WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1................................................................................................................. 6
1.1 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................7
CHAPTER 2............................................................................................................... 11

CHAPTER 1

2. OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY....................................................12

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2.1 OBJECTIVES..................................................................................12
2.2 SCOPE.........................................................................................13
2.2.1 WOMEN'S RIGHTS AND SECURITY IN INDIA..................................13
Womens Rights:................................................................................................ 13
Womens Security:.............................................................................................. 14
Trafficking of Women and Girls:..........................................................................16
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2.2.2 WOMEN'S ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES IN INDIA...........................16

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Womens Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights:................................................18

2.2.3 WOMEN IN POLITICS IN INDIA.....................................................18

Historical Context:.............................................................................................. 18
Reservation at the Panchayat Level:..................................................................19
Caste and Class Politics:..................................................................................... 19
33% Reservation for Women:............................................................................. 20
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2.3 METHODOLOGY............................................................................21

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT THROUGH SELF HELP GROUPS IN ANDHRA PRADESH 21

KEY OUTCOMES.................................................................................25
Child Marriage, Trafficking of Women and Children:...........................................25
Child Labor:........................................................................................................ 25
Exploitative Social Practices:.............................................................................. 25
Gender Violence:................................................................................................ 26
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Food Security:..................................................................................................... 26

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Health Insurance for the Poor:............................................................................26

Disabled Persons:............................................................................................... 26
Land Access for Tribals and the Poor:.................................................................26
Improved Farming Practices:.............................................................................. 26
Economic Empowerment:...................................................................................27
Political Empowerment:...................................................................................... 27
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2.1.4 NEED OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT..............................................27

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Chapter 3.................................................................................................................. 28

3. ORGANIZATION PROFILE.................................................................29
DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY(DRDA)..................................29
3.1 OBJECTIVE:................................................................................................... 29
3.2 PURPOSE:..................................................................................................... 29
3.3 MISSION/VISION STATEMENT OF

DRDA...............................................30

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3.4 BRIEF HISTORY OF DRDA.............................................................................. 31

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3.5 DUTIES OF DRDA :.................................................................................... 31

3.6 MAIN ACTIVITIES / FUNCTIONS OF DRDA.............................................33
3.7 LIST OF SERVICES BEING PROVIDED BY DRDA....................................34
Swarnjayanti Gram

Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY).................................35

Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY).......................................35

Housing Schemes :-............................................................................................ 35
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Total Sanitation Campaign Programme (TSCP)...................................................36

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Member of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme (Lok Sabha/ Rajya Sabha) MPLAD (LS/RS..................................................................................................... 36
Integrated Rural Energy Programme (IREP)............................................36
ORGANIZATIONAL DESCRIPTION..........................................................37
The staff positions of the DRDA at district level.................................................37
CHAPTER 4............................................................................................................... 39

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4. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION.............................................40

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4.1 Gender Differences in Education...................................................41

4.2 Gender Differentials in Adult Literacy............................................43
4.3 Employment.................................................................................44
Womens and Mens Employment Status...........................................................44
4.4 Married women and decision making.............................................46

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4.5 Spousal violence..........................................................................48

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4.6 Gender, Womens Empowerment, And Selected Health, Nutrition, And

Demographic Outcomes.....................................................................49
4.7 DRDA(stats).................................................................................50
Schemes implementing......................................................................50
4.8 Self Help Groups..........................................................................52
SHG-BANK LINKAGES (UNDER NABARD REFINANCES SCHEME).........................52

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4.9 Swayamsidha Scheme..................................................................53

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4.10 Measures for Womens Empowerment.........................................57

The Constitution of India - Provisions Relating to Women..................................57
Advancement of Women through Five Year Plans.............................................57
CHAPTER 5............................................................................................................... 59
5. FINDINGS AND SUGESSIONS...........................................................60
5.1 WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN INDIA MILESTONES & CHALLENGES...............60
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5.1.1 GDI: Inter State Comparison.....................................................................63

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5.1.2 Beijing conference 1995 indicators of women empowerment, qualitative &

quantitative Qualitative:.................................................................................... 63
5.1.3 Education:................................................................................................. 65
5.1.4 Health:...................................................................................................... 66
5.1.5 Political Participation:................................................................................ 67
5.1.6 Decision-Making:....................................................................................... 71

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5.1.7 Self Help Groups:...................................................................................... 72

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5.1.8 Violence:................................................................................................... 73
5.1.9 Women and Work:..................................................................................... 74
5.1.10 Women and Reforms:.............................................................................. 74
5.1.11 Ownership of Land:................................................................................. 75
5.1.12 State Initiatives:...................................................................................... 76

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5.1.13 National Institute of Public Finance & Policy Gender Analysis of the Budget
........................................................................................................................... 77

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5.2 International Policies and Indias Constitutional Provisions, Policies and

Programmes for Women.....................................................................78
5.2.1 UN Human Rights Instruments.................................................................78
5.2.2 Commitments at UN Conferences........................................................................79
5.2.3 Constitution of India Guarantees..........................................................................79
5.3 SCHEMES FOR ASSISTANCE...........................................................81

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5.3.1 Ministry of Women and Child Development..............................................81

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5.3.2 Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB.........................................................82

Other Schemes.................................................................................................. 82
5.3.3 Ministry of Human Resource Development, Department of Education......82
5.3.4 Ministry of Rural Development.................................................................83
5.3.5 Ministry of Urban Development................................................................84
5.3.6 Ministry of Textiles.................................................................................... 84
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5.3.7 Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation....................................84

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5.3.8 Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment............................................84

5.3.9 Ministry of Tribal Affairs............................................................................85
5.3.10 Ministry of Science and Technology........................................................85
5.3.11 Ministry of Health and Family Welfare....................................................86
5.3.12 Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation..................................................86
5.3.13 Ministry of Labour & Employment...........................................................86
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5.3.14 Ministry of Minority Affairs......................................................................87

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5.3.15 Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution, Department of Food
and Public Distribution....................................................................................... 87
5.3.16 Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises...................................88
5.3.17 Ministry of Law and Justice.....................................................................88
5.3.18 Policy Documents....................................................................................88

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5.3.19 International Documents........................................................................89

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5.4 The Objectives of the National Policy for Empowerment of Women include
.........................................................................................................89
5.5 Critical Areas of Concern..............................................................90
A. Women and Poverty...................................................................................... 90
B. Education and Training of Women.................................................................90
C. Women and Health........................................................................................ 91

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D. Violence against Women............................................................................... 91

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E. Women and Armed Conflict...........................................................................91

F. Women and Economy................................................................................... 91
G. Women in Power and Decision-making.........................................................92
H. Institutional Mechanisms for the Advancement of Women...........................92
I.

