te; mrjyati, te (B.). 1NT. marmjyte; marmj
yte (B.); sB. mrmjat; mrmjanta; PT. mrmjat;
mrmjna a n d marmjn ; marmjymna ; 1PF.
marmjm, marmjata.
m be gracious, v I . : P-^. mti ; mte (B.) ; sB. mti
and mt ; 1Pv. 1n and mtt (Av.), mtu. PF.
oP. mamyr. cs. myati.
m crush, v L P. : PR. mti ; 1NJ. mt ; 1Pv. m.
iPF. mat. Ao. root : myr (K.) ; red. : mman.
md crush: Ao. PRC. mdysam (B.); FT. mardiyte (B.).
ps. mdyte (B.); PP. mdit. GD. mdya (B.). 1NF.
mrditos (B.).
mdh neglect, I . P. : PR. mrdhati. v I . : PR. sB. mdh t i.
Ao. root : op. mdhys ; is : sB. mrdhiat ; 1NJ. mrdh
s ; mardhiam. PP. mddh.

m touch, V I . : PR. 1nti, -te. P P . mmr ; mam

(B.). Ao. Sa: mkat; iNJ. mkas; 1nkata (2. pl.).

PP. m. GD. mya.

1NF. me.

CS. maryati (B.).

INT. sB. mrmat ; IND. 1 n a r m y t e (B.).

m not heed, I v : PR. myate. PP. mamra. Ao. root :

INJ. mhs ; a : INJ. mnta ; red. : iNJ. mmas ; i s :
iNJ. marihs. 1NP. me.
med be fut, I v . P. : 1Pv. mdyantu. v l . . : iPv. medtm
(3. s.). Cs. medyati.
myak be situated, I . P. : i P v . 1 n y k a . PF. mimyka ;
mimikr ; . mimikir.
Ao. root : myak ; Ps.
myaki.
mrad crush, I. : PR. 1nrdate ; 1Pv. mrda. FT. mradi
yti, te. iNF. mrade (B.). Cs. mradyati.
mruc, mluc set, L P. : PR. mreati ; mlcati (B.) ; PT.
mrcant. PP. mumlca (B.). Ao. a: mrucat (B.).
PP. mrukt (B.) ; mlukt. 1NF. mrca.
ml relax, I v . P.: PR. 1nIyati (B.). PP. mlt; mln
(B.). Cs. mIpyati.
yaj sacrifice, I. : PR. yjati, te ; sn. yjti, te; oP. yjeta;
1Pv. yjatu; yjantm; PT. yjant ; yjamna. iPP.
yajat; yajanta. PP. j (1. 3. s.), yej (3. s.) ; jthe
jir; PT. jn. Ao. root: IPv. ykva; red. : yyajat
(B.) ; s : ys, y ; s: ykt ; . yaa (3. s.); sn.
ykat ; du. 2. ykatas, 3. ykatm ; . ykate ; 1NJ.
y (2. s.) ; . yki (1. s.) ; oP. yaky ; sa : 1Pv. yak
satm (3. du.). Fr. yakyte ; yakyti (B.) ; ya (B.).
PP. i. GD. iv . 1NF. yjadhyai; yajdhyai (TS.) ;
yave; yum. Cs. yjyati (B.). Ds. yakati, te ;
sB. yakn ; PT. yakant ; yakama.
yat stretch, I. .. PR. ytati, te; sB. . ytaite (3. du.); oP.
ytema ; ytemahi ; 1Pv. ytatam ; . ytasva ; ytan
tm ; PT. ytant ; ytamna. PP. yetir. Ao. root :
PT. yatn and ytna ; i s : yatia (B.). FT. yatiyte
(B.). PP. yatt. GD. ytya (B.). Cs. ytyati, te ;
Ps. ytyte (B.).

yam stretch out, I . : PR. yehati, te ; sB. ycht ; op.

ychet; 1pv. ycha and ychatt, ychatu. 1PF. ya
chat ; . yachaths. PP. yayntha, yayama ; yem
thur, yemtur ; yemim, yem, yemr ; A. yem (3.
s.) ; yemte ; yemir ; PT. yemn. Ao. root : yamam. ;
yamur; sB. ymas, ymati and ymat; yman; A.
ymase, ymate ; oP. yammhi ; PRC yamyas (3. s.) ;
1Pv. yandh ; yantam ; yanta and yantana ; a : oP.
yamet ; s : ysam, yn (3. s.) ; . ysi (B.),
yasta ; yasata ; sB. ysat ; ysatas ; ysan ;
. ysate ; 1NJ. . yasi ; PT. yamasn ; i :
ymia (3. s. . ) . FT. yasyti (B.). Ps. yamyte ;
Ao. ymi (B.) ; PP. yat ; GDv. yasnya. GD. ytya.
1NF. ymitavi, yntave; ymam ; yntum (B.).
Cs. ymyati; yamyati (B.). Ds. yyasati (B.). 1NT.
yyamti.
yas be heated, I I I . P. : 1Pv. yyastu. I v . P. : PR. ysyati.
PP. yast ; yasit (B.) .
y go, I L P. : PR. y t i; y n ti; oP. yy m ; 1Pv. yh,
ytu ; ytm ; yt and ytna, yntu ; PT. ynt. 1PF.
ys, yt ; ytam ; yma, ytana, yur (B.). PP.
yay t ha, yayu ; yaythur ; yay, yayr ; PT. yayi
vas. Ao. s : ysam ; ysur ; sB. ysat ; 1NJ. yeam ^
sis : ysiam, yst ; ysim ; ysia, ysiur ;
sB. ysiat ; PRC. . ysihs ; Ipv. ysiam ; ysia.
FT. ysyti. PP. yt. GD. ytv (B.) ; yya (B.).
1NF. ytave, ytavi (B.) ; yi. es. ypyati (B.),
yc ask, I . : PR. ycati, te. PF. yayce (B.). Ao. i s :
yct ; ycia (B.) ; sB. yciat ; . y c imahe.
FT. yciyte. PP. ycit; ycitv and ycya (B.).
1NF. ycitum. cs. ycyati.
1. yu unite, V I . : PR. yuvti, te. I I . yuti; . y u t ;
sB. yvan ; 1Pv. yutm (3. s. A.) ; pT. yuvn. PF.
yuyuv. PER. F T . yuvita (B.). PP. yut. GD. yuya. Ds.
yyati. 1NT. yoyuv ; PT. yyuvat ( A v ) ; yyuvana.
2. yu separate, I I I . : PR. yuyti; sB. yuyvat; 1N.L yuyo

ths, yuyota; oP. yuyuy t m; IPv. yuyodhi, yuytu;

yuyutm and yuytam ; yuyta and yuytana. L P. :
PR. yehati ; 1Pv. yehantu ; PT. ychant. Ao. root :
sB. yvanta ; oP. yuy t (B.) ; 3. du. yy t m (B.) ; PRC.
yys (3. s.) ; red. : 1NJ. y y o t ; s: yati a n d yat ;
yatas ; 1NJ. yam (Av.) ; yus (2. s.) ; yauam ;
yauma, yaua, yauur ; . yohs (B.) ; is : 1NJ.
yvs. Ps. Ao. yvi ; PP. yut. 1NF. ytave, ytavi ;
ytos. Cs. yvyati ; yavyati. 1NT. PT. yyuvat ;
1PF. yoyavt; PP. yoyva.
yuj join, V I L : yunkti ; yujnti ; yukt ; yujte ;
sB. yunjat; yunjan; . yunjate (3. s.) ; 1NJ. yujta
(3. pl.) ; iPv. yudh, yunktu ; yunkta, yujntu ; .
yukv, yutm ; 2. du. yuj t hm ; yugdhvm ; PT.
yujnt ; yujn ; iPF. yunak and yunak ; yujan ;
A. yujata (3. pl.). PF. yuyja ; yuyujm ; A. yuyuj ;
yuyujr; sB. A. yuyjate (3. s.); PT. yuyujn. Ao.
root : A. yuji, yukths, yukta ; yujmahi, yug
dhvam, yjata and yujran ; sB. yjate ; 1NJ. yjam ;
. yukta (3. s.) ; oP. yujyva, yujytam ; 1Pv. yukv ;
PT. yujn ; s. : y u k i ; yuktm (3. .du.) ; yukata
(3. pl.). FT. yokyti (B.) ; yokyte ; yokt (B.). Ps.
yjyte ; Ao. yoji ; 1NJ. yji ; PP. yukt. GD. yuktv ,
yuktv y a. 1NF. yuj ; yktum (B.).
yudh fight, IV. : PR. ydnyati, te ; sB. ydhyai. IV. : iPv.
ydhya ; PT. ydhyant ; ydhyamna ; 1PF. yudhyas,
yudhyat. I . P.: PR. ydhanti (AV.). I I . P. ytsi
( = iPv.). PP. yuydha ; yuyudhr ; . yuyudh t e (3.
du.).
Ao. root : sB. ydhat ; 1Pv. ydhi ; PT. yodhn ;
is : yodht ; sB. ydhiat ; 1NJ. ydhs ; 1Pv. yodhiam.
FT. yotsyti, te (B.). PP. yuddh. GDV. ydhya,
yudhnya. GD. yuddhv .
INF. yudh, y u d h y e ;
ydham. Cs. yodhyati. Ds. yyutsati, te.
yup obstruct : PP. yuypa ; yuyopim. Ao. red. : y
yupan (B.). PP. yupit. Cs. yopyati. 1NT. yoyup
yte (B.).

ye be heated, I . P.: PR. yati; PT. yant.

rah hasten, I . : PR. rhate ; PT. rhama. 1PF.
rahas; . rahata (3. s.). PP. PT. rrah. cs.
rahyati, te.
rak proteet, L : PR. rkati, te. PP. rarka ; PT. r
rak. Ao. is : rakt ; rkt (B.) ; sB. rkias,
rkiat. PP. rakit. Cs. rakyate (B.).
raj eolour, IV. : 1PF. rajyata. PP. rakt (B.). Cs. rajyati.
1NT. rrajtI.
Pad dig, I . : PR. rdati, te ; INJ. rdat ; 1Pv. rda ; rdantu;
. rdantm (3. pl.) ; PT. rdant. 1PF. radat, rdat.
I I . P. : rtsi ( = 1Pv.). PP. rar d a. PP. radit.
radh, randh make subject, IV. P. : 1Pv. rdhya, rdhyatu.
PP. rradhr. Ao. root: 1Pv. randh ( = randdh) ; a:
sB. rdhma ; 1NJ. rdham ; red. : sB. rradh ; 1NJ.
rradhas, rradhat ; rradhatam ; rradhata ; is : 1NJ.
rndhs. PP. raddh. es. randhyati ; sB. randhysi.
ran rejoice, I . : PR. rati ; INJ. ranta ; 1Pv. ra. I v
P.: PR. ryasi, ryati; ryathas; ryanti. PF.
rra (1. s.) ; sB. rras, rrat ; rar at (2. pl.).
1NJ. rrn (3. s.) ; 1Pv. rrandhi; rranta (2. pl.), rrntu.
PPF. rraur. Ao. i : riur ; 1NJ. riana. es.
rayati.
rap chatter, L P. : PR. rpati ; 1NJ. rpat ; oP. rpema.
1PF. rapat. 1NT. r r apti.
raps be full, I . . : rpate; rpante. PF. rarap.
rabh, rambh grap, L : PR. rbhate. PP. rarabhm ; A.
rrabh ; rebhir ; PT. rebh. AG. s : 3. s. . rabdha ;
PT. rabhasn. PP. rabdh. GD. rbhya. 1NP. rbham ;
rbhe. es. rambhyati, te (B.). Ds. rpsate (B.).
ram rejoice, L . : PR. rmate. IX. P. : 1PF. ramas,
ramt. Ao. red. : rramat ; sB. rramma ; 1NJ.
rraman ; s : . rasta (3. s.) ; rasata (3. pl.) ; 1NJ.
rasths ; sis : INJ. rasiam. FT. rasyte ; t i (B.).
PP. rat (B.), GD. ratv (B.). 1NF. rntos (B.). cs.
ramyati and rmyati.

1. r give, m . . iPv. rirhi ; . rarsva ( A v ) ; rarthm

(3. du.) ; rardhvam ; sB. rrate ; PT. rra. IL : PR.
rasi (=iPv.) ; rt (B.) ; PP. rarim ; rar (1. s.), rari ;
rarthe ; PT. rariv s ; rar. Ao. root : rdhvam ;
1Pv. s va; s: rsma; rsata (3. pl.); sB. rsat ;
rasan; . rsate (3. s.) ; oP. rsy; 1Pv. . rsatm
(3. s.) ; rsthm (2. du.) ; rsantm (3. pl.) ; PP. rt.
2. r bark, I v . F. : PR. ryasi ; iPv. rya ; PT. r y ant.
rj rule, I . P. : PR. rjati. I L P. : PR. ri ; iNJ. r. Ao.
is : rjiu.r. iNF. rjse. Cs. rjyati (B.), te.
rdh succeed, I v . . : 1Pv. r d hyatm ; PT. r d hyamna.
V. P. : PR. rdhnti (B.). PP. rar d ha. Ao. root : rdh
am (B.) ; sB. rdhat and rdhati ; rdhma ; PRC.
rdhy s am ; rdhy s ma ; red. : rradhat (B.) ; s :
rtss ; is : iNJ. rdhii (1. s.). FT. rtsyti. Ps. Ao.
rdhi ; PP. rddh ; GDv. r d hya. GD. rddhv (B.).
rdhya (B). 1NF. irdhyai. Cs. rdhyati.
r i flow, I X . : PR. ri t i; riths; r i n t i ; . rit ;
rite ; iNJ. ris ; rin ; PT. rint ; rin. iPF.
ri s , rit ; ritam ; rita. IV. : PR. ryate ;
r y ante; PT. ryama.
ric leave, V I L P. : PR. rikti ; sn. ricva ; 1NJ. rik
(3. s.). 1PF. riak (2. s.) ; rik (3. s.). PP. rirca ;
riricthur ; . ririk, riric ; riric t he ; riricr ; oP.
ririey m , riricy t ; PT. ririkv s ; riricn.
PPF.
rirect. Ao. root : 1NJ. . rikth s ; 1Pv. riktm ; s :
raik (3. s.) ; . riki ; red. : rricat (B.). FT. rekyte
(B.). Ps. ricyte ; 1PF. ricyata ; Ao. reci ; PP. rikt.
Cs. recyati (B.),
rip smear : PF. riripr. PP. ript. Cp. lip.
ribh sing, I. P. : PR. rbhati ; rbhanti ; PT. rbhant. 1PF.
rbhat. PP. rirbha. Ps. ribhyte.
ri tear, V I . : PR. rimahe ; 1Pv. rintm ; PT. rint.
PP. ri.
r i be hurt, IV. : PR. ryati ; sB. rys, ryti and ryt ;
op. ryet ; ryema. I . P. : sB. rt ; 1NJ. rat. Ao.

a : rian ; sB. rima, ritha and rithana ; PT. rant

and rant ; red. : 1NJ. rrias, rriat ; rriata (2. pl.) ;
oP. rries; PRC. . rria and riria (3. s.). PP.
ri. INF. ri ; ris. es. reyati ; INF. riaydhyai.
Ds. rrikati.
ri h lick, I I . : PR. rhi ; rihnti ; 3. pl. rihte and
rihat ; PT. rihnt ; riha (vS.) and rih. PP. PT.
ririhv s. PP. rh. 1NT. rerihyte ; PT. rrihat ;
rriha. Cp. lih.
1. ru cry, V I . P.: PR. ruvti; 1NJ. r u v t ; 1Pv. r u v ; PT.
ruvnt. I I . (B.) ruti ; ruvnti. PP. ruruvir (B.).
Ao. is : rvt ; rviur. PP. rut. 1NT. rravti ; PT.
rruvat ; rruva (B.) ; IPF. roravt.
2. ru break : Ao. is : rviam. PP. rut. 1NT. PT^ rruvat.
ruc shine, I . : PR. rcate. PP. rurca ; rurucr ; ruruc
(3. s.) ; 1NJ. rurucanta; oP. ruruey s ; PT. rurukv s;
rurucn. Ao. root : PT. rucn ; red. : rrucat ; .
rrueata (3. s., B.) ; is : . rocia (3. s.) ; oP. rueiy
(AV.) and rociy (B.). Ps. Ao. roci. PP. rucit (B.).
1NF. rue. cs. rocyati; te (B.). 1NT. PT. rrucna.
ruj break, I . P. : PR. rujti. PP. rurjitha, rurja. A0.
root: 1NJ. r k ; r e d . : rrujatam (2. du.). PP. rug.
GD. ruktv (B.) ; rjya (B.), 1NF. rje.
rud weep, I I . P. : PR. rditi ; rudnti ; sB. rdt (Kh.) ;
PT. rudnt. IPF. rodt (B.). Ao. a : rudat.
es.
rodyati.
L rudh obst^uet, V I I . : PR.rudhmi, ruddhi ; . r u n d h
( runddh) ; rundhate (3. pl.) ; sB. . rudhmahai ;
1Pv. rundh ( = runddh) ; . rundhm ( = runddhm,
3. s.) ; PT. rundhn ; iPF. . rundhata (3. pl.). PF.
rurdhitha ; . rurudhr. Ao. root : rodham ; rudh
ma ; a : rudhat ; rudhan ; 1NJ. udht ; PT. rudh
nt ; s : raut ; rautst (B.) ; A. rutsi (B.), ruddha
(B.). FT. rotsyti, te (B.). Ps. rudhyte ; PP. ruddh.
GD. rdhya. 1NF. rdham, rndham (B.), rdham
(B.); rddhos (B.). Ds. rrutsate (B.),

2. r u d h grow, I . P. : PR. r d h a t i ; INJ. r d h a t .

r u p break, I v P. : PR. r p y a t i (B.), Ao. red. : r r u p a t .
pp. r u p i t . Cs. r o p y a t i (B.),
r u h ascend, I . : PR. r h a t i , te. P F . r u r h i t h a , r u r h a ;
r u r u h r . Ao. root : PT. r h a ; a : r u h a m , r u h a s ,
r u h a t ; r u h m a , r u h a n ; sB. ruh v a ; 1NJ. ruham,
r h a t ; oP. r u h m a ; 1Pv. r u h ; r u h t a m ; s a : r u k s ,
rukat; rukma.
FT. r o k y t i (B.). PP. r u h .
GD. rhv , rhya. 1NF. r h a m ; r h i y a i (TS.) ;
r h u m (B.). Cs. r o h y a t i ; te (B.) ; r o p y a t i (B.).
ns. r r u k a t i .
rej tremble, I . : PR. rjati, te; 1NJ. r j a t ; r j a n t a (3. pl.) ;
PT. r j a m n a ; 1PF. rejetm (3. du.) ; rejanta. cs.
rejyati.
lap prate, I . P. : PR. l p a t i ; PT. I p a n t . FT. Iapiyti (B.).
PP. Iapit. Cs. I p y a t i ; te (B.). 1NT. I l apti.
labh take, I . . : PR. l b h a t e . PP. lebhir ; PT. l e b h n .
AG. s (B.) : . l a b d h a ; lapsata. FT. Iapsyti, te (B.).
Ps. l a b h y t e (B.) ; PP. l a b d h . GD. lahdhv ; l b h y a
(B.). Cs. l a m b h y a t i , te (B.). Ds. l p s a t e ; lipsate (B.) ;
Ps. l i p s y t e (B.).
l i k h scratch, v l . : PR. l i k h t i ; te (B.). PP. l i l k h a (B.).
AC. red. : l l i k h a t (B.) ; i s : 1NJ. l k h s . PP. l i k h i t .
GD. l k h y a (B.).
l i p smear, VI. P. : PR. l i m p t i . PP. lilpa, l i l i p r (B.).
AO. s : l i p s a t a (3. pl.). Ps. l i p y t e (B.) ; PP. l i p t . GD.
lpya (B.).
lihlick, I I . : PR. ldhi(B.). Cs. l e h y a t i . INT. PP. lelihit(B.).
l cling, I . . : PR. l y a t e ; 1Pv. l y a n t m . PF. l i l y (B.) ;
l i l y r ; lay cakre. AG. s : lea (B.). pp. ln.
Cs. l a p y a t i (B.), 1NT. lel y ati; PF. lel y a.
l u p break, VI. P. : PR. l u m p t i ; op. l u m p t . ps. l u p y t e ;
PP. l u p t . GD. lpya. Cs. l o p y a t i , te (B.).
l u b h desire, IV. P. : PR. l b h y a t I . Ao. red. : l l u b h a t
(B.), pp. l u b d h (B.). Cs. I o b h y a t i ; Ds. llobha
y i a t i (B.).

lu eut (B.), I X . P. : PR. 1unti. v. P. : PR. Iunti. PP.

ln.
Vak inerease (=2. uk) : PF. vavkitha, vavka ; va
vaktur ; vavakr ; . vavak ; vavakir. PPF.
vavkat. cs. vakyati.
vac speak, I I I . P. : PR. vvakmi, vvakti ; IPv. vvaktana.
PP. uvktha, uvca and vavca; cim, cr; .
uci ; PT. cn. Ao. root : PRC ucysam (B.) ; red. :
vocat ; sB. vc, vcasi, vcati and vcati ; vcma ;
. vcvahai; 1NJ. vcam, vcas, vcat; vcan; .
vce; vcanta; op. vocyam, vocs, vct; vbetam;
vocma, vocyur ; . vocya ; voemahi ; 1Pv. vocatt,
voCatu ; vocatam ; vocata. FT. vaksyti ; co. vaksyat
(B.) ; vakt (B.), Ps. ucyte; ^o. vci; pp. ukt;
GDv. vCya. GD. uktv (B.) ; -cya (B.). 1NF. vktave ;
vce ; vktum (B.) ; vktos (B.), es. vcyati (B.).
Ds. vVakati, -te (B.). 1NT. 1PF. vavact.
vaj be strong ; cs. strengthen : PR. vjymas, -masi ; .
vjyate ; 1Pv. vjya ; PT. vjyant.
vac move crookedly, I . P. : PR. vcati. PF. vvakr. Ps.
vacyte.
vat apprehend, I . : PR. op. vtema ; PT. vtant. AO. red. :
vvatan. es. vtyati.
Vad speak, I . : PR. vdati, -te ; sB. vdni, vdasi and
vds, vdti ; vdthas ; vdma, vdn ; 1NJ. vdat ;
0P. vdet; . vdeta; ipv. vda, vdat; . vdasva ;
vdadhvam ; PT. vdant. 1PF. vadan ; . vadanta.
PF. dim ; d (B.). AO. root : PRC udysam (B.); i :
vdiam ; vdiur ; . vdiran (AV.) ; sB. vdias ;
1NJ. vdiur. FT. vadiyti ; -te (B.). ps. udyte ; pp.
udit. GD. -udya (B.). 1NF. vditum (B.) : vditos (B.).
es. vadyati, -te (B.) ; ps. vadyte (B.). Ds. vvadiati
(B.). 1NT. vvadti; 1pv. vavadtu; PT. vavadat; .
vvadyte (B.).
vadh slay, I . P. : op. vdheyam, vdhet ; 1pv. vdha.
AO. root : PRC. vadhysam ; op. vadhyt (B.) ; i : -

vadhiam and vdhm, vadhs, vadht and vdht ;

vadhima; sn.vhias; 1NJ. vdhs, vdht; vadh
ia and vadhiana (2. pl.), vadhiur ; . vadhihs ;
1pv. vadhiam (2. du.).
van win, V I I I . : PR. vansi, vanti ; vanuths ; . vanv,
vanut ; sB. vanvat ; . vanvase ; 1NJ. vanvan ; op.
vanuyama ; 1Pv. vanvntu ; . vanuv, vanut m ;
vanudhvm, vanvtm ; PT. vanvnt ; vanvn ; 1PF.
vanos ; vanvan ; . vanvata. V I . and I . : PR.
vanti and vnati ; . vanase, vnate ; sB. van t i ;
vns ; vnva ; . vnmahai ; 1NJ. vanas ; . vanta
(=vananta); op. vans; vanma; vanmahi ; 1pv.
vnatam ; vanata ; . vanatm (3. s.). PF. vvntha,
vvna ; vavanm ; . vavn ; sB. vvnat ; 1pv. v
vandh ; PT. vavanvs. Ao. root : vsva ; sB. v
sat ; vsma ; . vsate ; iNJ. vsi ; op. vasi
mhi and vasmhi; i s : sn. vniat; . vnianta.
PRC. vani; sis : oP. vasiy. PP. vta. INF.
vantave. Cs. vnyantu. Ds. vvsati ; sB. vvst.
vand greet, L . : PR. vndate. PF. vavnda ; vavandim ;
. vavand ; vavandir.
Ao. i : ^oP. vandimhi.
Ps. Ao. vndi; PP. vandit; GDv. vndya. 1NF.
vanddhyai.
Vap strew, L : PR. vpati, te. PF. phur ; . pi,
p (3. s.). Ao. s: vpst (B.). FT. vapsyti (B.).
Ps. upyte ; AO. ^ vpi ; PP. upt. GD. pya. Cs.
vpyati (B.).
vam vomit, I I . : sB. vman. 1PF. vamt; vamat (B.).
PP. uvma (B.). AO. s : vn (B.). PP. vnt (B.).
valg leap, I . P. : PR. vlganti. 1PF. valgata (2. pl.), PT.
vlgant.
va desire, I I . : PR. vmi, vki, vi ; umsi and msi,
unti ; 1P v. vu ; P T. unt ; un. I . P. : PR.
vanti ; sB. vma ; 1NJ. vat ; 1PF. vaat. I I I . P.^ :
PR. vavki; vivai; IPv. vivau. P F. vvar; A.
vva ; PT. vvan.

1. vas shine, v I . P. : PR. uch.ti ; sB. uch t ; uch n ; 1NJ.

u c h t ; op. u c h t ; Ipv. u c h , u c h t u ; u e h t a , u c h n t u ;
PT. u e h n t ; IPF. u e h a s u c h a t . PF. uv s a; u (2.
pl.), r ; PT. I. (TS.). Ao. r o o t : vas (2. 3. s.) ;
. v a s r a n ; s : v t (3. s.). Go. v a t s y a t (B.), PP. u.
1NF. v s t a v e . es. v s y a t i .
2. vas wear, I I . . : PR. v s t e ; v s t h e ; v s a t e (3. pl.);
INJ. v s t a (3. s.) ; v s a t a (3. pl.) ; oP. v a s m a h i ; 1Pv.
vsiva, v s t m (3. s.) ; v s t h m (TS.) ; PT. v s n a ;
IPF. v a s t h s ; vasta.
PP. v v a s ; PT. v v a s n .
Ao. i : vasia (3. s.). es. vsyati, te ; FT. vs
ayiyte.
3. vas dwell, L : PR. v s a t i ; v s a t e (B.). PP. t u r ;
i m ; PT. iv s ; v v a s n . PER. vs cakre (B.).
Ao. root : v s n a ; red. : vvasat ; s : vtss. F T .
v a t s y t i (B.). GD. uitv (B.) ; ya (B.). Ds. v v a t s a t i
(B.). es. v s y a t i , te ; Ps. v s y t e (B.).
Vah earry, L : PR. vhati, te. PP. uvha ; hthur, h
tur ; hr; . hi ; hir. Ao. root: oP. uht; 1Pv.
v o h m (2. du.), voh m ; . vohvm ; PT. h n a ; s:
v, v ; v k u r ; sB. vkas, v k a t i and vkat ;
vkathas, vkatas ; vkan ; 1NJ. vkt. FT. vak
yti ; voh (B.). Ps. uhyte; pp. h. GD. hv
(B.) ; h y a . INF. v h u m ; vhave, v h a v i (B.) ;
vhe ; vhadhyai. cs. vhyati (B.) ; 1NT. van
vhyte (B.).
1. v blow, H . P. : PR. v m i, v t i ; v t s ; v n ti ; 1pv.
v h i , v t u ; pT. v n t ; IPF. v t . I v . P. : PR. v y ati ;
v y atas ; v y anti. PF. v a v u (B.), AG. sis : vst (B.).
cs. v p y a t i .
2. va weave, I v : PR. v y a t i ; v y a t e (B.); Ipv. v y a ;
v y a t a ; PT. v y a n t ; IPF. v a y a t ; v a y a n . P F . u v r .
FT. v a y i y t i . ps. y t e (B.) ; pp. u t . 1NF. t u m ;
t a v e , t a v i ; v t ave (Av.).
vajay desire booty, den. : PR. PT. vjaynt.
v a c h desire, I . P. : 1pv. v chantu.

va bellow, I . P. : PR. vati. IV. . : PR. v y a t e . P F .

VaVair and VaVar ; PT. VaVan. PPF. vavatm
(3. du.) ; vvaanta. AO. red. : vvaat ; vvaan ;
. vvaanta; i: . vihs (B.). 1NT. PT. v
vaat.
Cs.
vyati.
vic sifu V I I . P. : PR. vicnti ; 1Pv. vinktu ; PT. vmcnt ;
1PF. Vinak. I l l . P. : PR. vveki. PF. PT. vivikvs.
Ps. vicyte ; PP. vikt (B.).
vij tremble, V I . : PR. vijnte ; 1Pv. vijntm ; PT^vijmna ;
1PF. vije. PP. vivijr.
AO. root : 1NJ. A. vikths,
vikt; r e d . : 1NJ. vvijas. Ps. vikt. Cs. vejyati (B.).
INT. V e V i j y t e ; PT. V V i j n a .

1. vid know, I I . P. : PR. vidms ; sB. vdas, vdati and

vdat; vdathas; OP. vidym, vidyt; vidytam;
vidyma, vidyr ; IPv. viddh and vittt, vttu ; vittm.
1PF. vedam, vet and vt ; vidur (B.). PP. vda (1. 3.),
vttha ; vidthur ; vidm, vid, vidr ; A. vidmhe
(B.), vidr ; PER. vid cakra (B.) ; PT. vidvs. Ac.
i s : vedit(B.); PER. vidm akran (B.). FT. vediyti,
te (B.) ; vedit (B.). PP. vidit. GD. viditv. 1NF.
vidmne; vditum (B.); vditos (B:). Cs. vedyati,
te. Ds. vvidiati (B.),
2. vid flnd, V I . : PR. vindti, -te. I I . vits, vid (3. s.) ;
vidr ; 1Pv. viddh ; A. 3. s. vidm (AV.) ; PT. vdna
and vidan. PP. vivditha, vivda ; vividthur ; vi
vidr; A. vivid, vivits; vividr a n d vividrir; sB.
vividat ; PT. vividvs.
AC. a : vidam, vidas,
vidat; v^dma, vidan; A. vidanta; s n . vidas,
vid t ; vidthas; vidtha; iNJ. vidm, vids, vidt;
vidn; . vidta(3. s.); vidnta; op. vidyam, vidt;
vidma; . vidya; PRC. videa (AV.); 1pv vidtam;
PT. vidant ; s : . vitsi. FT. vetsyti, te (B.). ps.
vidyte; AO. vedi, vdi; pp. vitt; vinn. G n v .
vidyya. GD. vittv, -vdya (B.). iNP. vid, vttave ;
vttos (B.). ns. vvitsati (B.). iNT. sB. vvidma. pr.
vvidat; vvidana.

Vidh worship, v I . : sn. vidhti ; 1NJ. vidht ; vidhn ; .

vidhnta ; op. Vidhma ; vidhmahi ; PT. vidhnt ;
1PF. vidhat.
vip tremble, I. : PR. vpate ; PT. vpamna ; IPF. vepanta.
PF. vivipr. AO. rcot : PT. vipan ; red. : vvipat ; 1^ :
vepia (B.). cs. vepyati, vipyati.
vi enter, v I . : PR. viti, -te. PF.^ viva (1. 3.), vivitha ;
vivir and (once) viveur; . vivir; OP. viviy s ;
PT. ViViiv s (TS.), - v i i v s (Av.). PPF. vives.
AO. root : . viran ; s : vikmahi, vikata (3 pl.) ;
i: 1NJ. Vt; sa: Vkat (B.), FT. ve kyti (B.),
pp. vi. GD. vya. 1NF. viam ; vavi (B.). CS.
veyati, -te.
vi be active, III. : PR. vveki, vve ; vivis ; vivi
ms ; sB. vveas ; 1pv. vivih ; 1PF. vives and vivs
(2. s.), Vivs (3. s.). I. P. : PT. Vant; 1PF. Vean.
PF. ViVa ; ViVir. PPF. ViVes. AO. i : Vas.
FT. vekyti, -te (B.). ps. viyte (B.) ; pp. vi. GD.
ViV; -Vya. 1NF. Ve. 1NT. VVemi; VeViyte
(B.) ; OP. veviyt ; PT. vviat ; vvia.
vi, ve wrap, I. P. : 1pv. vatam (3. du.). pp. viit.
es. veyati, -te (B.).
v enjoy, I I . : vmi, vi, vti ; vths ; vynti ; sB.
vyati ; iNJ. vs ; 1pv. vh, vh and vtt, vtu ; vtm ;
vyntu; PT. vynt; vyn.^ 1PF. vyan. PF. viv y a;
vivy. Ao. s. : sB. vat. ps. vyte. pp. vt. INF.
Vtye. INT. vveti ; vevyte.
v make strong : es. sB. vyasi ; IPv. vyasva. pp.
vit.
1. v cover, V. : PR. vti ; . vv ; vvte and v
Vat; PT. VVnt; IPF. vos, vot; . vvata
(3. pl.) ; PR. rmi, urti ; uruths, uruts ; .
ru, rut ; 1NJ. urot ; 1pv. ruh and ur, r
tu ; urut, ruvntu ; . ruv ; PT. ruvnt ;
rvn ; 1PF. uros, urot. I . : PR. vrathas ; .
vrate; vrethe; vrante; sn. vrte; INJ. vranta.

I X . : 1PF. vdhvam (AV.). PF. vavrtha, vavra ;

vavrr; . VaVr; PF. VaVVs. PPF. vvart. Ao.
root: vm ( = vram), var and vr (2. 3. s.); vran ;
. vta ; 1NJ. vr (2. 3. s.) ; vrn ;^ 1pv. vdh ; vartam ;
varta ; vra ; red. : vvaran ; . vvarata (3. s.) ; s :
sB. vrathas ; i : vrt (B.). ps. Ao. vri ; pp. vt.
GD. vtv , vtv ; vtv y a ; vtya. INF. vrtave. Cs.
vryati, te ; Ds. vvrayiate (B.). INT. varvar.
2. v choose, I X . . : PR. v, vs, vt ; vmhe,
vte ; 1NJ. vt (3. s.) ; OP. vt ; 1pv. vv ;
vdhvm, vtm ; PT. vn ; iPF. v, vta ;
vmahi. PF. vav ; vavmhe. AO. root : vri,
vta ; sB. vras, vrat ; vranta ; iNJ. vt (3. s. ) ; op.
vurt (3. s.) ; PT. ur ; s : vi ; vhvam (B.), v
ata. FT. variyte (B.). PP. vt. GDv. vrya ; vreya.
vj twist, V I I . : PR. vki, vkti ; vjnti ; . vj,
vkt ; vjte ; vjte ; B. vjan ; 1Pv. vdh,
vktu ; vkt, vjntu ; . vkv. 1PF. vak
(2. 3. s.) ; vjan. PP. vavjr ; . vvj ; oP. vavj
yr ; 1Pv. vavktm (2. du.) ; PT. I. vavarj ; ()varju
( A v ) . Ao. root : vrk (2. 3. s.), vk (AV.) ; vjan ;
. vkta ; B. vrjati ; vrjate ; 1NJ. vrk ; oP. vjym ;
vjyma ; PRC. vjys (3. s.) ; 1Pv. varktam (2. du.) ;
s : vrks (B.) ; . vkmahi ; 1NJ. . vki ; sa :
vkam. FT. varkyti, te (B.). Ps. vjyte; PP.
Vkt. GD. vktv ; vjya.
1NF. v j e; vjdhyai;
vjse. Cs. varjyat1. Ds. vvkate (B.), 1NT. PT.
Vrvjat ; Cs. PT. varvarjyant ( A v ) .
Vtturn, I . . : vrtate. PP. vavrtaand vvrta; vavtr;
A. vvt; sB. vavrtati, vavrtat and vavtat; oP.
Vavtym, vavtys, vavty t ; 1Pv. vavttna (2. pl.);
PT. vavtvs. PPF. vavtran ; . vavtranta. AO.
root : vart ; . vtran ; sB. vrtat ; 1Pv. varta
( = vartta, 2. pl.); a: vtatred. : vvtat ; s: A.
vtsata. FT. vartsyti ; vartit (B.). Co. vartsyat (B.).
PP. Vtt. GD. Vtya. 1NF. V t e; Vtas (B.). Cs.

vartyati, te ; Ps. vartyte (B.) ; INF. vartaydhyai.

Ds. vvtsati ; te (B.). 1NT. vrvarti ( = vrvartti) and
varvarti ( = varvartti) ; vrvtati (3. pl.) ; . varvt
yte (B.) ; 1PF. varvar (3. s.) ; varvur (3. pl.).
vdh grow, I . : PR. vrdhati, te.
PP. vavrdha ; Va
vdhtur; vvdhr ; . vvdh; vvdh t e ; ^B.
vvdhti ; . vvdhate ; 0 P . vvdhth s ; ipv.
vvdhsva ; PT. vvdhv s ; . vvdhn. PPF.
Vvdhanta. Ao. a : vdham, vdhat ; vdhma,
vdhan ; PT. vdhnt ; vdhn ; red. : vvi'dhat ;
vvdhan ; . vvdhadhvam, vvdhanta ; s : PT.
vdhasn ; i : oP. vardhimhi. PP. vddh. 1NF.
vdh ; vdhse ; vvdhdhyai (PP.), Cs. vardh
yati, te. 1NT. GDv. vvdhnya.
v rain, I . P. : PR. vrati ; i P v . vrantu ; PT. vrant.
V I . . : vsva ; vthm (2. du.). PF. 1Pv. vv asva ;
PT. vv. Ao. s : vars, vart. FT. variyti
(B.) ; vra(MS.). PP. v. ^D. vv ; vv (B.) ;
vros (B.). Cs. varyati.
vh tear, V I . P. : PR. vhti ; iNJ. vht ; oP. vhva ; 1Pv.
vh a n d vtt ; vhtam ; vhta ; iPF. vhas. P F .
vavrha. Ao. s a : vkat (B.). Ps. vhyte (B.) ; Ao.
vrhi ; PP. vh (B.). GD. vhya. 1NF. vhas.
ven long, L P. : PR. vnat ; iNJ. vnas ; 1Pv. vnatam
(2. du.) ; PT. vnant. 1PF. venat.
vyac extend, I I I . P. : PR^Viviks (3. du.) ; 1NJ. vivyak (3.
s.). 1PF. vivyak; viviktm (3. du.) ; v1vyacur. P F .
vivyktha, vivyca. PPF. vivycat; . vivyacanta.
vyath waver, I . : PR. vythate. Ao. red. : vivyathas (B.) ;
is : sB. vythiat ; 1NJ. vythihs ; vythimahi. PP.
vyathit. 1NF. vyathiyai (B.). Cs. vyathyati; Ac.
vyathays (AV.).
vyadh pierce, IV. P. : PR. vdhyati. PP. vivydha (B.) ;
PT. vividhv s. Ao. s : vytss (B.). Pp. viddh. INF.
vdhe. Cs. vydhyati (B.). Ds. vvyatsati (B.).
vy envelope, IV. : PR. vyyati, te ; op. vyyeyam ; 1pv.

v y y a s v a ; PT. v y y a n t . IPF. v y a y a m , vyay^at. P F .

v i v y a t h r ; . v i v y ; PT. v l v y n ; PER. PF. vyay
cakara (B.), Ac. a: v y a t ; v y a t a (2. pi.); A. v y a t a
(3. s.) and v y t a .
ps. v y t e (B.) ; pp. vt.
GD.
v y a (B.).
vraj proceed, I. P. : 1Pv. v r j a t a (2. pl.); PT. vrjant. PF.
vavr j a. AO. is : vrjt (B.). FT. vrajiyti (B.), PP.
vrajit (B.). GD. vrjya (B.), es. v r a j y a t i (B.).
v r a c cut up, VI. P. : PR. v c t i ; sB. vc t ; INJ. v c s ;
Iv. : vc, v c t u ; PT. v c n t . 1P F. v c a t and
vct. Ps. v c y t e ; PP. v k . GD. vv ; vktv .
as praise, L : PR. sati, -te. P P . asa (B.) ; aas (B.), Ao.root: IPv. ast(2.pb); i s : asiam,
a s t ; sB. sias, siat; 1NJ. siam. FT.
asiyti (B.),
rs. a s y t e ; Ao. s i ; pp. a s t ;
GDv. sya ; astavya (B.), GD. astv (B.). 1NF. -se.
a k be able, v. P. : PR. a k n m i , a k n t i ; a k n u v n t i ;

sB. aknVma.

P1 F. aknuVan. PF. aka ; ekim,

ek, e k r . AO. root : B. k a s , k a t ; OP. aky m ;

1pv. agdh, a k t m ; a: a k a m , a k a t ; a k a n ;
1NJ. a k a n ; OP. a k y a m ; a k m a . FT. a k y t i , -te
(B.). 1NF. ktaVe. Ds. kat, -te.
1. a d prevail : PF. a a d r ; . a a d m h e , a d r ; PT.
adna.
2. adfall: PF. a d a (B.) ; e d r (B.). FT. a t s y t i .
ap curse, I. : PR. p a t i ; p a t e (Av.) ; sB. p a t a s (3.
du.); PT. p a n t . 1PF. a p a t a (2. pl.). PF. sa p a;
ep (1. 3. s.), epi. AO. s: 1NJ. a p t a (2. pl.), pp.
a p t (B.). cs. s p y a t i .
1. a m , i m labour, Iv. P.: m y a t i (B.); m y a t i ; 1pv.
m y a n t u ; PT. m y a n t . PF. a a m ; sB. amate
(3. s.) ; PT. a a m n . AO. is : . amihas, amia.
pp. a m t (B.).
2. am, be ^uiet, IV. (B.) : PR. m yati, te. PF. a m a
(B.); e m r (B.), AO. a: a m a t (B.); red.: amat.
pp. n t . es. s a m y a t i .

s shaken,

I I I . : PR. m i , ^ t i ; i m s ; . s i s t e ;

IPV. h , a t u ;
na.

i t m , i t m ; i t (2. p l . ) ; P T .

1PF. i s ,

-an.

PP. i t .

it;

- ita

(3. s.).

P F . PT.

- y a.

GD.

s order, I L : a s m i , a s s i ; . s t ; s m h e , a s t e ;
sB. a s a n ;

1Pv. a d h ;

stna,

astu ;

PT. s a t ;

(3. pl.). PF. a^ s a;

a s r ; 1NJ. as ; 1Pv. a d h . Ao. root : sB. a s a s ;

sana.

1PF. s a m ;

. sata

a : . i m a h i ; 1NJ. a t ; P T . i n t . PP . i ; GD.

-ya(B.),
i k ( = Ds. of a k ) be helpful: PR. k a t i , -te;

sB. k s ,

k t ; k n ; 1NJ. k a t ; oP . k e y a m ; k e m a ;
i P v . k a , k a t u ; k a t a m ; P T. k an t ; . k
ama.
i

iP F . i k a s ;

ikatam.

leave, VII. P . : P R. i n i (B.).

ias.

FT. e k y t i ,

-te

PP. i i

(B.). Ao. a :

P s. i y t e ;

(B.),

A0.

i;

PP. i . ^ GD. - i y a (B.),

lie, I I . . :

PR. e ,

ye

(3. s.) ; y t e

(3. d u . ) ;

m a h e , r e and r a t e ; or. y y a , y t a (3. s.) ; 1pv.

3. s. t m and y m ( A v ) ; P T. y n a ; 1P F. e r a n .
I. : PR. y a t e ; y a d h v e , y a n t e ; 1PF. a y a t ; y -

atam ; . ayata (3. s.).

PT. a a y n .

PF. iy (B.) ; iy1r (B ) ;

Ao. s : sB. a n ; i : A. a y i t h s . F T .

a y i y t i , -te (B.) ; a y i t s e (B.).

uc

gleam, I. : PR. c a t i , -te.

1NF. a y d h y a i .

; op. A. u u c t

PF. u c a

(3. s . ) ^ d | ^ ^ u u g d h ; PT. u u k v s ; u u c n .
a: ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ T .
1NJ. s r ^ ^ . f ;
Ucdhyai.

ucnt; . ucmna;
ucan;

Ao.

uueas;

red.:

i : 1NJ. c s ; Ps. o c i . I N F .

Cs. o c y a t i ; PT. U c y a n t .

1NT. s B .

U c a n ; . U c a n t a ; PT. U c a t ; U c a n a .
udh,

undh

(2. pl.).

purify, I . P. : PR. n d h a t i ; 1pv.

Iv

P.: PR. d h y a t i

(B.),

ndhata

pp. u d d h .

Cs.

u n d h y a t i ; o d h y a t i (B.).
u b h , u m b h beautify, I. A. : PR. b h a t e ; PT. b h a m a n a ;
m b h a t e ; PT. m b h a m n a ;
B. u m b h t i ;

1pv. u m b h ;

v l . P . : P R. u m b h t i ;
umbhta,

umbhntu;

PT. umbhmna. Ao. root : P T. ubhn ; mbhna ;

red.: ubhan; ubhanta (B.). PP. umbhit;
ubhit (B.). 1NF. ubh ; obhse ; bham. es.
ubhyati, -te ; obhyati.
u dry, I v . P. : P R. yati ; 1Pv. ya, yatu ;
yantu. GD. -ya (B.). cs. oyati.
, v swell, I v . P.: PR. PT. vyant. P F . uvr; A.
uv ; sB. uvat ; vma ; OP . uuyma ; PT.
. uuv s ; . uvna. Ao. a : vat (B.) ; s : PT.
avasn. 1NF. i; vyitum (B.).
dh be defiant, I . : P R. rdhati ; rdhate (B.) ; 1NJ. rdhat;
1Pv. rdha; PT. rdhant. es. ardhyati.
crush, I X . : P R. mi, si, ti ; msi ; 1Pv.
h, tu ; tm ; sntu ; P T. n. 1P P .
t. PP. ar. Ao. i : art. F T . ariyte (B.).
Ps. ryte ; Ao. ri ; PP. r ; -rta. GD. -rya (B.),
1NF. rtos.
nathpieree, I I . P. : sn. nthat ; iPv. nathihi. Ao. red. :
inatham, inat a n d inthat ; iNJ. inathas ; is :
1Pv. nathiam ; nathiana.
PP. nathit. 1NF.
-nthas. CS. nathyati, -te.
y coagulate, I v : PR. yyati (B.). PS. yte (B.) ; PP.
t ; n. Cs. yyyati (B.).
rath slaeke, I X . : P R. rathnt ; PT. rathnn. 1pp.
rathns ; rathnan. pp. arath. Ao. red. : irthas, irthat; ipv. irathantu. p 1 ^ ^ ^ t . c s .
rathyati, -te.
^^^^^
ram be weary, I v . P. : PR. r m yati. P F . ^ | ^ ^ u r ; PT.
aram. Ao. a: ramat ; INJ. ramat; i : A.
rami sths ; 1NJ. ramisma. pp. rnt. GD. rmya
(B.).

ra (r, ) boil, I X . : P R. rnti ; r ; 1pv. rh ;

rt and rtna ; P T. rnt ; . rn. 1PF. .
rta (3. s.), pp. rt; t. c s . rapyati; ps.
rapyte (B.) ; AG. irapat (B.).
ri resort, I . : PR. ryati ; -te. pp. 1. irya, 3. ir y a;

. i r i y ; op. i r t ( 3 . s.) ; PT. iriy. P P F. i r e t ;

irayur.
Ao. r o o t : res, r e t ; r i y a n ; red. :
iriyat; s : rait ( A v ) .
F T . r a y i y t i , -te (B.).
Ps. r y t e (B.) ; PP. r i t ; A o . ryi. 1NF. r y i t a v i
(B.), Cs. r p y a t i (VS.).
ri clap, I . : s B . r m a .
Ao. a : 1NJ. rit. INF.
-ras.
r mix, I X . : PR. r t i ; r t . PP . rt.
1NF.
riyse.
r u hear, V. : PR. rni, t i ; v n t i ; . v i ,
u t a n d v ; v i r ; sn. v a s , v a t ;
v m a , v a n ; oP. uy t ; uy m a ; 1Pv.
udh, uh a n d , tu; u t m ; ut
a n d ta, t a n a , v n t u ; u v ; P T. v n t ;
iPF. avam, os ; v a n . P P . 1. u r v a , 3.
ur v a; . u r u v (3. s.) ; sn. u r a v a t ; oP. ur
ys ; ury t am ; PT. uruv s.
PPP. u r a v u r ;
. u r a v i (1. s.). Ao. r o o t : r a v a , r o t ; r a v a n
( A v ) ; sn. r v a t ; r v a t h a s , r v a t a s ; PRC. ry s am,
ry s (3. s.) ; iPv. r u d h i , r t u ; r u t m ; r u t a n d
rta, r u v n t u ; a : iNJ. r v a t ; r e d . : u r a v a t ;
u r u v a t (B.) ; s : r a u t (B.), FT. r o y t i (B.). P s.
r y t e ; A o . rvi, r v i ; PP. r u t ; GDv. r t y a ;
ravyya. GD. rutv; -rtya. Cs. ravyati, rv
yati. Ds. rate.
r u hear, I.. : 1NJ. ran ; 1Pv. rantu ; P T. ramaa.
vac
. : iPv. vcasva ; PT. v c a m n a . PP.
. sB. ^ v a c i . C s . v a c y a s .
vas blow, I L : PR. vsiti ; . u ; 1Pv. vasih ; PT.
v a s n t and u n t ; . u ; 1PF. vast (B.). I . :
PR. Vsati, -te (Av.). PP. Vasit (B.). 1NF. -vsas.
Cs. Vsyati. 1NT. PT. Vasat.
vit be bright : A o . r o o t : v i t a n ; PT. v i t n ; r e d . : i v i t a t ; s: vait.
hv spew, I. P. : PR. h v ati. 1PF. h v a n . PF. t i h v a
(B.). PP. h y t (B.),
^
^
^

sagh be eoual to, V. P. : IPF. saghnos. Ao. root : sn.

sghat ; PRC saghysam (B.).
sac accompany, I . . PR. scate. I l l . : PR. saki ; sakti;
scati (3. pl.); 1NJ. . saeata (3. pl.); IPv. siaktu;
siakta ; P T. scat and sact. I . : PR. scasi ; A.
sce (1. s . ) ; 1NJ. sCat; 1Pv. scata (2. pl.) ; 1PF.
sacatam (2. du.). PF. sacim, sacr ; A. sacir ;
secir (Av.) ; PT. sacivs. AO. root : 1pv. skva ;
PT. sacan ; s : . sakata (3. pl.) ; sB. skat ; 1NJ.
sakata (3. pl.) ; OP. sakmhi.
1NF. sacdhyai ;
saki.
saj, saj, hang, I . P. : PR. sjati. 1PF. sajat. PF. sasja
(B.) ; sejr (B.), AO. s : . sakta. ps. sajyte (B.) ; AO.
saji (B.) ; pp. sakt. GD. sajya (B.). 1NF. sktos
(B.), Ds. ssakati (B.).
sad sit, I . P. : PR. sdati ; sB. sdti ; 1NJ. sdan ; OP.
sdema ; Ipv. sdatu ; PT. sdant.
1PF. sdat. P F .
sasttha, sas d a; sedthur, sedtur; sedim, sed,
sedr; . sedir; op. sasady t ; PT. sed. AO. a:
sadat ; sadan ; 1NJ. sdas, sdat ; op. sdema ; 1pv
sda, sdatu ; sdatam, sdatm ; sdata, sdantu ;
A. sdantam ; PT. sdant ; red. : sadan ; s : sB.
stsat. FT. satsyti (B.), ps. sadyte (B.) ; AO. sdi,
sdi ; pp. satt ; sann (AV.) ; GDv. sdya. GD. sdya.
1NF. sde ; sdam ; sttum (B.). es. sdyati, te ;
ps. sadyte (B.).
san gain, V I I I . P. : PR. santi ; sn. sanvni sanvat ;
sanvatha ; op. sanuym ; sanuy m a ; 1pv. sanuh,
santu ; sanVntu. IPF. sanos, sanot ; sanvan. P F .
sasna ; PT. sasav s. AO. a : sanam, sanat ; san
ma, sanan ; 1NJ. snam, snat; OP. sanyam, sant;
IPV. sna ; PT. snant ; is : sniam ; sB. sniat ; .
sniamahe, snianta ; 1PV. Sniantu. FT. Saniyti.
PP. st. GDv. snitva. 1NF. sanye; stye. Ds.
sisati. INT. . saniata (3. pl.).

sap serve, I . : PR. spati, te. PP. sepr. Ao. red. : 1NJ.
sapanta.
sapary honour, den. : PR. saparyti ; sn. sapary t ; oP.
saparyma; 1Pv. sapary; PT. saparynt. 1PF. sap
aryan. AO. saparyait (AV.). Guv. saparyya.
sas sleep, I I . P. : PR. ssti ; sasts ; 1Pv. sstu ; sastm ;
sasntu ; PT. sasnt ; 1PF. sastana. I l l . P. : PR.
ssasti and sassti.
sah prevail, I. : PR. shate ; PT. shant and shant ; . sh
amana. PP. ssha ; . sashi, sash ; sB. sshas,
sshat ; OP. ssahyt ; ssahy m a ; PRC. . ssahh s ;
PT. sasahvms and shv m s ; A. ssahn and sehn.
AO. root : OP. sahyas ; shyama ; PRC. sahyas (3. s.) ; PT.
sahn; s: ski and ski ; sakmahi (B.) ; sB. sk
ati and skat; s k ma; . skate; oP. sky;
1Pv. skva ; PT. skant ; . sahasan ; is : sahia ;
oP. sahivhi; sahimhi and shimhi. FT. sak
yte (B.). PP. sh. GD. shya. iNF. shadhyai ;
sham (B.). Ds. skati, te.
s bind, v l . : PR. syti, te ; 1Pv. sy, sytu ; sytam,
sytm ; . sysva ; sydhvam. 1PF. syat. Ac. root :
st ; sB. st ; oP. smhi ; 1Pv. shi ; a : oP. st (VS.).
PP. sit. GD. sya. 1NF. si ; satum (B.),
sdh succeed, I. : PR. s d hati, te. AO. red. : sB. sadhti ;
sadhma; 1NJ. sadhas. Cs. sdhyati.
si bind, IX. P. : PR. sinti ; sinths ; 1Pv. sin t u. P F .
siya ; 1NJ. siet. AC. root : 1Pv. sitm. 1NF. stave.
sic pour, V I . : PR. sificti, te. PP. sica ; siictur ;
sisier ; sisio. AO. a : sicat ; sican ; sB. sicamahe.
FT. sekyti (B.). Ps. sicyte ; AO. seci (B.) ; PP. sikt.
GD. siktV (B.) ; -icya. 1NF. sktavi (B.).
1. sidh repel, I. P.: PR. sdhati. PP. sidha. Ao. i s :
sedhs. PP. siddh (B.). GD. sdhya. INF. sddhurn
(B.). INT. PT. sidhat.
2. sidh succeed, I v P. : PR. sdhyati. PP. siddh (B.).
sv sew, IV. : PR. 1Pv. svyatu ; . svyadhvam ; PT.
s v yant. PP. syut. GD. svya.

su press, V. : PR. sunti ; sunuts ; sunuth, sunvnti ;

. sunv ; sunvir ; sB. sunvat ; sunvma ; . su
nvai ; 1Pv. sun, suntu ; sunut and sunta, sun
tana; . sunudhvm; PT. sunvnt; sunvn. PF.
suva ; suum ; PT. suuv s; suv. PPF. su
avur and suuvur (B.). AO. root : 1Pv. stu ; sutm ;
sta, stana ; PT. suvn, svn. FT. saviyti (B.) ;
sot (B.). Ps. syte ; AO. svi; PP. sut; GDv.
stva. GD. stya (B.), 1NF. stave; stos.
su generate, impel, V I . P. : PR. suvti ; sB. suvti ; 1Pv.
suv, suvtt, suvtu ; suvtm ; suvntu ; PT. suvnt ;
1PF. suvat. I I . . : PR. sve, su.te ; svte (3. du.) ;
svate (3. pl.) ; INJ. suta (3. s.) ; PT. suvn ; IPF. sta.
PF. sasuva ; suuv. PPF. suot (MS.) ; suavur (B.).
AO. is : svt ; sviur ; sn. sviat ; 1NJ. svs. FT.
soyti, te (B.); PT. syant. Ps. syte; PP. st.
GD. stv (B.) ; stya (B.). INF. sutave, stavi ; svi
tave. INT. ssavti.
l

sd put in order : PF. sudim ; sn. sdas, sdat and

sdati ; sdatha ; IPv. sudta (2. pl.). Ao. red. :
sudanta. Cs. sdyati, te ; sB. sdyti.
s flow, I I I . : PR. sisari, ssarti ; . ssrate (3. pl.) ; 1Pv.
sistm; . ssratm (3. pb), PT. ssrat. PP. sas r a;
sasv(.) ; sasrr ; . sasr ; sasrthe ; PT. sasvs ;
sasr. AG. a : saram, saras, sarat ; saran ; I P v .
sra ; s : sB. srat. FT. sariyti. Ps. AO. sri (B.) ;
PP. st (B.), GD. stv (B.) ; stya (B.), INF. srtave,
srtavi. cs. sryati, te. Ds. ssrati (B.). I N T .
sarsr (3. s.) ; PT. srsra.
sj emit, V I . : PR. sjti, te. PF. sasrja; . sasj;
sasjmhe, sasjrir ; oP. sasjyt ; PT. sasjn. PPP.
sasgram (3. pl.). AO. root : sgran, sgram ; PT.
sjn ; s: srs (2. s., AV.), srk (3. s.), sr (B.);
sram (2. du.) ; . ski, sa ; skmahi, sk
ata; sB. srkat ; 1NJ. sram; . skthm (2. du.).
FT. srakyti (B.). Ps. sjyte ; AO. sarji ; PP. s.

GD. sv ; sjya (B.). Cs. sarjyati, te (B.). Ds.

siskati, te (B.).
sp creep, I . P.: PR. srpati. PP. sasrpa (B.). Ao. a:
spat; 1NJ. spat; s: . spta (B.). FT. srapsyti
(B.) and sarpsyti (B.). PP. spt(B.), GD. sptv (B.) ;
spya.
1NF. spas (B.). Ds. sspsati. INT. sar
spyte (B.).
sev attend upon, I . . : PR. sve, svate ; 1Pv. svasva.
skand leap, I . P. : PR. skndati ; sB. skndt ; IPv. sknda ;
PT. skndant ; 1PF. skandat. PP. easknda. Ao. root :
skn (3. s.); s: skn (B.) and skntst (B.), FT.
skantsyti (B.). PP. skann. GD. skndya (B.) and
skdya (B.). 1NF. skde, skdas. Cs. skandyati.
1NT. sn. canikadat ; iPF. knikan (3. s.).
skabh or skambh prop, I X . : PR. skabhn t i ; PT. skabh
nnt ; . skabhna (B.). PP. cskmbha ; skambhtur;
skambhr; PT. caskabhn. PP. skabhit. GD. skabh
itv. 1NF. skbhe.
sku tear, I I . P. : PR. skuti (B.). V. P. : PR. skuntI.
Ps. skyte ; PP. skut. INT. cokyte.
stan thunder, I L P. : 1Pv. stanihi ; INJ. stn (3. s.). I . P.:
IPv. stna. Ao. i s : stnt. Cs. stanyati. INT. 1Pv
tastahi.
stabh or stambh prop, I X . : stabhn 1 ni ; IPv. stabhn ;
1PF. stabhns, stabhnt. PP. tastmbha ; tastabhr ;
PT. tastabhvs ; tastabhn. PPF. tastmbhat. Ao. s :
stmpst (B.) ; i : stambht, stmbht. PP. stabhit ;
stabdh (B.). GD. stabdhv , stbhya (B.).
stu praise, I I . : PR. stumi ( A v ) ; sti, stuti (Av.) ;
stumsi, stuvnti ; . st ; sn. stvat ; stvama,
stvatha; A. stvai; 1NJ. stut; oP. . stuvt; stuv
mhi ; 1Pv. stuhi, stutu ; PT. stuvnt ; stuvan,
stvna and stavn ; 1PF. staut. I . . : stvate and
stve (3. s.) ; 1NJ. stvanta; oP. stveta ; PT. stvamana.
PF. tuva ; tuuvr; . tuuv; sB. tusvat ; PT.
tuuv s; tuuvn. PPF. tuavam. Ao.s: stau

t (B.) ; . s t o i , stoa ; stohvam, stoata ;

B. s t i , stat ; stama ; 1NJ. stam ; i : s t a v t
(B.). FT. stoyti, te (B.) ; staviyti, te. ce. stoyat.
ps. s t u y t e ; AO. stvi ; PP. s t u t ; GDv. stuyya.
GD. s t u t v ; s t t y a (B.).
1NF. s t a v d h y a i , s t t a v e ;
s t t u m (B.), es. s t v y a t i (B.),
stubh praise, I . P. : PR. s t b h a t i ; I p v . s t b h a t a , stbh
antu ; PT. s t b h a n t . I I . . : PT. s t u b h n . pp. s t u h d h
(B.), Cs. s t o b h y a t i .
st strew, I X . : PR. st m i ; stthna, stnti ; .
s t t ; 1NJ. s t m h i ; Ipv. sth.; sttm (2. du.);
s t t ; . stt m (3. s.) ; PT. s t n t ; s t n ; 1PF.
s t t ; stan.
V. : PR. s t i ; s t u t . P F .
tast r a (B.) ; t a s t a r r (B.) ; . t i s t i r (3. s.) ; t a s t r i r ;
PT. tistira.
AO. root : s t a r ; A. stta (B.) ; s n .
s t r a t e ; s t r m a h e ; 1NJ. star (2. s.) ; s : s t i (B.) ;
op. sty ; i : s t a r s . FT. stariyti, te (B.), ps.
s t r i y t e (B.) ; AO. s t a r i ; pp. stt ; s t r . G n .
strtv (B.) ; st r ya (B.). 1NF. stire, s t i ; str
tave (Av) ; s t r t a v e (B.), s t r t a v i (B.) ; stritavi(B.),
startavi (B.). Ds. tstrate (B.) ; t s t r a t e (B.).
stha stand, I . : PR. thati, te. PF. t a s t h u ; t a s t h t h u r ,
t a s t h t u r ; t a s t h i m , t a s t h r ; . t a s t h , tasthi,
t a s t h ; t a s t h i r ; PT. tasthiv s ; t a s t h n . AO. root :
s t h m , s t h s , s t h t ; s t h m a , sthata, s t h u r ; .
s t h i t h s , s t h i t a ; s t h i r a n ; sn. sth s , sth t i and sth t ;
sth t as ; 1NJ. sth m , sth t ; s t h r ; op. sthey m a ; 1pv.
s t h t a m (2. du.); sthata; PT. sth n t; a: sthat (AV.);
s: s t h i i (B.); sthiata (3. p l . ) ; 1NJ. stheam (VS.).
FT. s t h s y t i . ps. s t h y t e (B.); pp. s t h i t . GD. sth y a.
1NF. sth t um (B.) ; sth t os (B.). es. s t h p y a t i , te ;
AO. tihipam, tihipas, t i h i p a t ; 1NJ. tihipat.
Ds. t h s a t i (B.).
s n bathe, I I . P.: PR. sn t i; 1Pv. snahi; PT. sn n t. pp.
snt. GDv. sn t va. GD. sntv ; sn y a. 1NF. sn t um
(B.). Cs. s n p y a t i ; te (B.) ; s n a p y a t i (AV.),

s p a see : PF. p a s p a ; PT. p a s p a a n . AG. root : spaa

(3. s.). PP. spa. Cs. s p a y a t e .
sp win, v : PR. spvat ; s B . spvama ; 1Pv. spuhi.
PF. pasp r a (B.). AC. root : s p a r (2. s.) ; sB. s p r a t ;
INJ. s p r (2. s.) ; 1pv. spdh ; s : spram. pp. spt.
GD. sptv . 1NF. sprase.
spdh contend, I. . : PR. s p r d h a t e ; PT. s p r d h a m a n a .
PF. . paspdh t e (3. du.) ; paspdhr ; PT. paspdhn.
PPF. p a s p d h e t h m (2. du.).
AG. root : . s p d h
ran ; PT. spdhn. GD. sp d hya. INF. s p r d h i t u m .
sp touch, v l . : PR. spti, -te. PF. sB. p a s p r a t . AO.
red.: sB. pispati; 1NJ. p i s p a s ; s : s p r a k a m (B.) ;
s a : spkat. pp. sp. GD. spv (B.); sp ya
(B.). 1NF. sp e; sp as (B.). es. s p a r y a t i (B.), te.
sph be eager : Cs. sphyanti ; op. sphyet. iPF. sph
ayam. GDv. sphay y ya.
sphur jerk, v l . : PR. s p h u r t i ; . s p h u r t e (B.) ; sB.
s p h u r n ; I N J . s p h u r t ; Ipv. s p h u r ; s p h u r t a m (2.
du.) ; PT. s p h u r n t .
1PF. s p h u r a t . Ao. i : s p h a r s
(sph).
sphurj rumble, I. P. : PR. sphurjati. Cs. s p h r j y a t i .
smi smile, I. : PR. s m y a t e ; 1NJ. s m y a n t a ; PT. s m y a
mana. PF. simiy ; PT. simiy.
sm remember, I. : PR. s m r a t i , te. Ps. s m a r y t e (B.) ;
Pp. smt.
syand move on, L A. : PR. s y n d a t e . PF. s i y a d r ; A.
siyad. AO. red. . siyadat ; siyadanta ; s . s y n
(3. s.), F T . s y a n t s y t i (B.). p s . AC. s y n d i (B.); PP.
s y a n n . GD. syanttv (B.) ; syattv (B.), syadya (B.).
INF. s y d e ; s y n t t u m (B.) ; Cs. s y a n d y a t i (B.) ; INF.
s y a n d a y d h y a i . 1NT. PT. sniyadat.
sras, sras fall, I. A. : PR. srsate (B.). PF. sasrasr
(B.),
AO. root: srat (VS.); a: OP. srasema; red.:
sisrasan ; is : srasiata (B.).
pp. s r a s t . GD.
srasya (B.), INF. srsas. Cs. srasyatI.
sridh blunder, I. P. : PR. s r d h a t i ; 1pv. s r d h a t a ; PT.

srdhant. iPF. sredhan. Ao. a: iN.T. sridhat ; PT.

sridhn.
sru flow, I . : PR. srvati. PP. susrva ; susruvr ; 1NJ.
susrot. PPF. susrot. Ao. is : srvs (B.). PP. srut.
1NF. srvitave ; srvitavi. Cs. srvyati ; te (B.).
svaj embrace, I . : PR. svjate; sB. svjte, svjtai (Av.) ;
INJ. svjat ; 1Pv. svjasva ; svjadhvam. PP. sasvaj ;
sasvajte (3. du.) ; PT. sasvajn. PPF. sasvajat. PP.
svakt (B.). 1NF. svje.
svad, svd sweeten, I . : PR. svdati, te ; . svdate ; B.
svdti ; 1Pv. svda ; svdantu ; . svdasva. AG. red. :
INJ. sivadaI. PP. svtt. INF. sde. Cs. svadyati,
te ; PP. svadit.
svan sound : Ao. is : svant ; INJ. svant. Cs. svanyati ;
PP. svanit. INT. sn. sanivaat.
svap sleep, I I . P. : PR. 1Pv. svptu ; PT. svapnt. I . P. : PR.
svpati. PP. suupr ; 1NJ. suupths (B.) ; PT. suup
vs ; suup. Ao. red. : sivapas and sivap (2. s.).
FT. svapsyti (B.) ; svapiymi. PP. supt. GD. suptv .
1NF. svptum (B.). Cs. svpyatI.
svar sound, I . P. : PR. svrati. PF. 1NJ. sasvr (3. s.). Ao.
s : svr (3. s.) ; svrm (3. du.) ; is : svrs (B.).
1NF. svritos (B.). Cs. svaryati.
svid sweat, L . : PR. svdate. PP. PT. sividn. Pp.
svinn. Cs. svedyati (B.).
han strike, I L : PR. hnmi, hsi, hnti ; haths, hats ;
hanms, hath, ghnnti ; sB. hnas, hnati and hnat ;
hnva ; hnma ; hntha (Av.), hnan ; 1NJ. hn
(3. s.); op. hany t , hany m a; 1pv. jah, hntu ; hatm,
hatm ; hat and hantana, ghnntu ; PT. ghnnt. I . :
PR. jghnate ; t i (B.). PF. jaghntha, jaghna ; jaghn
t h u r ; jaghnim, jaghnr; . jaghn (B.); sB. jaghn
at ; PT. jaghanv s ; jaghniv s (B.). Ao. i : hnt
(B.). FT. haniyti ; te (B.). Ps. hanyte ; PP. hat ;
GDv. hntva. GD. hatv, hatv ; hatvya ; htya.
1NF. hntave, hntavi; ^ntum. Cs. ghtyati (B.).

Ds. jghsati; AO. jighss (B.). 1NT. jghanti;

sB. jaghnni, jaghanas, jaghanat ; jaghanva ;
A. jaghananta ; ipv. jaghanhi ; PT. jghanat ;
ghnighnat.
har be gratified, I v . : PR. hryati ; sB. hrysi and hrys ;
ipv. hrya ; PT. hryant. 1PF. haryat ; . haryaths.
1. h leave, I I I . P. : PR. jhmi, jhsi, jhti; jhati;
sB. jhni ; jhma ; oP. jahy t ; jahyr ; iPv. jahtt,
jhtu ; jahtam ; jahta ; PT. jhat. iPF. ajaht ;
jahtana, jahur. PF. jah ; jahtur; jahr. Ao.
root : ht (B.) ; s : ahs (3. s.) ; . hsi, hsths ;
iNJ. hss ; sis : 1NJ. hsiam, hsim ; hsia,
hsiur. FT. hsyti ; hsyte (B.). Ps. hyte ; Ao.
hyi ; PP. hn ; hna (B.) ; jahit. GD. hitv, hitv,
hitv y a; hya (B.). 1NF. htum (B.). cs. Ao.jhipas.
2. h go forth, I I I . . : PR. jihte ; jhte ; jhate ; 1NJ.
jhta; 1Pv. jihva, jihtm (3. s.) ; jihthm (2. du.) ;
jihatm (3. pl.) ; PT. jhna. iPF. A jihta ; jihata.
PP. jahir. Ao. red.: jjananta; s: . hsata (3. pl.);
iNJ. hsths. FT. hsyte (B.). PP. hn (B.). GD.
hya. 1NF. htum. es. hpyati. Ds. jhate.
hi impel, v : PR. hinmi, hini, hinti ; hinms and
hinmsi, hinvnti; . hinv (1. 3.); hinvte and
hinvir ; sB. hinv ; 1NJ. hinvn ; 1Pv. hinuh, hinut t ,
hin ; hintam ; hinut, hinta and hintana, hinv
ntu ; PT. hinvnt ; hinvn ; 1PF. hinvan. PP.
jighya (B.) ; jighyr (B.). Ao. root: hema, hetana,
hyan ; 1Pv. heta ; PT. hiyn ; a : hyam ; s : hait
(3. s., Av.) ; hait (B.) ; . heata (3. ph), PP. hit.
GDv. htva. 1NF. hy.
his injure, v I L : hinsti ; hsanti ; A. hste (Av.) ;
1Pv. hinstu. ; oP. hisyt (B.) ; PT. hsna ; 1PF.
hinat (3. s., B.). I. : PR. hsati, te (B.), PP. jihis
im. PPF. jhiss. AG. is : 1NJ. hisiam, hiss,
hist ; hisiam (2. du.) ; hisia, hisiur. FT.
hisiyti, te (B.). Ps. hisyte ; PP. hisit ; GDv.

hisitavy. on. hisitv. iNF. hsitum (B.), hs

itos (B.). Ds. jhisiati (B.).
h be hostile, I . : PT. hlant ; . hamna ; hamana
(B.). PF. jih a (1. s.), jha (Av.) ; . jih ; jihir;
PT. jihn. A o . r e d . : jhiat ; i s : A. hitm
(TA.), PP. hit. Cs. PT. heyant.
h u sacrifice, I I I . : PR. juhmi, juhti ; jnhums, jhvati ;
. juhv, juhut ; jhvate; sB.juhvma; op.juhuy t ;
juhuy m a; juhudhi (B.), juhtu; juhut a n d juhta,
juhtana ; . juhudhvm ; PT. jhvat ; jhvna ; 1PF.
juhavur; A. juhvata. PP. juhv; j u h u r ; juhvir
(B.) ; per. juhav cakra (B.). Ao. s : haut (B.).
FT. hoyti. Ps. huyte ; Ao. hvi ; PP. hut. G D .
hutv (B.), iNF. htavi; htum (B.), htos (B.),
h call, I . . : PR. hvate ; 1NJ. hvanta ; PT. hvamana.
V I . : PR. huv (1. 3.) ; huv m ahe ; 1NJ. huvt ; op.
huvma ; . huvya ; PT. huvnt ; iPF. huve ; huv
anta. I I I . : PR^ juhmsi a n d juhums. I I . : PR.
hut ; hmhe.
PF. juh v a ; . juhv ; juhr ;
juhuvir (B.). A o . r o o t : . hvi ; hmahi ; iNJ.
hma ; a : hvam, hvat ; hvma ; . hve ; hvanta ;
s: . hata (3. pl.). ps. h y t e ; pp. h u t ; GDV.
hvya. GD. hya (B.). 1NF. hvtave; huvdhyai.
Ds. jhati (B.). 1NT. jhavmi, jhavti; sB. .
johuvanta ; ipv. johavtu ; 1PF. johavt ; johavur.
1. h take, I . : PR. hrati, te ; B. hrai, h r a t ; hrma,
hran ; op. hret ; hrema ; ipv. hra ; hrata, hrantu ;
PT. hrant. iPF. harat. PF. jah r a, jahrtha (B.) ;
jahrr ; A. jahr (B.), A O . r o o t : hthas (B.) ; s :
haram, har (3. s.) ; . hata(3. pl.). FT. hariyti,
te (B.) ; hart (B.) ; Co. hariyat (B.). Ps. hriyte ;
PP. ht. GD. htv (B.) ; htya. 1NF. harse ; hrtavi
(B.); hrtos (B.) ; hrtum (B.), Cs. hryati, te (B.).
n s . jhrati.
2. h be angry, I X . . : PR. h, ht ; iNJ. hth s ;
IPv. htm (3. s.) ; PT. han.

h be exeited, I . : PR. h r a t e ; 1pv. h r a s v a ; PT. h r a n t ;

hrama. PF. PT. jh. Pp. hit. Cs. har
yati, -te. 1NT. sB. jarhanta ; PT. jrhsaa.
h n u hide, I I . : PR. h n u t s ; . h n u v . pp. h n u t . GDV.
imav^ra.

h r be ashamed, I l l . P . : PR: j h r e t i . AC. root : pT. - h r a y a .

pp. h r t (B.).
h v call, I V . : PR. h v y a t i ; h v y e ; sB. h v y a m a h a i ; op.
h v y e t a m (3. du.) ; 1pv. h v y a , h v y a t u ; h v y a n t u ;
A . h v y a s v a ; h v y e t h m (2. du.) ; h v y a n t m ; pr.
h v y a m n a . 1PF. h v a y a t ; h v a y a n t a . Ao. h v s t
(B.), F r . h v a y i y t i , -te (B.), 1NF. h v y i t a v i (B.) ;
h v y i t u m (B.).
h v be crooked, I . . : PR. h v r a t e . I X . P . : PR. hru t i.
I I I . : sB. j u h u r a s ; . j u h u r a n t a ; INJ. j u h r t h a s ; PT.
j u h u r . Ao. red. : j i h v a r a s ; 1NJ. j i h v a r a s ; j i h v a r a t a m (2. du.) ; s : 1NJ. hv r (2. s.), h v a r t ; i : h v r i u r .
pp. h v t , h r u t . Cs. h v r y a t i .