Human Rights of Women............................................................................. 92

J.

Women and the Media..................................................................................92

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K. Women and the Environment.........................................................................92

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L. Womens Empowerment................................................................................ 93

5.6 Programmes for Women...............................................................93

5.6.1 Working Womens Hostels.........................................................................94
5.6.2 Legislative Reforms................................................................................... 94
5.6.3 Status of Major International Human Rights Instruments.........................94
Conclusion.........................................................................................95
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Bibliography......................................................................................96

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1- Organizational Description(The staff positions of the DRDA at District level)..37
Table 2- Field office(One for cluster of 5-7 Mandals).38

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Table 3- Women and Men Employment status 45

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Table 4- Self help groups52

Table 5- SHG-Bank linkages(under NABARD refinances scheme)52
Table 6- Swayamsidha Scheme all over India..53
Table 7- Some indicators depicting the progress in the situation of Indian women...55
Table 8- perspectives on Advancement of Women through Five Year Plans....58

CHAPTER 1

LIST OF CHARTS

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Chart 1- Trends in the sex ratio(females per 1,000 males) age 0-6 years, india.40

Chart 2- Percentage of boys and girls attending school in the 2005-06 year..42
Chart 3- Percentage literate among women and men age 15-49 by age..43

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Chart 4- percentage of married women and men age 15-49 employed for cash....47

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CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
Womens empowerment in India is heavily dependent on many different variables that include geographical
location (urban/rural), educational status, social status (caste and class), and age. Policies on womens
empowerment exist at the national, state, and local (Panchayat) levels in many sectors, including health,

CHAPTER 1

education, economic opportunities, gender-based violence, and political participation. However, there are

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significant gaps between policy advancements and actual practice at the community level.

One key factor for the gap in implementation of laws and policies to address discrimination,
economic disadvantages, and violence against women at the community level is the largely patriarchal
structure that governs the community and households in much of India. As such, women and girls have
restricted mobility, access to education, access to health facilities, and lower decision-making power, and
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experience higher rates of violence. Political participation is also hindered at the Panchayat (local governing

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bodies) level and at the state and national levels, despite existing reservations for women.

The impact of the patriarchal structure can be seen in rural and urban India, although womens
empowerment in rural India is much less visible than in urban areas. This is of particular concern, since
much of India is rural despite the high rate of urbanization and expansion of cities. Rural women, as
opposed to women in urban settings, face inequality at much higher rates, and in all spheres of life. Urban
CHAPTER 1

women and, in particular, urban educated women enjoy relatively higher access to economic opportunities,

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health and education, and experience less domestic violence. Women (both urban and rural) who have some
level of education have higher decision-making power in the household and the community. Furthermore,
the level of womens education also has a direct implication on maternal mortality rates, and nutrition and
health indicators among children.

Among rural women, there are further divisions that hinder womens empowerment. The most notable

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ones are education levels and caste and class divisions. Women from lower castes (the scheduled castes,

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other backward castes, and tribal communities) are particularly vulnerable to maternal mortality and infant

mortality. They are often unable to access health and educational services, lack decision-making power, and
face higher levels of violence. Among women of lower caste and class, some level of education has shown
to have a positive impact on womens empowerment indicators.
Social divisions among urban women also have a similar impact on empowerment indicators.
CHAPTER 1

Upper class and educated women have better access to health, education, and economic opportunities,

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whereas lower class, less educated women in urban settings enjoy these rights significantly less. Due to
rapid urbanization and lack of economic opportunities in other parts of the country, cities also house

sprawling slum areas. Slums are informal sprawls, and most times lack basic services such as clean water,
sanitation, and health facilities. Additionally, slum dwellers mostly work in unorganized and informal
sectors, making them vulnerable to raids by the state, abuse by employers, and other forms of insecurity.
Women and children in slums are among the most vulnerable to violence and abuse, and are deprived of
CHAPTER 1

their basic human rights.

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As a result of a vibrant womens movement in the last 50 years, policies to advance human rights
for women in India are substantial and forward-thinking, such as the Domestic Violence Act (2005), and the
73rd and 74th Amendments to the Constitution that provide reservations for women to enter politics at the
Panchayat level. There are multiple national and state level governmental and non-governmental
mechanisms such as the Womens Commission to advance these policies, and the implementation of these
CHAPTER 1

policies is decentralized to state and district-level authorities and organizations that include local non-

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governmental organizations.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

The policy/practice gap in India cuts across all sectors and initiatives as a result of rampant
corruption and lack of good governance practices. State-level governments claim a lack of resources, and
the resources they do receive are highly susceptible to corruption. Financial corruption hinders the
governments ability to invest in social capital, including initiatives to advance womens empowerment.
CHAPTER 1

Since the 1990s India has put in place processes and legislative acts such as the Right to Information Act

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(2005) for information disclosure to increase transparency and hold government officials accountable.

Mistrust of political institutions and leaders remains high in the society with corruption and graft allegations
often covering media headlines.
In addition to corruption and inadequate resources for implementation of initiatives at the community
level, womens empowerment in India is negatively impacted by the pervasive discrimination of women in
CHAPTER 1

the family and the community. Discrimination against women in most parts of India (particularly the north)

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emerges from the social and religious construct of womens role and their status. As such, in many parts of

India, women are considered to be less than men, occupying a lower status in the family and community,
which consequentially restricts equal opportunity in women and girls access to education, economic
possibilities, and mobility.
Discrimination also limits womens choices and freedom. These choices are further dependent on

CHAPTER 1

structural factors like caste and class.

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Empowerment for women in India requires a crosscutting approach and one which addresses the
diversity of social structures that govern womens lives. Identity politics in India is a very critical political
instrument, which is both used and abused throughout political and social institutions. There are numerous
social movements fighting for the rights of the marginalized, such as the Dalit rights movement, the tribal
rights movement, etc. These movements have achieved many gains in assuring representation of the
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traditionally marginalized communities into mainstream society. Womens rights within these movements

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are largely unarticulated and thus reinforce inequalities within the very structures from which they are

demanding inclusion. Empowerment approaches for women therefore is not only about providing services,
but also about recognizing their lived realities of multiple layers of discrimination that hinder their access to
services.
Similarly, access to education for girls in some of the northern states like Uttar Pradesh and Punjab
CHAPTER 1

does not only rely on proximity of schools. Access to education is part of a larger structural concern,

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including the practice of son preference, which creates inherent discriminatory practices. Education
initiatives therefore cannot rely solely on building educational infrastructure, but also need to address some
of the root causes of discrimination against women and girls which affect the decisions made by parents.