APPENDIX I I
vEDIC METRE.
1

1. The main principle governing vedic metre (the source

of all later Indian versification) is measurement by number
of syllables. The metrical unit here is not the foot in the
sense of Greek prosody, but the foot (pda) or quarter in
the sense of the verse or line which is a constituent of the
stanza. Such verses consist of eight, eleven, twelve, or
(much less commonly) five syllables. The verse is further
more or less regulated by a quantitative rhythm (unaffected
by the musical accent) in which short and long syllables
alternate. Nearly all metres have a general iambic rhythm
inasmuch as they show a preference for the even syllables
(second, fourth, and so on) in a verse being long rather than
short. I n every metre the rhythm of the latter part of the
verse (the last four or five syllables), called the cadence, is
more rigidly regulated than that of the earlier part. verses
of eleven and twelve syllables are characterized not only by
their cadence, but by a caesura after the fourth or the fifth
syllable, while verses of five and eight syllables have no
such metrical pause.
2

Called chndas i n the RV. itself.

Except the two metres ry and Vaitlya which are measured
by morae
This seems to have been the only metrical prineipl.e in the Indo
Iranian period, because in the Avesta the character of a verse depends
solely on the number of syllables i t contains, there being no quanti
tative restriction i n any part of if.
A figurative sense (derived from foot qnarter of a quadruped)
applicable because the typical stanza has four lines.
2

vEDIC

METRE

437

verses combine to form a stanza or c, the unit of the

hymn, which generally consists of not less than three or
more than fifteen such units. The stanzas of common
occurrence in the RV. range, by increments of four syllables,
from twenty syllables (4 x 5) to fortyeight (4 x 12) syllables
in length. A stanza may consist of a combination of
metrically identical or of metrically different verses ; and
either two or three stanzas may further be combined to form
a strophe.
a. The following general rules of prosody are to be noted. I. The
end of a verse regularly coincides with the end of a word because
each verse in a stanza is independent of the rest in structure. 2. The
quantity of the first and last syllables of a verse is indifferent.
3. A vowel becomes long by position if followed by two consonants.
One or both of these consonants may belong to the following word.
The palatal aspirate oh and the cerebral aspirate h (h) count as
double consonants. 4. One vowel is shortened before another ;
o and o are also pronounced and before . 5. The semivowels
y and v, both within a word and in sandhi, have often to be pro
nounced as i and u ; e. g. sima for syma ; sar for svr ; v u
for vy u; vidtheu ajn for vidthev ajn. 6. Contracted
vowels (especially and u) must often be restored ; e. g. ca agnye
for cgnye ; v ndrah for vndra ; vatu tye for vatutye ;
indra for ndra. 7. Initial a when dropped after o and o must
nearly always be restored. 8. The long vowel of the gen. pi. ending
am, and of such words as dsa, ura, and e (as jyiha for jyha)
or ai (as -ichas for ichas) must often be pronounced as equivalent
to two short syllables. 9. The spelling of a few words regularly
misrepresents their metrical value ; thus pvak must always be pro
nounced as pavk, m:aya as maya, and suvn nearly always as
svn.
2

There are also several longer stanzas formed by adding more

verses and consisting of 52, 56, 60, 64, 68, and 72 syllables ; but all
these are rare : only two stanzas of 68 and one of 72 are found 1n
the RV.
^- No infringement of this rule occurs in any metre of theRV.but
the comparatively rare Dvipad Viraj (4 ^ 5), in which three exceptions
are met with.
3 The vowels , u, o when Praghya (25, 26), however, remain long
before vowels. When a final long vowel is the result of Sandhi, it
also remains long ; tsm adt for tsmai adt. .

I . Simple Stanzas.
2. The vedic hymns consist chiefly of simple stanzas,
that is, of such as are formed of verses which are all
metrically identical. ^ Different stanzas are formed by com
bining three, four, five, or six identical verses. The
following is an account of the various types of verse and of
the different simple stanzas formed by them.
A. Verse of eight syllables. This is a dimeter verse
consisting of two equal members of four syllables each, the
opening and the cadence. I n the opening the first and
third syllable are indifferent, while the second and fourth
are preferably long. When the second is short, the third
is almost invariably long. I n the cadence the rhythm is
typically iambic, the first and third syllables being almost
always short, while the second is usually long (though it is
not infrequently short also). Thus the prevailing scheme of
the whole verse i s ^ ^ . ^ ^
a. Even after every admissible vowel restoration a good many verses
of this type exhibit the anomaly (which cannot be removed without
doing violence to the text) of having one syllable too few ; e. g. t
tu vay pito. There are also here a very few instances of one or
even two syllables too many ; e. g. agnm e | bhuj yvi | stham
and vay td as | ya sbhta | vsu.
1

3. a. The Gyatr stanza consists of three octosyllabic

verses; e.g.
3

Next to the Triubh this is the commonest metre i n the RV.,

nearly onefourth of that sahit being composed i n i t ; yet i t has
entirely disappeared i n Classical sanskrit. The Avesta has a parallel
stanza of 3 ^ 8 syllables.
The first two Pdas of the Gyatr are treated as a hemistich i n
the sahit text, probably i n imitation of the hemistich of the
Anuubh and the Triubh ; but there is no reason to believe that i n
the original text the second verse was more sharply divided from the
third than from the first.
3 By far the commonest variation from the normal type is that i n
which the second syllable of the cadence is short ( ^ ^ ^ ^ ) , This
occurs about as often i n the first verse of Gyatrs as i n the second
and third combined.
2

agnm H e I purhitam ^ ^ | ^ ^ ^ |
ya^sya de | vm tvijam ^ ^ | ^ ^ ^ |
htara ra | tnadh t amam | | | ^ ^ ^ | |
a. A comparatively rare but sufficiently definite variety
of Gyatr differs from the normal type by having a decided
trochaic rhythm in the cadence, while the iambic rhythm
of the opening is more pronounced than usual ; e. g.
tu no ag I ne mhobhi | ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ |
ph vva I sy rte | ^ | ^ |
ut dvi I mrtiasya ||^^|^^||
1

b. The Anuubh stanza consists of four octosyllabic

verses, divided into two hemistichs ; e. g.
ys te sar | pirsute |
|^ ^ |
gne m s I t i dhyase | | | ^ ^ ||
iu dyumnm I ut rva ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ |
eitt mr I tieu dh || | ^ ||
a. I n the latest hymns of the RV. there begins a tendency to
differentiate the first from the second verse of an Anuubh hemistich
by making the end of the former trochaic, while the cadence of the
latter becomes more strictly iambic. Although i n these hymns
the iambic cadence of the first verse is still the most frequent
(25 per cent.) of all varieties, i t is already very nearly equalled by the
next commonest (23 per cent.), which is identical w i t h the normal
and characteristic cadence of the first verse i n the epic A n u u b h
(loka). The scheme of the whole hemistich according to this
innovation then is : ^: ^ | ^ || ^ ^ | ^ ^ ^ | | e . g .
ke vi I sya p t rea || yd rudr | pibat sah ||
4

The only long series of such trochaic Gyatrs occurs i n R v viii.

2, 139.
The trochaic Gyatr is commonest i n Maalas i and viii, which
taken together contain about twothirds of the total number of
examples i n the RV.
3 The frequency of this metre is about onethird that of Gyatr i n
the RV., but i n the p o s t - v e d i c period i t has become the predominant
metre. The Avesta has a parallel stanza of 4 ^ 8 syllables.
Where the iambic cadence i n the first verse has entirely dis
appeared.
This is the regular type of the Anuubh i n the A v .
2

c. The Pakti stanza consists of five octosyllabic verses

divided into two hemistichs of two^ and of three verses
respectively. I n origin it seems to be an extension of the
Anusubh by the addition of a fifth verse. This is indicated
by the fact that in hymns consisting entirely of Paktis the
fifth verse of every stanza is (except in i . 81) regularly a
refrain (e. g. in i . 80). The following is an example of
a Pakti stanza :
itth h sma n mde | brahm cakra vrdhanam |^
viha vajrinn jas | pthivy n a him | rcann
nu svarjiam ||
d. I n about fifty stanzas of the RV. the number of
octosyllabic verses is increased to six and in about twenty
others to seven, generally by adding a refrain of two verses
to an Anuubh (e.g. viif. 47) or to a Pakti (e.g. x. 133,
13), The former is called Mahpakti (48), the latter
Sakvar (56).
4. B. verses of eleven syllables differ from those of
eight in consisting of three members (the opening, the break,
and the cadence), They also contrast with the latter in two
other respects : their cadence is trochaic ( ^ ) and
they have a caesura, which follows either the fourth or the
fifth syllable. The rhythm of the syllables preceding the
caesura is prevailingly iambic, being ^ or ^ ^.
The rhythm of the break between the caesura and the
cadence is regularly ^ ^ or ^
| . Thus the scheme of
2

The A vesta has a parallel stanza of 5 ^: 8 syllables.

The only irregularity here is that the first syllable of the cadence
may be short when i t coincides with the end of a word.
This appears to have been the original position of the caesura
because the parallel verse of the A vesta has i t there and never after
the fifth syllable.
Identical with the opening of the octosyllabic verse.
The fourth syllable here is sometimes short : the fifth is then
always long.
'^ The first of these two syllables is sometimes, but rarely, long i n
the old hymns of the RV., still more rarely i n the later hymns, and
hardly ever i n B.
2

the whole normal verse of eleven syllables is :

^ ) ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
^r
( ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
a. Apart from corruptions or only seeming irregularities (removable
by restoration of vowels) several verses of this type have one syllable
too many or too f e w ; e.g. t no vidv sa, mnma vo | oetam
a d y (12); tm giro, jna I yo n ptn (10). Occasionally
two syllables are wanting after the caesura or the verse is too long by
a trochee added at the end ; e. g. t s no, [. ma I h yajatra (9) ;
ay s hta, [ ^ ^ ] y dvijanma (9) ; rthebhir yata, i | mdbhir
va I parai. (13).
1

5. The Triubh stanza, the commonest in the RV.,

consists of four verses of eleven syllables ^ divided into two
hemistichs. The following are hemistichs of each type :
(a) angstv, aditi I tv tur s a | im yaj, da
dhatu | ram ||
(b) asmka santu, bhva | nasya gp | pibantu
smam, va I se n ady ||
4

a. A few Triubh stanzas of only two verses (dvipad) occur

(e.g. vii. 17). Much commoner are those of three verses (virj), the
first two of which (as i n the Gyatr stanza) are treated i n the
sahita text as a hemistich ; the whole of some hymns is composed
in this threeline metre (e.g. i i i . 25). Fairly frequent are also
Triubh stanzas of five verses divided into two hemistichs of two
and three verses respectively. They are always of isolated occurrence,
appearing generally at the end of (Triubh) hymns, but never form
ing an entire hymn.
6

This anomaly also appears in the metre of later vedic texts and of
Pali poetry.
The extra syllable i n such cases is perhaps due to the verse being
inadvertently continued after a fifth syllable caesura as i f i t were
a fourth syllable caesura.
The deficiency of a syllable in such cases may have been partly
due to the similarity of the decasyllabic Dvipad virj (8) with which
Triubh verses not infrequently interchange.
About twofifths of the RV. are composed i n this metre.
The Avesta has a parallel stanza of 4^11 syllables with caesura
after the fourth syllable.
These are accounted Atijagat (52) or akvar stanzas by the
ancient metricians when the fifth verse is a repetition of the fourth.
I f i t is not a repetition i t is treated i n the sahita text as a separate
verse (as v. 4 l , 20 ; v i . 63, 11) and is called an ekapad by the
metricians.
2

6. C. The verse of twelve syllables is probably an

extension of the Triubh verse by one syllable which gives
the trochaic cadence of the latter an iambic character.
The rhythm of the last five syllables is therefore ^ .
The added syllable being the only point of difference, the
scheme of the whole verse is :
1

(^) ^

^ ^ I ^ --^ ^ ^

(b) ^ ^ ^. ^ ^

^ ^ ^

a. several examples occur of this type of verse (like the Triubh)

having one, and occasionally two, syllables too many or too few ; e.g.
m no mrtya., ripve vjinvasu (13) ; rdas , vada | t gaari
ya (11) ; s dh cit, abh t | atti vjam r | vat (14) ; pb
smam, [.^ ^ ] c I n atakrato (10).

7. The Jagat stanza, the third in order of frequency in

the RV., consists of four verses of twelve syllables divided
into two hemistichs. The following hemistich gives an
example of each of the two types of verse :
ananud, vabh I ddhato vadh |
gambhr v, sam | aakvia ||
a. There is an eleven syllable variety of the Jagat verse which is
sufficiently definite i n type to form entire stanzas i n two hymns of
the RV. (x. 77, 78). I t has a caesura after both the fifth and the
seventh syllable, its scheme being ^ ^ , ,
^ :^ |
The following hemistich is an example :
abhrapro n, vc, pru vsu |
havmanto n yaj, vijana ||

8. D. The verse of five syllables resembles the last five

syllables of the Triubh verse in rhythm, its commonest
form being ^ ^ , and the one next fo it in frequency

^^ ^ ^ ^ I ^
1

I t is probably not IndoIranian, because though a verse of

12 syllables occurs in the Avesta, i t is there differently divided (7^5).
As the Gyatr verse is never normally found i n combination
with the Triubh, but often with the Jagat verse, i t seems likely
that the iambic influence of the Gayatr led to the creation of the
Jagat, w i t h which i t could form a homogeneous combination.
That is, its first syllable is less often long than short
2

The D v i p a d Virj stanza consists of four such verses

2

divided into two hemistichs ; e. g.

p r i p r dhanva | n d r y a soma |
s v a d r mitr y a I p b h g y a ||

a. Owing to the identity of the cadence a Dvipad

hemistich not infrequently interchanges in the same stanza
with a Triubh verse ; e. g.
3

priy vo n m a I huve t u r m |
y t t p n , maruto I vvasan ||

b. The mixture of Dvipada hemistichs with Triubh

verses led to an entire hymn (iv. 10) being composed in a
peculiar metre consisting of three pentasyllable verses 6
followed by a Triubh ; e. g.
gne t m ady I va n stmai | k r t u n b h a d r m |
hdisp am, dhi | m 7 ta h a i ||
II.

M i x e d Stanzas.

9. The only different verses normally used in combination

to form a stanza are the Gyatr and the Jagat1. The
principal metres thus formed are the following :
a. Stanzas of 23 syllables consisting of three verses, the
first two of which are treated as a hemistich :
1

This stanza is somewhat rare, occurring i n the RV. not much more
than a hundred times.
The otherwise universal rule that the end of a verse must coincide
w i t h the end of a word is three times ignored i n this metre (at the
end of the first and third verses).
3 W i t h this metre compare the defective Triubh verse of ten
syllables (4 a).
This interchange occurs especially i n RV. vii. 34 and 56.
H ere the verb, though the first word of the verse (App. I I I , 19 b),
is unaccented. This is because the end of the first and the third
verse i n this metre has a tendency to be treated like a caesura rather
than a division of the stanza. Cp. note 2.
These three verses are treated as a hemistich in the sahit text.
The verb is accented because i n the sahit text i t is treated as
the first word of a separate verse.
4

1. U i h : 88 12; e.g.
gne vja I sya gmata |
sna sa | haso yaho ||
asm dhehi, jtave | do mhi rva ||
2. Purauih : 12 8 8 ; e. g.
aps antr, amtam | aps bheajm |
apm ut | prastaye ^
dv bhava I ta vjna ||
3. Kakubh : 8 12 8 ; e. g.
dh hi in | dra girvaa |
pa tv kmn, mah | sasjmhe ^
udva yn | ta udbhi |
b. Stanzas of 3e syllables consisting of four verses divided
into two hemistichs : Bhat 8 8 12 8 ; e. g.
cbhir nah | aevas |
dv nkta | daasyatam ||
m v rtr, pa da | sat kd can |
asmd rti | kd can ||
c. Stanzas of 40 syllables consisting of four verses divided
into two hemistichs : Satobhat 12 8 12 8 ; e. g.
jnso agni, dadhi | re sahovdham |
havmanto | vidhema te ||
s tv no ady, sum | n ihvit |
bhv vaje | u santa ||
10. There are besides two much longer mixed stanzas of
seven verses, each of which is split up into three divisions
of three, two, and two verses respectively in the Sahit
text.
a. Stanzas of CO syllables consisting of six Gyatri
verses and one Jagat : Atiakvar 8 8 8, 8 8, 12 8 ; e. g.
2

1
2

These are the composition of a very few individual poets.

Only about ten examples of this metre occur in the RV.

suum y | tam dribhi |

grt mat | sara im |
smso mat | sar im ||
rjn | divisp |
asmatr gan | tam pa na ^|
im v mitr, varu I gvira I
sm ukr I gvira ||
b. Stanzas of 68 syllables consisting of four Gyatr and
three Jagat verses : Atyai 12 12 8, 8 8, 12 8 ; e. g.
s no ndina, dd | na bhara |
gne devbhi, sca | n sucetn |
mah ry | sucetn ||
mhi avi | ha nas kdhi |
sacke bhu I j asii ||
mhi stOt b hyo, magha | van suvriam |
mthr ugr I n vas ||
1

a. Besides the above mixed metres various other but isolated

combinations of Gyatr and Jagat verses occur i n the RV., chiefly i n
single hymns. There are stanzas of this kind containing 20 syllables
(12 8) ; 32 syllables (12 8, 12) ; 40 syllables (12 12, 8 8) ; 44 syllables
(12 12, 12 8) ; 52 syllables (12 12, 12 8 8),
^. 1. Triubh verses are quite often interspersed in Jagat stanzas,
but never i n such a way as to form a fixed type of stanza or to make
it doubtful whether a hymn is a Jagat one. This practice probably
arose from the interchange of entire Triubh and Jagat stanzas i n
the same hymn bringing about a similar mixture within a single
stanza. 2. A n occasional licence is the combination of a Triubh
with a Gayatr verse i n the same stanza. This combination appears
as a regular mixed stanza (11 8, 88) in one entire hymn (RV. x. 22).^
3. The combination of a Triubh verse with a Dvipada viraj hemistich
has already been noted (8 a).
2

This is the only comparatively common long metre (of more than
48 syllables) i n the RV., where more than 80 Atyasti stanzas occur.
RV. viiI. 29.
3 I^v. ix. 110.
^ RV. x. 93.
RV. v i i i . 35.
^ RV. s7.
But the intrusion of JagatI verses i n a Tristubh hymn is
exceptional i n the R v though very common i n the V. and later.
Except stanzas 7 and 15, which are pure Anustubh and Tristubh
respectively.

. .
2

I I I . Strophic Stanzas.
11. Two er three stanzas are often found strophically
combined in the RV., forming couplets or triplets.
A. Three simple stanzas (called tea) in the same metre
are often thus connected. Gyatr triplets are the com
monest ; less usual are Uih, Bhat, or Pakti triplets ;
while Triubh triplets are rare. A hymn consisting of
several triplets often concludes with an additional stanza in
a different metre.
a. I t is a typical practice to conclude a hymn composed i n one
metre w i t h a stanza i n another. A Triubh stanza at the end of
a Jagat hymn is the commonest ; a final Anuubh stanza i n Gyatr
hymns is much less usual ; but all the commoner metres are to some
extent thus employed except the Gyatr, which is never used in
this way.

B. Two mixed stanzas in different metres are often com

bined, the R v containing about 250 such strophes. This
doubly mixed strophic metre, called Pragtha, is of two
main types :
1. The Kkubha Pragtha is much the less common
kind of strophe, occurring only slightly more than fifty
times in the RV. I t is formed by the combination of a
Kakubh with a Satobhat stanza : 8 12, 8 + 12 8, 12 8 ; e. g.
a no va | vad avina |
Vartr ysia, madhu | patam nara ||
gmad dasra I hrayavat ||
suprvarg, snv r ya | suh variam |
nadha | rakasvn ||
asmnn vm, yne | vajinvas |
vva vam | ni dhmahi ||
2. The Barhata Pragatha is a common strophe, occurring
nearly two hundred times in the R V I t is formed by the
combination of a Brhat with a SatobrhatI stanza : 8 8, 12 8 +
12 8, 12 8 ; e. g.

dyumn v | stmo av1na I

krvir n s I ka gatam ||
mdhva sutsya, s di | v priy nr |
pt gaurv I ivrie ||
pbata gharm, mdhu | mantam avina |
barh s | data nar ||
t mandasn , mnu | o duro |
n pta v I das vya ||
a. Of these two types there are many variations occurring i n
individual hymns, chiefly by the addition of one (8), two (12 8),
three (12 8 8), or once (vii. 96, 13) even four verses (12 12 8 8).

APPENDIX I l l
T H E VEDIC ACCENT.

1. The accent is marked in all the texts of the four vedas

as well as in two Brhmaas, the Taittinya (including its
rayaka) and the atapatha (including the Bhadarayaka
Upaniad),
The vedic, like the ancient Greek, accent was a musical
one, depending mainly on pitch, as is indicated both by its
not affecting the rhythm of metre and by the name of the
chief tone, udtta raised. That such was its nature is,
moreover, shown by the account given of it by the ancient
native phonetician^. Three degrees of pitch are to be dis
tinguished, the high, properly represented by the udtta,
the middle by the svarita (sounded), and the low by the
anudtta (not raised). But in the Rigveda the Udtta,
the rising accent, has secondarily acquired a middle pitch,
lower than the initial pitch of the Svarita. The Svarita is
a falling accent representing the descent from the Udatta
pitch to tonelessness. I n the Rigveda it rises slightly
above Udtta pitch before descending : here therefore it has
something of the nature of a circumfiex. I t is in reality
always an enclitic accent following an Udatta, though it
assumes the appearance of an independent accent when the
preceding Udatta is lost by the euphonic change of a vowel
into the corresponding semivowel (as in kv = k), I n
the latter case it is called the independent Svarita. The
Anndatta is the low tone of the syllables preceding an
Udtta.
2. There are four different methods of marking the accent
in vedic texts. The system of the Rigveda, which is

followed by the Atharvaveda, the vjasaneyi Sahit, the

Taittirya Sahit and Brhmaa, is peculiar in not marking
the principal accent at all. This seems to be due to the fact
that in the RV. the pitch of the Udtta is intermediate
between the other two tones. H ence the preceding Anudtta,
as having a low pitch, is indicated below the syllable bearing
it by a horizontal stroke, while the following Svarita, which
at first rises to a slightly higher pitch and then falls, is
indicated above the syllable bearing it by a vertical stroke ;
e. g. agnin = agnn ; vryam = vrym (for vr).
Successive Udttas at the beginning of a hemistich are
indicated by the absence of all marks till the enclitic Svarita
which follows the last of them or till the Anudatta which
(ousting the enclitic Svarita) follows the last of them as
a preparation for another Udtta (or for an independent
Svarita) ; e. g. tv a ytam = tv yatam ; tavet tat
satyam = tvt tt satym. On the other hand, all
successive unaccented syllables at the beginning of a
hemistich are marked with the Anudatta ; e. g. vaivanaram
vaivanarm. But all the unaccented syllables following
a Svarita remain unmarked till that which immediately
precedes an Udatta (or independent Svarita) ; e. g. imam
me gauge yamune sarasvati utdri imm me gauge
yamune sarasvati | tudri.
a. Since a hemistich of two or more Pdas is treated as
a unit that consists of an unbroken chain of accented and
unaccented syllables, and ignores the division into Pad as,
the marking of the preceding Anudtta and the following
Svarita is not limited to the word in which the Udtta
occurs, but extends to the contiguous words not only of the
same, but of the succeeding Pada ; e. g. agnin rayim
anavat poam eva dive-dive = agnn raym anavat |
1

Here the enclitic svarita, which would rest on the syllable sa i f

the following syllable were unaccented, is ousted by the Anudatta,
which is required to indicate that the following syllable tyam has the
Udtta.
1

pam ev divdive ; sa n pitev snave ^gn spa

yano bhva s na pitva snv 'gne spyan
bhava.
b. When an independent Svarita immediately precedes an
Udatta, it is accompanied by the sign of the numeral 1 if
the vowel is short and by 3 if it is long, the figure being
marked with both the Svarita and the Anudtta; e.g.
apsvianta = aps anth ; ryo ^ vani = ry vni
1

(cp. 17,3),

3. Both the Maitraya and the Kahaka Sahits agree

in marking the Udatta with a vertical stroke above (like the
Svarita in the RV.), thereby seeming to indicate that here
the Udatta rose to the highest pitch ; e. g. agnin. But
they differ in their method of marking the Svarita. The
Maitraya indicates the independent Svarita by a curve
below ; e. g. vryam = vrym ; but the dependent Svarita
by a horizontal stroke crossing the middle of the syllable or
by three vertical strokes above i t ; while the Kahaka
marks the independent Svarita by a curve below only if an
unaccented syllable follows, but by a hook below if the
following syllable is accented ; e. g. vrya vry
badhnt ; vrya = vry vycae ; the dependent
Svarita has a dot below the accented syllable. The Anudtta
is marked in both these Sahits with a horizontal stroke
below (as in the RV.).
4. I n the Smaveda the figures 1, 2, 3 are written above
the accented syllable to mark the Udatta, the Svarita, and
3

I n the Pada text on the other hand, each word has its own accent
only, unaffected by contiguous words. The two above hemistichs
there read as follows : agnin rayim anavat pom eva dive^ dive ;
sa na pit ^iva snav agne s^pyana bhava.
As i n kv = k, vrym ----- vrm.
I n L. v. schroeder^s editions of these two sahits the Udtta
and the independent svarita only are marked.
When the text of any of the sahitas is transliterated i n Roman
characters, the Anudtta and the enclitic svarita are omitted as
unnecessary because the Udtta itself is marked with the sign of the
acute ; thus agnin^, becomes agnn.
2
3

the Anudtta respectively as representing three degrees of

12
pitch ; e. g. barhii = barhii (barhi). The figure 2 is,
however, also used to indicate the Udatta when there is no
following Svarita ; e. g. gir = gir (gira). When there
are two successive Udattas, the second is not marked,
hut the following Svarita has 2r written above; e.g.
^1
2r
dvio martyasya (dvi mrtyasya). The independent
Svarita is also marked with 2r, the preceding Anudatta
3l^ 2r
being indicated by 3k ; e. g. tanv tanv^.
5. The atapatha Brahmaa marks the Udatta only.
I t does so by means of a horizontal stroke below (like the
Anudatta of the RV.) ; e. g. prua = prua. Of two
or more successive Udattas only the last is marked ; e. g.
agnir hi vai dhr atha agnr h vi dhur tha. An
independent Svarita is thrown back on the preceding
syllable in the form of an Udatta ; e. g. manyeu =
manyeu for manuyu. The Svarita produced by
change to a semivowel, by contraction, or the elision of
initial a is similarly treated ; e. g. evaitad = vaitd for
evaltd ( = ev etd).
6. Accent of single words. Every vedic word is, as
a rule, accented and has one main accent only. I n the
original text of the RV. the only main accent was the Udatta
which, as Comparative Philology shows, generally rests on
the same syllable as it did in the IndoEuropean period ;
e.g. tats stretched, Gk. raro^: ; jnu n. knee, Gk. ^youv;
-dat, Gk. ^pa^
; bhra-ta, Gk. ^ p ^ - r ^ J But in the
written text of the RV. the Svarita appears to be the main
accent in some words. I t then always follows a y or v
which represents original i or u with Udtta ; e. g. rathym
1

But ^o^o-^
(bhramas) by the secondary Greek law of
accentuation which prevents the acute from going back farther than
the third syllable from the end of a word.

r a t h m ; s v r sr n. light ; tanvm = tanm.

Here the original vowel with its Udatta must be restored in
pronunciation except in a very few late passages.
7. Double Accent. One form of dative infinitive and
two types of syntactical compounds have a double accent.
The infinitive in tavai, of which numerous examples occur
both in the Sahits and the Brhmaas, accents both the
first and the last syllable ; e. g. tavi to go ; pabhar
tavi to take away. Compounds both members of which
are duals in form (186 A 1), or in which the first member
has a genitive ending (187 A 6 a), accent bothmembers ; e. g.
mitr vru Mitra and Varua ; b h aspti lord of prayer.
I n B. a double accent also appears in the particle vv.
8. Lack of Accent. Some words never have an accent ;
others lose it under certain conditions.
A. Always enclitic are :
a. all cases of the pronouns ena he, she, it, tva another,
sama some ; and the following forms of the personal pro
nouns of the first and second persons : ma, t v ; me, te ;
nau, vm ; nas, vas (109 a), and of the demonstrative
stems i and sa : m (111 n. 3) and sm (180).
b. The particles ca and, u also, va or, iva like, gha, ha
just, cid at all, bhala indeed, samaha somehow, sma just,
indeed, svid probably.
B. Liable to loss of accent according to syntactical
position are :
a. vocatives, unless beginning the sentence or Pda.
b. finite verbs in principal clauses, unless beginning the
sentence or Pda.
c. oblique cases of the pronoun a, if unemphatic (replacing
a preceding substantive) and not beginning the sentence or
Pada ; e. g. asya jnimni his (Agni's) births (but asya
usa ofthat dawn).
1
2
3

Ace. of rathr charioteer.

I n the Ts. always written svar.
Acc. of tan body.

ACCENT OF NOMINAL STEMS

453

d. yth as almost invariably when, in the sense of iva

like, it occurs at the end of a Pda ; e. g. tyvo yath like
thieves ; km indeed always when following n , s h i .
1. Accentuation of Nominal Stems.
9. The most important points to be noted here are the
following :
A. Primary Suffixes :
a. Stems in as accent the root i f neut. action nouns, but
the suffix if masc. agent nouns; e.g. pas n. work, but
aps active. The same substantive here, without change
of meaning, sometimes varies the accent with the gender ;
e. g. rkas n., raks m. demon.
b. Stems formed with the superlative suffix iha accent
the root ; e. g. yjiha sacrificing best. The only exceptions
are jyeh eldest (but jyha greatest) and kanisth youngest
(but kniha smallest). When the stem is compounded
with a preposition, the latter is accented ; e. g. gamiha
coming best.
c. Stems formed with the comparative suffix ys
invariably accent the root ; e. g. jvys swifter. When
the stem is compounded with a preposition, the latter is
accented ; e. g. prticyavys pressing closer against.
d. Stems formed with tar generally accent the root when
the meaning is participial, but the suffix when it is purely
nominal ; e. g. dtar giving (with acc.), but dtr giver.
e. Stems in man when (neut.) action nouns, accent the
root, but when (masc.) agent nouns the suffix ; e. g. krman
n. aetion, but darmn, m. breaker. The same substantive
here varies, in several instances, in accent with the meaning
and gender (cp. above, 9 A a) ; e. g. brhman n. prayer,
brahman in. one who prays; sdman, n. seat, sadmn, m.
sitter. When these stems are compounded with prepositions,
1

These two exceptions arise simply from the desire to distinguish

the two meanings of each of them. see below (16, footnote 2).

the latter are nearly always accented ; e. g. pr-bharman,

n. presentation.
B. Secondary Suffixes :
a. Stems in i n always accent the suffix ; e. g. asv-n
possessing horses.
b. Stems in tama, if superlatives, hardly ever accent the
suffix (except puru-tma very many, ut-tam highest, avat
tam most frequent), but if ordinals, the final syllable of the
suffix ; e. g. ata-tam hundredth.
e. Stems in ma, whether superlatives or ordinals, regularly
accent the suffix ; e. g. adham lowest ; aam eighth :
except ntama next (but twice antam).
2. Accentuation of Compounds.
10. Stated generally, the rule is that iteratives, possessives,
and governing compounds accent the first member, while
determinatives (Karmadhrayas and Tatpurusas), and regu
larly formed coordinatives accent the last member (usually
on its final syllable). Simple words on becoming members
of compounds generally retain their original accent. Some,
however, always change it : thus vva regularly becomes
viv ; others do so in certain combinations only : thus
purva prior becomes prv in prvcitti I. first thought,
prvpti f. first draught, prvhti first invoeation ;
mdha sacrifice shifts its accent in medhpati lord of
sacrifice and medhsti I. reeeption of the sacrifice, and
vr hero in puruv r a possessed of many men and suvra
heroie. An adjective compound may shift its accent from
one member to another on becoming a substantive or a
proper name ; e. g. skta well done, but sukt, n. good
deed ; rya niggardly, but arya m. name of a demon.
a. Iteratives accent the first member only, the two words
being separated by Avagraha in the Pada text, like the
members of other compounds ; e.g. harahar day after day ;
ydyad whatever ; ythyath as in each ease ; adyadya,
v-va on each to-day, on each to-morrow ; pr-pra forth
and again ; pba-piba drink again and again.

b. I n governing compounds the first member, when it is

a verbal noun (except iknar helping men) is invariably
accented ; e. g. trasdasyu terrifying foes, name of a man ;
present or aorist participles place the accent, wherever it
may have been originally, on their final syllable ; e. g.
tarddveas overcoming (trat) foes. When the first member
is a preposition, either that word is accented, or the final
syllable of the compound if it ends in a ; e. g. abhdyu
directed to heaven, but adhaspad under the feet ; anukm
according to wish (kma).
e. Bahuvrhis normally accent their first member ; e. g.
rjaputra having kings as sons (but rjaputr son ofa king) ;
Vivtomukha facing in all direetions ; sahvatsa accom
panied by her calf

a. But about oneeighth of all Bahuvrhis accent the second member

(chiefly on the final syllable). This is commonly the case when the
first member is a dissyllabic adjective ending i n i or u, invariably i n
the RV. when i t is pur or bah much ; e. g. tuvidynmn having great
glory ; vibhukrtu h aving great strength ; puruputr h aving many sons
bahvann h aving much food. This also is the regular accentuation
when the first member is d v i two, t r i three, dus ill, su well, or the
privative particle a or an ; e. g. dvipd twofooted, trin b hi h aving
three naves, durmnman illdisposed, subhga wellendowed, an
toothless, aphal lackingfruit (phla).
1

d. Determinatives accent the final member (chiefly on the

final syllable).
1. Ordinary Karmadhrayas accent the final syllable ;
e. g. prathamaj firstborn, prtaryj early yoked, maha
dhan great spoil. But when the second member ends in
i , man, van, or is a gerundive (used as a n. substantive),
the penultimate syllable is accented ; e.g. durgbhi hard to
hold ; sutrman erossing well ; raghuptvan swiftflying ;
prvapya, n. preeedence in drinking.
1

The later sahitas tend to follow the general rule ; e. g. pur

nman (.SV.) manynamed.
Bahuvrhis formed with a or an are almost invariably accented
on the final syllable as a distinction from Karmadbrayas (which
normally accent the first syllable, as manusa inhuman) ; e. g. amtr
measureless.
2

a. The first member is, however, accented under the following

conditions. I t is generally accented when i t is an adverbial word
qualifying a past participle i n ta or na or a verbal noun i n t i ; e. g.
dr-hita faring ill ; sadh-stuti joint praise. I t is almost invariably
accented when i t is the privitive particle a or an compounded with
a participle, adjective, or substantive ; e. g. n-adant not eating,
-vidvs not knowing, -kta not done, -tandra unwearied, -kumra
not a child. The privative particle is also regularly accented, when i t
negatives a compound ; e. g. n-ava-d not giving a horse, nagni
dagdha not burnt with fire.
1

2. Ordinary Tatpuruas accent the final syllable ; e. g.

gotrabhd opening the eowpens, agnimindh firekindling,
bhadravdn uttering auspicious cries ; udamegh shower
of water. But when the second member is an agent noun
in ana, an action noun in ya, or an adjective in i , or van,
the radical syllable of that member is accented ; e. g. deva
mdana exhilarating the gods ; ahihtya n. slaughter of the
dragon ; patnirki protecting the road ; somapvan Soma
drinking.
a. The first member is, however, accented when i t is dependent on
past passive participles in ta and na or on action nouns in t i ; e. g.
devhita ordained by the gods, dhnasti acquisition of health . I t is
usually also accented, i f dependent on pti lord ; e. g. ghpati lord of
the house. some of these compounds with pti accent the second
member w i t h its original accent ; some others i n the later sahits,
conforming to the general rule, accent i t on the final syllable ;
thus apsarpat (AV.) lord of the Apsarases, aharpat (Ms.) lord of day,
nadipat (Vs.) lord of rivers.
^. A certain number of Tatpuruas of syntactical origin, having
a genitive caseending i n the first member nearly always followed by
pti, are doubly accented ; e. g. b h aspti lord of prayer. Other are
ap npt son of waters, nr-sa (for nr-sa) praise of men,
na-pa Dog's tail, name of a man. The analogy of these is
followed by some Tatpuruas without case-ending i n the first member :
cpti lord of might ; tnnpt son of himseif (tan ) ; n sa
praise of men.

sometimes, however, the first syllable of the second member is

accented ; e. g. ajra unaging ; ^.mtra m. enemy (nonfrien : mitr) ;
amta immortal (from mt).

e. Regularly formed Dvandvas (186 A 2. 3) accent the

final syllable of the stem irrespective of the original accent
of the last member ; e. g. ajvya m. pl. goats and sheep ;
ahoratri days and nights ; iprtm n. what is saerificed
and presented.
a. The very rare adverbial Dvandvas accent the first member:
hardivi day by day, syprtar evening and morning.
^. Coordinatives consisting of the names of two deities, each dual i n
form (Devatdvandvas), accent both members ; e. g. ndrvru
Indra andVarua; surym s Sun and .llIoon. A few others, formed
of words that are not the names of deities, are similarly accented ;
e. g. turv-ydu rurvasa and Tadu ; mtrpitr moth er and father.
1

a. Accent i n Declension.
11. a. The vocative, when accented at all (18), invariably
has the acute on the first syllable ; e. g. ptar (N. pita),
dva (N. devs). The regular vocative of dy (dyv) is
dyus, i. e. daus (which irregularly retains the s of the
nom. : cp. Gk. Z^v), but the accent of the N., dyus,
usually appears instead.
b. I n the a and declensions the accent remains on the
same syllable throughout (except the vocative) ^ e. g. devs,
devsya, devnm. This rule includes monosyllabic
stems, pronouns, the numeral dv, and radical stems ;
e. g. from m : my, mhyam myi ; from t : tsya,
tam, t bhis ; from dv : dv bhym, dvyos ; from
j m. I. offspring: j bhym, jbhis, jabhyas, jsu.
a. The cardinal stems i n a, pca, nva, da (and its compounds)
shift the accent to the vowel before the endings bhis, bhyas, su and
to the gen. ending nm ; a shifts i t to all the endings and sapt to
the gen. ending ; e.g. pacbhis, pacn m ; saptbhis, saptn m ;
abhs, abhys, anm.
1

This is perhaps rather an irregular iterative i n which the first

member is repeated by a synonym.
Occasionally these compounds become assimilated to the normal
type by losing the accent and even the inflexion of the flrst member ;
e. g. i n d r g n 1 Indra and Agni, indravyu Indra and Vdyu.
2

^. The pronoun a this, though sometimes conforming to this rule

(e. g. smai, sya, bhis), is usually treated like monosyllables not
ending i n a ; e. g. asy, em, sm.

e. When the final syllable of the stem is accented, the

acute is liable to shift (except in the a declension) to the
endings in the weak eases.
1. I n monosyllabic stems (except those ending in a) this
is the rule ; e. g. dh I. thought : dniy, dhbhs, dh
nam ; bh I. earth : bhuvs, bhuvs ; nu I. ship : nv,
naubhs, nau (Gk. uav^ri) ; dnt, in. tooth : dat,
dadbhs.
1

There are about a dozen exceptions to this rule : g cow, dy sky ;

n man, st star ; ksm earth ; tn succession, rn joy, vn wood ; v m
bird ; vfp rod ; svr ligh t ; e. g. gv, gvm, gbhis ; dyvi,
dybhis ; nre, nbhis, n u (but nar m and n m ) ; st bhis ;
kmi ; tn (also tan ) ; re rsu ; vsu (but van m ) ;
vbhis, vbhyas (but vn m ) ; G. vpas ; suras (but sur) ; alsothe
dative infinitives b d he to press and vhe to convey. The irregular
accentuation of a few other monosyllabic stems is due to their being
reduced forms of dissyllables ; these are dr wood (d r u), sn summit
(snu), vn dog (Gk. ^ ^ ) , yun (weak stem of yvan young) ; e. g.
dr ; sn-u ; n, vbhis ; yu.n.

2. When the final accented syllable loses its vowel either

by syncope or change to a semivowel, the acute is thrown
forward on a vowel ending ; e. g. from mahimn greatness :
mahimn ; agn fire : agnys ; dhen eow : dhenv ;
vadh bride: vadhvi ( A v ) ; pit father: pitr .
a. Polysyllabic stems i n , and, i n the RV., usually those i n I.
throw the acute on the ending of the gen. pf. also, even though the
final vowel of the stem here retains its syllabic character; e.g.
agnn m , dnenn m , dt m , bahvn m (cp. 11 b a).

3. Present participles in t and nt throw the acute

forward on vowel endings in the weak cases ; e. g. tudnt
striking : tudat (but tuddbnis),
This rule is also
1

A t the end of a compound a monosyllabic stem loses this accentua

tion ; e. g. sudh wise, udh nm.

ACCENT I N DECLENSION

459

followed by the old participles mah n t great and bhnt

lofty ; e. g. mahat (but mahdbhis).
4. In the R v derivatives formed with accented ac
throw the acute forward on vowel endings in the weak cases
when the final syllable contracts to c or c ; e. g. pratyc
turned towards: pratc ( but pratyku) ; anvcfollowing :
ancs ; but prc forward: prcI.
1

4. verbal Accent.
12. a. The augment invariably bears the acute, if the
verb is accented at all (19) ; e. g. impI. bhavat ; aor.
bht ; plup. jagan ; cond. bhariyat. The accentua
tion of the forms in which the augment is dropped (used
also as injunctives) is as follows. The imperfect accents the
same syllable as the present ; e. g. bhrat : bhrati ; bhint :
bhintti. The pluperfect accents the root ; e. g. ckn
(3. s.); nammas, tastmbhat; tatnanta; but in the
3. pl. also occur eakpnta, ddhanta.
The aorist is variously treated. The s and the is forms
accent the root ; e. g. vsi (van win) ; siam. The
root aorist (including the passive form) accents the radical
vowel in the sing. active, but the endings elsewhere ; e. g.
3. s. vrk (vj); pass. vdi ; 2. s. mid. nutth s . The
aorists formed with a or sa accent those syllables ; e. g.
ruhm, vidt ; budhnta ; dhuknta. The reduplicated
aorist accents either the reduplicated syllable ; e. g. nnaas,
p p arat, jjanan ; or the root, as pprat, inthat.
b. Present System. The accent in the a conjugation
(as in the a declension) remains on the same syllable
throughout : on the radical syllable in verbs of the first and
fourth classes, on the affix in the sixth (125) ; e. g. bhvati ;
nhyati ; tudti.
2

I n the other sahits, however, the accent is generally retained

on the stem ; thus the AV. forms the f. stem prat1o (RV. pratc ) .
I n the a aorist several forms are found accenting the root ; e. g.
ranta, sdatam, snat.
2

The graded conjugation accents the stem in the strong

forms (126), but the endings in the weak forms. In the
strong forms the radical syllable is accented in the second
and the reduplicative syllable in the third class ; and the
stem affix in the fifth, eighth, seventh, and ninth classes ;
e. g. sti, sat, stu ; bibharti ; kti, kvat ;
manvate; yunjmi, yunjat; ghti gbh
s (2. s. sub.); but addh, adyr; bibhmsi ;
kv, kuhi ; vanuy m a, vanvntu ; yukt,
yukv ; gmsi, gh.
e. Perfect. The strong forms (the sing. 1. 2. 3. ind. and
3. impv. act. and the whole subjunctive) accent the radical
syllable, the weak forms (cp. 140) the endings ; e. g. cakara ;
jabhrat, vavrtati ; mumktu ; but cakrr, cak
mhe; vavtym; mumugdhi. The participle accents
the suffix ; e. g. eakv s, cakr.
d. Aorist. The injunctive is identical in accentuation
(as well as form) with the unaugmented indicative (see
above, 12).
1

a. Tl1e root aor. accents the radical syllable in the subjunctive ;

e.g. krat rv-a-tas, gm-a-nti, bhj-a-te; but the endings it
the opt. and impv. (except the 3. s. act.), and the suffix in the
participle ; e.g. a-ym, a--mhi ; k-dh, ga-tm, bh-t (but 3. s.
sr-tu), k-v ; bhid-nt, budhn.
1

Eleven verbs of this class accent the root throughout : as sit,

1 praise, r set in motion, rule, cak see, taks fashion, t r protect, ni
kiss, vas wear, lie, s bring forth ; e. g. ye, ^:c.
Occasionally the 2. s. impv. mid. accents the root in other verbs
also ; e. g. ykva (yaj),
Four verbs, ci note, mad exhilarate, yu separate, hu sacr^flce, acc
the radical syllable ; e. g. juhti. A few other verbs do so i n isolated
forms ; e. g. hibhrti (usually bbharti).
3 I n the third class the reduplicative syllable is accented i n the
weak forms also i f the ending begins with a vowel ; e.g. bbhrati.
I n the second, fifth, seventh, eighth, and ninth classes the final syl
lable of the 3. pf. mid. is irregularly accented i n rihat (beside rihte) ;
krvat, vvat, spvat, tanvat, manvat ; bhujat (beside
bhujte) ; punat, riat.
The radical syllable (in its strong form) is also in several instances
accented i n the 2. pi. act. ; e.g. krta beside kt ; gnta, gntana
beside gat, ^:c.
I n the mid. part. the root is, in several instances, accented ; e. g.
dytana.
2

ACCENT I N CONJUGATION

4^1

.S. The s and is aor. accent the root in the subjunctive but the
endings i n the opt. and impv.; e.g. ykat (yaj), bdhiat ;
but bhaksy (bhaj), dhukmhi ( duh), edhiy (Av.) ;
avihi, avim. The s aor. accents the root i n the act. part.,
but nearly always the suffix i n the irregularly formed middle ; e. g.
dkant (dah), arcasn.
The a aorist accents the thematic vowel throughout the moods
(as i n the unaugmented indicative) and the part. ; e. g. vid t ;
vidyam ; ruhtam ; trpnt, guhmana.
^. The sa aor. accents the suffix i n the impv. : dhaksva (dah).
The same accentuation would no doubt appear i n the subjunctive and
optative, but no examples of those moods (nor of the part.) occur.
^. I n the reduplicated aor. the treatment of the subj. and opt. is
uncertain because no normally formed accented example occurs ; but
in the impv. the ending is accented ; e. g. jigtm, didht.
1

e. Future. The accent inallfoi^msof this tense remains

on the suffix sy or iy ; e. g. eymi ; kariyti ;
kariynt.
f. Secondary conjugations. As all these (except the
primary intensive) belong to the a conjugation, they accent
the same syllable throughout. The causative (168) accents
the penultimate syllable of the stein, as krodnyati enrages ;
the passive, the secondary intensive (172), and the denomina
tive (175), accent the suffix y ; e. g. panyate is admired ;
rerihyte licks repeatedly ; gopynti they proteet. The
desiderative (169) accents the reduplicative syllable ; e. g.
pprati desires to please. The primary intensive agrees
with the third conjugationa1 class in accenting the reduplica
tive syllable in the strong forms, but the endings with
initial consonant in the weak forms of the indie. act. ; e. g.
jhavti, jarbhts, but 3. pl. vrvtati ; in the mid.
ind. the reduplicative syllable is more frequently accented
5

No accented impv. forms occur i n the s. aor. I n the sis aor. the
only accented modal form occurring is the impv. : y.sis^m.
Neither the is nor the sis aor. forms participles.
But the root is accented, i n several imperatives and participles,
e. g. sna, sdatam, khyta ; sdant, dsamna.
No participial form occurs i n this aor.
A certain number of unmistakable denominatives, however, have
the causative accent ; e. g. mantryati takes counsel (mntra),
2

than not ; e. g. ttikte, less often nenikt. I n the subj.

and part. the reduplicative syllable is regularly accented ;
e. g. jgnanat, jghananta ; ckitat, ckitna.
The accentuation of the imperative was probably the same
as that of the present reduplicating class (12 b) ; but the
only accented forms occurring are in the 2. s. act., as
jgh, carktt.
1

5. Accent of Nominal verb Forms.

13. a. Tense Participles when compounded with one or
more prepositions retain their original accent (while the
prepositions lose theirs) ; e. g. apagchant going away,
vipraynta advancing, paryvvtsan wishing to turn
round; apagchamna ; apajaganv s, apajagmn.

.a. A single preposition, or the first of two, not infrequently

becomes separated by the interposition of one or more words or by
being placed after the participle. I t is then treated as independent
and recovers its accent ; e. g. pa drh n i drdrat bursting strongh olds
asunder ; ca pr ca pathbhi crantam wandering h ith er and th ith
on his paths ; mdhu bbhrata pa bringing sweetness near ; pr vay
ujjhn jlying up to a branch ; avasrjnn pa bestowing. Occasionally
an immediately preceding preposition is not compounded with the
participle and is then also accented ; e. g. abb dksat burning around ;
v vidv n discriminating ; abh acranta approach ing.
2

b. On the other hand, the past passive participIe, when

compounded with one or more prepositions, generally loses
its accent ; e. g. nhita deposited. When there are two
prepositions the first remains unaccented ; e. g. samktam
accumulated ; or the first may be separated and independently
accented ; e. g. pr yt samudr hita when dispatched
forth to the ocean.
4

No accented form of the optative occurs.

Probably i n distinction from vividv n simple reduplicated
participle of vidjlnd.
Which itself is always accented on the final syllable ; e. g. gat
patit, ehinn.
I n several instances, however, i t retains its accent ; e. g. nikt
prepared. This is the case with prepositions that are not used
independently.
2

ACCENT OF NOMINAL v E R B FORMS

463

c. Gerundives in ya (or tya) and tva accent the root ;

e. g. ck-ya to be seen, rtya to be heard, earktyatobe
praised, vktva to be said ; those in yya, enya, anya
accent the penultimate of the suffix ; e. g. panayya to be
admired, keya worthy to be seen, upajvanya (Av.) to
be subsisted on ; while those in tavya accent the final
syllable : janitavy (Av) to be born. When compounded
with prepositions (here always inseparable) gerundives nearly
always retain the accent of the simple form ; e. g. pari
ekya to be despised ; abhyyasnya to be dra^vn near ;
mantra y a (AV.) to be addressed.
14. Infinitives are as a rule accented like ordinary cases
that would be formed from the same stem.
a. Dative infinitives from stems in i , t i , as, van accent
the suffix ; those in dhyai, the preceding thematic a ; and
those formed from the root, the ending ; e. g. dye to see,
pty-e to drink, cars-ei to move, d-vne to give,
tur-v-e to overeome ; iydhyai to go ; d- to see.
2

c^. When radical infinitives are compounded with prepositions the

root is accented ; e.g. sam-dh-e to kindle, abhi-pra-caks-e to see.
5

b. The dative infinitive from stems in man, the accusative

and the abl. gen. from roots, and all from stems in t u
accent the root ; e. g. d-man-e to give ; bham to shine,
sdam to sit down ; avapdas to full down ; datum
to give, gntos to go, bhrtave to bear, gntavi 7togo.
6

a. When compounded, infinitives from tu stems accent the preposi

tion;^ e.g. skartum to collect; ndhatos to put down; pidh
1

I n these the root is sometimes accented, as ckase to see.

This infinitive also appears with independently accented preposi
tions ; pr dvne and abh pr dvne.
3 The root is once accented i n dhurvane to injure.
I n these the root is sometimes accented ; e. g. gmadhyai.
The regular accentuation of monosyllabic stems when compounded :
cp. 11c, 1.
3 But vidmne to know.
With a secondary accent on the final syllable : cp. above, 7.
^ But when the preposition is detached the infinitive retains its
accent ;^ e. g. pr dse d t ave to present to the worshipper.
2

4
5

tave to cover up ; pabhartavi to be taken away. When there are tw

prepositions the first may be separate and independently accented ;
e. g. n u prvohum to advance along, v prsartave to spread.

15. Gerunds formed with tv, tv, tvya accent the

suffix, but when they are compounded with prepositions
(here always inseparable) and formed with y or ty, they
accent the root ; e. g. bhtv having beeome, gatv and
gatvya having gone ; samgbhy having gathered, upa
rtya (Av.) having overcome.
16. Case forms used as adverbs frequently shift their
accent to indicate clearly a change of meaning. The
accusative neuter form is here the commonest ; e. g. dravt
guichly, hut drvat running ; aparm later, but param as
n. adj. ; uttarm higher, but ttaram as n. adj. ; adverbs in
Vt e. g. pratnavt as of old, but the acc. n. of adjectives
in vant do not accent the suffix. Examples of other cases
are : dv by day, but div through heaven ; apar y a for
the future, but parya to the later ; sanat from of old,
but snt fuom the old.
2

6. Sandhi Accent.
17. 1. When two vowels combine so as to form a long
vowel or diphthong, the latter receives the Udtta, if either
or both the original vowels had it ; e. g. gt = agat ;
nudasv t ha nudasva tha ; kvt = kv i t ; n n tara
= n ntara.
3

a. But the contraction of i is accented as 1, the enclitic svarita

( 1) having here ousted the preceding Udatta ; e. g. div1va div iva.
4

Retaining the secondary accent on the final syllable.

Such a shift is found i n nouns to indicate either a simple change
of meaning, e. g. jyha greatest, but jyeh eldest ; or a change of
category also, e.g. gmat rich in cows, but gomat name of a river;
rjaputr son of a king, but r j aputra h aving sons as kings.
Put when a Svarita on a final vowel is followed by an unaccented
initial vowel, i t of course remains, e. g. kv^yatha kv iyatha.
I n the RV. and Av., but not in the Taittirya texts, which follow
the general rule.
RV. and A v . , but d i v 1 v a i n the Taittirya texts.
This is the pralia or contracted svarita of the Prtikhyas.
2

2. When and with Udtta are changed to y and v,

a following unaccented vowel receives the Svarita ; e. g.
vy ^na = v ana. H ere the Svarita assumes the appear
ance of an independent accent ; but the uncontracted form
with the Udtta must almost invariably be pronounced in
the RV.
3. When accented is elided it throws back its Udtta
on unaccented e or o ; e. g. snv ^gne snve gne ;
v ^vasa = vo vasa. But when unaccented a is elided,
it changes a preceding Udtta to Svarita ; e. g. so ^dham
= s adhamh.
1

7. Sentence Accent.
18. The Vocative, whether it be a single word or a
compound expression, can be accented on its first syllable
only.
a. I t retains its accent only at the beginning of a sentence
or Pda, that is, when having the full force of the case it
occupies the most emphatic position ; e. g. gne, supyan
bhava O Agni, be easy of access ; urjo napt sahasavan
O mighty son of strength. This rule also applies to doubly
accented dual compounds ; e. g. mtrvaru O Mitra
and Vara. Two or more vocatives at the beginning of
a sentence are all accented ; e. g. dite, mtra, vrua
O Aditi, O Mitra, O Varua. Two accented vocatives are
sometimes applicable to the same person ; e. g. urjo napad,
4

This is the kaipra or quickly pronounced svarita of the Prtikhyas.

This is the abhinihita svarita of the Prtikhyas.
Here the svarita ( ) has ousted the preceding Udtta.
This applies to the second as well as the first Pda of a hemistich,
indicating that both originally had a mutually independent character,
which is obscured by the strict application of sandhi and the absence
of any break i n marking the accent, at the internal junction of the
Pdas of a hemistich.
The corresponding nom. would be rj npt shasv.
3 The nom. is mitr vru^.
1

bhdraocie O son of strength, O propitiously bright one (both

addressed to Agni).
b. When it does not begin the sentence or Pda, the
vocative, being unemphatic, loses its accent ; e. g. pa tva^
agne divdive I dvastar dniy vaym I nmo
bhranta masi to thee, O Agni, day by day, O illuminer of
darkness, bringing homage with prayer we eome ; a rjn
maha tasya gop hither (come), O ye two sovereign guardians
ofgreat order ; tna mitrvaruv | tvdhv tasp |
through Law, O law-loving, law-cherishing Mitra and Varua ;
yd indra brahmaaspate | abhidroh crmasi |
if O Indra, O Brahman apati, we commit an offenee.
1

19. The verb is differently accented according to the

nature of the sentence.
A. The finite verb in a principal sentence is unaccented ;
e. g. agnm H e purhitam I praise Agni the domestw priest.
This general rule is subject to the following restrictions :
a. A sentence being regarded as capable of having only
one verb, all other verbs syntactically connected with the
subject of the first are accented as beginning new sentences ;
e. g. t phi, rudh hvam drink of them, hear our
call; tarir j jayati, kti, pyati the energetic man
conquers, rules, thrives; jah praj nyasva ca slay the
progeny and bring (it) hither.
b. The verb is accented if it begins the sentence or if.
6

H ere the second voc. is accented as i n apposition, whereas i f i t

were used attributively i t would be unaccented as i n htar yaviha
sukrato O youngest wise priest.
Accented because the first word of the Pada.
This might represent two vocatives addressed to the same persons ;
their accented form would then be : r j an, mha rtasya gop.
H ere the rule that the whole of the compound voc. must be
unaccented overrides the rule that the first word of the Pada must
be accented, i . e. here tvrdhv.
A n example of two independent unaccented vocatives.
A subject or object coming between two such verbs is generally
counted to the first.
2

though not beginning the sentence, it coincides with the

beginning of a Pda ; e.g. ye vavr, erati jihvydn |
rerihyte yuvat vipti sn the covering lies (there);
he (Agni) moves eating with his tongue ; he kisses the maiden,
being the lord of the house ; th te ntamn | vidyma
sumatn m then may we experienee thy highest favours.
e. Vocatives being treated as extraneous to a sentence,
a verb immediately following an initial one, becomes the
first word of the sentence and is accordingly accented ; e. g.
gne, jusva no hav O Agni, enjoy our sacrifice. Thus
the sentence ndra, jva ; surya, jva ; dv, jvata O Indra,
live ; O Surya, live ; O gods, live contains three accented
verbs as beginning three sentences, while the three preceding
vocatives are accented as b^ing at the head of those sen
tences, though syntactically outside them.
d. Sometimes the verb when emphatic, though not ^
beginning the sentence, is accented if followed by the
particles d or can ; e. g. dha sm no maghava cark
td t then be mindful of us, bountiful one ; n dev
bhastha can (him) O gods, ye two never eonsume.
B. The verb of a subordinate clause (introduced by the
relative y and its derivatives, or containing the particles
ca and cd if; nd lest, h for, kuvd whether) is always
accented ; e. g. y yaj paribh r si what offering thou
proteetest; ghn gacha ghaptn yth^sa go to the
house that thou mayest be the lady of the house ; ndra ca
myti no, n na pacd agh naat if Indra be
gracious to us, no evil will hereafter reaeh us ; tv h balad
si for thou art a giver of strength. The relative may govern
two verbs ; e.g. yn srya jyti bdhase tmo, jgac
ca vvam udiyri bhnn the light with which thou,
O Sun, drivest away the darkness and arousest all the world
with thy beam.
The rule is subject to the extension that principal clauses in
form may be accented as subordinate in sense under the following
conditions :

a. The first of two clauses, i f equivalent to one introduced by i f ^

or when ' is occasionally accented ; e. g. sm vapar eranti no
nro, asm k am indra rathno jayantu when our men winged with steeds
come together, may our carjighters, Indra, win victory.
^. The first of two antithetical clauses is frequently accented,
especially when the antithesis is clearly indicated by corresponding
words like anyany, kaka, caca, va va ; e. g. prpra^,any
ynti, pry any sate while some go on, others sit down ; s ca^idhsva
agne, p r ca bodhaya^enam both be kindled, Agni, and waken this man^
knowledge. When the verb of two such clauses is the same, i t usually
appears (accented) i n the first only ; e. g. dvipc ca srva no rksa,
otupd yc ca nah svm protect both every biped of ours and wh atev
quadruped is our own.
.y. The verb of the second clause is accented i f it is a 1. pers.
Subjunctive or 2. pers. imperative w i t h a final meaning, and the
verb of the first clause is a 2. pers. impv. ofI I. gam, or y go ; e. g.
ta, dhya kvma come, we will ofier prayer ; tuyam gahi, kveu
s sc pba come quickly, beside the Kavas drink thyfill.I n B. the verb
the first clause is an imp v. of either -i or pri ; e. g. hi^id
ptva (B.) come, we will nowfiythither; prta td eymo ytra^im m
sur vibhjante come, we will go thither where th e Asuras are dividing th
earth (B.). The second verb is, however, in similar passages not
infrequently left unaccented in B.
1

Verbal Prepositions.
20. A. I n principal clauses the preposition, which is
detached and usually precedes but sometimes follows the
verb, is accented ; e. g. gamat may he come ; gvm pa
vraj vdhi unclose the stable of the kine; jyema s
yudh spdha we would conquer our adversaries in fight ;
gmad vjebhir s nah may he come to us with booty.
a. When there are two prepositions, both are independent
and accented ; e. g. pa pr yhi come forth ; pri spo n i
edire the spies have sat down around ; gne v paya
bhat abh ry O Agni, look forth towards (us) with ample
wealth.
1

This accentuation is more strictly applied in B. than i n V., and

among the sahits least strictly in the RV.
I n B. the accented verb is either a subjunctive or a future.
2

a. When is immediately preceded by another preposition (not

ending i n i ) i t alone is accented, both prepositions being compounded
with the verb ; e. g. sam kroi jvse th oufittest(them) to live ; but
prty tanuva draw (thy bow) against (them).

B. I n subordinate clauses the exact reverse takes place,

the preposition being generally compounded and unaccented ;
e. g. yd . . ni d atha when ye two sit down. I t is, however,
often separated by other words from the verb, when it
commonly commences the Pda, or much less frequently
follows the verb ; e. g. v y mam rjas who measured out
the two expanses ; ys tastmbha shas v jm ntn who
with might propped earth's ends asunder. Occasionally the
preposition is detached and accented even immediately before
the verb ; e. g. y nuti pri vda nmobhi who fully
knolvs t^e offering with devotion.
a. When there are two prepositions, either both are com
pounded and unaccented or the first only is detached and
accented ; e. g. yy hi dev pariprayth for ye,
O goddesses, proeeed around ; ytra^abhi sanvmahe
where we to (him) together shout ; s ym ynti dhenva
to whom the cows come together.
a. very rarely both prepositions are detached and accented ; e. g.
pr yt stot . . pa grbhr e wh en the praiser lauds him with songs.

VEDIc

INDEx

Th^s index contains all sanskrit words and affixes occurring in the
grammar, except the verbs in Appendix I , which can be found at
once owing to their alphabetical order. Indifferent words occurring
in examples of sandhi, of nominal derivation (Chapter v I ) , or of
Syntax, as well as i n Appendixes I I and I I I , are excluded.
The figures refer to paragraphs unless pages are specified.
ABBREvIATIONS
A. ^ adjective. act active. adv., adverb, adverbial. ao., aorist.
Bv., Bahuvrhi. cd compound. cj., conjunction. cond., conditional.
conj conjugation, -al. corr., correlative. cpv., comparative. cs.,
causative. dec., declension. dem., demonstrative. den., denomina
tive. der., derivative, derivation. ds desiderative. encl., enclitic.
Dv., Dvandva. f.n. foot-note. ft., future. gd., gerund. ij., inter
jection. indec., indeclinable. inf., infinitive. inj., injunetive.
inf., intensive. inter., interrogative. ipv., imperative. irr., irregu
larities. itv iterative. mid middle. N., nominative. n., neuter.
neg negative. nm., numeral. nom., nominal. ord., ordinal. par.,
paradigm. pel., particle. per., periphrastic. pf., perfect. ppf., plu
perfect. poss., possessive. pp., past passive participle. pr., present.
pri., primary. prn., pronoun, pronominal. prp., preposition, pre
positional. prs., person, personal. ps., passive. pf. , participle. red.,
reduplication, reduplicated. ref., reflexive. rel., relative. rt., root.
^b subjunctive. sec., secondary. sf., suffix. spv., superlative.
^ynt., syntactical. Tp Tatpurusa. v., vocative. vb., verb, verbal.
^v., with.
A, vowel, pronunciation of, 15, 1 a ;
initial, dropped, 5 c ; 156 a ;
elided, 45, 2 b ; lengthened,
162,1c; 168b; 171,1; 175 A 1 ;
thematic, 140, 6 ; 141 ; 143, 5. 6 ;
147, 149 ; change to 175 A 1 ;
dropped, 175 A 2 ; to be restored
after e and o, n. 437, a 7.

a, pronominal root, I l l ; 195 B 6 ;

accentuation of, p. 452, 8 B e ;
p. 458 ^.
a-, augment, 128.
a- or an-, privative pel., i n Bv.
cds., p. 455, 10 ca; in Karmadhrayas, p. 455, I.n. 2 ; p. 456,
10 d 1 a.

-a, sf. of 1st conj 125 ; pri. nom. dant, pr. pt. eating, 85 (par.).
sf., 182, 1 b ; sec. nom. sf., ads, dem. prn. that, 112 ; adv.
182, 2 ; radical nom. stems in,
there, 178, 2 a.
97, 3 ; der. nom. stems in, 97.
addh , adv. truly, 179, 1.
am, attain, pf., 139, 6 ; 140, 3. 5 ; drk, h as seen, s ao. of drs, p. 161 ,
ri. ao. inj 148, 3, op., 148, 4,
f. n. I.
pre. , 148, 4 a.
adribhd, Tp. cd. mountain cleaving,
aktbhis, inst. adv. by night,
77, 3 a.
178, 3.
dh, adv. then, 179. 1 ; synt. use
akts, gen. adv. by night, 178, 6 ;
of. 180.
202 D 3 a.
adhs, adv. below, 179, 1 ; prp., w.
ks eye, 80.
acc., abf., gen., 177, I. 3.
ksi, n. eye, 99, 4.
adhstt, adv. below, 179, 2.
akhkhalk, croak, 184 d.
agrats, adv. bejbre, w. gen., 202 D. dhi, prp. upon, w. loc abf.,
176, 2.
gram, adv. before, 1 78, 2.
dhvan, m. road, 90.
agru, f. maid, 100, I I a.
an, breath e, pr., 134 A 3 a (p. 143 .
gre, loc. adv. in front, 178, 7.
an, prf. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ., stems
grea, adv. in front, 178, 3 ; w.
in, 90, 1 ; irr. stems i n , 91 ;
ace., 197 c^.
influence of stems in, p. 78,
ahg, pcl. just, 180.
f. n. 15.
giras, m. a proper name, 83, 2 a.
cha, prp. towards, w. acc 176, 1 ; ana, prf. nom. sf., 182, 1 b.
anks, a. eyeless, 80.
197 B c.
anavh, m. ox, 81 ; 96 ; 96, 2.
j, m. driver, 79, 3 a.
anarvn, a. irresistible, 90, 3.
aj, stems in, 79, 3 b.
ajvya, m. pl. goats and sh eep,an, adv. thus, 178, 3 c.
ana, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
186 A 2 ; accentuation of.
ngas, a. sinless, 83, 2 a a.
p. 457, e.
ani, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b.
josas, a. insatiable, 83, 2 a a.
ac, ward, adjectives in, 93; ac anya, gdv. sf., 162; 162, 6;
209, 6.
centuation, p. 459, c 4.
aj, anoint, p r 134 D 1 ; pf., I anu prp. after, w. aec., 176. 1 ;
197 B c.
139, 6; 140, 1. 3. 5.
|
nyms, cpv. of nu small, 103, anudatta, in. lo^pitch accent, p. 448,
1 ; how marked, p. 449, 2 ; p. 450,
2 a. ^
tath, a. n.^t saying ' yes , 97, 2 a. 3. 4.
anunsika, m. nasal, 10 f ; 15, 2 f.
tas, adv. hence, 179, 2.
tf. prp. beyond., w. acc 176, 1 ; anustubh, f. a metre, p. 438, f.n.
2 ;^ p. 439, 3 b ; later form of.
197 B c.
p. 439, 3 b a.
atijagat1, f. a metre, p. 441, f.m 6.
atiakvar, f. a metre, p. 444, 10 a.
anusvara, m. pure nasal, 3f; 10 ;
atyasi, f. a metre, p. 445, 10 b.
15, 2f; 29 b; 39: 40 a ; 40, 2 ;
tra,^ adv. h ere, 179, 3 ; ht en,
42; p. 33, f. n. I. 2, 6; 49b;
180.
66 A ; 67 ; for n, p. 163, f. n. 2 ;
tha, adv. th en, 179, 1 ; synt. use
144, 1.
of, 180.
ant, stems i n , 85 ; sf. of pr. pt.
Atharvaveda, how accented,
act., 156.
p. 449.
antr, prp. between, w. acc., abl.,
tho, adv. moreover, synt. use of, loc, 176, 2.
180.
antar , adv. prp. between, w. acc..
ad stems in, 77, 3 b.
177, 1 ; 197 B c.

ntarena, adv. prp. between, w. aym, dem. prn. th is here, 111

acc 197 B c ^.
(par.) ; 195 B 1.
antasth, f. intermediate semi
aya
adv. thus, 178, 3 c.
vowel, 11.
antik, a. near, cpv. and spv. of, yt, h as sacrificed, s ao. of yaj,
p.'s6l, f. m 1.
103, 2 b.
ys, h ast sacrificed, 2. s. s ao. of
antikm, adv. near, w. gen.,
yaj, 144, 2.
202 D.
ayta, nm. ten thousand, 104.
any, prn. a. other (par.), 120 a.
ar, stems i n , 101, 1.
anytra, adv. elsewhere, 179, 3.
ar high grade of , 5 a ; low grade
anyth, adv. otherwise, 179, 1.
of, 4 a.
anyedys, adv. ne^ct day, 179, 1.
any ny, a. one another, concord ram, adv. suitably, 178, 2 a ; com
pounded w. verbs, 184 b ; synt.
of, p. 290, 2 ^.
use, 180 ; w. daf., 200 A 4 a.
anvc, a .following, 93 a.
p, f. water, 78, 1 ; 78, 1 a ; 96, 1. ar, a. devout, p. 81, f. n. 1 ; 99, 3.
rus, n. wound, 83, 2 c.
para, a. lower, 120 c 1.
apar y a, dat. adv. for th e future, are, praise, pf. 139, 6 ; pr. pt. 85.
rthya, adv. dat. for the sake of,
178, 4.
200 B 5.
apar s u, loc. pl. adv. in future,
ardh, thrive, pf. 139, 6.
^ 178, 7.
arpya, cs. of r, go, red. ao.,
pas, n. work, 83, 2 a (par.).
149 a 3.
aps, a. active, 83, 2 a (par.).
arpit and rpita, pp. cs. of r, go,
apc, a. backward, 93 b.
160, 3.
pi, prp. upon, w. lee., 176, 1 b ;
rbuda, nm. ten millions, 104.
adv. also, e^en, 180.
aryamn, m., a god, 90.
apsars, I. nymph, 83, 2 a.
abh, prp. towards, w. acc 176, 1. arv c, a. hitherward, 93 b.
abhtas, adv. around, 179, 2 ; prp. arh, deserve, pf., 139, 6.
lam ^ ram, adv., synt. use of,
w. acc., 177, 1 ; 197 B c.
180.
abhinihita svarita, a Sandhi ac
alalbhavant, pr. pt. sounding
cent, p. 465, f. n. 2.
abhinth, a. piercing, 77, 2.
merrily, 184 d.
bhru, a. fearless, 98 a.
al, high grade of vowel , 5 a.
am, injure, p r 134, 3 c ; irr. red. lpa, a. small, cpv. and spv. of,
ao., 149 a 1.
l03, 2 b.
am, gd. in, 166; 210a; inf. in, av dem. prn.this,112 a ^.
211, 2 a.
va, prp. down, w. abl., 176, 3.
ma dem. prn.this,112 a ^.
avagraha, m. nark of separation,
am, adv. at home, p. 110, f. n. 1 ; p. 454, 10 a.
178, 3 c.
vatta, cut off: pp. of d, 160, 2 b.
amd, adv. from near, p. 110,
avni, f. stream, p. 82, f. n. 3.
f.n. 1.
avam, spv. lowest, 120 c 1.
^mI. dem. prn. those, N. pl. m., 112. avay j , f. share of oblation, 79, 3 a a.
amtas, adv. thence, p. 109, f. n. 1 ; vara, cpv. lower, 120 c 1.
179, 2.
varena, adv. prp. below, w. abl
amtra, adv. there, p. 109, f. n. 1.
p. 209, f. n. 3.
amth, adv. thus, p. 109, f. n. 1. avs, adv. downwards ; prp. down
amuy , inst. adv. in th at way,
Irom, below, w. abl., 177, 3 ; w.
178, 3 c.
insf., 177, 2.
amba, v. O mother, p. 78, f. n. 6. avstd, adv. below, w. gen.,
aya es. sf., how added, 168, 1.
202 D.