Womens security, decision-making power, and mobility are three indicators for womens
empowerment. In India, and more so for rural and less educated women, these three indicators are
CHAPTER 1

significantly low. Data from the NFHS-3 survey on womens decision-making power shows that only about

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one third of the women interviewed took decisions on their own regarding household issues and their
health. Decision-making power among employed urban women was higher than among rural and less
educated women. The survey also found that older married women had more decision-making power than
the younger married women. Younger women and girls experience an additional layer of discrimination as a
result of their age.

CHAPTER 1

Data on womens mobility in India indicates the lack of choices women have, and that urban and

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educated women have more mobility choices than rural women. The data shows that about half the women
interviewed had the freedom to go to the market or a health facility alone. Seventy-nine percent of urban
women from the highest education brackets and only about 40 percent of rural women without education
were allowed to go to the market alone.
Mobility restrictions for women are dependent upon how the family and community view
CHAPTER 1

womens rights. They also, however, are intrinsically dependent on the prevailing levels of violence against

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women in the household and the community. Abuse and violence towards women is predominantly
perpetrated within the household, and marital violence is among the most accepted by both men and
women. Wife beating, slapping, rape, dowry related deaths, feudal violence towards tribal and lower caste
women, trafficking, sexual abuse, and street violence permeate the Indian social fabric, and create one of
the most serious obstacles in achieving womens empowerment.

CHAPTER 1

The gap in policy and practice in womens empowerment is most visible when it comes to the level

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and kinds of violence women face in India. Despite the policies, laws 6, and initiatives by civil society
institutions, violence against women in India is widespread and the consequences for perpetrators rarely
match the crime. Enforcement of laws and sentencing of perpetrators are long and arduous processes, and
the gaps in these processes are further widened by corruption.
Another gap in implementing laws and policies on violence against women is the inaccessibility of
CHAPTER 1

information on victims' rights among rural and less educated women. Additionally, social stigma and the

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fear of abandonment by the family play a big role in women and girls ability or inability to access laws and

CHAPTER 1

policies to address sexual and physical violence.

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CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 2

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CHAPTER 1

OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY

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2. OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY
2.1 OBJECTIVES
The principle of gender equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its Preamble,

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Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles. The Constitution not only grants

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equality to women, but also empowers the State to adopt measures of positive discrimination in favour of
women.

The goal is to bring about the advancement, development and empowerment of women. Specifically, the

CHAPTER 1

objectives include..

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Creating an environment through positive economic and social policies for full development of
women to enable them to realize their full potential.

The de-jure and de-facto enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedom by women on

CHAPTER 1

equal basis with men in all spheres political, economic, social, cultural and civil

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Equal access to participation and decision making of women in social, political and economic life of
the nation

Equal access to women to health care, quality education at all levels, career and vocational
guidance, employment, equal remuneration, occupational health and safety, social security and

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public office etc.

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Strengthening legal systems aimed at elimination of all forms of discrimination against women

Changing societal attitudes and community practices by active participation and involvement of
both men and women.
Mainstreaming a gender perspective in the development process.

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Elimination of discrimination and all forms of violence against women and the girl child; and

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Building and strengthening partnerships with civil society, particularly womens organizations.

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2.2 SCOPE
Mainstreaming the gender perspective is essential to achieve parity between men and women
where mainstreaming is a process of assessing the implications for women and men in respect of any

CHAPTER 1

planned action in all areas and at all levels.

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2.2.1 WOMEN'S RIGHTS AND SECURITY IN INDIA

Womens Rights:

Policies relating to women's rights have had a positive trajectory in the past few decades with the
central government articulating many progressive measures to advance gender equality in social, economic,
and political arenas. The Government of India (GoI) has two main bodies to advance gender equality: the
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Ministry of Women and Child Development and the National Commission for Women, which is an

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autonomous organization under the Ministry of Women and Child Development. 7 Both bodies work on
national- and state-level legal and social policies to advance gender equality. The Ministry has widely
implemented local-level micro-finance schemes to advance economic opportunities for rural women. The
National Commission for Women has been instrumental in creating legislative changes, and has set up
Complaint and Investigate Cells at the state level. The Grievance Cells receive complaints of gender-based
violence and are mandated to investigate, provide referrals and counseling, and ultimately report on such
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cases.

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With a vibrant womens rights movement in India, there are continuous demands for better laws,
provisions, and accountability for implementation. Most recent examples include the change in Indias rape
laws, where in 2006 marital rape was recognized. Currently, womens rights activists are demanding better
provisions in Sections 375 and 376 of the Indian Penal Code. Since then, there have been multiple
challenges by the womens movement leading to small but significant amendments. The 2005 Domestic
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Violence Act provides protection from violence in the household from not only male perpetrators, but also

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female perpetrators like mothers-in-law and other female members in extended families.

There also have been gains in women's inheritance rights, yet challenges remain in implementation.
Social biases and lack of enforcement continue to hinder the full realization of Indian inheritance laws.
Inheritance laws and property distribution fall under the Hindu and Muslim personal laws, both of which
exempt agricultural land. For a country with a predominantly agro-based economy, womens inability to
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inherit agricultural land exacerbates feminization of poverty and neglects womens welfare.

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Like all other spheres of social change in India, there is an undeniable gap between policy and
practice. More notably, the deeply entrenched social hierarchies based on class, caste, ethnic, and communal
divisions leave many communities on the margins with little knowledge of their rights and even less
protection from local, state, and national governmental policies.
Inequality between men and women runs across the board, including in education, economic opportunities,
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representation in governance, and other state and private institutions. Additionally, women in India face

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high rates of violence. Some recent statistics on women include:

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India ranks 18th among the highest maternal mortality rates in the world with 540 deaths for every

1.

100,000 births
2. Only 48% of adult Indian women are literate
3. Among rural women, 36.1% have experienced physical violence in their adult lives
66% of women who have experienced physical violence in their lifetimes are divorced, widowed, or
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4.

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deserted
5.

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Lower caste and tribal women are among those who experience the highest levels of physical
violence

6.

85.3% of women reporting violence claimed that their current husbands were the perpetrators

7.

According to the most recent Demographic and Health Survey analysis, only 43% of currently

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married women (between ages 15-49) are employed as compared to 99% of men.

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Womens Security:

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The multiple forms of violence experienced in the household, at the community level, and in some
instances by the state, threaten womens security in India. In many parts of North India son preference is a
widely practiced phenomenon. Son preference has direct linkages to sex-selective abortion (illegal across
India; however, enforcement by both police and some doctors is still lacking), and discrimination of girl
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children in access to health, nutrition, and education. Research conducted by the International Centre for

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Research on Women (ICRW) found that, although not universal, particularly in households where there is
more than one daughter there are significant differences in nutrition and health levels between male and
female children.