avc, a. downward, 93 b.
asmka, poss. prn. our, 116 a.
vt, h as sh one, 3. s. s ao. of vas, asm ^ am, gen. pl. prs. prn. of us,
144, 2.
116 a.
vi, m. sheep, p. 81, f. n. 1.
svapnaj, sleepless, 79, 3 b.
1. a, reach, see a.
ah, say, defective verb, pf., 139, 4.
2. a eat, pr. stem, 134 E 4.
ha emphasizing pcl. just, 180.
ait v ant, pf. pt. having eaten, 161. hamsana, a. rapacious, synt. ed.,
atf. nm. eighty, 104.
189 B c.
man, m. stone, 90, 1. 2 (par.).
han, n . day, 90 ; 91, 2 ; as final
rait, 3. s. s ao. of ri resort,
member of Bv. cds., 189, 3 c.
144, 2.
ahm, personal prn., I, 109.
avn, a. possessing h orses, p. 64,ahamuttar, n. dispute for precc
f. n. 4.
dence, synt. cd 189 B c.
ast^ktvas, nm. adv. eight tinges, ahampurv, a. eager to bejirst, synt.
^I08a.
cd), 189 B c.
astadh , nm. adv. in eight ways, har, n. day, 91, 2 ; 101, 1.
^108 b.
harahar, every day, itv. cd. , 189 C a .
asam, ord. eighth, 107.
hardivi, day after day, mixed itv.
a, nm. eight, 104 ; 106 b (par.).
cd., 189 C a, f. n. 1 ; accentua
astcatvrim, ord. fortyeigh th , tien, p. 457, e a.
^07.
aharpti, m. lord of day, 49 d.
adaa, nm., 104 ; 106 c (par.).
ahi, m. serpent, 100, I a.
as, be, p r 134 A 2 b ; pr. pt. aef.,
hait, 3. s. s ao. of h.I. 144, 2.
156 a.
-as, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; stems ahortr, n. day and night, 186 A 2 ;
accentuation, p. 457, e.
in, 83, 2 a ; p. 453, 9 A a ; adv.
sf. w. loc. sense, 179, 3 ; abl. ahna = han, day, i n cds., p. 275,
f. m 3.
gen. inf. in, 163, 3 a ; 211, 3 a ;
changed to o, 145, 2 b.
X vowel, dropped, p. 206, f. n. 3 ;
asaku, dem. prn. that little, 117 a. low grade of, 5 c ; reduced to
or I. 148, 1 f; 160, 2 ; 169, 2 ;
asact, Bv. cd. unequalled, 85 b.
to I. p. 190, 2 ; shortened, 19 a,
sikn, a. f. black, p. 86, f. n. 3.
I.n. 5; 147a 1 ; p. 273, f.m4;
asikn, f. name of a river, p. 86,
nasalized, 19 b, f. n . 1.
f. m 3.
, prp. on,w. loc., acc., abl., 176, 2 ;
sj, n . blood, 79, 3 b.
reverses meaning of gam, go,
asu, dem. prn. that (there), 112
and d, give, p. 265, f. n. 6.
(par) ; synt. use, 195 B 2.
a, emphasizing pel., 180.
stam, acc. adv. home, 178, 2 ; w. , pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b; stems
verbs, 184 c.
in, 97, 2 ; sec. nom. sf., 182, 2 ;
astamk, loc. adv. at home, 178, 7.
stems i n , 97 ; for a i n sb
stohvam, 2. p l . s ao. of stu,
134 A 4 c ^ ; du. ending, p. 78,
f. n. 13 ; p. 81, f. n. I. 2 ; p1. n.
praise, 144, 2 a.
ending,
p. 78, f. n. 14.
asthi, n. bone, 99, 4.
ak loc. adv. near, 178, 7.
asma, prs. prn. stem, 109 b.
tmn, m. seif, 115 b a.
asmatr , adv. among us, 179, 3.
asmtsakhi, Bv. cd. having us as d, adv. th en, 1 78, 5 ; synt. use,
180.
companions, 109 b.
dh, f. care, 100 C a f. n. 4.
asmad, prs. prn. stem i n cds.,
an, pf. red., 139, 6 ; shortened,
109 b.
140, I.
asmadrb, Tp. cd. lulling us, 109 b.

ana, sf. of mid. pf., pr. 158 a, pf. tara, prn. a. other, 117 b ; 120, a.
159.
its, adv. from here,179,2.
ana, sf. of 2. s. ipv. act 125
ti, pel. th us, synt. use of, 180 ;
f. m 9 ; 134 E 4.
196 a ,S ; use i n Pada text, p. 25,
najn, pf. pl. mid., of aj,
f. n. 2 ; p. 26, f. n. I. 5.
itthm,
adv. thus, 179, 1 a.
anoint, 159.
nan, pf. pt. mid., of a, itth , adv. so, 179, 1 ; synt. use,
reach, 159.
180.
ni secondary nom. sf 182, 2.
d emphasizing pel 180 ; accents
pk, adv. in a mi^ed way, 79, 1.
verb, p. 467, 19 Ad.
bhu, a. present, 100, I I b.
idm, dem. prn. th is^ I l l ; asadv
y ana, secondary nom. sf., 182, 2.
178, 2 c.
id, adv. now, 179, 3 ; w. gen.,
yu, n. life, 98 a (p. 83).
D
2.
ayya,gdv. sf., 162; 162, 2 ; 209, 3.
idnm, adv now, 179, 3 ^ ; w.
rt, abl. adv. from afar, 178, 5.
gen., 202 D 2.
r t tt, adv. from afar, 179, 2.
r, loc. adv. afar, 178, 7 ; prp. w. idh kindle, rt. ao. op., 148, 4 ; pf.
148, 6.
abI. or gem, 177, 3 ; 202 D a.
idhe, inf. to kindle, 167a (p. 191).
ry, f. a metre, p. 436, f. n. 2.
vm, prs. prn. N . du., we two, in, sec. nom. sf 182, 2 ; stems in,
87 ; accentuation of, p. 454, B a.
109.
vayj, m. priest who ofiers th e indra vyu, du. cd., Indra and
Vyu, 186 A 1 ; accentuation,
oblation, 79, 3 a a.
vis, adv. openly, w. verbs, 184 b ; p. 457, f. n. 2.
inv, send, pr. stem, 133 A 2 b ;
w. daf., 200 A 4 b.
134 C 4 ^.
iha, spv. swiftest, 103, 2 ^.
im, dem. prn. stem,this,I l l .
s, f. prayer, 83, 2 b a.
imth, adv. in this manner, 179, 1.
u, a. swift, spv. of. , 103, 2 ^.
auy, inst. adv. swiftly, 178, 3 b. iya secondary nom. sf., 182, 2.
yant, quantitative a. so much ,
as, m face, 83, 1.
st, abl. adv. from near, 178, 5.
118 b (par.).
sn, pr. pt. mid., of s, sit,
iym, f. dem. prn. th is, I l l .
158a.
Iran, 3. pi. mid. ending of ppf.,
sna, irr. pr. pf. mid., of s, sit,
140, 6.
158 a.
iva, encl. pcl. as if, like, 179, 1 ;
smk, poss. prm our, p. 113,
180 ; p. 452, 8 A b.
f. m 2.
is, wish, pr. stem, 133 C 2 ; pr. pt.,
^85.
I , vowel, low grade of e and y a, is, f. refreshment, 80.
4 a ; 5 a, b.
is, ao. suffix, 142 ; 145.
i , go, 134, 1 c a ; pr. system of su, f. arrow, 98 a (p. 82).
(par.), 132 (pp. 1301) ; red. pf. iprtm, n. Dv. cd. wh at h as
pt., 157 a.
been ofiered and given, 186 A 3 ;
I . prI. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; see.
accentuation, 457, e.
nom. sf., 182, 2 ; stems in, 98.
isha, p r i . spv. suffix, 103, 2;
i , connecting vowel, 89 a ; 145.
p. 453, 9 A b.
i j , stems in, 79, 3 b.
is, pri. nem. sf), 182, 1 b ; stems
, f. refreshment, 80.
in, 83, 2 b.
it, stems in, 77, 1.
ih, adv. here, 179, 1.
ita, pp. sf), 160, 3 ; always taken
by sec. verbs, ibid.
vowel, often changed toiy i n

sandhi, 57 ; low grade of y,

ace., 177, 1, f. n. 3 ; 197 B c ^ ;
5 b a ; ending of du. and of am,
p. 209, f. n. 3.
uncontracted i n sandhi, 25 a, d f. wave, 77, 3 a.
b c ; inserted in int. red. , 172 a ; ud, stems in, 77, 3 b.
173, 3; sec. nom. sf., 182, 2 ; dac, a. upward, 93 a ; north ward
stems in, 95 ; 100 b ; connecting
of w. gen., 202 D ^.
vowel, l44, 2 (s ao.) ; 145 b (is
udatta, m. rising accent, p. 448, 1 ;
ao.) ; 160, 3 a (pp.) ; 162, 4
p. 451, 6 ; how marked, p. 449,
^ (gdv.).
2 ; p. 450, 3. 4. 5.
1, f. praise, 80.
una, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
, praise, pr. stem, 134 A 3 b.
pa, prp. to, w. acc 176 b ; upon,
d k a, prn. cd. snch , 117.
w. loc., ibid.
d, prn. cd. such, 117.
upadhmanya, labial breathing, 3 g ;
da, prn. cd., 117, f. n. 4.
14 ; 15 ; 43, 2.
-ina, secondary nom. suffix, 182, 2. upam, spv. highest, 120 c 1.
m, encl. pronominal particle,
para, cpv. lower, 120 c 1.
180 ; p. 452, 8 A a.
upri, prp. above, w. acc., 177, 1 ;
-m, ending of 1. s. is aorist,
197 B c.
145 c.
upristd, adv. bekind, w. gen.,
ya, secondary nom. suffix, 182, 2.
202 D.
-yms, prf. cpv. suffix, 103, 2 ; upnh, f. shoe, 81, f. n. 1.
p. 453, 9 A c.
bhaya, a. of both kin^ls, 120 c 3
(par.).
yiv s, pf. pt. act. of i go, 89 a.
vant, prn. derivative, so great, ubhaytas, adv. on both sides of
w. ace., 197 B c ^.
118 c.
is, rule, pr. stem, 134 A 3 b; ubhayadys, adv. on both days,
179, 1.
134 A 4 c ^.
ubhay , inst. adv. in both ways,
, m. lord, 79, 4.
178, 3 c.
var, a. able, concord of, 194 B 2 a ;
ur, ending of gen. s., 99, 1. 2 ;
w. inf., 216 (p. 365 ^) ; w. gen.
101; of3.pl. act.: impf. 134 A4c;
inf., 211, 3 a a ; 211, 3 b a ; w.
p. 125, f. n. 7; pf., 136; ppf.,
yd and op., 216 (p. 364 ^ ) .
140, 6; s ao 143, 1 ; root ao.,
U , vowel, low grade of o and va
148, 1.
5 a, b.
ur a. wide, 98 c ; cpv. of, 103, 2 a.
u encf. pel. now, pray, 180 ; form uruvyc, a. farextending p. 54,
of, i n Pada text, p. 25, f. n. 2 ;
f. m 1.
p. 452, 8 A b.
urviy , inst. adv. far, 178, 3 b.
u, stems in, 98.
urv, f. earth , du. of. p. 81, f. n. 14.
ukn, m. o, 90, 1 (p. 68).
un, m. a name, 97, 2 a.
uc be pleased, red. pf. pt., 157 a. uj, a. desiring, 79, 3 b (par.).
ucc, adv. on high, 178, 3 b.
s f. dawn, 80.
uccis, adv. on high, 178, 3 b.
us, f. dawn, 83, 2 a.
ut, stems in, 77, 1 .
us, f. elliptical du., dawn and
ut, cj. and, 180.
night, 193, 2 a.
ut cj. and also, synt. use, 180.
rnm, gen. pl. without cere
uttam, spv. highest, 103, 1 c.
bral , p. 43, f. m 1.
ttara, cpv. higher, 103, 1 c ; 120 c 1 usnh, f. a metre, 81 ; p. 444, 1 ;
(par.).
p. 476, 11 A.
uttarat, abl. adv. from the north , us, pri. nom. sr., 182, 1 b ; stems
178, 5.
in, 83, 2 c.
ttarea, adv. prp. north of; w. us f. dawn, 101, 1.

0^, vowel often changed to uv i n

as du. ending, 26 ; for az, 4 b ;
sandhi, 57 ; shortened to u,
134 A 2 b ; p. 149,f.n. 2 ; for
p. 274, f.m 1 ; p r i . nom. sf.,
in s ao 143, 3 ; shortened before
182, 1 b ; stems in, 100 (pp. 88
a, p. 437, a 4.
90).
ka nm. one, 104 ; 105, 1 (par.) ;
uh, pp. of vah, carry, 160, 2.
120b.
ui1, insf. of ut, f. aid, p. 81, f. n. 4. ekadh , adv. singly, 179, 1 a.
ud.han, n. udder, 91, 6.
ekapad verse, p. 441, f. n. 6.
udhar, n. udder, 91, 6; 101, 1.
ekavi, ord. twenty-jirst, 107.
urj, f. vigour, 79, 3 a.
ekaah, ord. si^vty-first, 107.
uramradas, cd., soft as wool, 83, 2 a.kdaa, nm. eleven, 104 ; 106 c
urdhvth, adv. upwards, 179, 1.
(par.).
uh, consider, pr. stem, 133 A I.
ekda, ord. eleventh, 107.
uh, remove, 133 A 1 f. n. 2.
kn n vimat, nm. nineteen,
104 a ^.
, vowel, low grade of ar and ra,
kaika, nm. cd. one by one, p. 282,
5 a, b ; before y becomes r i , 58 ;
f. n. 4.
stems in, 101.
et, dem. prn. th is, 101 a 1 (par.) ;
,
pr., 133 C 2 ; 134 B 3 a ; a
correlative use, 195 B 4 a ; ^ well
ao., 147 c ; 148, 1 g ; root ao.
known, ibid. ; anaphoric use,
inj., 148, 3 ; root ao. op., 148, 4 ;
195 B 4 b ; w. following yd
root ao. pf., 148, 6.
that is to say, 195 B 4 a.
rgmn, a. praising, 87.
etd k a, prn. cd. such, 117.
c, f. stanza, 79 ; 1 p. 437.
etdr, prn. ed. such, 117.
rjivan, m. a name, 90 a.
et v ant, prn. derivative, so great,
v, send, p r 134 C 4
118c.
rtay, inst. adv. in the right way,
ed i j . lo with acc 197 B c v.
178, 3 a.
rtaspati, m. lord of pious works, ena, end. prn., h e, sh e, it, 112 a
p. 273, f. m 3.
(par.) ; p. 452, 8 A a.
t v an, a. regular, 90, 3 ; v. in en, inst. adv. inthisway, 178, 3.
vas, ibid.
enya, gdv. suffix, 162, 3 ; 209, 4.
tuth , adv. regularly, 179, 1.
tus, adv. season by season, 179, 1.eya secondary nom. sf., 182, 2.
rt, adv. prp. with out, 178, 7 ; w. ev, adv. th us, just, 179, 1 ; synt.
use, 180.
abl., 177, 3 ; w. acc., 197 B c a
evth, adv. just as, 179, I.
(p. 303).
evm, adv. thus, 179, 1 ; synt. use,
tvj, m. priest, 79, 3 f. n. 4.
180.
rdh, th rive, root ao. op., 148, 4 ;
evayvas, voc. going quickly, 90, 3.
pf., 148, 6.
rbhuksn, m. ch ief of th e Rbh us. esa, dem. prn.this,Sandhi of. 48 ;
^110 a 1 ; 195, 4 a.
90, f (p. 68).
before y becomes r or ur.
, vowel, low grade of al 4 a
E, diphthong, originally i, p. 22,
f. n. 3 ; high grade of I. 5 a ;
sandhi of final, 21 ; internal
sandhi of, 59 ; unchangeable

O, diphthong, originally u, p. 22,

f. n. 3 ; high grade of u, 4 b ; low
grade of, 4 a; internal sandhi
of, 59 ; for az, 15, 2 k a ; p. 47,
f. n. 3 ; for ath, p. 47, f. n. 3 ;
4 b ; stem i n , 102, 2 ; shortened
before a, p. 437 a 4.
okivs, pf. pt. act. of uc, 89 a.
tave, dat. inf. to weave, 167 b 4.

am, adv. quickly, 103, 2 a.

kya, inter. prn. wh o^ 113 b.
iha, spv. very quick, 103, 2 a. kaya, inst. adv. how ^ 178, 3 c.
0han, pr. pt. of uh consider, 158 a. krna, ear, compounded w.
184 c.
AT, diphthong, low grade of, 5 d ; karmadhraya, poss. cds., 188 ;
1 89 d ; accentuation of. p. 455,
sandhi of final, 22 ; internal
10 dl.
Sandhi of. 59 ; stem in, 102.
ais, inst. pf. ending, p. 78, f. n. 9. krma n, n. work, 90, 2 (p. 69).
kasip, m. n. mat, 98 a.
k ca, indefinite prn. any one,
AU diphthong, low grade of, 5 d ;
119 b.
sandhi of final, 22 ; internal
k can, indef. prn. any, 119 b.
sandhi of, 59 ; stem in, 102.
k cid, indef. prn. any, 119b.
au, ending of 1. 3. s. pf. act.,
kkd, f. palate, 77, 3 b.
136, 4 ; of N. A. d u p. 59,
kkubha pragtha, m. a kind of
f. m 2 ; p. 78,f.n. 13.
mixed strophe, p. 446, 11 B 1.
Kthaka Samhit, accentuation
K , insertion of transitional, 35.
of, p. 450, 3.
ka, inter. prn. wh o^ 113.
k m am, adv. at will, 197 A 5 a.
ka, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; sec. k m ya, adv. dat. for the sake of,
nom. sf., 182, 2.
^200 B 5.
kakd, f. summit, 77, 3 b.
ks, f. cough , 83, 1.
kakbn, f. peak, 78, 2; a metre, k, inter. prn. stem i n cds., 113 a.
p. 444, 3.
kikki , i j . , 181.
katam, inter. prn. a. wh o^ (of kikkir , i j . , 181 ; w. kr, tear to
many), 117 b ; 120 a.
tatters, 184 d.
katar, prn. a. wh ich (of two)'?, kikar, m. servant, 113 a.
117 b; 120a.
kimtv, synt. ed. asking garru
kti, nm. du. how many^ 113 a;
lously, 189 B c.
118a.
km, inter: prn. wh at^ 113 ; inter.
katidb , inter. adv. h ow many pc]. wh y^ 178, 2 a ; 180.
times' 179, 1.
kyant, prn. der. how greats 113 a ;
katpay, a. greatly swelling, 113 a. 118 b.
kathm, inter. adv. how 179, 1 a. kla, adv. indeed, synt. use, 180.
kth , inter. adv. h ow ^ p. 354, 2 a ; kdt, prn. cd. what like^ 117.
216, 2 a.
k v ant, prn. cd. how far^ 118 c.
kd, inter. prn. wh at^ 113.
ku, inter. stem i n derivatives,
kdartha, a. h aving wh at purpose ^ 113 a.
113 a.
k u m a r 1 , f. girl, 100, I b a (p. 88).
kad, inter. adv. wh en^ 179, 3; kuvtsa, some one. synt. cd.,
p. 354, 2 a ; 216, 2 a.
189 B c.
kadru, f. Soma vessel, p. 89, f. n. 3. kuvd, inter. per, 180 ; p. 354, 2 a ;
knina, spv. smallest, 103, 2 b.
216, 2 a ; accents verb, p. 467,
kanisth, spv. youngest, p. 95, 19 B.
f. m 3.
kba, inter. adv. wh ere ^ 113a;
kniys, cpv. lesser, 103, 2 a ; 179, 1.
younger, 88.
kr, make, 127, 4 a ; pr. system,
kanya, f. girl, p. 96. f. n. 3.
132 (par.) ; anomalous pr. stem,
kprth, n. penis, 77, 2.
134 C 4 ; pr. pf., 85 ; pf .^8, 2 ;
km, adv. well, synt. use, 180.
pf. pf., 157 ; 89, 1 (par.) ,. a ao.,
kam, pcf. used after n, s, h,
transfers, 147 a 2 ; root ao
180 ; p. 453, 8 B d.
148, 1 b (par.) ; op., 148, 4 ; inj.,

148, 3 ; pt 148, 6 ; sb., 148, 2

pre. 148, 4 a, impv. 148, 5, pt.
(par.) ; impv., 148, 5 ; ps. ao
148, 6 ; ao. ps., 155 ; gd., 165 a.
155; ff., 151 b (par.); ft. pf., gm, f. earth, 78, 3.
85; 151 b 2; prc., 148, 4 a.
gamdhye, dat. inf. to go, 167 b 7 a.
k:^t, a. making, 77, 1.
g, sing, sis aorist, 146.
kt cut, pr., 133 C 1 ; ft., 151 a.
gthn, m. singer, 87.
ktvas, nm. adv. times, 108 a.
gyatr stanza, p. 438, 3 a; tro
k p , f. beauty, 78, 1.
chaic, p. 439, 3 a a.
krp, lament, pr. stem, 133 A 1.
gr, f. praise, 82, f. n. 5 ; a. praising,
kr, drag, red. ao., 149, 1.
82, f. n. 6.
k, scatter, pr 133 C 3.
gggulu, n. bdellium, 98 b.
kip, be adapted, red. ao., 149, 1.
gua, high grade (of vowels), 5 a;
kvala, a. exclusive, 120 c 3.
5 a a ; 17 ; 17 a ; 19 a ; 21 ; in
krand, cry out, pf., 137, 2 d ; a ao.,
dec, 98; in conj., 125, 1. 2 ;
147 b ; red. ao 149, l ; s ao.,
127, 1. 2; pr. stem, 133 A 1 ;
144, 5.
134, 1 c ; 134, 1 c a ; pr. pt. mid.,
kram, stride, pr. stem, 133 A 1 ;
158 a ; a ao., p. 167, f. n. 3 ; a
root ao., 148, 1 d; inj., 148, 3 ;
ao., 147 c ; 148, 1 g ; red. ao.,
is ao., 145, 1 (par.).
149 ; s ao., 143, 1. 2. 3 ; is ao.,
krc, m. curlew, 79, 1.
145, 1 ; ps. ao., 155 ; ft., 151 a ;
krudh, be angry, red. ao. inj., 149, 3. gdv., 162, 1 b, c ; cs., 168, 1 ;
kru, cry out, sa ao., 141 a.
168, 1 c.
ksp, f. nigh t, 78, 1 ; gen. adv. of guh, h ide, pr. stem, 133 A 1 ; sa
^a night, 202 D 3 a.
ao., 141 a.
ksm, f. earth, 78, 3 ; accentuation gh, f. hidingplace, 81.
^of, p. 458, c 1.
gh, pp. of guh, hide, 160, 2.
ksar,fiow, s ao., 144, 5.
gr, waken, red. ao., 149, 1 ; 149 a 1 ;
k, f. abode, 97, 2.
^ipv 149, 5.
kip, th row, red. ao. inj., 149, 3.
gbh, f. seizure, 78, 2.
ksp, f.jinger, 78, 1.
g, swallow, pr. stem, 133 C 3 ;
ksdb, f. hunger, 77, 4.
red. ao., 149, 1.
ksbh, f. push, 78, 2.
go, m. bull, f. cow, 102; 102, 2
ksaipra, a. quickly pronounced sva (par.) ; accentuation of, p. 458 c 1.
rita accent in SandhI. p. 465, gmant, a. possessing cows, 86.
gon, a. winning cows, 77, 5.
f. n. 1.
gdha, rt. ao. of ghas, 148, 1 g.
ku, wh et, pr. stem, 134, 1 a.
gdha, pp. of ghas, eat, 160, 2 a.
gn, f. divine woman, 97, 2.
Kh, n. aperture, 97, 3.
khan, dig, pf., 137, 2 b ; ps. stem, grabh, seize, is ao 145 b ; pr.
system, 132 (par.) ; pr. stem,
154 d.
134 E 2 ; pf., 137, 2 c ; es., 168,
khlu, emphasizing pel., indeed,
irr. 5.
180.
grabh , dat. inf. to seize, 167 a
kb,f.^well,97, 2.
(p. 191).
khidv s, oppressing, 157 b.
grah, seize, pr. stem, 134 E 2, 4 ;
khy, see, a ao., 147 a 1.
pf., 137, 2 c ; ps., 154, 6.
gr v an, m. pressing stone, 90, 1. 3.
Gam, go, pr. stem, 133 A 2 ; pf.,
137, 2 b ; 138, 7 ; 140, 3 ; pf. pt glu, m. f. lump, 102 ., 102, 5.
157 ; per. pf., 139, 9 a ; a ao.,
147 a 2 (transfers) ; s ao 144, 3 ; Gha, emphasizing end. pel., 180 ;
rf. ao., 148, 1 a: op., 148, 4
p. 452, 8 A b.

ghnighnat, pr. pt. int. of han,

. I before conj. s, 63 (p. 41, f. n. 3).
kill, 85 b.
jgat, a. going ; n. inanimate world,
ghas, eat, pf., 137, 2 b ; pf. pt.,
85 b.
157a; rf. ao 148, l d ; des.,
jagat, f. a metre, p. 442, 7.
171, 5.
jaganv s, pf. pt.act. of gam, 89 a.
ghrtvant, a. having ghee, 86 (p. 64 ,jagmiv s, pf. pt. act. of gam,
f. n. 3).
go, 89 a.
ghnnt, pr. pt. of han, kill, 85.
jajiv s, pf. pt. of j, 89 a.
ghr, smell, pr. stem, 134 B 3
jan, beget, pr. stem, 134 A 3 b ; pf.,
137, 2 b ; red. ao., 149, 1 (par.);
Ca, cj. and, syntactical use, 180 ;
pr. stem, 154 d; ps. ao., 155 a 1 ;
if, w. sb., p. 360 o ; p. 452, 8 A b ;
cs. pt 85.
467, 19 B.
cakv s, pf. pt., h aving done, 89 janayit , a. creative, 101, 2 b.
jni, f. wife, 99, 1 a.
(par.),
cakr. f. wh eel, 100 I a (p. 86, jnitr, f. mother, 101, 2 c.
jans, n. birth , 83, 2 c.
f. m 1).
ckus, n. eye, 83, 2 ; 83, 2 c ; a. jm, f. earth, 78, 3.
jamat, palatalized ao. pt. of gam,
seeing, 83, 2 c.
go, 189 A 2 a (p. 280, f. n. 4).
catr, nm.four, 104; 105, 4 (par.),
jars, m. old age, 83, 2 a a.
caturth, ord. fourth, 107.
cturdaa, nm. fourteen, 104 ; 106 c jviha, spv. quickest, 103, 2.
jvys, cpv. quicker, 103, 2.
(par.).
caturdh^, adv. in four ways, 108 b. jah, 2. s. pr. ipv. of han, strike,
cturvaya, nm. der. fourfold, 108 c. 134 A 2 c; p. 41, f. n. 1.
cats, nm. adv. four times, 108 a. j, m. f. child, 97, 2.
catustri, ord. thirty-fourth, 107. j n u, n. knee, du. of, p. 81, f. n. 14,
15.
catvri, ord. fortieth, 107.
jpva, es. of j i , conquer : red. ao.,
catvrit, nm. forty, 104.
can, pel. not even, synt. use, 180 ; 149 a 3.
jraya, den. play th e lover, ps. ao.,
accents verb, p. 467, 19 A d.
155 a 2.
cru, a. dear, 98 a, c.
j i , conquer, pf., 139, 4 ; pf. pt.,
1. ci, gather, pf 139, 4.
157 b a; rt. ao. inj., 148, 3;
2. ci, note, pf., 139, 4.
cit, perceive, pr. stem, 134 A 4 c a ; s ao., 144, 5; ft., 151 a; es..
p. 196, f. n. I .
pf. pt., 157 b a ; rt. ao., 148, 1 d ;
jt, a. conquering, 77, 1.
s ao 44 5.
jinv,
quicken, pr. stem, 133 A 3 b ;
ct, f. thought, 77, 1.
134 C 4 ^.
cid, pel. even, synt. use, 180 ;
jihvmulya, guttural spirant, 3 g ;
p. 452, 8 A b.
14; 15 j ; 43, 2.
cic, i j . wh iz.^ 181.
j, overpower, pr. stem, 134 E 1.
cd, cj. if, synt. use, 180 ; w. op
jv t ave, dat. inf. to live, 167 b 4.
p. 366, 5 ; p. 467, 19 B.
juhu, f. tongue, 100, I I a ; sacrificial
cyu, stir, pf 139, 8 ; red. ao.,
spoon, ibid.
149, 1 ; inj., 149, 3 ; op., 149, 4.
j u , h asten, pr. stem, 134 E 1.
Ch, doubling of, 51 ; produces j u , a. speeding, 100, I I a.
length by position, p. 437, a 3.
j , waste away, pr. stem, 133 B 2.
cna pr. stem sf., 133 A 2 ; 133 C 2. jman, a. victorious, 90, 2.
cnand, seem, s ao., 144, 5.
jgu, a. singing aloud, 100, I I a.
chndas, n. metre, p. 436, f.n. 1.
japt, pp. es. of j, know, p. 185,
chid, split, pf. pt., 157 a ; rt. ao.
f. n. 3.
inj., 148, 3.
j, know, pr. stem, 134 E 3 ; pr.

pt., 85; rt. ao. op., 148, 4 ; sis

ao., 146.
jnapya,cs. of j: red.ao., 149a 3.
js, m. relative, 83, 1.
jy, f. bowstring, 97, 2.
jy y s, cpv. greater, 88 ; 103, 2 a.
jyha, spv. greatest, 103, 2 ; as
final member of Bv. cd., 189, 1 b.
jyeh, spv. eldest, 103, 2.
jyi s , n. light, 83, 2.

tanu, f. body, p. 89 (par.) ; self,

115^b.
t a n d r 1 , f. weariness, p. 88 a.
tap, h eat, pf., 137, 2 a ; 138 b ;
140, 1 ; s ao., 144, 2 ; red. ao.
sh, 149, 2.
tpus, a. h ot, 83, 2 c.
tam, faint, pr. stem, 133 B 3.
tama, sec. spv. sf., 103, 1 ; 117 b;
120 a ; 182 ; ord. sf., 107 ; ad
verbs formed w., p. 301 ^; ac
T, interposed i n sandhi, 36 a ;
centuation of, p. 454, 9 B b.
40, 1 ; i n gdv., 162, 1 d ; deter
tr, f. star, 82, f. n . 5 ; 82 b.
minative sf., 77, 1 ; 182, 1 a ; tar, loc. inf. of stems in, 167, 4 b.
187 A a (in cds.) ; stems i n
tara, sec. cpv. sf., 103, 1 ; 117 b ;
secondary, 77, 1.
120 a ; 182, 2 ; adverbs formed
t, dem. prn.that,110 (par.) ; in
w., p. 301 ^.
syntax : position of, 191 j ; as
trhi, adv. then, synt. use, 180.
corr., 195 B 3 ; w. prs. prns.,
tavstara, cpv. stronger, 103, 1.
195 B 3 b a ; w. dem. prns.,
tavi, dat. inf. i n , senses of.
195 B 3 b ^.
211, 1 b ^ ; accentuation of,
ta, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; sf. of
p. 452, 7.
pp 160.
tavy, gdv. suffix, 162 ; 162, 5 ;
tams, sh ake, pf., 137, 2d; a ao
209, 5.
147 b.
tvys, cpv. stronger, 103, 2 a.
tak, dem. prn. that little, 110 a 3 ; tas, adv. sf., w. abl. sense, 179, 2.
117 a.
tasthiv s, pf. pf. of stha, 89 a.
ttas, adv. thence, synt. use, 180. tsmad, abl. adv. therefore, 180.
tti, nm. der. so many, 118 a.
ta, secondary nom. sf., 182, :2.
tatpurusa compounds, 100, I a ; tt, sec. nom. sf., 182, 2 ; stems
187, 2 a ; w. acc. sense, 187 A 1,
in, 77, 1 ; adv. sf. w. abl. sense,
inst A 2, dat., A 3, abl., A 4
179, 2 ; ending of 2. s. pr. ipv.
gen. , A 5, loc. , A 6; as possessives,
act., p. 125; 133 A 4 ; 133 C 3 a;
189, 2 ; accentuation of, p. 456, 2.
134 C 4 ^ ; 168 e, f. n. 2 (cs.).
ttha, adv. thus, 110 a ; 179, 1 ; tti, secondary nom. sf., 182, 2.
synt. use, 180.
td, adv. thus, 178, 5.
td, adv. then, th ith er, synt. use, tad, prn. cd. such, 117.
180.
tdra, prn. cd., such, p. 113,
tdapas, Bv. cd. accustomed to th at f. n. 4.
u^ork, 110 a.
tavak^, poss. prn. thy, 116 b.
tad, adv. then, 179, 3.
t v ant, prn. der. so great, 118 c.
tad n m, adv. then, 179, 3 ^.
ti nm. a. sf 118a; pri. nom.
tan, stretch , pr. stem, 134 C 4 a ; sf., 182, 1 b.
pf 137, 2 a, b; 140, 1. 2; s ao., t i r a c 1 , m. a man's name, 100, I b.
144, 2 ; 144, 5; ri. ao., 148, Id; tirs, prp. across, w. acc 176, 1 ;
ps. stem, 154 d.
197 B c ; adv. across, 179, 2 ;
tn, f. succession, 77, 5; accent, aside, compounded w. verbs,
p. 458, c 1.
184 b.
tana, secondary nom. sf., 182, 2. tiryc, a. transverse, 93 a.
tana, ending of 2. pl. impf. and
tk, a. sharp, 103, 2 ^.
ipv., 133 A 5.
t k ys, cpv. sharper, 103, 2 ^.
tnu, a. thin, 98 c.
^ t, pcl. then, but, synt. use, 180.

tu, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b.

tud th rust, pr., 125, 2 ; 133 C 1 ;
pf., 138, 1.
tum acc. inf. in, p. 194; 211, 2 b.
tur y a, ord. fourth, 107.
tuvisvn, a. roaring aloud, 77, 5.
tr, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; stems
In, 101. 2 ; p. 453, 9 Ad.
trca, m. n. triplet, p. 446, 11 A.
trt y a, ord. th ird, 107 ; 120 c 3.
trp, be pleased, pr. stem, 133 C 1.
trj, a. thirsty, 79, 3 b.
trh crush , pr. stem, 134 D 2.
t cross, pr. stem, 133 B 2 ; 133 C 3.
te, end. dat. gen. s. of tvm, thou,
109 a; p. 452, 8 A a.
tjiha, spv. very sharp, 103, 2.
tjys, cpv. sh arper, 103, 2.
tna, inst. adv. therefore, 180.
Taittirya Aranyaka, accented,
p. 448, 1.
Taittirya Brahmana, accented,
p. 448, 1 ; p. 449. ^
Taittirya Samhit,how accented ,
p. 449.
tos, abf. gen. inf. in^ 167, 3 b ;
211, 3 b.
tta, syncopated pp. of d, give,
160, 2 b.
tna, sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
nu, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
tmn, m. self, 90, 2.
ty, dem. prn. th at, 110 a 2 ;
195 B 5.
tya sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
tya gd. suffix, 164 ; 165 ; 210.
tyaj, forsake, pr. stem, 135, 4.
tyd, dem. prn. n. as adv., 195 B 5.
tra, prf. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
tra, adv. sf. w. loc. sense, 179, 3 ;
^ loc., 179, 3 a.
tray, nm. der. threefold, 108 c.
tr, protect, s ao. op., 143, 4.
tr, m. protector, 97, 2.
tr, prf. nom. sf., 182, 1 b.
trf. nm. three, 104 ; 105, 3 (par.) ;
in Bv. compounds, p. 455, 10 e, d.
trit, nm. thirty, 104; 106 d
(par.).
trdh, nm. adv. in th ree ways,
108 b.
trivt, a. threefold, 77.