Additionally, at the household level, incest, rape and domestic violence continue to hinder womens
development across India. Forty percent of all sexual abuse cases in India are incest, and 94% of the incest
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cases had a known member of the household as the perpetrator.

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Dowry related deaths, domestic violence, gang rape of lower caste women by upper caste men, and
physical violence by the police towards tribal women all contribute to womens insecurity in India. The
class and caste structure inadvertently put poor women from lower class and tribal communities at the most
risk of violence. Class and caste divisions also create grave challenges to poor, lower caste, and tribal
women in accessing justice and retribution as victims and survivors of violence.
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Women and girls in urban India are also at high risk of gender-based violence. In Delhi, the

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countrys capital, a scan of daily newspapers reveals shocking numbers of cases of violence against women.
The National Crime Bureau claims that a woman is raped every 29 minutes in Delhi. Street violence in

urban centers is a growing concern for young women and girls, who are increasingly moving away from
rural areas for economic opportunities and higher education. Particularly women and girls from the
northeast region of India living in urban centers such as Delhi have reported experiencing social
discrimination and marginalization, and many times physical violence. In 2005, according to the North East
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Support Centre, among the 100,000 people from the northeast living in Delhi 86% had reported racial

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discrimination and 41% of cases were sexual abuse cases.

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The northeast states of India are a volatile region, with a number of active insurgencies. The GoI has
continuously deployed state troops to fight the insurgents, who predominantly follow the Maoist ideology.
This region, because of its physical and cultural proximity to Myanmar, China, and Bhutan, has for the most
part been ignored by the central government, thereby fuelling the insurgents' demand for development and
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autonomy. In the northeast (as in most conflict-ridden regions) women bear the brunt of war from both

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sides. There have been numerous instances of violence perpetrated by state security forces against local and
tribal women.
Trafficking of Women and Girls:

India is both a source and destination for trafficked women and girls into prostitution and bonded

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labour. While exact numbers of trafficked women and girls are difficult to ascertain, there have been figures

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projected by various national and international NGOs. Anti -trafficking measures in India have increased
with Indias commitment to international human rights protocols, and through strict legal provisions at the
national level. The Immoral Traffic Prevention Act 1956 (ITPA) is the widely used law to prosecute
traffickers, but also is invoked to target prostitution.
Sex work is a debated subject in the womens movement in India. The anti-prostitution law is seen
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by many to criminalize and further marginalize women who are in the sex trade. Womens rights

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organizations, activists, and organizations such as the Durbar Mahila Samanway Committee (a nationwide
sex workers collective) have long supported legalization of the sex trade in India. The debate over
legalization of sex work continues today and sex-work supporters are lobbying to change the ITPA for

better rehabilitation measures for those who have been rescued during brothel and street raids. The ITPA
also does not give adequate measures for those who are trafficked for purposes other than sex work, and

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disproportionately targets women, making them further vulnerable to poverty and exploitation.

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2.2.2 WOMEN'S ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES IN INDIA

India is one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with women mainly from the middle class
increasingly entering the workforce. Urban centres like Delhi and Bangalore have seen an influx of young women
from semi- urban and rural parts of the country, living alone and redefining themselves. 25 However, the story of
economic empowerment for women is not a singular narrative; rather it is located in a complex set of caste, class,

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religious, and ethnic identities.

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The Global Gender Gap Report by the World Economic Forum in 2009 ranked India 114 th out of 134
countries for inequality between men and women in the economy, politics, health, and education. 26 On equal economic
opportunities and womens participation in the labour force, India ranked 127 th and 122nd respectively.27 The number
of women in the workforce varies greatly from state to state: 21% in Delhi; 23% in Punjab; 65% in Manipur; 71%
Chhattisgarh; 76% in Arunachal Pradesh. 28 The diversity of womens economic opportunities between states is due to

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the cultural, religious, and ethnic diversity of each state. Northern states like Delhi and Punjab lag far behind on

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gender equality measures, including the alarming sex ratio between men and women (due to son preference and sexselective abortion), low female literacy levels, and high rates of gender-based violence.
In rural India, womens economic opportunities remain restricted by social, cultural, and religious barriers.
Most notably inheritance laws embedded in Hindu and Shariat civil codes continue to marginalize women in the
household and the larger community. Rural women, particularly of lower caste and class, have the lowest literacy

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rates, and therefore do not have the capacity to negotiate pay or contracts and most often engage in the unorganized

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sector, self-employment, or in small scale industry. Self-help groups (SHGs) are a widely practiced model for social
and economic mobility by NGOs and the government. SHGs provide women with the opportunity to manage loans
and savings that can be used by members for varying needs. SHGs also are used to promote social change among the
members and the community at large. Members of SHGs have used their experiences as leverage to enter other local
institutions such as the Panchayat Khap.
Rural, low caste, and tribal women also make up 70% of domestic workers in India, a sector which is largely

CHAPTER 1

unregulated and unorganized. Indias growing economy has allowed for many upper and middle-class women to enter

74

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

the workforce, and while poor rural women have little access to education and training, there is a high demand for
domestic workers in urban hubs.

Domestic workers are mostly illiterate, with little or no negotiating power for wage equity, and are highly vulnerable
to exploitation and sexual and physical abuse.
There is a movement at the policy level to organize domestic workers and to create laws to regulate minimum
wage, working hours, and other measures such as life and health insurance. Currently a national- level Taskforce on

CHAPTER 1

Domestic Workers has been formed that will present recommendations to the central government on better

75

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

enforcement of rights for the many undocumented domestic workers in India.

Women are also very visible in the construction sector in India, and like domestic workers are largely
unorganized and rely on daily wagers. Women construction workers are mostly poor and illiterate and have little
negotiating power. This sector is also unregulated and highly vulnerable to exploitation. Women workers also earn
significantly less than men, although women are the ones who do most of the backbreaking work like carrying bricks

CHAPTER 1

and other heavy materials on site.

76

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

On the other end of the spectrum, while India has one of the highest percentages of professional women in the

world, those who occupy managerial positions are under 3%. Most women work in low administrative positions, and
many of the young women migrating to urban centres mostly work in service and retail industries, although more and
more women are entering the IT and other technical sectors.

Womens Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights:

CHAPTER 1

The movement to assure womens economic, social, and cultural rights (ESCR) as basic human rights is just

77

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

emerging in India. The movement aims to locate womens rights within the larger human rights framework, and by
doing so moves away from looking at womens issues only within the framework of violence against women and
reproductive rights. ESCR attempts to look at the broader issues facing women, namely poverty, housing,
unemployment, education, water, food security, trade, etc.
While the human rights movement on ESCR is largely contained at the international policy level, there are

CHAPTER 1

emerging social movements around the world. In the Indian context, projects like the Programme on Womens

78

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (PWESCR), for example, is creating linkages between the international human
rights movement and the local articulation of womens rights. PWESCR aims to build a womens rights movement in
India that creates equality in all spheres of womens lives. By empowering women economically and socially, ESCR
provides for a broader discourse on rights that moves womens rights from a victim-centered approach to one that cuts
across other fundamental human rights issues.
Womens economic opportunity in India is a rapidly changing landscape. Women are increasingly entering

CHAPTER 1

the workforceparticularly women professionalsand are creating change, but there remains a large number of

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

invisible women workers in unorganized and volatile sectors. However, organizing at the local level, albeit small, is

widespread. Implementation of national and state level policies lags behind in ensuring that women workers have
equal pay and are free from exploitation.

2.2.3 WOMEN IN POLITICS IN INDIA

CHAPTER 1

Historical Context:
During the independence movement, women were visible and active as nationalists, and as symbols of

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Mother India. Gandhi, in particular, was instrumental in creating space for women through his non-violence (and

some would argue feminized) mode of protest. Gandhis legendary salt march initially excluded women, but due to
demands from women nationalists he later realized the power of women organizers at the local level. His inclusion of
women, however, was not located within a gender equality framework, but was a means to achieving a stronger and
unified Indian state. The inclusion of women in the nationalist movement was also to debunk the British colonial
assertion of needing to save the poor, vulnerable women of pre-independence India.

CHAPTER 1

As in many nationalist movements, women in India took part in the struggle, in turn propelling a womens

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

rights movement. And, as seen historically in many post-colonial countries, the nationalist womens movement in
India was confronted by the rebuilding of a patriarchal nationalist state. Women revolutionaries gave way to their
male counterparts who (as a result of Partition politics) created a strong, male, and Hindu "New India".

The first post- independence Lok Sabha (the Peoples Council or the Parliament) had 4.4% women. The period
between the early 1940s and late 1970s saw an emergence of the Indian womens movement, but it was not until the

CHAPTER 1

1980s that the womens movement gained real momentum.

82

Reservation at the Panchayat Level:

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

In 1976 the Committee on the Status of Women in India was established and published a report
recommending an increase in elected women at the grassroots level, which led to the introduction of the 33.3%
reservation at the Panchayat level in 1988. It was only in 1993 that an amendment in the constitution made the
proposed reservation at the Panchayat (village level governing councils) a reality.
In the last two decades since the reservation for women in elected Panchayats was passed, many studies have been

CHAPTER 1

conducted to look at the impact of this policy. A survey conducted in 2008 yielded that women made up close to 50%

83

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

of all the village councils across the India. The number of women representatives has certainly increased at the

grassroots level; however, questions still remain regarding their decision-making power within the councils. A study in
West Bengal and Rajasthan by the Institute of Management Studies (Calcutta) and the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) found that where women Panchayat members were active, there were more robust programs on
water, irrigation, and infrastructure. The study conclusively states that in Panchayats where women were present
policies were more beneficial to the community than in Panchayats where women were absent. A study by The

CHAPTER 1

Accountability Initiative also states that in Panchayats with female presidents, the participation of women in the larger

84

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

council rose close to 3% in one year.40 The reason for the increase in womens participation is correlated to two

possible factors: first, women representatives exemplified new possibilities for change; and second, women leaders
took up issues that would have a positive impact on the community as a whole.

Caste and Class Politics:

The complexities of politics in India are embedded in class, caste, and religious identities. An analysis by

CHAPTER 1

International Idea of women in the Indian Parliament between 1991 and1996 found that among the small number of

85

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

women Parliamentarians, a disproportionate number represented the Brahmin caste (the higher caste in the Hindu
caste system). Most local governments remain largely patriarchal and caste- based institutions, hindering inclusive

governance. Furthermore, social mobility remains a privilege of members of higher classes and caste, although this is
dramatically changing as a result of reservations for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) in politics and
education.

CHAPTER 1

For women politicians, class, age, and caste all have significant impact in their political lives. India is one of

86

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

the few countries in the world that has elected a woman leader. Indira Gandhi was among the very few women leaders
in the world during her time in office. However, her role as the Prime Minister was not seen as a win for the womens
movement in India. She was the granddaughter of Jawaharlal Nehru and represented the political dynasty of her
family. Additionally, her controversial political moves during the declared period of Emergency (1975-1977)
suppressed dissent, forcing many of the radical womens rights movements to go underground. In 2007 India elected
its first female President, Ms. Pratibha Patil. While the President holds a mostly ceremonial role in Indian politics, Ms.

CHAPTER 1

Patils election was deemed a symbolic move towards a more equitable representation of women at the highest levels

87

of government.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Although representation of women and members of the lower castes in Indian politics is rapidly changing,
complexities of caste politics continue to govern representation. An interesting case study is that of Mayawati, the
Chief Minister of Utter Pradesh. Mayawati, a woman and a member of the Dalit caste, was the youngest Chief
Minister when first elected, and the only woman Dalit to be elected as a Chief Minister. Although Mayawati

CHAPTER 1

represents transcendence of India's caste system, her political career is regrettably tainted with corruption charges,

88

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

extravagant spending, and little positive impact on the realities of caste and class barriers for men and women in her
State.

33% Reservation for Women:

The Womens Bill in April 2010, which gives 33.3% reservation for women in all levels of Indian politics,
took 14 years after its introduction to finally pass by the Rajya Sabha (the upper house of parliament). It is yet to be

CHAPTER 1

passed by the Lok Sabha (the lower house of parliament). The reservation bill will ensure 181 out of the 543 seats at

89

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

the Parliament level, and 1,370 seats out of the 4,109 seats at the State Assembly level. This is a historic move in the
Indian political landscape, as currently women occupy less than 10% of seats in the national Parliament.
The Womens Bill will also significantly change the demographics of class and caste among women politicians

in leadership positions in the Indian political structure. It will create a path for women from lower classes and castes
(who are currently confined to local-level governance) to enter state and national level governments. In addition to the

CHAPTER 1

existing reservations for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, one third of the SC and ST candidates must be women.

90

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Other Backward Class (OBC) members are not included in the reservation due to the wide disagreement about who
constitutes OBC and a lack of existing data on the OBC population.
The two main arguments against the bill are that it will only benefit elite women (particularly in national level

politics) and that there should be reservations for Dalit, minorities (particularly Muslim women), and OBCs. However,
supporters of the bill do not agree with creating quotas within the existing 33% women quota in parliament, as SC and

CHAPTER 1

ST quotas already exist.