triubh, f. triple praise, 78, 2

(par.) ; a metre, p. 438, f. n. 1, 2 ;
p. 441,5; triplets, p. 446, 11 A.
trs, nm. adv.thrice,108 a ; 179, 1 ;
w. gen., 202 D 3.
tredh , nm. adv. in th ree ways,
108 b.
tva dem. prn. many a one, 112 a a
(par.); p. 452, 8 A a.
tv, pess. prn., th y, 116 b.
tva = tvm, th ou, i n derivatives
or as first member of a cd.,
109 b.
tva, see. nom. s.uffix, 182, 2 ; sf.
forming gdv 162 ; 162, 4 ;
209, 2.
tvc, f. skin, 79, 1.
tvad, prs. prn. as first member
of a ed., 109 b.
tvdyoni, a. derived from thee, 109 b.
tvana, see. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
tvm, prs. prn. th ou, 109 (par.).
tvyata, Tp. cd. presented b^f th ee,
109 b.
tv, end. prs. prn. ace. of tvm,
109 a ; p. 452, 8 A a.
tva, suffix of gd., 163, 2,. 210.
tvya, suffix of gd., 163, 3 ; 210 ;
added to es. stem, p. 189, f. n. 1.
tvav, emphasizing pel., 180.
tv v ant, prn. der. like thee, 118 c.
t v i , be stirred, pr. stem, 134 A 4 c.
tvs, f. excitement, 80.
tvi,suffix of gd., 163, 1 ; 210.
tvi, pel. but indeed, 180.
tsar,approach stealthily, s ao., 144, 5.
Tha, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; see.
nom. suffix, 182, 2.
tham, adv. suffix, 179, 1 a.
th, pri. vom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
th, adv. suffix of manner
(=inst.), 179, 1.
Da, bite, pr. stem, 133 A 4.
dkat, ao. p. of dah, burn, 85 b.
daksinats, adv. from the right,
179,^ 2 ; w. gen., 202 D.
daksinatr , adv. on th e righ t,
17's, 3.
dksinena, adv. south of w. ace.,
197 B c^; p. 209, f. n. 3.

dagh, reach , rt. ao. inj., 148, 3 ; dip, shine, irr. red. ao., 149 a 1.
ipv., 148, 5 ; pre., 148, 4 a.
drgh, a. long, 1 03, 2 a.
datt, pp. of d, give, 160, 2 b ; dghna, pr. pt. mid. of duh,
134 B 3
milk, 158 a.
ddat, pr. pt. of d, give, 85 b.
dus, spoil, cs. future of, 151 a a.
dadh, n. curds, 99, 4.
dura, a. hard to cross, 50 b.
dadhk, adv. boldly, 80.
duha, a. hard to resist, 50 b.
dadh, a. bold, 80.
dus, adv. in cds., sandhi of, 49 c ;
dnt, m. tooth , 85 a.
accent of, p. 455, 10 c a.
dabh, harm, pf., 137, 2 a.
duh, milk, pr. stem, 134 A 4 b ;
dm, n. (^), h ouse, 78, 3.
134 A 4 c c^ ; sa ao 141 a ; s ao.
dam, adv. suffix of time, 179, 3.
op., 143, 4.
dmpati, m. lord of th e h ouse, dhana, pr.pf., mid. of duh, 158a.
78, 3 a ; p. 273, f. n. 3.
duhitr, f. daughter, 101, 2.
dvys, farther, 103, 2 a.
du, f. gift, 100 I I a.
da, nm. ten, 106 c (par.).
dbha, a. hard to deceive, 49 c.
dataya, nm. der. tenfold, 108 c. d , a. not worshipping, 49 c.
daam, ord. tenth , 107.
dh , a. malevolent, 49 c.
dsyave vka, m. Wolf to the Dasyu, dua, a. hard to attain, 49 c.
as a name, 200 A 2 a
du a, a. hard to destroy, 49 c.
dah, burn, s ao 144, 5 ; s ao. pt dutr, f. messenger, p. 88 a.
143b; 156a; ft., 151 a; pf.,
dur, a. far, cpv. of, 103, 2 d.
151 b 2.
durm, adv. far, 178, 2.
1. da, give, pr. stem, 134 B 1 b ; dr t , abf. adv. from afar, 178, 5
134 B 3 a ; 134 B 3 ^ ; pf. pf., dur, loc. adv. afar, 178, 7.
dr tear, s ao. op 143, 4 ; rt.ao.
157; 157 b a; s a c 144, 3;
a ao., 147 a 1 ; rt. ao^ inj.,
^148, 1 d.
148, 3; op., 148, 4; ft., 151 a;
drka, sf. in prn. cds. like, 117.
pp., 160, 2 b.
drs, see, pf. pt., 157 ; rf. ao. inj.^,
2. d, cut, s ao., 144, 3 ; op., 143, 4. ^148, 3 ; pt., 148, 6 ; a ao., .147 e ;
d, m. giver, 97, 2.
ps. ao., 155.
d, adv. suffix of time, 179, 3.
d f. look, 63 b (f. n. 1) ; 79, 4.
dtr, m. giver, 101, 2 (par.).
dr, sf. i n prn. cds. = like, 117.
dnm, adv. suffix of time,
drs, to see, dat. inf., 167 a (p. 191).
179, 3 ^.
drd, f. nether millstone, 77, 3 b.
d m an, n. giving, 90, 2.
drh, makefirm,pr. stem, 133 C 1.
d r u, n. wood, 98 a (p. 83).
dya, gdv. to be given, 162, .1 a.
davan, n. giving, 90, 3.
Devatdvandva cds accent of,
d, f. worship, 79, 4.
p. 457, e ^.
dat, pr. pt. worshipping, 85 b ;devtt, f. divine service, 77, 1.
156 a.
devatt, Tp. cd. given by the gods,
div s, unred. pf. pt., 157 b.
160, 2 b.
dv s, unred. pf. pt., 157 b.
devadrync, a. godward, 93 (p. 73,
didkya, ds. gdv. worth s to be f. n. 1).
seen, 162, 3.
devas, adv. to each of th e gods,
div, play, fourth conj. class, 125, 3.
179, 1.
div, m. f. sky, 99, 5 (p. 85,f.n. 1). dev c, a. godward, 93 b.
dv, inst. adv. by day, 178, 3.
dev1, f. goddess, 100 I b (par.).
divdive, itv. cd. day by a^y
dev, m. h usband's brother, 101, 1.
189 C a ; 200 B 3 a.
dehf. 2. s. pr. ipv. act. of da, give,
d, f. direction, 63 b (T. n. 1) ;
134 B i b .
79, 4.
ds, n. arm, ^3 1.

dyv, m. f. sky, 99, 5 (p. 85, f. n. 1). ^ 1. dh, put, pr. stem, 134 B i b ;
dy v ah, N. pl. th e (three) h eavens,^ 134 B 3 a; 134 B 3 ^ ; pf.,
193, 3 a.
137, 2e; 138, 3; a ao., 147 a 1 ;
dyv, elliptical du. h eaven and rt. ao. inj., 148, 3 ; op., 148, 4 ;
earth, 193, 2 a ; 186 B 3 a.
ipv 148, 5 ; ps. ao., 155.
dy, m. day, 98 d ; m.f.sky, 99, 5 2. dh, suck, pr. stem, 133 B 1.
(par.).
dh, adv. sf. of manner, 179, 1.
dyut, sh ine, pf., 139, 8 ; s ao.,
dhi, compounds i n , 98 d.
144, 5 ; red. ao., 149, 1 ; irr. dhi 2. s. ipv. act. ending,
red. ao., 149 a 1.
134 C 4 ^.
dyt, f. brilliance, 77, 1.
dhk, ij. Jie w. acc., 197 B c ^.
dy, m. f. sky, 102 ; 102, 3 (par.) ; dh, f. th ought, 100, I a ; 100, I b
accentuation of, p. 458, c 1.
(par.).
dyus, m. N. of dy, sky, 99, 5 ; dhuk duh F s, N. s. milking, 81 a.
voc., accentuation of, p. 457,
dhr, f. burden, 82, f. n. 5.
11a.
dhurd, a. being ontheyoke, 49 d.
draghmn, m. length, 90, 2.
dhurh, a. bearingtheyoke, 49 d.
dr g hiha, spv. longest, 103, 2 a. dhr, h old, irr. red. ao., 149 a 1 ;
dr g hys, cpv. longer, 103, 2 a.
inj., 149, 3 ; ipv 149, 5 ; ps.
dr, n. wood, accent, p. 458 c 1.
stem, 154 d ; cs. f t , 151 a a.
drh, m.jlend, 81.
dhj, a. bold, 79, 3 b.
dv, nm. two, 104 ; 105, 2 (par.).
dhd, f. nether millstone, 77, 3 b.
dvandv, n. pair, 189 (p. 282,
dheh, 2. s. pr. ipv. acf. of dh,
f. n. 4) ; compounds, 186 ; ac
put, 134 B i b .
centuation of, p. 457, 10, 2 e.
dhmt, n. smithy, 101, 2 b.
dvay, nm. der. twojold, 108 c.
dhyai, inf., used elliptically,
dv d aa, nm. twelve, 104 ; 106 c 211, 1 b ^y.
(par.).
dhruk druh4s, N. s. h ating,
dvpac, ord.fiftysecond,107.
81 a.
dvr, f. door, 82 (f. n. 5) ; 82 a.
dhva, ending of 2. pl. mid.,
dvi, nm. tuo, i n cds. and der.,
133 A 5.
105, 2 (f. n. 2) ; i n Bv. com
dhvas, scatter, a ao., 147 b.
pounds, p. 455, 10 c a.
dhvam, 2. pl. ending, cerebra
dvit , adv. doubly, synt. use, 180.
lized, 144, 2 a.
dvit y a, ord. second, 107.
dvidh, nm. adv. in two ways, ^, dental nasal, never cerebra
108 b; 179, 1.
lized in ghn = han, in cds.,
dvipad, f. stanza of two verses,
50 c^ ; inserted, i n N. s 79, 4 a,
p. 441, 5 a.
in N. pl. n. of as, is, us stems,
dvipad virj, f. a metre, p. 437,
83 ; loss of : in pr., 134 A 2 c,
f. n. 2 ; p. 443.
p. 121, f. n. 1, 134 A 4 a, in
dvi, hate, sa aorist, 141 a.
final an stems of Karmdh
dv, f. hatred, 80.
rayas, 188, 2 a, of Bahuvrhis,
dvs, nm. adv. twice, 108 a ; 1 79, l ; 189, 4 a i n ant, 156 a ; stems
in radical, 77, 5 ; influence of
w. gen., 202 D 3.
stems in, 98 ; 98 a.
Dh, stems in, 77, 4.
n, pel. not, 180 ; w. sb., 215 C 2 ^ ,
dhak dah + s, N. sing., 81 a.
w. inj. (ff.), 215 c 1, w. op.,
dhksat, s ao. pt. of dah, burn,
p. 362 a p. 364
w. pre., 217 ;
85b; 143, 6.
like, 180.
dhnvan, n. bou^, 90, 3.
na, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; pp.
dhart, n. prop, 101, 2 b.
sf., 160.

nkis, indee. prn. no one, never, nij, wash , s ao., 144, 2 ; int.,
180 ; 113,f.n. 2.
174 (par.).
nkm, adv. prn. never, 180.
nitym, adv. constantly, 178, 2.
nktam, ace adv. by night, 178, 2; nd, f. contempt, 77, 3 a.
197 A 5 a.
nidh, m. treasury, 98 d.
naktay , insf. adv. by night, 178, 3 a. nimrc, f. sunset, 79, 1.
nad, f. stream, 100, I a ; 100, I b a . niyta, n. a h undred th ousand,
ndh, f. bond, 77, 4.
104.
nnnd, m. husband's sister, 101, 1.nirj, f. brigh t garment, 79, 3 a.
nnu, adv. by no means, 180.
nth, f. destroyer, 81.
npt, m. grandson, 101, 2, f. n. 5 : ni, lead, pf., 138, 4 ; s ao. ipv.,
101, 2 a.
143, 5 ; ft., 151 a.
npt, m. grandson, 101, 2 ; 101, 2 a. ni, secondary nom. sf., 182, 2.
nb, f. destroyer, 78, 2.
n or n , adv. now, synt. use, 180.
nam, bend, pf., 137, 2 a.
nu, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
nmas, n. obeisance, w. kr, 184 c. nu, conj. class formed with,
namasy, den., 175 B (par.).
127, 3.
nm, m. a name, 100, I ^.
nud, push , rt. ao. inj 118, 3 ;
nva, a. new, cpv. and spv. of,
ft. sb., 151 b I.
103, 2 ^.
nde, dat. inf. to push, 167 a
nva, nm. nine, 104 ; 106 c (par.).
^. i ^ .
navat, nm. ninety, 104; 106 d nu cid, adv. never, w. op.. 216, 2 a a
(par.).
(p. 362).
nvadaa, nm. nineteen, 104 ;
nnm, adv. now, 178, 2 a ; 180.
106 c (par.).
nr, m. man, 101, 1 ; accentuation
navadha, nm. adv. in nine ways
^of, p. 458, c I.
108 b.
nrt, f. dancing, 77, 1.
navam, ord. ninth, 107.
nviha, spv. newest, 103, 2 ^.
nd, neg. pel. certainly not, lest,
nvedas, a. cognisant, 83, 2 a a.
180; th at not w. sb., 215
nvyas, cpv. nen)er, 103, 2 ^.
(^p. 355 a); accents verb, 467,
nvyasa, inst. adv. anew, 178, 3.
19 B.
nvyas, cpv. newer, 103, 2 a.
ndina, spv. nearest, 103, 2 b.
1. na, reach, rf. ao., 148, 1 d, inj., ndistham, adv. nearest, w. gen.,
148, 3, op., 148, 4.
202 D.
2. na, be lost, red. ao,, 149, 1 ; ndyas, adv. nearer, w. gen.,
irr., 149 a 2.
202 D.
n, f. night, 79, 4.
ndyas, cpv. nearer, 103, 2 b.
nas pin. us, acc., daf., gen., pf., nma, prn. oth er, 120 c 2 (par.).
109 a ; p. 452, 8 A a.
nau, end. du. prn. us two, 109 a ;
nah, adv. for not, by no means, 180. p. 452, 8 A a.
nhus, m. neighbour, 83, 2 c.
nu, f. sh^p, 102 ; 102, 4 (par.).
n, conjugations class formed
nyn's, a. downward, 93 a.
w., 127, 5.
nyrbuda, n. a h undred millions,
n^, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
104.
n n dh, a. having diverse intentions,
ns, original ending of acc. pf. of
^100, I a.
a stems, 97, f. n. 8 (p. 78).
nma, adv. by name, 178, 2 ; 180 ;
Fakti, stanza, p. 440, c ; triplets,
197 A 5 a.
p. 446, 11 A.
nmth, adv. by name, 179, I.
pac, co^k, pf., 137, 2 a.
ns, f. nose, 83, 1.
pnca, nm.five, 104; 106 c(par.).
ni pri. nom. suffix, 182, l b.

poadaa, nm.fifteen,104 ; 106 c paribh, a. surrounding, 98 d.

(par.).
paribhu, a. surrounding, 100, I I a.
paoadba, nm. adv. infi^eways, prtta, pp. of parid, give away,
108 b.
160, 2 b.
pacam, ord.jifth , 107.
prena, insf. adv. beyond, w. ace.,
pact, nm.fity, 104.
197 B c ^ ; p. 209, f. n. 3.
.^aI.jly,fall, pf., 137, 2 a; 137, 2 b a ;
pf. pf., 157 a ; red. ao., 149 a 2, parvas, adv. joint by joint, 179, I.
pas = spas, see, pr. stem, 133 B 1.
ipv., 149, 5.
patya, iterative vb. jly about, 168. p, f. sight, 79, 4.
pti, m. husband, lord, 99, 1 ; ac paut p , a. delighting in cattle, 78, I.
centuation of, in cds., p. 456, 2a. paumnt, a. possessing cattle, 86
ptir dn, m. lord of th e l^ouse, (p. 64, f. n. 3).
pac, adv. behind, 178, 3 b.
78, 3 a.
ptn, f. wife, lady, 99, 1 ; as f. for pact, abl. adv. from behind,
178, 5 ; w. gen., 202 D.
pti when final member of Bv.,
pac t t, adv. from behind, 179, 2.
189, 4 e.
1. pa, drink, pr. stem, 133 A 3 a ;
pth, m.^path , 77, 2.
134 B 3 rf. ao. pre., 148, 4 a ;
pthi, m. path, 99, 2 c^.
ipv., 148, 5.
pad, walk, precative, 148, 4 a.
2. pa, protect, pr. stem, 134 A 4 c.
pd, m.foot, 77, 3 a.
padapatha, m. Pada te^t, 2 ; 25 c a,F i n i , m. a grammarian, 15.
f. n. I. (p. 26) ., p. 25, f. n. 2 ; pad, m.foot, 77, 3.
41a; p.33,f.n.5; p. 37, f. n. 5 ; pada, m.foot, compounded w. gd.,
184 c ; quarter stanza, verse, 16 ;
' p. 64, f. n. 3 ; p. 67, f. n. 4 ;
18 a ; 48 ; p. 436, I.
p. 205, f. n. 3; p. 206, f. n. 2;
pp, a. bad, cpv. of, p. 96,f.n. I.
p. 451. 10 a.
pan, admire, pf 137, 2 b.
p p ys, cpv. worse, p. 96, f. n. 1.
pnthan, m. path, 91, 1.
pitr, m. father, 101, 2 (par.).
pntha, m. path, 97, 2 a.
pitr, elliptical du father and
pnyam^, cpv. more wonde,ful, mother, 186 B 3 a ; 193, 2 a.
103, 2 a.
pinv, fatten, 133 A 3 b ; 134 C 4 ^.
papiv s, pf. pt. of pa, drink, 89 a. pis, adorn, pr. stem, 133 C I.
paptiv s, pf. pf. of pat, fiy, 89 a. ps, f. ornament, 79, 4.
paya, cs. sutfix, 168 d ; irr. 2.
pucalu, f. courtesan, p. 89, f. n. 1 .
para, a. ulterior, 120 c 2 (par.) ; pus, m. man, 83, 1 ; 96, 3.
higher, as final member of Bv., pr, f. stronghold, 82 (par.).
189, 1 b.
purauih, f. a metre, p. 444, 2.
param, spv. farthest, 120 c 1.
purs, adv. before, 179, 3 ; prp.
pars, adv. beyond, 179, 3 ; prp. w. before, w. loc., aec., abl., 176, 2 ;
acc., 177, 1, inst., 177, 2, abl.,
202 D ; compounded w. verbs,
177, 3.
184 b.
parstd, adv. prp. after, w. gen., purstd, adv. in front, 179, 2 ;
177, 4, f. n. 1 ; above, 202 D.
prp. in front of, w. gen., 177, 4 ;
prc, a. turned away, 93 b.
202 D.
pardi, dat. inf. to give up, p. 79, pur , adv. formerly, w. p r
f. n. 1 ; p. 191.
212 A 2 a ; w. sma, 180 ; prp.
pri, prp. around, w. acc. and abl.,
before, w. abl., acc., insf., 177, 3 ;
176, 1 a.
179, 3
prijman, a. going round, 90, 1 a. puravt, adv. as of old, 179, 1.
paritas, adv. round about, 179, 2 ;pur, a. much, i n Bv. compounds,
prp. around, w. acc., 177, 1.
p. 455, 10 c a.

purutr , adv. in many places, prathamaj, a. jirstborn, 97, 3.

179, 3.
prathimn, m. width , 90, 2.
purudh , adv. variously, 179, 1.
pram, dat. inf. to form, 167, 1,
puro, m. sacrificial cake, 79, 4 a. f. n. 2 (p. 191).
pu purify, pr. stem, 134 E 1.
prayj, f. offering, 79, 3 a.
pu.rpati, m. lord of the stronghold,prayta, nm. n. million, 104.
^49 d.
pravt, f. height, 77, 1.
purva, a. prior, 120 c 2 (par .) ; pra, ask, pr. stem, 133 C 2.
p. 454, 10.
prahye, dat. inf. to send, 167 a
purvtha, adv.formerly, 179, 1.
(p. 181).
purvam, adv. formerly, 178, 2.
pra, j^ll, irr. pf., 136, 4 ; s ao.,
pnrvavt, adv. as of old, 179, 1.
114, 5.
pun, m. a god, 90 (p. 68).
pr k tt, adv. fromthefront, 179, 2.
pr cross, pr. stem, 134 B 3 a ; s ao. prc, inst. adv. forwards, 178,3 b.
ipv., 143, 5 ; red. ao., 119, 1 ; pr n c, a. forward, 93 b.
loc. inf., 167, 4 c.
pratr, adv. early, w. gen., 202 D 2.
prks, f. satiation, 80.
prataritvas, v. of van stem, 90, 3.
pre, mix, s ao 144, 4. 5.
prdr, adv. beforethedoor, w. bhu,
pch, a. asking, 79, 2.
184 b.
prch, dat. inf. to ask, 79, 2 ; pr, f. dispute, 79, 4.
^167 a (p. 191).
priy, a. dear, 97, 1 (par.) ; sec.
prthiv1s, f. pl. the (three) earth s,
cpv. of. 103, 1.
^193, 3 a.
priyadh , adv. kindly, 179, 1.
pth, m. a man, 100, I b (p. 87). premn, m. love, 90, 2.
pr'sant, (pt.) a. spotted, 85 a.
pryms, pri. cpv. of priy, dear,
pjill, pr.stem, 133 B 2, 134 E 4 a ;
103, 2 a ; f. of. 88, f. n . 1.
rf. ao. ipv., 148, 5 ; red. ao. ipv.^ prha, spv. deorest, 103, 2 a.
149, 5 ; ps., 154, 4, f. n . 2 ; es., plu float, red. aerist, 149, 1.
168, irr. 5.
psr, f. victuals, 82, f.n 5.
pya,jill up, sis aorist, 146.
prakhyi, dat. inf. to see, 97, 2
Fh, ij. crasl^ 181.
(p. 79), f. n. 1.
pragtha, m. mixed strophe, p. 446,phf. ij. splash l 181.
11 B.
pragrhya, uncontractable, vowels, B, ij. truly, 181.
bat a, ij. alas l 181.
246; 24, f.n. 2. ; p.437,f.n. 3.
bandh, bind, pr. stem, 134 E 3, 4 ;
prach, ask, s aorist, 144, 5.
pf., 139, 1 ; ft., 151 a ; ps
pratarm, acc. adv. furth ermore,
154, 5.
197 A 5 b ^.
prti, prp. against, w. ace 176, 1 ; babhru, a. f. brown, 100, I I b.
197 B c.
brhiha, spv. very lofty, 103, 2 a.
pratimi, dat. inf. to imitate, 97, 2, bahirdh , adv. outward, 179, 1 ;
f. m 1.
^
prp. from out, w. abl., 177, 3.
prttta, pp. of pratid, give back, bah, a. much, i n Bv. compounds,
160, 2 b.
p. 455, 10 c a.
pratntha, adv. as oold, 179, 1. bahutr , adv. among many, 179, 3.
pratnavt, adv. as of old, 179, 1. bahdh , adv. in many ways,
pratyc, a. turned towards, 93 179, 1.
(par.) ; w. acc., 197 B a.
bahuvrhi (a. h aving much rice)
pratham, ord.jlrst, 107 ; 120c 3.
compounds, 100, I a ; 189 ; as
prathamam, adv. aec. first,
substantives, 189, 3 ; ending
l97A5ba.
modified, 189, 4 d ; suffixes a,

ya, ka, i n added to, 189, 4 b, c;

accentuation of, p. 455, 10 c.
barhata pragtha, m. a kind of
muced strophe, p. 446, 11 B 2.
bal, i j . dash t 181.
bibibbhav^nt, pt. crackling, 184 d.
bibhyat, pr. pt. ofbh,fear, 85 b.
bbhatsu, ds.a. loathing, 100, I I ba
f. n. 3.
budh, wake, ao 141 ; rt. ao. pf.,
148, 6 ; red. ao.. 149, 1 ; ps. ao.,
155.
brhat, f. a metre, p. 444, 3 b ;
^p. 446, 11 A.
Bhadrayaka Upaniad, ac
cented, p. 448, 1.
hrhant, (pt.) a. great, 85 a ; cpv.
of, 103, 2 a ; accentuation of,
p. 459.
bodh, 2. s. ipv. rt. ao. of bh, be
and budh, wake, 148, 5 ; cp. 62,
f. n. 1.
bru, speak, pr. stem, 134 A 1 c a ;
134 A 4 c a.

bhd, f. destroyer, 77, 3 a.

bh, f. fear, 100, I a.
bhi,fear, s ao., 144, 2 ; rt. ao. inj.,
148, 3, pt., 148, 6 ; red. ao.,
149, 1 ; cs., 168, irr. 3.
bhsaya, cs. frigh ten : red. ao.,
149 a 3.
bhk, i j . bang.^ 181.
bhuj, enjoy, rt. ao. inj., 148, 3.
bhuj, dat. inf., to enjoy, 167 a
1^1).
bhurj, f. arm, 79, 3 b.
bhuv, inf. to be, 167 a (p. 191).
bh, be, as representing first class
of the a conj 125, 1 ; pr. system
of, 132 (par.); pf., 139, 7 ;
140, 3. 4. 5 ; pf. 157; rf. ao.,
148, 1 c (par.), inj., 148, 3, pre,
148, 4 a, op., 148, 4, ipv., 148, 5 ;
red. ao., 149, 1, pt., 151 a ;
per. ft., 152.
bhu, f. earth, 100, I I a ; I I b (par.).
bhumn, m. abundance, 90, 2.
b human, n. earth , 90, 2.
bhumi, f. earth, 98 a.
Bha, sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
bhuyas, cpv. adv. aec. more, 178, 2.
bhagavattara, cpv. more bounteous,bhuys, cpv. more, 88 ; becoming
103, 1.
more, 103, 2 a ; as final member
bhgavant, a. bounteous, 86.
of Bv., 189, 1 b.
bhaj, sh are, pf., 139, 1 ; s. ao. op., bhuyiha, spv. greatest, 103, 2 a.
143, 4 ; red. ao 149, 1 ; cs.,
bhurid v attara, cpv. a. giving more
154, 6 a.
abundantly, 103, 1.
bhaj, break, pr. stem, 134 D 1 ;
pr. pt., 85 ; ps., 154, 5.
M , final, before vowels, 41, some
bhadrapp s , N. pi. Dv. cd., th e
times dropped, 41 a ; before
good andthebad, 186 A 2.
consonants, 42; 42, I. f. n. 1 ;
bhart, a. supporting, 10I. 2 b.
unchanged in internal sandhi,
bharbharbhavat, impf. became
68 ; becomes n 68.
confounded, 184 d.
ma, prn. stem of first prs. in der.
bhala, pel. indeed, p. 452, 8 Ab.
and cds., 109 b.
bhavn, m. Tour Honour, w. 3. ma,
pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; see.
prs. s., 195 A c.
nom. sf., 182, 2 ; p. 454, 9 B c.
bhvys, cpv. more, 88.
mhiha, spv. most liberal, 103, 2.
bhas, ch ew, pr. stem, 134 B 3 ; maghvan,
a. bountiful, 91, 5.
134 B 3 ^.
bhasd, f. hind quarters, 77, 3 b. maghvant, a. bountiful, 91, 5,
f. n. 3.
bhj, a. sharing, 79, 3 a, f. n. 3.
bhmit, den. pp. enraged, 160, mtkta, Tp. cd. done by me, 109 b.
matts, adv. from me, 179, 2.
3, f. n. 2.
mad, be exh ilarated, pr. stem,
bh^, n. ligh t, 83, 1.
133 B 3 ; rt. ao. ipv., 148, 5.
bhid, pierce, rt. ao., 148, 1 d ; ini
mad, prn. stem of ls^ prs.,
109 b

madntara, cpv. more gladdening,2. m, bellow, pr. stem, 134 B 3^ ;

103, 1 a.
red. ao. inj., 149, 3.
mdhu, a. sweet, 98 (par.).
3. ma, exchange, pr. stem, 133 B 1.
madhyam,
spv. middlemost,
ma, f. measure, 97, 2.
120 c^l.
ma, encf. prs. prn. acc. s., me,
madhy , inst. adv. in th e midst,
109 a ; p. 452, 8 A a.
1 78, 3 b ; 211, 3 b.
ma, prohibitive pcf. not, 128 c;
man, th ink, pr. stem, 134 C 4 a ;
180 ; w. inj., 215 c 2 a ; never
pf., 137, 2 b ; s ao., 143, 3 ; irr.
w. ipv., 215 b a.
11I. 3.
makis, prohibitive prn. pcf. no
man, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ;
one, never, 113, f. n. 2 ; 180.
stems in, 90 ; p. 453, 9 Ae.
mkm, prohibitive prn. pel. no
mnas, n. mind, 83, 2.
one, 180.
manuvt, adv. like .l1fanu, 179, 1. matr, f. mother, 101 2 (par.).
mnus, m. a name, 83, 2 ^.
matra, f. du. moth er and fath er,
mant, see. nom. sf.. 182, 2 ; stems
186 B 3 a.
in, 86.
mtarvan, m. a name, 90 a.
manth, shake, pr. stem, 134 E 3.
m t al, m. a name, l00, I b.
mntha, m. churning stick, 97, 2 a. mtrtama, f. spv. most moth erly,
manmas, adv. each as h e is
103, 1 e.
minded, 179, 1.
mna, sf. of mid. p t 158.
mmaka, poss. prn. my, 116 a.
mmak, possessive prn., 116 a.
mamasaty, n. dispute as to ownermmpay, synt. cd., a plant,
ship, synt. cd., 189 B c.
189 B c.
maya, sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
m v ant, prn. der. like me, 118 c.
mart, m. stormgod, 77, 1 .
mas, m. month. 83, 1.
martsakhi, a. h aving th e ^Iaruts mas, n.fiesh,83, 1.
as friends, 99, 2 a.
mi, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
martyatr , adv. among mortals, mitradh , adv. in a friendly way
179, 3.
179, 1.
marmrjnya, int. gdv. to be glori mitr , m. du. .^fitra and Varua,
fed.l62,3.
186 B 3 a ; 193, 2 a.
malmalbhvant, pt. glittering, mitr s as, m. pl. ^ .llIitra, Varua,
184 d.
Aryaman, 193, 3 a.
masmak, crush , 184 d.
miths, adv. wrongly, 179, 3.
mas, vocatives in, 86.
mthu, adv. wrongly, 179, 3
masi, 1. pf. ind. ending, fre
min, stems i n , 87.
quency of, p. 125, f. n. 2.
mih, sh ed water, ft., 151 a; inf..
masmas kr, crush , 184 d.
167 (p. 191).
mah, a. great, 81.
mh, f. mist, 81.
mahant, a. great, 85 a (par.) ; mi, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
mhv s, a. bountiful, 157 b.
accentuation of. p. 459.
mmamsit, pp. of des. of man,
mahs, a. great, 83, 2 a a.
mah , a. great, 97, 2 a ; for mahat
think, 160, 3 f. n. 2.
in Karmadharayas and Bahu milhstama, spv. most gracious,
vrhis, p. 275, f. n. 1.
103, i b.
mahpankti, a metre, p. 440 d.
muc, release, pr. stem, 133 C 1 ; s
mahimn, m. greatness, 90, 2.
ao. opt., 143, 4 ; rt. ao., 148, 1 a;
mah, inf. to be glad, 167 a
prc 148, 4 d.
(I.. 1 ^ .
md f. joy, 77, 3 a.
1. ma, measure, pr. stem, 134 B 1 a ; mr m. destroyer, 82, f. n. 6.
murdhn, m. head, 90,
root ao. ipv., 148, 5.