91

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
The bill mandates that all political parties reserve one third of their electoral ticket for women, including in the
already mandated reservations for SC and STs. This will inadvertently create spaces for lower caste and class women
to enter state and national level politics. The passage and implementation of the Womens Bill, and its impact on the
existing gender, class, and caste barriers, is yet to be realized, but one thing is clear: Indias politics is moving closer

CHAPTER 1

to equitable inclusion than ever before.

92

2.3 METHODOLOGY

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT THROUGH SELF HELP GROUPS IN ANDHRA PRADESH

The Government of Andhra Pradesh has taken up the theme of womens empowerment as one
of the strategies to tackle the socio economic poverty. Self Help movement through savings has been
CHAPTER 1

taken up as a mass movement by women a path chosen by them to shape their destiny for better.

93

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Development Agenda of the State in the last few years placing the people, especially women in the fore
-front has enabled formation of a large number of Self Help Groups (SHGs) throughout the State and
majority of women are saving one rupee a day. The State government is consciously making an effort to
assist SHGs by providing Revolving Fund / Matching grant under various programmes.

CHAPTER 1

SHGs - A MOVEMENT IN ANDHRA PRADESH:

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

There are about 4.65 lakhs women SHGs in Andhra Pradesh covering nearly 61.7 0 lakhs poor women.
Andhra Pradesh alone has about half of SHGs organized in the Country. The SHGs are also popularly
called DWCRA Groups, ant this name became popular after the DWCRA programme (Development of
Women and Children in Rural Areas) through which womens groups were assisted initially. The SHGs
are not only resorting to thrift but also are taking small loans out of the corpus available with the group.
The group corpus consists of savings, government assistance and also bank loan. Members use the loan
CHAPTER 1

out of group corpus for their personal needs initially. However in the long run such loans are utilised for
income generation activities. Since inception an amount of Rs.1556.90 crores is mobilized as corpus

95

MICRO CREDIT TO SHG:

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Micro credit summit conducted in 1997 in Washington resolved to reach 100 million poor
women by 2005 all over the world. In Andhra Pradesh alone, 61.70 lakh women were covered
under micro credit with a saving of a rupee per day and the financial institutions extending loans upto
4 times to the amount of group savings. From the year 1997 to January 2003, Banks extended a loan
CHAPTER 1

of Rs.1345 crores to SHG and the recovery of loans is more than 95%. Recently commercial banks

96

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

have reduced interest rate on the loans extended to SHGs from 12% to 9%.
BUILDING INSTITUTIONS FOR SHGs:

Womens savings movement started in 1993 as an off shoot of total literacy campaigns
successfully conducted by the pro-active government initiatives in the southern part of Andhra Pradesh,

CHAPTER 1

poor women agitated against sale of arrack, organized themselves into Thrift and Credit groups with

97

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

one rupee saving in a day had now turned into a mass movement in which 61.70 lakh members saved

more than Rs.887.47 crores which is rotated internally and lent amongst the members twice in a year as
per the interest rates fixed by the groups. Such amounts are used for their daily consumption needs and
also for production of goods for sales to earn incomes.

CHAPTER 1

ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT OF SHGS:

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

60% of the women take up economic activities related to agriculture and allied activities.

Land lease for growing agricultural crop is a common practice in the 9 Telangana districts.
Vegetable and Flower cultivation, food crops and pulses, oil seeds cultivation are taken
up on leased lands. Similarly rearing of calves, ram lamb, chicks, piggery and duckery, dairy, value
addition to milk and milk products are preferred by women agricultural labourers. Illiterate and unskilled
women engage in small business activities.

Nearly 20% of the SHG members are artisans and

CHAPTER 1

engaged in making handicrafts and handloom products.

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Public private partnership method is adopted in promoting economic opportunities to SHG

members by appointing them as dealers for the sale of products manufactured by companies like

Hindustan Levers Limited, TVS, TTK-Prestige, Colgate-Palmolive, Philips etc. Companies in return
train SHGs in finance management, enterprise development, packaging, branding and pricing of
products. This partnership is a win win model.

CHAPTER 1

Andhra Pradesh is now engaged in intense pursuit of development prgrammes utilizing information

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

technology (IT) and to strategize as to how the benefits of IT could be taken to rural areas.

SHGs are encouraged to get PCs and software for accessing information and developing
their business. Their products are photographed, scanned and displayed on websites. These are put on
the portals of e-commerce companies. Handicrafts, herbal medicines and cosmetics, hand woven and
embroidered curtains, toys, paintings etc., are thus finding national and international markets. This
CHAPTER 1

would not have been possible, but for the internet. The members are enabled to take a mobile telephone

101

and use it not only for the sales but as a public telephone.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

IMPACT OF SHG:

Various organisations evaluated SHGs. NGOs universities, National Bank for Agricultural &
Rural Development (NABARD) and ORG-Marg.

Some of the salient features are.

CHAPTER 1

98% of the members make savings regularly as the norms prescribed by the groups.
All the groups meet at least once in a month to discuss various social issues related to their day

102

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

to day life.
98% of eligible members adopt small family norms.
100% children of SHG members are able to access immunization services against the 6

diseases.
30% of the members have access to safe cooking fuels (LPG) under the Government

CHAPTER 1

promoted scheme popularly known as DEEPAM.

80% of the total SHGs have accessed financial assistance from banks and repayment is 98%.
10,000 SHG members were elected to the local bodies (3 term Panchayat Raj Institutions) in 1997

103

November elections.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Members are engaged in 450 varieties of income generating activities.

Additional family incomes to member range from Rs.1000-3000 per annum depending on the

CHAPTER 1

income generating activities.

Increase in self confidence and self esteem
Increase in awareness levels about the society and community. Voluntary participation in

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

community activities like laying roads, planting trees conserving environment, construction of

water harvesting structures, donations to the victims of natural calamities helping to reduce
crime against girls & women, campaign against eradication of social evils like dowry, child
marriages, untouchability, AIDS, rescue and rehabilitation of orphaned children, counseling
adolescent girls, support to widows and destitutes are a few to mention.
SHG members learning from the past experiences are walking through the present are marching ahead
CHAPTER 1

for a bright future. Government of Andhra Pradesh has rightly realized that the involvement of the rural

105

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

poor women in development will speed up attainment of Swarnandhrapradesh and realising the Vision
indeed!
Social, Legal, Political and Economic Empowerment

The women Self Help Groups (SHGs) hold regular weekly meetings, save and repay regularly, and

CHAPTER 1

use trained bookkeepers for proper bookkeeping. All SHG members abide by the principles of saying no to

106

child

marriages,

child

labor,

domestic

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

violence

and

wasteful

expenditures.

The weekly meetings provide a platform for sharing and discussing broad social, legal, political and
economic issues that affect their lives. Issues range from entitlements to land, access to NREGA and PDS,
whether teachers and health workers are actually doing the work allotted to them, and women's own rights

CHAPTER 1

in the case of domestic violence.

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

The women discuss family planning, the number of children they should have, and the spacing

between births, indicating a significant change in their ability to exercise reproductive choice within the
household. They have also not hesitated to take up difficult issues like domestic violence, the trafficking of
women and children, and the jogini system of exploitation.

CHAPTER 1

KEY OUTCOMES

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

While this is a continuous and evolving process, these poor womens groups have made a number of
gains in a variety of spheres:
Child Marriage, Trafficking of Women and Children:

Womens groups have been able to prevent over 5000 child marriages. A study by the Center for

CHAPTER 1

Economic and Social Studies in Hyderabad finds that the incidence of child marriage has declined among

109

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

project participants. Groups have also started campaigns against the trafficking of women and girl children
with the support of police, the revenue administration and NGOs.
Child Labor:

In a bid to reduce child labor, new residential schools have been set up in six districts to provide

CHAPTER 1

quality education to girl child laborers. Over 40,000 girls are now enrolled in these schools. According to an

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

impact evaluation, these schools have outperformed other public schools in terms of regular attendance,
academic results and facilities provided to students, leading to a fall in the drop out rate from 14.8% in 2001
to 4.3% in 2005-2006.

CHAPTER 1

Exploitative Social Practices:

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Groups have achieved considerable success in eradicating exploitative social practices such as the

jogini (temple concubine) system. Says a Community Activist, from Mahabubnagar District: I was made
a jogini when I was eleven years old by my parents. Joining the SHG gave me confidence and, despite
opposition, I got married to lead a normal life. There are still thousands of joginis still operating in and
around my community, whom we are trying to rehabilitate. As the children of these jogini mothers are

CHAPTER 1

considered illegitimate by the village, we are going to conduct DNA tests for four thousand of them to

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

determine who their father is and ask them for support. We want to ensure that these children are proud of
their mothers and lead a normal life.

Gender Violence:

Womens groups discuss sensitive issues such as gender violence, and make special

CHAPTER 1

efforts to identify victims and help them to start new livelihoods.

113

Food Security:

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

The project has helped to improve food security of the poor. Over half a million households in six
districts have benefited from access to food grains and other essential commodities of good quality at
relatively lower prices, provided on a credit basis. Destitute women, especially elderly widows, are being
helped by a special program through which community members contribute a fistful of rice to a common

CHAPTER 1

pool which is then distributed among these women.

114

Health Insurance for the Poor:

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Over 21,000 households have been covered with health insurance on a pilot basis. The community
managed risk fund aims to provide quick financial support to meet families health expenditure, including
during emergencies. 1.2 million women SHG members have purchased life insurance cover.

CHAPTER 1

Disabled Persons:

115

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Over 160,000 disabled persons have been mobilized into some 17,500 SHGs and have received
support to start new livelihoods.
Land Access for Tribals and the Poor:

The project has facilitated the resolution of several land issues affecting the poor including the

CHAPTER 1

restoration of illegally occupied land. Para legals have been trained, and efforts are on to establish a land

116

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

rights center for tribal areas in association with the Law College at Hyderabad, and organize lok adalats
(public courts).
Improved Farming Practices:

In a forward-looking move, womens groups have also developed a local movement against the

CHAPTER 1

indiscriminate use of pesticides, covering 186,000 acres by 2006-07. By replacing chemical and other

117

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

external inputs with local knowledge and natural methods of pest management, they are reducing the cost of

cultivation. Cost savings have ranged from about US$40 to US$120 per acre leading to a 75% increase in
the income of a farmer. This has also had positive effects on farmers health status.

CHAPTER 1

Economic Empowerment:

118

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Social empowerment issues have become the basis for the subsequent economic empowerment of

women. The program enables womens organizations to develop the skills to negotiate with market

CHAPTER 1

institutions and develop other financial services.

119

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Political Empowerment:
Grassroots leaders developed through the program have contested local government

elections; 32000 candidates have filed their nominations for a variety of positions, and 9500 women from
SHGs.

CHAPTER 1

2.1.4 NEED OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Our constitution, in its Fundamental Rights, has provisions for equality,

social justice and

protection of women. These goals are yet to be realized. Women continue to be discriminated,
exploited and exposed to inequalities at various levels.
By empowerment women would be able to develop self esteem and confidence, realize their
potential and enhance their collective bargaining power.
Women empowerment can be viewed as a contribution of several inter- related

CHAPTER 1

reinforcing competent.

121

and mutually

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Awareness building about womens situations, discrimination, rights and opportunities will act as

a step towards gender equality.

Capacity building and skill development, especially the ability to plan, make decisions, organize,
manage and execute will enable to deal with people and institutions in the course of business.
Participation and greater control and decision making power in the home, community

CHAPTER 1

society will develop leadership qualities.

Action is needed at all levels to bring about greater quality between men and women.

122

and

CHAPTER 1

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

123

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

CHAPTER 1

Chapter 3

124

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

CHAPTER 1

ORGANIZATION PROFILE

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
3. ORGANIZATION PROFILE
DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY(DRDA)
DRDAs are established for effective implementation of anti-poverty programmes in rural areas at the
district level. It is an institution that acts as a delivery agency to support and facilitate the development

CHAPTER 1

process. The role of the DRDA is to plan for effective implementation of anti-poverty programmes;

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

coordinating with other agencies like Governmental, non-Governmental, technical and financial for
successful programme implementation. They enable the poor rural community to participate in the decision
making process.

3.1 OBJECTIVE:

CHAPTER 1

The Primary objective of the DRDA is to effectively manage the anti-poverty

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

programmes of the Ministry of Rural Development and interact effectively with

other agencies/Line Departments.
3.2 PURPOSE:

To implement the Rural Development Programmes of the Ministry of

CHAPTER 1

Rural Development in the

128

U.T of

Pondicherry through

the

Block

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Development Offices strictly in accordance with the guidelines

To Plan for effective implementation of anti-poverty programmes

To execute the plans for the benefit of the target groups either directly or

CHAPTER 1

through others in co-ordination with the existing agencies engaged in this

129

direction

in

the

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
field

Private/Public/Cooperative/Corporation/Agency/
Banks, Commercial

Banks)

whether

Banks

(Co-operative

Department of the State

and Central

Government etc.
To

liaison with

other

agencies-Governmental,

Non-Governmental,

CHAPTER 1

Technical and Financial for successful programme implementation and to

130

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

secure inter-sectoral and inter-departmental coordination and cooperation

for reducing poverty in the G u n t u r district of Andhra Pradesh.
To enable the community and the rural

poor to participate

in the

decision making process,

CHAPTER 1

To oversee the implementation of Rural Development Programmes and to

131

ensure that

the benefits

specifically

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

earmarked

for

certain

target

groups (SC/ST, women and disabled) reach them. DRDA will also take
necessary steps to achieve the prescribed norms.
To review the progress of the execution of these activities as well as
effectiveness of the benefits directed towards the target groups.