1. mr, die, rt. ao. inj., 148, 3 ; ps. ytkama, a. desiring what, 114 a.
154 d.
yatkarn, a. doing what, 114 a.
2. mr, crush, pr. stem, 134 E 4 a. ytra, adv., synt. use, 180 ; 215
mre, injure, s ao. op., 143, 4.
(p. 358) ; w. op., 216 (p. 366).
mc, f. injury, 79, 1.
y th, adv. as, 114 a ; 179, 1 ;
mrj, wipe, pr. stem, 134, 1 b ; sa
loses accent, p. 453, 8 B a ; cj.
ao., 141 a.
in order that, 180 ; 216 (p. 365) ;
md, f. clay, 77, 3 a.
as, so that, 215 (p. 358).
yd, prn. wh at, 114 ; wh en, so that,
mdh, f. confiict, 77, 4.
w. sb 215 (p. 357) ; when,
mr, touch, sa ao., 141 a.
mr, neglect, rt. ao. inj., 148, 3.
178, 2 a ; wh en, if, 180 ; if w.
op., 216 (p. 363 ^y 1 ; p. 365 ^) ;
mrsmrs kr, crush , 184 d.
in order that, 216 (p. 364 a) ; th at,
me, encl. prn. dat. gen. s. of
w. op., p. 364 ^ ; w. cond. 218
ahm, 109 a ; p. 452, 8 A a.
(p. 368).
mdha, m. sacrifice, accent of, in
yad, adv. when, 179, 3 ; cj., 180 ;
cds., p. 454, 10.
w. sb 215 (p. 359, 4) ; as soon
medhs, n. wisdom, 83, 2 a a.
as, w. op., 216 (p. 366, 4 ^ ) .
:M.aitrya Sahit, accentua
ydi,
ci. if, when, 180; if, w. sb.,
tion of. p. 450, 3.
215 (p. 359, 5) ; if, w. op., 216
na, sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
myaks, be situated, rt. ao 148, 1 d. (p. 364).
yaddevaty, a. h aving wh at deity,
114 a.
Y , interposed in ps. ao 155 ; in
yant, prn. sf. expressing quantity,
cs 168 ; irr., 4.
118 b.
y, rel. prn. who, 114 (par.).
yam, stretch, pr. stem, 133 A 2,
ya, gdv. sf., 162 ; 209, 1 ; gd. sf.,
135, 4; pf., 137, 2 a; 139, 2 ;
210; den. sf., 175; sec. nom.
gd., 165 ; s ao 144, 5; root ao.
sf., 182, 2.
ipv 148, 5.
yamsnya, ao. gdv. to be guided, yrhi, adv. wl^en, w. op., 216
162, 3.
(p. 366, 4 ^).
yak, rel. prn. wh o, 114 b ; 117a. yviha, spv. youngest, 103, 2 a.
ykt, n. liver, 77, 1.
yas, n. glory, 83, 2 a.
yaj, sacrifice, pr. stem, 135, 4 ; pf., y low grade of, 4 a.
137, 2 c ., sa ao., 141 a ; s ao ya, go, si aorist, 146.
144, 5 ; root ao., 148, 5 ; pt. ft., ya, gd. sf., 164 ; how added,
151 b 2.
104, 1.
yajivs, pf. pt. act. of yaj,
yams, cpv. sf., 103, 2 a ; stems
sacrifice, 89 a.
^ ^in, 88.
yjiha, spv. sacrificing best, 103, 2.yd, adv. as far as, 178, 5 ; cj.,
yjyms, cpv. sacrificing better, 180 ; so long as, w. sb., 215
103, 2.
(p. 359, ^6) ; in so fur as, first
y a j a n 1 , a. leading th e sacrifice, member of synt. cd., 189 B a.
100, I a.
yd, prn. cd. what like, 114 a ; 117.
yajaprya, a. sacrificeloving, 100, ydra, prn. cd. what like, 117,
I a.
f.n. 4.
yat, stretch, pf 137, 2 a.
y v at, cj. as long as, 180.
yatama, prn. a. who (ofmany), 117b; yvant, prn. der. as great, 118 c.
120 a.
1. yu, unite, pr. stem, 134, 1 a.
yatar, prn. a. who (of two), 117 b ; 2. yu, separate, 133 A 2 ; 134 B 3 a.
120 a.
yu, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; stems
yti, nm. der. as many, 118 a.
in, 98 a.

yuj, join, pr. system, 132 (pp. 136 rath t ama, spv. best ch arioteer,
7); root ao. ipv., 148, 5; ff.,
103,1.
15l a.
rn m. joy, 77, 5 ; accentuation
yj, m. companion, 79, 3 a.
of, p. 458, c 1.
yudh, fght, root ao. ipv 148, 5 ; ran, 3. pf. ending i n ppf., 140, 6 ;
ds. pr. pf., 85.
in root ao 148, 1 ; 148, 1 h .
ydh,f.fight,77, 4.
randh, make subiect, a ao., 147 b.
yuva, prs. prn. you two, 109 b.
rabh, grasp, pf., 137, 2 a.
yuvatf. f. young, 95 c.
rbhyams, cpv. more violent,
yvan, m . youth, 90a; 91, 4 ; f.
103, 2 a.
of. 95 c; cpv. of. 103, 2 a;
ram, rejoice, red. ao. sb 149, 2
accentuation of. p. 458, c 1.
inj., 149, 3 ; sis. ao 146.
yuvm, prn. ye two, 109.
ram, 3. pf. mid. ending i n ppf.,
yuvay, a. desiring yon two, 109 b.
140 b (p. 158, f. n. 1) ; in root
yuv v ant, prn. der. devoted to you ao 148, 1 ; 148, 1 h .
tu.o, 118 c.
rayntama, spv. a. very rich,
103, 1 a.
yusma, prn. you (as first member
rariv s, red. pf. pt. of r, 89 a.
of a cd.), 109 b.
yusmaynt, prn. der. desiring you, ramn, m. rein, 90, 2.
r low grade of, 4 a ; 5 b a.
109 b.
r, give, pr. stem, 134 B 1 a ;
yum k a, poss. prn. your, 116b.
134 B 3 ^ ; s ao. op 143, 4,
yusm k am, prn. (G. pl.) of you,
ipv. , 143, 5 ; root ao. ipv., 148, 5.
l i e b.
yum v ant, prn. der. belonging to raj, m. king, 79, 3 a.
rjan, m. king, 90.
you, 118 c.
rtr, f. nigh t, as final member of
yym, prs. prn. ye, 109.
cds., 186 (p. 269), f. n. 2 ; 189 A
yeyajmah, synt. cd 189 B b.
(p. 279), f. n. 3.
yodhn, pr. pt. of yudh figh t, rdh,
succeed, s ao 144, 2 ; red.
158 a.
ao. sb 149, 2 ; red. ao. inj.,
yan, f. woman, 90.
149, 3.
ys, n. welfare, 83, 1.
rstr n m, G. pl., 65 (p. 43),
^f. n. 1.
R, original final, 46, f. n. 1 ; rarI, m. ruler, 100, I b.
49 d ; before r, 47 ; two r
r i , pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b.
sounds in same syllable avoided^
ric leave, s ao., 144, 5 ; root ao.
39, f. n. 4 ; r inserted i n conj.,
inj., 148, 3 ; red. pf. pt., 157 b a.
134, 1 c ; stems in, 82.
rip, f. deceit, 78, 1.
ra, low grade of, 4 a (p. 4).
r i , h urt, red. ao. op 149, 4.
ra, prf. nom. sf., 182, l b ; sec. r, f. injury, 80.
nom. sf., 182, 2.
rihnt, (pt.) a. weak, 85 a.
rakss, m. demon, 83, 2 a.
ru, cry, pr. stem, 134 (p. 142,
raghudr, cd. a. running swiftly, f. n. 1).
98 ^
ru, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b.
raghuy ,
inst. adv. rapidly,
ruk, N. of ruh, a. mounting, 81 a.
178, 3 a.
rue, sh ine, red. pf. pt., 157 b a.
ratnadh t ama, spv. best bestower ofrc, f. lustre, 79, 1.
ruj, break, root ao. inj 148, 3.
treasure, 103, 1.
rthaspti, m. lord of the car. 187 rud, weep, pr. stem, 134 A 3 a.
rudh, obstruct, s ao 144, 5.
(p^ 273, f. n. 3).
rathr, m. f. ch arioteer, 100, I a rp, f. earth , 78, 1.
(p. 86 ; 87, par.).
| rant, (pt.) a. brilliant, 85 a.

ruh, ascend, sa ao., 141 a; 168

irr. 2, f. n. 1.
ruh, I. sprout, 81.
rpm, ace. adv. in form, 178, 2.
re, 3. pi. mid. ending, pr.,
134 C 4.y; pf., 136a, f. m 1.
ri, m. f. wealth, 102 ; 102, 1 (par.).

vpustara, cpv. more wonderful,

l03,1.
vpus, n. beauty, 83, 2 c.
vam, vomit, pr. stem, 134 A 3 a.
vam, adv. suffix, 179, 1.
vaym, prs. prn. we, 109.
vyas, n. vigour, 83, 2 a a.
vra, a. choice, spv. of, 103, 2 a.
vrya, dat. adv. according to wish ,
La, sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
178, 4.
l a k m 1 , f. mark, 100, I a (p. 88).
varimn, m. width , 90, 2.
lghyams, cpv. lighter, 103, 2 a.
vriha, spv. most excellent, 103, 2 a
lghu, a. light, cpv. of, 103, 2 a.
widest, 103, 2 a.
labh, take, pf., 137, 2 a.
vryas, cpv. wider, 103, 2 a.
lip, smear, pr. stem, 133 C 1.
varjiv m s, pf. pf. aef. of vrj,
lup, break, pr. stem, 133 C 1.
twist, 157 b.
vriha, spv. highest, 103, 2 b.
Va, low grade of, 4 a.
va, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; adv. vrys, cpv. higher, 103, 2 b.
vrsman, n. height, 103, 2 b, f. n. 5.
sf., 179, 1.
vas, desire, pr. stem, 134 A 2 a.
vaght, m. sacrificed 85 b.
vac, speak, pr. stem, 135, 4 ; pf., 1 vas, dwell, pf., 137, 2 c ; 's ao.,
144, 1 ; s ao., 144, 2 ; red. pf.
137, 2 c ; 138, 8 ; red. ao. irr.,
pt., 157 a.
149 a 2, op., 149, 4, ipv., 149, 5 ;
2. vas, wear, pr. stem, 134 A 3 b ;
ps., 154, 6 ; ps. ao., 155.
135, 4 ; pf., 139, 2 ; cs. ft.,
vane, move crookedly, ps., 154, 5.
151 a a.
vaj, m. trader, 79, 3 b.
3. vas, sh ine, pr. stem, 133 C 2 ;
vat, sec. nom. sf., 182, 2 ; stems
s ao., 144, 1 ; s ao., 144, 5 ; root
in, 77, 1 ; adv. sf., like, 179, 1 ;
ao., 148; 1 d.
advs. in, 197 A 5 b ^ (p. 301).
vad, speak, pr. stem, 135, 4; pf., vs, m. (?) abode, 83, 1.
vas, end. prs. prn. A.D.G. pl. you,
137, 2c; ps., 154, 6.
109 a; p. 452, 8 A a.
vdhar, n. weapon, 101, 1.
van, win, pr. stem, 134 C 4 a ; vas, v. in, 86 ; 89 ; 90, 3 ; 94, 3,
f. n. 3.
135, 4 ; pf., 137, 2 b ; 139, 2 ; s
ao. op., 143, 4 ; s ao., 144, 3 ; vsiha, spv. best, 103, 2 a.
sis ao., 146; root ao. ipv., 148, 5,. vsu, n. wealth, 98 a ; spv. of, best,
103, 2 a.
ds), 171 (p. 200), par.
vn, n.('.') wood, 77, 5 ; accent, p. 458 vasuvn, a. bestowing wealth , 90, 3.
c 1.
vstos, gen. adv. in th e morning,
van, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ;
178, 6 ; 202 D 3 a.
nouns in, 90, 1. 2; fem. of, 90 vsys, cpv. better, 103, 2 a.
(p. 59, f. n. 2) ; 95 c ; sec. nom. vab, carry, pr. stem, 135,4; pf
sf., 182, 2; v. in, 94, f. n. I.
137, 2 c ; s ao., 144, 2 ; 144, 5 ;
vand, f. longing, 77, 3 b.
root ao. ipv., 148, 5 ; ps., 154, 6 ;
vanarsd, a. sitting in th e wood, ps. sb 154 b ; ps. ao., 155 a 1.
49 d.
vaht, f. stream, 85 b.
vant, sec. nom. sf., 182, 2 ; stems v, low grade of, 5 b a.
in 86 ; pf. pf. act. in, 161 ; v, weave, pr. stem, 133 B 1.
205, 1 a.
v, encl. cj. or, 180 ; p. 452, 8 A b.
vap, strew, pr. stem, 135, 4 ; pf., vs, sf. of red. pf. pt., 157 ;
137, 2c.
pf. pt. in, 89 (par.).

vis, f. settlement, 63 b, f. n. 2 ; 79, 4

va:, f. speech, 79, 1.
v^e, inf. to speak, 167 a (p. 191). (par.).
viivas, unred. pf. pt. of vis,
Vjasaneyi Sahit, how ac
enter, 157 b.
cented, p. 449.
vt, N. sing. of vah, carrying, visvie, itv. cd. in every house,
189 C a.
8 i a.
vipti, m. lord of the house, 49 a.
vt k ta, n. a disease, 184 d a.
vm, prs. prn. du. we two, 109 ; vva, prn. a. all, 120 b (par.) ;
accent i n cds., p. 454, 10.
p. 452, 8 A a.
vam, encf. prs. prn., A. D. G. du., visvtra, adv. everywhere, 179, 3.
vivth, adv. in every way, 179, 1.
you two, 109 a.
vivad n m, adv. always, 179, 3 ^.
vr, m. protector, 82, f. n. 6.
vivdh, adv. in every way, 179, 1.
vr, n. water, 82, f. n. 7.
vrkary, a. producing water, 49 d.vivh , adv. always, 179, 1.
vp, f. summit, 78, 1.
vv, pel. certainly, 180.
vvac, a. allpervading, 93 a.
va, bellow, red. ao 149, 1.
v, m. bird, 99, 3 a ; accent, p. 458, Visarjanya, m. spirant, 3 g ; 14 ;
15; 27 ; 31 ; 32; 37; 43; 43, 3,
c I.
f. n. 4 ; 44 ; 48 ; 49 c ; 76 ;
viat, nm. twenty, 104 ; 106 d
sandhi of final, 43 ; 44 ; some
(par.).
times becomes before gutturals
vie, sift, red. pf. pt., 157 b a.
and labials, 43, 2 a ; dropped,
vij, tremble, root ao. inj., 148, 3.
43, 3 a ; 45, 1 ; 45, 2 a ; 48 ;
vij, f. ('^) stake, 79, 3 a.
changed to r, 44 ; 46.
vitarm, adv. more widely, 178, 2. visp, m. spy, 79, 4.
1. vid, know, Unred. pf 139, 3 ; v, m. receiver, 100, I a.
ao. ps., 155.
vr, m. h ero, accent of, in com
2. v i d , 7ind, pr. stem, 133 C 1 ;
pounds, p. 454, 10.
134 A 4 c a ; a ao., 147, 1 (par. ) ; 1. vr, cover, pr. stem, 134 C 3 ;
a ao. op., 147, 4 (par.).
root ao 148, 1 d, inj., 148, 3,
vid, f. knowledge, 77, 3 a.
ipv., 148, 5, pf., 148, 6 ; red. ao.,
vdna, and vidn, pr. pt. mid.
149, 1 ; es. ft., 151 a a.
of vid, .find, 158 a.
2. vr choose, root ao. inj., 148, 3.
vidara, cpv. wiser, 103, 1 b.
vrj twist, sa ao., 141 a; root ao.,
vidv s, pf. pt. knowing, 157 b.
^148, 1 d, op., 148, 1.
vidhart , a. meting out, 101, 2 b. vt, turn, ft., 151 a ; red. pf. pt.,
vdhe, inf. to pierce, 167 a (p. 191). ^157.
vin, sec. nom. sf., 182, 2 ; stems vt, f. h ost, 77, 1.
in, 87.
vtratra, cpv. a worse Vrtra, 103, 1.
vn, prp. with out, w. acc., 197 c a vtrahn, a. Vrtraslaying, 92.
(p. 303).
vrddh, pp. grown up, cpv. of,
vp f. rod, 78, 1 ; accent, p. 458,
^103, 2 b.
cl.
vrddhf. f. strong grade of vowels,
vp, f. a river, 63 b,f.il. 2 ; 79, 4.
^5 a; 5aa; 17; 17 a; 19b; 22;
vipr, f. drop, 80.
23 (for Gua) ; 128 b ; in pr.
vbhvas, v. radiant, 90, 3.
stem, 134, 1 a (irr.) ; in pf. stem,
vibh , a. eminent, 100, I I b.
136, 2. 3 ; in s ao., 143, 1 ; i n
is ao., 145, 1 ; in ao. ps., 155 ;
vbhvan, a. fdrreaching, 90, l a .
in gdv., 162, l b ; 168, 1 c.
virj, I. stanza of three verses,
p. 441, 5 a.
vdh, grow, red. ao., 149, 1.
viviiv s, red. pf. pt. of vis, vdh, f. prosperity, 77,^; a. strength
enter, 89 a ; 157 a.
ening, 77, 4.

vraav, Bv. cd. having stallionsayutr , adv. on a couch, 179, 3.

as steeds, 52 a.
ard, f. autumn, 77, 3 b.
v an, m. bull, 90.
l, i j . clap t 181.
vrsntama, spv. most manly, aayn, pf. pt. mid. of , lie,
^103, 1 a.
159 a.
vdi, f. altar, loc. of, 98 (p. 81), syams, cpv. more requent,
f. n. 6.
103, 2 ^.
vedhs, m. ordainer, 83, 2 a a.
avattam, spv. most constant,
veht, f. barren cow, 85 b.
103, 1.
vi, emphasizing pel. indeed, 180. savadh , adv. again and again,
vaitlya, n. a metre, p. 436, f.
179, 1.
n. 2.
svant, a. constant, 103, 2 a.
vhave, dat. inf. to carry, 167, 1 b 4. -sas adv. sf. w. distributive sense,
vyac, e^nd, pr. stem, 134 B 2 ;
179, 1.
135, 4.
sharpen, pr. stem, 134 B 1 a ;
vyadh, pierce, pr. stem, 133 B 1.
134 B 3 a.
vy, envelope, pr. stem, 133 B 1 ;as, order, pr. stem, 134 A 4 a; a
a ao., 147 a 1.
ao., 147 a 1.
vy t ta, opened, pp. of viada, s, m. ruler, 83, 1.
160, 2 b.
sat, pr. pt. instructing, 85 b ;
vrac, cut, pr. stem, 133 C 2.
156 a.
-vraska, a. cutting, 133 C 2, f. n. 2. ras, n. head, 90, 1 a.
vr, f. troop, 97, 2.
i, pp. of s, order, 160, 2 b.
vr d hantama, spv. being most ikanar, a. helping men, 189 A 2 b.
mighty, 103, 1 b.
, lie, pr. stem, 134, 1 c; 134 A4ca;
vr,f.finger,79, 4.
pf., 139, 7 (f. n. 1).
rn, n. head, 90, 1.
S, stems in, 79, 4.
sue, shine, red. pf. pt 157 b a ;
-sa, see. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
red. ao. inj., 149, 3.
as, praise, ps., 154, 5.
c, f. fiae, 79, 1.
ak, be able, pf., 137, 2 a ; root ao. ci, a. bright, 98 (par.).
ipv., 148, 5.
ubh, shine, pr. stem, 133 C 1 ;
kt, n. excrement, 77, 1.
root ao. p t 148, 6.
akvar, f. a metre, p. 440 d ; bh, f. splendour, 78, 2.
p. 441, f. n. 6.
u, swell, red. pf. p t 157 b a.
c, f. might, 100, I b.
ocs, n. glow, 83, 2 b.
atkratu, a. having a hundred candr, a. bright, 50 a.
powers, 98 (p. 82), f. n. 6.
nath, pierce, pr. stem, 134 A 3 b ;
atatam, ord. hundredth, 107.
red. ao., 149, 1.
^tad v an, a. giving a hundredfold,rath, slacken, red. ao. ipv., 195, 5.
^ 90.
rad, heart, compounded with
atapatha Brahmana, accentua
verbs, 184 b.
tion of, p. 448, 1 ; p. 451, 5.
raddh, inf. to trust, 167, 1,f.n. 2
satm, nm. a hundred, 104 ; 106 d
(par.) ; concord of, 194 B 1 b.
ram, be weary, pr. stem, 133 B 3.
atas, adv. by hundreds, 179, 1. ri, resort, root ao. i n j . , 148, 3 ;
atruh, a. slaying enemies, 97, 3. red. ao 149, 1 ; ps. ao 155 ;
nais, adv. slowly, 178, 3 b.
cs., 168 c,f.n. 1 (p. 196).
sap, curse, pf 137, 2 a.
r, f. glory, 100, I a.
m, n. happiness, 78, 3.
sru, hear, pr. stem, 134 C 3 ; root
yna, pr. pt. mid. of , lie,
ao. ipv., 148, 5 ; ps. ao., 155.
158 a.
rt, a. hearing, 77, 1.

sreis, adv. in rows, 179, 1.

sajas, a. united, 83, 2 a a.
ryas, cpv. better, 103, 2 a.
saj, h ang, pr. stem, 133 A 4.
srha, spv. best, 103, 2 a ; 189, 1 b. satobhat, f. a metre, p. 444, 3 c.
rhatama, double spv., 103, 1 c. satym, adv. truly, 178, 2.
sloka, m. a metre, p. 439, 3 b a.
satr , adv. in one place, 179, 3.
svn, m. dog, 90 a ; 91, 3 ; accen sad, sit, pr. stem, 133 A 3 a ; pf.,
tuation of. p. 458, c 1.
137, 2 a, f. n. 2 ; a ao. ipv.,
varu, f. mother-in-law, 100, I I b, a, 147, 5; red. ao 149, 1.
f. n. 1.
sdam, adv. always, 179, 3.
vas, blow, pr. stem, 134 A 3 a.
sd, adv. always, 179, 3.
vs, adv. tomorrow, 179, 3.
sadvas, adv. today 179, 3.
svit, be bright, s ao 144, 5.
sadys, adv. today, 179, 3.
sadha, adv. together, 179, 1 (p. 212).
s stems in, 80.
sadhryc, a. converging, 93 b
, nm. suc, 65 c, f. n. 2 (p. 43).
4^, f. n. I.
, nm. si^c, 104 ; 106 a (par.).
san, gain, pr. stem, 134 C 4 a ;
a, nm. si^cty, 104.
red. pf. pt., 157.
ah, ord. si:cth , 107.
san, loe. inf. of stems in, 167,
asa, nm. sixteen, 104 ; 106 c
4c.
(par.).
sna, a. old, cpv. of, 103, 2 a.
oha, nm. adv. in si^c ways, 108 b. sanj, a. old, 79, 3 b.
sant, abl. adv. from of old, 178, 5.
S, changed to t, 83, 1 a ; 89 ;
sani loc. inf. in, 211, 4.
171, 5 (ds.) ; 144, l (s ao.) ; loss
sanitr, prp. apart from, w. ace.,
of. 133 B I. 144, 2 a, i n s ao.,
177, 1 ; 197 B c.
144, 6, between consonants,
sanutr, prp. far from, w. abl.,
148, 1 g ; of N. i n cds., 189, 1 l^ ;
177, 3.
adv.^sf., 179, 1 ; ao 142 ; 143 ;
snt, pr. pt. of as, be, 85.
stems i n , 83.
samtar m , acc. adv. closer togeth er,
sa, dem. prn., 110 ; sandhi of,
197 A 5 b ^.
48 ; pleonastic formulaic use of,
sanm, f. favour, 78, 3.
180.
snys, cpv. older, 88 ; 103, 2 a.
sa, sf. of ao., 141 a ; of ds., sap, serve, pf., 137, 2 a ; red. ao.
169, 1. 2 ; pri. nom. sf., 182, l b.
inj., 149, 3.
sak, dem. prm, that little, 117 a.
saparnya, den. gdv. to be adored,
sakt, nm. adv. once, 108 a ; w.
162, 3.
gen., 202 D 3.
sapt, nm. seven, 104 ; 106 c (par.).
skthi, n. th igh , 99, 4.
saptat, nm. seventy, 104.
sksant, s ao. act. pt. of sah,
saptath, ord. seventh, 107.
overcome, 85 ; 156 a.
saptdaa, nm. seventeen, 104 ;
sakha for skhi, i n cds., 188, 2
106 c.
(p. 275), f. n. 2 ; 189, 4 d.
saptadh , adv. in seven ways, 108 b.
skhi, m. friend, 99, 2 ; i n Bahu saptam, ord. seventh , 107.
vrhis and Karmadhrayas,
sama, indef. prm any, 119 a (par.);
188, 4 d f. n. 1 ; i n governing
p. 452, 8 A a.
cds., 189 A 2 a (p. 280), f. n. 3.
samaha, adv. in some way or oth er,
sac, follow, pr. stem, 133 A 3 a ;
179, 1 ; p. 452, 8 A b.
134B3^; 134B3; pf., 137,2a; samn, a. similar, 120 c 2 (p. 117).
137, 2 b ; s ao. op., 143, 4 ; root samudrI. f. oceanic, 100, I a (p. 86),
ao. ipv., 148, 5 ; red. pf. pf.,
f. m 1.
157 a.
samprasrana, m. distraction, 5b;
sc, prp. with , w. loc., 177, 5.
17a,f.n.2; 6 9 c , f . m 2 ; 8 9 ; 91,

3. 4. 5 ; 96, 2 ; 99, 5, f. n. 1 ; pr. smaveda,

accentuation
of,
stem, 133 B 1 ; 133 C 2 f. n. 1 ;
p. 450, 4.
134 A 2 a ; 134 B 2 ; 134 E 2 ; saym, adv. in the evening, 178, 2.
135,4; 137, 2 a, f. m l ; 137,2c;
syprtar, adv. evening and
139,2; 154,6; 160,2; 160,3a;
morning, accentuation, p. 475 e a.
inf., 167, 1, f. n. 3; cs., 168,
shv s, unred. pf. pt. act., pre
irr 5.
vailing, 157 b.
samyc, a. united, 93 a ; w. ace., si, 2. s. ind. ending = ipv.,
197.
215 b^.
samrj, m. sovereign ruler, 49 b. sih1, f. lioness, 100, I a (p. 88).
sarh, f. (^) bee, 81.
sic, sprinkle, pr. stem, 133 C 1.
sart, f. stream, 77, 1.
sic, f. h em of a garment, 79, 1.
srva, prn. a. wh ole, 120 b (par.). sim, dem. prn., 100, 3 a.
sarvad , adv. always, 179, 3.
sir1, m. weaver, 110, I b.
sarvaht, a. offering completely,
sis aorist, 142 ; 146.
77, 1.
s d ant, pr. pt. of sad, sit, 85 .
scat, pr. pt. of sac, follow, 85 b, sm, encl. prn. pcl., 180 ; p. 452,
8 A a.
f. n. 5.
su, impel, pr. stem, 134. 1 a (p. 142).
sact, m. pursuer, 85 b.
sah, overcome, 140, 3 a ; s. ao su, press, root ao. part., 148, 6 ;
144,3; o p 1 4 3 , 4 ; i p v l 4 3 , 5 ;
pr. pf., 85.
pt., 143, 6 ; pf. pre., 150 a ; ft.,
s, su, adv. well, 180 ; in Bv. eds
151 c ; s ao. pt. act., 156 a.
p. 455, 10 c a.
sh, m. conqueror, 81 ; a. ^ictoriot,:s,
sud s , a. liberal, 83, 1.
81 a (par.).
sudhr, a. wise, 100, I a, f. n. 4.
sah, prp. with , w. inst., 177, 2 ; sup, a. clarifying well, 98 d.
adv, 179, 1.
sumd, prp. with , w. inst., 177, 2.
shantama, spv. most victorious, sumedhs, a. infligent, 83, .2 a a.
103, 1 b.
surabhntara, cpv., 103, 1 a.
shas, inst. adv. forcibly, 178, 3. sur d has, a. bountiful, 83, 2 a a.
sahsra, n. th ousand, 104 ; 106 d suv s tu, f. a river, 98 a.
(par.) ; concord of, 194 B i b .
su, bring forth , pf., 139, 7 ; ft.,
sahasratam, ord.thousandth,107
151 c ; ps. inj., 154 b.
(p. l02),^f. n. 2.
su, m. begetter, 100, I I a.
sahasradh , nm. adv. in a thousand sud, put in order, red. ao. ipv.,
ways, 108 b.
195, 5.
sa.kasras, adv. by th ousands, sr,jtow, a ao., 147 c ; ft., 151 a.
179, 1.
srj, emit, s aorist, 144, 4. 5.
shyas, cpv. stronger, 103, 2 a. sbhar, m. a name, 100, I b.
sa, bind, root ao. ipv., 148, 5.
skand, leap, root ao 148, 1 d.
skm, prp. with , w. insf., 177, 2. skambh, makefirm,134 E 3.
sk t , abl. adv. visibly, 178, 5.
sku, tear, pr. stem, 134, 1 a
sc, a. accompanying, 79 (p. 54), (p. 142), f. n. 1.
f. n. 1.
stan, thunder, pr. stem, 134 A 3 b.
sdh, succeed, red. ao. sb 149, 2 ; stambh, prop, pr. stem, 134 E 3. 4 ;
^inj 149, 3.
red. pf. pt., 157.
sdhiha, spv. straigh test, 103, 2 a. star, m. star, 82, f. n. 5 ; 82 b.
s d hu, a. straight, spv. of, 103, 2 a. stavan, pr. pt. mid. of stu
sdhuy ,
insf. adv. s^raigf^t praise, 158 a.
^178, 3 b.
stu, praise, pr. stem, 134, 1 c a ;
snu, m. n. summit, 98 (p. 81.,
pf 138, 5 ; s ao., 143, 1. 2 (par.) ;
f. m 13 ; 98 a.
ft. pf., 151 b 2 ; ps. ao., 155.

stbh, f. praise, 78, 2.

svad, sweeten, red. ao. inj 149, 3.
st, star, accentuation of, p. 458, svan, a. sounding, 77, 5.
c 1.
svap, sleep, pr. stem, 1 34 A 3 a ;
str, strew, ps., 154, 3, f. n. 1 ; s ao.
pf 135, 4 ; 137, 2 c; pf. pf.,
op., 143, 4.
157 ; red. ao., 149, 1.
str1, f. woman, 100, I b ^ (p. 88). svaym, ref. prn., 115 a.
sth, stand, pr. stem, 133 A 3 a ; svyukta, Tp. cd. seifyoked, 115 ca.
134 B 3 ^ ; a ao 147 a 1 ; root
svar, sound, s ao., 144, 5.
ao 148, 1 a (par.), op 148, 4, svr, n. ligh t, 82, f. n. 7 ; 82 c ;
pf., 148, 6 ; red. pf. pt., 157.
accentuation of, p. 458, c 1.
sth , a. standing, 97, 2.
svarabhakti, f. vowel element, 15 d.
sthat, a. stationary, 101, 2 b.
svarita, m. (enclitic) falling accent,
sthpya, cs. of sth, stand : red.
p. 448, 1 ; p. 451, 6; how
ao., 149 a 3.
marked, p. 449, 2; p. 450, 3.4.
sthir, a. firm, cpv. of, 103, 2 l^.
svrcaksas, a. brilliant as ligh t,
sthyms, cpv. most steadfast, 49 d. ^
103, 2 a.
svrpati, m. lord of heaven, 49 d.
sn, summit, accent, p. 458, c 1.
svar, a. winning light, 49 d.
snu, distil, pr. stem, 134, 1 a
svrti, f. acquisition of light, 49 d.
(p. 142), f. m 1.
svsoeis, a. selfradiant, 83, 2 b.
snu, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b.
svsr, f. sister, 101, 1.
spas, see, pr. stem, 133 B 1 ; pr.
sv d iha, spv. sweetest 103, 2 ^.
pt., 85.
sv d ys, cpv. sweeter, 103, 2 ^.
sps, m. spy, 63 b, f. n. 2 ; 79, 4.
svd, a. sweet, cpv. and spv. of,
spr, win, root ao., 148, 1 d.
103, 2 ^.
sprk, N. of -spr, touching, 81 a. ^vid, encl. emphasizing pel., 180 ;
sprdh, f. battle, 77, 4.
p. 452, 8 A l^.
spr, touch, sa ao., 141 a ; red. ao.
sb 149, 2 ; inj 149, 3.
sma, encl. emphasizing pcl 180 ; H treated like aspirate cerebral,
w. pur and pr., 212 A 2 b ;
69 c ; like dh, 69 d ; reverts to
p. 452, 8 A b.
guttural, 92 (p. 72) f.n. 1, in pr.
sma, prn. element, 110.
stem, 134 A 2 c, 158a ; stems i n ,
smd, prp. with , with inst., 177, 2.
81.
sm, remember, ps., 154,. 4, f. n. 1. ha, end. emphasizing pel., 180;
sy, dem. prn. th at, Sandhi of,
p. 452, 8 A b ; w. pur a and pr.,
48.
212 A 2 b a.
sya, ft. suffix, 151.
ha, a. slaying, 97, 3.
syde, inf. tofiow,167 a (p. 191). tha, adv. suffix, 179, l ^.
syand, fiow, pf 135, 4 ; s ao.,
han, slay, pr. stem, l34 1 c a ;
144, 5 ; red. ao., 149, 1.
134 A 2 c ; 134 B 3 ^ ; pf.,
syu, f. th read, 100, I I a. .
137, 2 b; 139, 4 ; pr. pf. act
srams,fall, a ao., 147 b ; red. ao.,
156 a; gd., 165 a.
149, 1.
han, a. slaying, 77, 5 ; 92.
srj, f. garland, 79, 3 a.
hnta, i j . come.^ 180; 181.
sravt, f. stream, 85 b.
hay, i j . come t 181.
srs, 2. s. s ao. of srj, emit, 144, 2. havsmant, a. ofiering an oblation,
sridh, f. foe, 77, 4.
86.^
src, f. ladle, 79, 1.
has, laugh, pr. stem, 134 B 3.
sru, f. stream, 1 00, I I a.
hsta, m. h and, compounded w.
sv, poss. prn. own, 115 b, c (par.) ;
gd., 184 c.
116c; 120c 2.
hastin, a. having hands, 87 (par.).

h, go away, pr. stem, 134 B 1 a ; hu, call, rt. ao. inj., 148, 3 ; ps
s a o 144, 2. 5; 146.
154 a (par.), ipv., 154 b (par.),
hi, cf. for, 180 ; accents verb,
impf., 154 c.
p. 467, 19 B.
hr, take, s ao., 144, 5.
hi, ending of 2. s. ipv. acf.,
hrtts, adv. from the hea^t, 179, 2.
134 C 4 ^.
hrd, n. h eart, 77, 3 a.
hi^, injure, pr. stem, 134 D 1.
hf. i j . ^o : 181.
h i , i j . compounded with kr, do,
hys, adv. yesterday, 179, 3.
hvar, be crooked, pr. stem, 134 B 2 ;
184 d.
hit, pp. of dha, put, 160, 2 a.
s ao., 144, 2 ; red. ao. inj., 149,3.
hinv, im^.oel, pr. stem, 133 A 3 b hv,
;
call, pr. stem, 133 B 1 ; a ao.,
134 C 4 ^.
147 a 1.
him, n. cold, 78, 3.
hrayavamattama, spv. best
L ^ d , 3 b ^y (p. 3), f. n. 1 ; 11 d a ;
unelder of the golden a^e, 103, 1. ^ 15, 2 d; 15, 2 i.
hruk, i j . away 181.
h, be ang^y, red. ao., 149, 1.
Dh h, 3 b ^y (p. 3), f. n. 1 ; 15, 2 d;
hu, sacrifice, pr. stem, 134 B 3 a.
15, 2 i ; produces length by
hurk, i j . away, 181.
position, p. 437, a 3.

GENERAL INDEx
The abbreviations occurring in this index have been explained at
the beginning of Appendix I and of the vedic Index.
The figures refer to paragraphs unless pages are specified.
Ablative, syntactical use of, 201 ;
lack of, p. 452, 8 ; i n dee.,
w. verbs, 201 A 1 ; w. substanp. 457, 11 a ; p. 475, 11 a ; i n
tives, 201 A 2 ; w. adjectives,
the sentence, p. 464, 18 ; verbal,
201 A 3 ; w. numerals, 201 A 3 c ; pp. 459--62 ; of augmented
w. adverbs, 201 A 4 ; w. pretenses, p. 459^ 12 a ; of pr.
positions, 176 a, b ; 177, 3 ;
system, p. 459, 12 b ; p. 460,
expresses tbe reason, 201 b.
pf. 12 c.
Abl.-gen. inf., 167, 3 (p. 194) ; Accented particles, position of,
synt. use of, 211, 3.
191 f.
Absolute eases, 205 : loc., 205, 1 ; Accusative, syntactical use of.
gen., 205, 2.
197 A ; w. verbal nouns, 197 B ;
Accent, 16 ; 71 a ; 77, 5, f. n. 1 ;
w. adjectives, 197 B a ^ (p. 302) ;
82 b f. n. 1 ; 82 c, f.n. 2 ;
w. adverbs, p. 303, ^ ; w. inter83, 1 b ; 85 ; 89 ; 93 a, f. n. 1 ;
jections, p. 303, ^ ; w. preposi97, 2, f. n. 2 (p. 79) ; 100, 1 a ;
tions, 176, 1 ; 177, 1 ; 197 B c
100, 1 b, f. m 3; 100, I I ;
(p. 303) ; adverbial, 178, 2 ;
100, I I b ; 102, 2, f.n. 1 ;
197, 5; double, 198; inf.,
103, 1. 2 (f. n.113); 104, f. m 6 ;
167, 2 ; 211, 2.
104a, b; 106; 107 ; 125, 1. 2 ; Action nouns, 182, 1.
126 a ; 127, 1. 2 ; 128 ; 131 ; Active voice (Parasmaipada), 121.
134, 1 c ; 134 A 4 b (f. n. 1) ; Adjectives, 86 ; 87 ; 88 ; 93 ; 95 c ;
136 ; 141, 1 (f. n. 3) ; 148, 5 ;
120 ; 186 B ; w. insf., 199, 2 a, b ;
154; 155; 158 a; 159 a 4 ;
w. gen., 202 C ; w. inf., 211, 1 b ;
162, 4 ; 164 ; 167, 1 b, f. n. 1 ;
211, 3 a a; 211, 3ba.
169; 172; 175; 175 A2 f. n. 1 ; Adverbial, suffixes, 179 : w. inst.
189 A, f. n. 2 ; 195 B b ; double,
sense, 171, 1 ; w. abf. sense.
167 b 5 ; 185, f. n. 1 ; 186 A 1 ;
179, 2 ; w. loe. sense, 179, 3 ;
p. 452, 7 ; p. 456, 2 ^ ; shift
particles, 180.
of. 5 ; 72 a ; 85 b ; 100, I b, Adverbs, 180; compound, 197 A 5
f. n. 3 and p. 87; 112, f. n. 4 ;
b
^ (p. 301) ; compounded
112 f. n. 1 ; 189 ; 199 A b a ;
w. verbs, 184 b, w.gd., 164, 1 a ;
p. 454, 10 ; p. 458, 11 c ; p. 464,
numeral, 108 a^c; prepositional,
16 ; pp. 448-69 ; musical, p. 436;
177; w. gen., 202 d.
p. 448, 1 ; methods of marking,
Agent, expressed by inst., 199, 2 ;
App. I I I , 2--5 ; of single words,
nouns, 101, 2 ; 152, f. m 1 ;
p. 451, 6 ; Greek, p. 451, 6 ;
182, 1 ; w. gdv., 209, 1 a 3,

4, 5 a ; w. inf. i n ps. sense,

211 b .S.
Analogy, 97, f. n. 5 (p. 77) ; of an
stems, p. 78, f. n. 15 ; ofr stems,
99, 1, f. n. 1 ; 139, 6 (pf.);
p. 273, f. n. 3.
Anaphoric use of t 195 B 3 b ;
of et, 195 B 4 b.
Antithetical clause, accentuation
of, p. 468, ^.
Aorist, 1419 ; meaning of, 213 C ;
accent of its moods, p. 460, 12 d.
Apodosis in conditional sentences,
216 (p. 364, ydi 2) ; 218, 1.
Apposition, position of, 191 d ; in
^ descriptive compounds, 188, 1.
Arayakas, 1.
Archaisms i n compounds, 49 ; 50.
Article, nonexistent, 192 ; in
cipient in B., 195 B 3 b.
Articulation, phonetic position of,
29.
concord
of, 3 c ; 194
B 1;
Aspiration,
initial, 40,
centuation
p. 457,
535of,
; of
, 5311a b; a.
of h, 54 ; of
g, d, b, 55; loss of, 62; 62,
f. n. 1 ; thrown back, 62 a ;
134 B 1 b ; thrown forward,
62 b ; loss of initial , 141 a, f. n. 1
(p. 160) ; 143, 6 ; 148, 1 g.
Aspirates, 15, 2 ; 30, 2 ; avoidance
of two, 55, f. n. 1.
Assimilation, 16 ; 29 ; 32 ; 33 ;
34 ; 37 ; 38 ; 40, 1. 3 ; 43, 3 ;
60a.
Attraction of acc. by dat., 200 B 4 ;
of acc. by gen. inf., 211, 3 b a ;
in gender and number, 194, 3.
Attribute (adj. or gen.), position
of, 191 e.
Aufrecht, Prof., 2, f. n. 1 ; p. 33,
f. n. 6 ; p. 38, f. n. 1.
Augment, 15, 1 c,. 23 c; 128;
lengthened, 128 a ; 140, 6 ; 141
a ; 148, 1 d ; sandhi of, 128 b ;
accented, p. 459, 12 a.
Avesta, p. 67, f. n. 4 ; 134, 2 b ;
137, 2 a (f. n. 2) ; p. 436, f. n. 3 ;
p. 438, f. n. 1 ; p. 439, f. n. 3 ;
p. 440, f. m 1 ; p. 441, f. m 5;
p. 442, f. n. 1.
Benedictive (or Precative), 150.

Brahmanas, 1 ; 2 ; 28, f. n. 3 ;
76 b, f. n. 1 ; 79, 3 a, f. n. 3 ;
97 a a,. p. 78, f. n. 9; 107
(p. 102), f. n. 1 ; 113 a ; 22 a a ;
139, 5 ; 139, 9 a ; 149 ; 154, 6 b ;
161, f. n. 6 ; 162, 4, f. n. 1 ;
163, 1, f. n. 1 ; 166, 167 ; 168 ;
172 ; 190 ; 191 ; p. 452, 7.
Break, metrical, p. 440, 4 B. .
Breathing b, 7 a 4 ; 15, 2 i :
29 c ; origin of, 13 ; becomes k
before s, 69 a ; treated like gh
before t, th, dh, 69 b.
Cadence, p. 436 ; p. 438 ; p. 440,
4 B ; trochaic, p. 440, 4 B ;
p. 442, 6 ; p. 443, 8 a.
Caesura, p. 436; p. 440, 4 B ;
double, p. 442, 7 a.
Cardinals, 104--6 ; intermediate
between decades, 104 a ; as
Dvandvas, 186 A 2 f. n. 3 ;
1
a,
b
;
ac
Case-endings, 16 a ; normal, 71 ;
sometimes retained i n com
pounds, 187 a ; 188, 2. 3 ; 189, 2.
Case-forms, adverbial, 178 : nom.,
I ; acc., 2 ; insf., 3 ; dat., 4 ;
abl., 5 ; gen., 6 ; loc., 7.
Cases, 70 c ; strong, 73 ; position
of, 191 c ; synt. use of, 196--205.
Causal sense of inst., 199 A 3 ; of
abl., 201 B.
Causative, 124 ; 168 ; tenses and
moods of, 168 c ; sense of ao
149 ; sf. dropped, 154, 6 a ;
160, 3 ; sf. partly retained in
red. ao 149 a 3 ; ft., 151 ; synt.
use of. 198 A 3.
Cerebral sibilant , 12 o ; i n dee.
and conj., 64 a ; z, 8, f. n. 1 ;
I I c ; 49 c (in cds.).
Cerebralization, of ch, 63 d ; of j ,
63 ; of s, 63 b ; of dentals,
15, 2 k a ; 64 ; 69 c ; of n, 10 c ;
65 ; 66, 2 b ; of n i n cds., 50 c ;
65 a ; 65 b ; of n i n external
Sandhi, 65 c ; of initial d, n i n
cds., 49 c ; of dh, 160, 2,f.n. 1 ;
of s, 50 b ; 67 ; 81 a, f. n. 2 ;
83, 2 b, 2 c ; of s i n vb. eds

67 a ; of s i n nom. cds., 67 b ;
of s i n external sandhi, 67 c ;
of Visarjanya, 43, 1 a ; 43, 2
a ; absence of, 67, f. n. 1, 3, 4 ;
92, f. n. 1.
Cerebrals, 3 b .v ; 29 a ; internal
sandhi of, 64 ; 65 ; 67 ; origin
of, 8 ; pronunciation of, 15, 2 d ;
stems in, 80.
Changeable consonant stems,
8496 ; irregularities of, 96 ;
peculiarities of, 94 ; fem. of, 95.
Cognate accusative, 197, 4.
Collective Dvandvas, 186 A 3.
Comparative Philology, 17, f.n. 2 ;
p. 451, 6.
Comparison, degrees of, 103 ;
implied i n compounds, 188, 1, a ;
189,verbs,
1 a ; 189, 2 a. 200
w.
participles,
accent
rives, Compounded
A
2,
w.
of. p. 462, 13.
Compounds, 1849 ; classification
of, 185 b ; gender of, 185 a ;
verbal, 184 ; doubly accented,
p. 452, 7 ; accentuation of,
p. 454, 10.
Concomitance, expressed by inst.,
199 A.
Concord, 194.
Conditional, 153 ; synt. use of,
218 ; i n rel. clauses, p. 368, 2 ;
in periods, 218, 1 ; w. yd and
op p. 363 ^v 1 ; w. ydi if,
p. 364, 2 ; w. cd if, p. 366, 5.
Conjugation, 12175 ; first, 125 ;
graded, 124 ; paradigms of pr.
system, 132 ; second, 126.
Conjugational classes, 124 ; 125 ;
127 ; irregularities of, 133 ;
134.
Conjugations, two, 124 ; secon
dary, ibid. : accentuation of,
p. 461, 12 e.
Conjunctive particles, 180.
Connecting vowel a 147 ; 149 ;
I. 89a; 136a; 140,5; 157 a, b ;
160, 3; 162, 4. 5; 163, 1. 2 ;
169 ; 1, 140, 6 ; 143, 1.
Consonant, endings w. initial
(bhyam, bhis, bnyas, su), 16 a ;
73 a ; stems, 7596.
Consonants, 614 ; changes of,

32 ; 37 ; classification of, 29 ;
30; doubling of, 51 (ch) ; 52
(, n ) ; final, 27; 28; 3 1 ; 32;
33 ; 76 ; loss of, 15, 2 k ; 28 ;
61 ; 90, 2 ; 96, 3, f. n. 2 ; 101 ;
144 ; 148, 1 d (ao.) ; 160, 2
f. n. 1 ; quality of, 30 ; un
changeable, 60, 1.
Contracted
vowels
restored,
p. 437 a, 6.
Contraction, 83, 2 a a (p. 59) ;
133, 3 a (pr.) ; 137, 2 a (f. n. 1.,
2 c (pf.) ; 149, irr. a 2 (red. ao.) ;
171. 3 (ds.) ; 171, 3 a (ds.) ;
after secondary hiatus, 48 a.
Couplets, p. 446, 11.
Dative, syntactical use of, 200:
AI.
w.
substan
adjectives,
A
3,
w. adverbs, A 4 ; of advantage,
200 B 1, of purpose, B 2, of time,
B3 ; double, 200 B 4 ; adverbial,
200 B 5 ; for gen., 97 a a ; 98 a ;
f. n. 8; 100, I b ^ (p. 88),
f. n. 2 ; 100, I I b a (p. 89^,
f. n. 1.
Dative inf., 167, 1 : i n e a, in
ase b 1, i n aye, b 2, in taye,
b 3, in tave, b 4, in tavai, b 5
b 5 a, in tyai, b 6, in dhyai,
b 7, in mane, b 8, in vane, b 9 ;
synt. use of, 211, 1 ; w. ps.
force, 211, 1 b a (p. 335).
Declension, 70120 : of nouns,
74T02 ; of numerals, 1047 ;
of pronouns, 10920 ; accent in,
p. 457, 11 a.
Demonstrative pronouns, 11012;
synt. use of, 195 B ; concord^
of, 194 B 3.
Denominative, 124 ; 175 ; ao.,
175 B a ; ft., ibid. ; pp. ibid.
Dental : n, sandhi of final, 35 ;
36 ; 39 ; 40 ; 42, 3 a ; 52 ;
66 A 1 ; 66 A 2 ; s changed to
t or d, 9 a ; 66 B 1 ; disappears,
66 B 2 ; inserted, 40, 2.
Dentals, 3 b ^ ; 9 a ; 10 a (n) ;
15, 2 e ; 29 a ; palatalized, 37 a ;
38 ; 40 (n) ; 63 a ; cerebralized,
64 ; stems in, 77.

Derivative verbs, 16875.

Descriptive compounds,
188 ;
accent of, p. 455, 10 d 1.
Desiderative, 124 ; 169 ; 170 ;
171 ; ao., 171 a (p. 201);
pp ibid. ; gd., ibid. ; of cs
168 e (p. 197), f. n. 4.
Determinative compounds, 185 b ;
187 ; dependent, 187, 2 a ; de
scriptive, 187 ; accent of,
p. 455, 10 d.
Devanagar character, 2, f. n. I.
Dialects, 11 c.
Dimeter verse, p. 438, 2.
Dipthongs, 3 a ; 4 b.
Dissimilation, 96, 2 ; 134 C 3 ;
174 a.
Distance, expressed by acc.,
197 A 3.
Dodecasyllabic verse, p. 442, 6.
Doubling of eh, 51 ; of and n ,
52.
Dravidian sounds, 8.
Dual, synt. use of, 193, 2 ; com.
pounds, 186 A 1 : elliptical,
186 B 3 a ; 193, 2 a.
Elision of initial a, 11, 1 a, b, c ;
19 b,f.n. 1 ; 21 a, f. n. 4 and 6.
Emphatic words, synf. position
of, 191 a.
Enclitics, 109 a; 112 a; p. 452,
8 A ; synt. position of, 191 h ;
195 A b.
Endings, i n dec., 71 ; i n conj.,
131 (table) ; ofpf., 136 a.
External sandhi, 1755.
Feminine, formation of, 73, f. n. 1 ;
of changeable stems, 95 ; of u
stems, 98 c (p. 83) ; 10I. I b ;
of tr stems, 101 c ; of sec. epv.
and spv. stems, 103, l e ; of
ordinals, 107 ; special endings
of (in and stems), 100, I b ;
97, 1, f. n. 5 ; suffixes, 183 a.
Final consonants allowable, 27 ;
28 ; 31 ; 61 ; 76.
Final dative, synt. position of,
191 k, a 1.
Frequentative, see Intensive.
Future, simple, 151 ; pt. ps.

gdv 162 ; 209 ; synf. use of,

214 ; of es., 168, 1 e ; peri
phrastic, 152 ; accent of, p. 461,
12 e.
Gender, 70 a ; rules of, 183 ; of
compounds, 185 a ; i n syntax,
194 ; attraction in, 194, 3.
Genitive, synt. use of, 202 : w.
verbs, 202 A, w. substantives, B,
adjectives, C, adverbs, D ; w.
prepositions, 177, 4 ; adverbial,
178, 6 ; 202 C 3 a ; absolute,
205, 2 ; partitive, 202 A d ;
possessive, 202 B 2 a ; objective,
202 B i b ; subjective, 202 B 1 a.
Gerund, 122 c ; 163^6 ; accentua
tion of, p. 464, 15 ; compounded
w. adv., 165 ; w. noun, 165 ;
syntactical use of, 210.
Gerundive, 162 ; synt. use of,
209.
Geal of an action, expressed by
the acc.. 197, 1 ; 198, 3 b ; by the
loc., 204, 1 b, c; 198, 3, f. n. 2.
Governing compounds, 185b; 189;
as substantives, 189, 1 a ; w.
suffixes a orya, 189, 1 b ; accent
of, p. 455, 10 b.
Grammarians, H indu, 5 a.
Gutturals, 3 b a ; 6 ; 7 b ; 15, 2 b ;
29 a ; changed to palatals, 7 b a ;
reversion to, 92 ; 134 A 2 c ;
160, 1 b ; 160, 2 ; 171, 4.
Haplology, 15, 2 b.
Hard (surd, voiceless) sounds,
30, 1 ; 32 ; 33.
Hemistich, 16 ; 18 a ; p. 438,
f. n. 2 ; p. 439 b ; p. 440 C ;
p. 44I. 5 ; p. 443 ; p. 449, 2 a ;
accentuation of, p. 465, f. n. 4.
HendecasyUabic verse, p. 440. 4 B.
Hiatus, 15, If; 16; 21 b ; 22 ;
24; 45; 48; 49; 97, 1, f. n. 11 ;
avoidance of, 16 ; in compounds,
49 ; restored, 18 b ; 19 a, f. n. 4 ;
20 ; 21b; secondary, 22 a ; 48 a
(avoided).
High grade syllables (e o, ar, al),
5 a ; (ya, va, ra), 5 b ; (y, v,
r), 5 b a ; of i and u, 4 b ; 5 a, b.

Historical present, 212, 2.

Hypothetical clauses, 216 (under
yd, p. 363, and ydi, p. 364) ;
218.

Intensive, 124 ; 127, 2, f. n. 1 ;

1724 ; moods of. 174, 24 ; pt.,
174, 5; impf., 174, 6; pf., 174,
6 a ; cs ibid.
Interchange of vowel and semi
vowel, 134 C 3 ; 167, 1 9, f. n. 4 ;
171, 2.
Interjections, 181 ; 184 d.
Interrogative pronoun, 113 ; synt.
position of, 191 k.
Iranian, Old, 11 c, d ; 15, 1 a.
Irregularities, of vowel sandhi,
23 ; of consonant sandhi, 48 ;
49 ; in declension : 91 ; 92 ; 96 ;
98 a ; 99 (i and u stems) ; i n
conjugation : 133, 134 (pr.
stem) ; 156 a 157 b a (pr. pt.
act.) ; 158 a (pr. pt. mid.) ; 139
(pf.) ; 159 a (pf. pt. mid.) ;
144 (s ao.) ; 145 ac (is ao.) ;
147 ac (a ao.) ; 149 a (red. ao.) ;
151 c (ft.) ; 155 a (ps. ao.) ; 168,
p. 197 (es.); 17I. 1 (ds.); 174
(int.).
Iterative. verbs, 168 ; compounds,
185 b ,189 C : accent of, p. 454,
10a.

Imperative, 122 a ; formation of,

122 a a ., endings of, p. 125 ;
root ao., 148, 4 a 5 ; is ao
145, 5 ; sis ao., 146, 5 ; pf.,
140, 4 ; first persons wanting,
121 ; syntactical use of, 215.
Imperfect, inflected, 132 ; ps.,
154 c ; syntactical use of, 213 B.
Indeclinable, words, 17681 ;
synt. position of, 191 fi ; par
ticiple ( gerund), 210.
Indefinite pronouns, 119 b.
IndoEuropean period, p. 451, 6.
IndoIranian, 8 ; 11 c ; p. 442,
f. n. 1 ; period, p. 436, f. n. 3.
Infinitive, 1 ; 122 d; 167 ; accent
of, p. 463, 14 ; characteristics
of, 167 a ; synt. use of, 211 ;
w. ps. force, 211, 1 b a, b.
Initial consonant, loss of. 50 a,
f. n. 5 ; 134 A 2 b ; 171, 6.
Injunctive, 122 a ; 128 c ; forma
tion of, 122 a a ; root ao., 1 48, 2 ;
is ao., 145, 3 ; sis ao., 146, 4 ; Labials, 3 b ^ ; 9 b ; 29 a ; ste1s
s ao., 143, 3 ; a ao 147, 3 ;
in, 78.
pf., 140, 2 ; synt. use of, 215 B. Length by position, p. 437 a 3.
Insertion, of vowels : i , 134 A 3 Lengthening, of vowels, 15, 1 c ;
(pr. stem) ; , 134 A 2 b (impf.),
15, 2 k a ; 143, 1. 3 (s ao.); 155
172 a (int.), 173, 3 (int.), 174 b
(ps. ao.) ; p. 280, f. n. 5 ; of
(int.) ; of consonants : k, 35
reduplicative vowel, 139, 9 (pf.) ;
(in sandhi), t, 36 a, 40, 1 (in
171, 6 (ds.).
Sandhi), n, 66 A 2 (in N. pl. n.), Local sense of instrumental,
105, 4 (G. pl.), p. 100, f. n. 1
199 A 4.
(G. pl.), n or na, 127, 3 (pr.
Locative, sing. i n and u (un
stem), y, 155 (ps. ao.), 168
contractable), 25 b ; inf., 167, 4
irr. 4 (cs), r, 134, 1 c (pr.
(p. 195) ; 211, 4 ; synt. use of,
stem), , 40, 1 a (in Sandhi),
203 ; local sense, 203 A 1. 2
s, 40, 2 (in sandhi), 134 C 4,
temporal sense, A 3, adv. sense,
f. n. 1 (pr. stem), 150 (pre),
A 4 ; w. verbs, 204, 1 ; w. nouns,
, 168, irr. 4 (es.).
204, 2 ; w. adjectives, 204, 2 b ;
Instrumental, synt. use of, 199 :
w. prepositions, 1 76, 2 ; 204, 3 ;
w. verbs, 199 B 1, w. nouns,
205, 1.
B 2, w. numerals, B 2 c, w.
Long vowels pronounced as two ..
prepositions, B 3, 177, 2; adv.
p. 437 a 8.
use of. 178, 3; 199 A 6; ex
Loss of sounds : of initial a 21 a ;
presses means or agent, 199 A 2;
45, 2 b ; 134 A 2 b ; 156 a ; of
p. 309, a, ^.
medial a (see Syncope) ; of

medial u, 134 C 1 ; 134 C 4, f. n.

2 ; of final n, 90 (N. s.) ; 94, 2
(N. s.) ; of radical nasal, 137, 2 d
(pf.) ; 133 A 4 (pr. stem) ; 160, 2
(pp.) ; 165 a (gd.) ; of n i n 3. pl.
ending, p. 125, f. n. 4 ; 156
(pt. act.) ; of visarjanya, 45 ;
48; of s (N. s.), 100, I b (p. 87).
Low grade vowels, 4 a ; 5 b, c, d.
Mgadh dialect, 11 c.
Mantras, 1.
Manuscripts, age of. 2.
Masculine suffixes, 183.
Max Mller, p. 33, f. n. 6 ; p. 38,.
f. m 1.
Metathesis, 11 ca ; 103, 2 a (cpv.) ;
144, 4 (s ao.) ; 167, 2 b (inf.).
Metre, 1 ; 16 ; 18 b ; 19 a ; 20 ;
2 1 ; 22 a; 41 a; 49; 52;
191 ; 194 B 1 ; Appendix I I ,
pp. 43647.
Middle, stem, 72; 73 a, b ; 101, 2,
note; 185a; voice, 121; endings,
131 (p. 126).
Monosyllabic stems, accentuation
of, p. 458, c 1.
Moods, 122 a ; 140, 114 (pf.) ;
171, p. 200 (ds.); synf. use of,
21518.
Multiples, formation of, 104 b.
Multiplicatives, 108 a, c ; w. gen,,
202 D 3.
Mutes, 3 b.
Nasal, loss of, 89 (pf. pt.) ; 133
(pr.) ; 134 D ; 134 E 3 ; 137, 2 d
(pf.) ; 139, 1 ; 140, f. n. 4 ;
144, 3 (s ao.) ; 147 irr. b (a ao.) ;
148, 1 e (rt. ao.) ; 149 (red. ao.) ;
154, 5 (ps.),. 167, 1, f. n. 5
^nf.) ., 160, 2 (pp.) ; 165 a (gd.) ;
171, 1 (ds.) ; 188, 2 a ; insertion
of, 79, 3 a, f. n. 2, 3; pure,
10 f; sonant, 4 a ; 127, 4 a ;
134C4a; 143, 4, f. m 3 ; p. 163,
f. n. 3; p. 185, f. n. 1.
Nasalization, 19 a, f. n. 5 ; 19 b,
f. n. 1 ; 24, f. n. 2 ; 79, 3 a,
f. n. 2 ; 133 C 1.
Nasals, 3 ; 10; 15, 2 f; 29 b;
final, 35 (in sandhi).

Neuter, 73 b (changeable stems) ;

97, 1 a (a stems) ; 98 a ( i and u
stems) ; 101, 2 b (tr stems) ;
suffixes, 183 b ; synI. use of.
194 A 1 ; B 2 b.
Nominal
compounds,
1859 ;
characteristics of, 185.
Nominal stem formation, 1824.
Nominal verb forms, accent of,
pp. 4624.
Nominative, synt. use of, 196 ;
predicative, 196 a ; w. ti =
ace., 196 a ^ ; for voc., 196 c a.
Nouns, declension of, 74102 ;
classification of, 74.
Number, 70 b ; 121 a ; synt. use
of. 193.
Numeral, as first member of poss.
cd., 189, 3 c ; derivatives, 108 ;
adv. w. gen., 202, 3.
Numerals, 1048.
Objective genitive, 202 B i b .
Octosyllabic verse, p. 438, 2.
Opening of a verse, p. 438, 2 ;
p. 440, 4 B.
Optative (Potential), 122 a; forma
tion of, 122 a a ; pf., 140, 3 ;
s ao., 143, 4 ; is ao., 145, 4 ; si
ao., 146; 3; a^ao., 147, 4 ; rt.
ao., 148, 4 ; synt. use of, 216.
Oral tradition, 2.
Order of words, 191.
Ordinals, 107 ; fem. of, ibid.
Palatal, aspirate ch, 7 a 1 ; 13 ;
old sibilant z, 15, 2 k a ; and
ch before s, 63 b ; spirant y
15, 2 g ; sibilant 12 a, inser
tion of, 40, 1 a.
Palatalization of n, 63 c.
Palatals, 3 b ^ ; 29 a ; two series
of, 7 ; new, 7 b ; old, 7 a ; 81 a ;
before gutturals, 63; before s,
63b ; revert to gutturals, 139, 4 ;
140, 6, f. n. 2 ; 148, 1 h, f. n. 8 ;
157 b a ; 157 a, f. n. 2 ; 160, 1 ;
160, 1 b; 171, 4 ; represent
gutturals
i n reduplication,
129, 3 ; nominal stems in, 79.
Participles, 156-62 ; 122 b ; act.,
85 ; 156 ; 157 ; mid. and ps

158-62 ; pr., 85 ; 156 ; pr. mid

158 ; pr. ps 154 c ; pf. act.,
89; 140, 5; 157; pf. mid.,
159; ao. act., 85; 156; a ao
147, 6; ft. act., 85; 151 b 2 ;
156; ft. mid., 158; pp 160;
ft. ps. pt. (gdv.), 162 ; indee.
(gd.), 163; fem. of pr. and ft.,
95 a, b; synf. use of, 206 10 ;
characteristics of. 206 ; durative
sense of pr., 207 a ; pr. = finite
verb, 207 ; w. gen. absolute,
205, 2 ; w. loc absolute, 205, 1 ;
pp. as finite verb, 208 ; pp. used
periphrasticany, 208a, b; mean
ing and construction of ft. ps.,
209 ; construction ofindec., 210.
Partitive genitive, 202 B 2 b.
Passive, 121 ; 154 (par.) ; 155
(ao.) ; pr. stem, 121 ; 154 ; sb.,
154 b ; cs. stem, 154, 6 a ; past
pt. finite vb., 208 ; w. as and
bhu --- periphrastic mood or
tense, 208 a, b.
Past tenses, meaning and synt.
use of, 213.
Pentasyllable verse, p. 442, 8.
Perfect, 135-40 ; endings of, 136 ;
paradigms of, 138 ; irregularities
of. 139 ; moods of, 140 ; synt.
use of, 213 A ; act. pt. unre
al u plicated, 157 b ; pf. mid.,
159 ; pt. ps., 160 : formed w.
both ta and na 160, 1 a ; ac
centuation of, App. I I I , 12 c.
Periphrastic forms : ft., 152,
forerunners of, 152, f. n. I.
sense of, 214 B ; pf., 139, 9 a.
Personal pronouns, 109 ; limited
use of, 195 A.
Phoneticians, native, p. 448, 1.
Pluperfect, 140, 6 ; meaning of.
213 D.
Plural, elliptical use of, 193, 3 a ;
loose use of. 193, 3 b ; Dvandvas,
186 A 1.
Possessive, compounds, 185 b ;
189 ; gen., 202 B 2 a.
Potential, see Optative.
Prtikhyas, 11 ; 15, 1 a, b, d ;
15, 2 ; 15, 2 e g, i, j ; 42, 2,
f. n. 2 ; 51 ; p. 465, f. n. 1.

Precative (Benedictive), 150 ; pf.,

140,^- 3 a ; rt. ao 148, 4 a ;
synt. use of, 217.
Predicative adjective, concord of,
194 B 2 ; noun, synt. position
of, 191 b.
Prepositions, 176 ; adverbial,
176, 1 ; adnominal, 177 ; com
pounded w. roots, 184, 2 ; syn
tactical position of, 191f; synt.
accentuation of, App. I I I , 20.
Present, system, 123--34 ; tense,
synt. use of, 212 A ; stems,
plurality of, 212; forff., 212A3;
pt. = finite vb., 207, expressing
duration, 207 a ; accentuation
of, p. 459, 12 b; p. 458 c (pr. pt.).
Primary endings, 131 ; nom. suf
fixes, 182, 1 ; 182, 1 b : accentua
tion of, p. 453, 9 A.
Principal clause, verb unaccented
in, App. I I I , 19 A.
Pronominal adjectives, 105, 1 ;
107, f.n. 4 ; 120 ; declension :
109-20 ; its influence on nominal forms, 97, f. n. 1, 2
(p. 77) ; 120.
Pronouns, 109-20 ; personal, 109 ;
demonstrative, 110--12 ; inter
rogative, 113 ; relative, 114 ;
reflexive, 115 ; possessive, 116 ;
compound and derivative, 117
18 ; indefinite, 119 ; syntactical
use of, 195.
pronunciation,
ancient,
15 ;
Greek, of sanskrit words, ibid. ;
of vowels, 15, 1 a ; of diph
thongs, 15, 1 b ; of consonants,
15, 2 ; of I. 15, 2 g.
Proper names, 189, 3 a ; 189 A 2 ;
193, 2 a, 3 a; 200 A 2 ^.
Prosodical rule, 18 b f. n. 1 ; 25a.
Prosody, rules of. p. 437 a.
Protasis, 216 (w. yd, p. 363, and
ydi, p. 364) ; 218, 1.
Purpose, expressed by dative,
200 B 2.
Radical vowel lengthened, 143, 1 ;
145, 1 ; 155 ; 171, 6 ; shortened,
119; 171, 6; 174.

Reason, expressed by inst., I

of palatals before consonants,
199 A 3 ; by abl 201 B.
63 ; of dentals after cerebrals,
Reduplicated root as nom. stem,
64 ; 65 ; of dental n before y,
182, 1 a.
v, s, 66, 1. 2 ; of dental s, 66 B ;
Reduplication, general rules of,
67 ; of m before y, r, 1, v, 68 ;
129, 116 ; special rules of, 130
of h before s t, t h , dh, 69;
(pr.) ; 135, 14 (pf.) ; 149 a, b
3. i n compounds: 4950; 185
(ao.); 170 (ds.) ; 173 (int.);
(p. 268) ; archaisms in, 49a,b,c,d.
w. an, 139, 6 (pf.) ; w. repeated
Sanskrit, Classical, 1.
nasal, 173, 3 (int.) ; w. inserted
Samhit text, 2 ; 15, l a ; 16.
nasal, 174 a (int.) ; of vowel i n
sahits, 1 ; 2.
second syllable, 149, irr. 3 ; Schroeder, Prof. L. v p. 450,
171, 6 a ; dropped, 139, 3 (pf.) ;
f. n. 3.
157 b (pf. pt.) ; 171, 6 (ds.).
second Aorist, 1479.
Relatives, synt. position of, 191 k. Secondary, endings, 131 ; nom.
Restoration of elided a, 21 a, f. n.
suffixes, 182, 2 ; accentuation
5, 6.
of, p. 453, 9 B ; shortening of
Rhotacism, l l c, d.
, , 5 e.
Rhythm, quantitative, p. 436, 1 ; semivowel r, originally cerebral,
iambic, p. 436; p. 438 ; p. 440,
15, 2 y.
4^.
Semivowels, 3 c ; 11 ; 15, 2 g ;
Rhythmic, rule, 136 a,f.n. 3 (pf.);
17 B 1 ; 20 ; 29 c ,. pronounced
139, 9, f. m 2 (pf.) ; 149 (red.
as vowels, p. 437 a 5.
ao.) ; tendency, 50 d.
Sentence, 16 ; 190 ; accent,
Rigveda, 1 ; 2.
p. 464, 18.
Root, as nom. stem, 182. 1 a ; ao
Sibilants, 3d; 7 a 2 ; 12 ; 15, 2 h ;
148.
29 d ; assimilation of 12, a, b ;
Roots, two or more used i n in
loss of, 15, 2 k ; 66 B 2 ; traces
flexion of same vb., 212 ; secon
of soft, 7 a 3; 8; 15, 2 h ;
dary, 134 C 4 a.
15, 2 k ; 15, 2 k a ; 29 d.
Singular number, strict use of,
SandhI, 1669; accentin,p. 464,17 ;
193, 1.
nature of, 16 ; 1. external, 16
Sociative sense of inst., 199 A 1.
55 : of vowels, 18 ; 19 ; 20 ; of
Soft (sonant, voiced) sounds,
diphthongs, 21 ; 22 ; irr. vowel,
30, 1.
23 ; absence of vowel, 246 ; of
Space, extension of, expressed by
consonants, 2755 ; of final k,
acc., 197, 3.
, t, p before n or m, 33 ; of
spelling, misleading, p. 437, a 9.
final t before 1, 34, before pala
Spirants, 3 g ; 14 ; 15 ; 29 e.
tals, 38 ; of final nasals, 35 ; of
Stanzas, p. 437 ; simple, pp. 438
final dental n, 36 ; 39 ; 40 ; of
43 ; mixed, pp. 4435 ; irr.
final m, 41 ; 42 ; 42, 3 a and
mixed, p. 445, 10 b a, ^ ; strophic,
f. n. 5 (ambiguous) ; of final
pp. 4467.
Visarjanya, 43 ; 43, 2 a and
Stem formation, nominal, 182.
3 ; 44 ; of the final syllable
Stems, classification of nominal,
ah, 45, 2 ; 46 ; 48 ; of the
74 ; ending in consonants, 74
final syllable , 45, 1 ; 46 ; of
96 ; unchangeable stems, 75
final r, 46 ; 47 ; 2. internal :
183 ; nouns with two, 858 ;
5669 ; of vowels, 57 ; 58 ; of r,
nouns with three, 8993 ;
58; 154, 3; of , 58 ; 154, 4 ;
ending i n vowels, 97102 ;
of diphthongs, 59 ; of conso |
accentuation
of
nominal,
nants, 60 ; 61 ; of aspirates, 62 ; |
p. 453, 9.

Strong stem, i n declension, 72 .,

73 ; 97, 2 a ; in conjugation,
124 ; 126 (pr.); 134 (pr.) ; 136
(pf.) ; 143 (s ao.) ; 145 (is ao.) ;
148, 1 (rt. ao.) ; i n weak forms,
134 B 3 a ; 134 C 4 ^ ; 148, 5.
strophe, p. 437.
Subject, synt. position of, 191 a ;
exceptional position of, 191 k a 2.
subjective genitive, 202 B 1 a.
Subjunctive, 1 ; 122 a ; formation
of, 122 a a ; 140, 1 (pf.) ; 143, 2
(s ao.) ; 145, 2 (is ao.) ; 146 (sis
ao.) ; 147, 2 (a ao.) ; 148, 2 (rf.
ao.) ; synt. use of, 215 C.
Subordinate clause, verb accented
in, App. I I I . 19 B.
Substantives compounded w. gd
164, 1 a ; 184 c ; w. participle,
184 c.
Suffixes, primary, 182, 1 ; secon
dary, 182, 2 ; 16 a ; s and t of
2. 3. s. irregularly retained,
28 a a (cp. f. n. 3).
Superlative suffix in tama, 103, 1 ;
in istna, 103, 2.
Sutras. 1 ; 97 aa; 166.
Syncope, 78, 3 a ; 90, 1. 2. 3 (an
stems) ;T33, 3a(pr.) ; 134 A 2 c
(pr.) ; 134 B 3 (pr.) ; 137, 2 b
(PI.) ; 139, 2 (pf.) ; 148, 1 e, g
(rt. ao.) ; 149, irr. a 2 (red. ao.) ;
156 a (pr. pf.) ; 157 a, f. n. 1
( p f . p t . ) ; 160, 2 a (pp.); 171,3
(ds.) ; p. 458, 2.
syntactical compounds, 185 b ;
189 B.
Syntax, 1 ; 190218; charac
teristics of vedic, 190.
Temporal sense of acc., 197 A 2 ;
of inst 199 A 5; of dat.,
200 B 3 ; of gem, 202 D 3 a ; of
loc, 203, 3.
Tenses, 122 ; synt. use of, 21214.
Terminations, see Endings.
I'han expressed by abf., 201 A 3.
Time, acc. of, 197, 2 ; inst.
of, 199 A 5 ; dat. of, 200 B 3 ;
^en. of, 202 D 3 a; loc. of,
203, 3.

Tmesis of compounds, 185 (p. 267,

f. m 1) ; 186 A 1.
Transfer stems, i n pr. system,
130 a, f. m 4 ; 134 C 4 ^ ;
134 E 4 a ; in ppf., 140, 6 ; in
ao 147 a, b.
Triplets, p. 446, 11.
Unaccented pronouns, 109 a ;
112 a ; 195 b ; synt. position of,
191 h ; 195 b.
Unaspirated consonants, 30, 2.
Unaugmented forms, 128 c.
Unchangeable consonant stems,
7583.
Un reduplicated pf. forms, 139, 3 ;
139, 3 a; 157 b.
Upaniads, 1.
vedas, 1 ; 2.
vedic language, 1 ; sounds of, 3.
velars, 3 ba; 6; 7 b; 15, 2 b.
verb, concord of the, 194 A 1 ;
synt. position of. 191 a ; w. two
s. subjects, 194 A 2 a ; w. more
than two, 194 A 2 b ; w. subjects
of different numbers, 194 A 3 ;
w. subjects of different persons,
194 A 3 ; synt. accent of.
p. 466, 19 ; loses accent, p. 452,
8 B b.
verbal compounds, 65 a ; 184.
verbs governing two acc., 198 ;
insf., 199 B 1 ; dat., 200 A 1 ;
abf., 201 A 1 ; gen., 202 A ; loc.,
204, 1.
vocative, 71 a ; 72 a ; 76 a ; 94, 3 ;
98 b ; for predicative nom
196 c ; accent of, p. 457, 11 a ;
p. 465, 18 ; loses accent, p. 452,
8 B a; compound, p. 466,
f. n. 3, 4.
voices of the verb, 121.
vowel shortened before vowel,
p. 437, a 4.
vowel declension, 97102 : stems
in a, , 97 ; in i , u 98 ; irr.
i , u stems, 99 ; in , u, 100 ; in
r, 101 ; in ai, o, au, 102.
vowels, 3 a ; 4 a ; classification
of, 17 ; changed to semivowels,

20 ; coalescence of, 18 ,. 19 ;
contraction avoided, 19 a,
f. n. 2 ; 24 ; 25 ; 26 ; gradation
of, 5 ; loss of, 15, 1 e ; 127, 4
f. n. 3; 134 A 2 b; 134 C 1 ;
145 a ; long by position before
oh, 51 ; lengthened, 47 ; 69 c
(cp. f. n. 4) ; 78, 1 a ; 78, 2 a ;
82 (I. u) ; 83, 2 (N. pl. n.) ;
83, 2 a (N. s. m. f.) ; 85 a(mahat) ;
86 (mat, vat stems) ; 87 ( i n
stems) ; 90 (an stems) ; 92
(han) ; 94, 1 (N. s.) ; 96, 1. 2 ;
131 (p. 125), f. n. 1 ; 133 B 3 ;
144, 3 ; 145, 1 ; 145, 5 a ; 149 ;
151 c; 154, 2 (ps.) ; 155 (ps.
ao.) ; 160, 2 c (pp.) ; 162, 1 e
(gdv.); 169, 1 (ds.); 171, 1
(ds.) ; 173, 2 a (inf.) ; 175 A 1
(den.) ; lengthened i n com-

pounds, 49 e; 50 d ; shortened,
89 (pf. pt.) ; 94, 3 (voc.) ; 129, 6
(red.) ; 133 B 1 (pr.) ; 149 (red.
ao.) ; 174 (inf.) ; 187 a a (p. 273) ;
shortened i n compounds, 50 e ;
shortened before other vowels,
18 b; 18 bf.n. 1 ; 19a, f. n. 5 ;
20, f. n. 2 ; 26 b; 100, I a
(p. 86^ f. n. 2 ; nasalized, 15,
2f; 19 a, f. m 5; 19 b,f.n, 1 ;
terminations beginning w 76 ;
stems in, 97-102.
Weak stem, i n dec, 72; 84; i n
conj., 134 A 2 (pr.) ; 137, 1 (pf. ) ;
160, 2 (pp.) ; i n first member
of compounds, 185 a.
Weakest stem, 72 ; 73 b.
Weber, Prof. A., 2, f. n. 1.
Writing, introduction of, 2.