CHAPTER 1

To

132

ensure

adherence

to guidelines, quality, equity and

efficiency;

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

reporting to the prescribed authorities on the implementation; and

promoting transparency in decision making and implementation.
3.3 MISSION/VISION STATEMENT OF

DRDA

To constantly strive to give the rural poor of the Guntur district,Andhra pradesh, the

CHAPTER 1

information, Education, Financial and Physical means to better their standard of

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

living and quality of life. To foster the economic and social development of the rural
areas of the district and to strengthen

infrastructure,

employment

and

entrepreneurial opportunities of the ordinary person in quick, efficient, transparent,

just and equitable and sustainable manner, always by trying to understand their

CHAPTER 1

genuine needs.

134

3.4 BRIEF HISTORY OF DRDA

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

This agency was created originally to implement the Integrated Rural Development
Programme(IRDP). Subsequently the DRDAs were entrusted with number of programmes of both state and
central governments.
Since its inception the District Rural Development Agency(DRDA) has been the principal organ

CHAPTER 1

at the District level to oversee the implementation of different Central Government anti-poverty

135

programmes. It is also taking up State Government Programmes.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

From 1 st April,1999 a new Centrally Sponsored Scheme for strengthening the DRDAs has been
introduced. This scheme, which is funded on a 75:25 basis between Centre and States, aims at strengthening
and professionalizing the DRDAs for effective functioning of the organization.

CHAPTER 1

3.5 DUTIES OF DRDA :

136

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

1.

To oversee the implementation of the following Rural Development.

2.

Monitor the

performance

of

the

Rural

Development

Programmes,

Area Development and Energy Programmes and take corrective action.

3.

Collect the

Action

Plan

proposals

under

CHAPTER 1

Block Development Offices and finalise

137

all

schemes

the District Action

from

the

Plan in

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

February of each year.

4.

Conduct the Governing Body

meeting once in six months to approve

the Action Plan, other proposals and for ratification of works carried out
in the previous

year

without

approval,

for policy directions

CHAPTER 1

approval of audited and unaudited statement of accounts of DRDA

138

and for

5.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Conduct meetings, Conferences and arrange for discussions for creation of

awareness among the public and sharing of experiences

6.

Submit

1st

and

2nd

installment

proposals

to

GOI

along with

Utilization Certificates for expenditure incurred for getting funds under

CHAPTER 1

various Rural Development programmes.

139

7.

Funds

received under

all schemes

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

will

be

reallocated

among

the

Block Development Offices based on their needs and released within 15

days after receipt of funds from GOI.
8.

Applications received under SGSY will be verified and eligible SHGs will be

CHAPTER 1

released with Revolving Fund and subsidy

140

9.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Regular training Programmes will be arranged for the Self Group members
in the

activities chosen by

them

and through

reputed

institutions and agencies/Govt. Departments.

10. Arrangements will be

made for provision of marketing

linkages and

infrastructure support to the SHGs.

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11. Applications received from the Block Development Offices under IAY will

141

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

be scrutinized and sanction will be issued for issue of work order by the
Block Development Offices.
12. Estimates received under Civil works viz., in SGRY, TSC and MPLADs work
will be scrutinized and sanction will be issued.

CHAPTER 1

13. Popularize the use of Energy Conserving Devices among the public.

142

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
14.

Monthly Progress
consolidated Report

Reports
under

are

each

collected and

scheme

is sent

compiled and

to GOI. Quarterly

Reports and Annual Reports are also sent to GOI.

15.

Conduct of regular inspection at the Project Director level, Project Officer

CHAPTER 1

level and at the APO level to assess the progress under various schemes.

143

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
16.

Conduct of District Level SGSY Committee meeting, District Committee

on TSC meeting Vigilance and

Monitoring

Committee

meetings

and

District Advisory Committee meeting on IREP (once in three months)

17. Conduct of BPL Survey at the beginning of every Five Year Plan as per
CHAPTER 1

the guidelines of Ministry of Rural Development and prepare the list of

144

Below Poverty Line Population (BPL).

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

3.6 MAIN ACTIVITIES / FUNCTIONS OF DRDA

CHAPTER 1

1. Effective implementation of

145

the

Rural

Development Programmes (Viz.,

SGSY, SGRY, IAY, PMGY and TSC)

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

through

the

Block

Development

Offices in accordance with the guidelines.

2.

Implementation of the MPLAD (LS/RS) scheme

3.

To

prepare

and

implement

area

based

Integrated

Rural

Energy

CHAPTER 1

Programme (IREP) through which the optimum mix of all types of Energy

146

sources is utilised for

meeting

Energy

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
needs

of

Rural

People

for

subsistence and productive purpose.

4.

To keep the Block level

the requirements of the

CHAPTER 1

under the Programmes.

147

agencies informed of the basic parameters,

programmes and

the

tasks

to be

performed

5.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

To co-ordinate and oversee the surveys , preparation

of the perspective

plans and Action Plans of the blocks and finally prepare a District Plan.
6. To

conduct the BPL

Survey

for identification

of

BPL

population for

targeting under various rural development programmes.

CHAPTER 1

7. To evaluate and monitor the programme to ensure its effectiveness.

148

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

8. To secure inter sectoral and interdepartmental co-ordination and

co-

operation.
9. To give publicity to the achievements

made under the programme

and

disseminate knowledge and build up awareness about the programme.

CHAPTER 1

10.

149

To send periodical returns to the GOI & State Govt., in the prescribed

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

formats.

3.7 LIST OF SERVICES BEING PROVIDED BY DRDA.

DRDA is implementing various Rural Development Programmes in Guntur,

CHAPTER 1

Andhra

150

pradeshas

per

the

guidelines

of

the

Ministry

of

Rural

Development.Sustained efforts

are

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

being taken

by

the

District

Rural

Development Agency, Guntur to implement rural development schemes successfully in

the rural areas giving high priority to the disadvantaged sections of the society.

CHAPTER 1

The Centrally sponsored /Plan Schemes implemented by DRDA are as follows:-

151

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

1. Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)

2. Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY)

3. Housing Schemes :- a) Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY)

CHAPTER 1

b) Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY)

152

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
4. Total Sanitation Campaign Programme (TSCP)
5. MPLAD (Lok Sabha/ Rajya Sabha) Scheme.

CHAPTER 1

6. Integrated Rural Energy Programme (IREP)

153

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
Swarnjayanti Gram

Swarozgar

Yojana (SGSY)

Poverty is an obstruction to a dignified life. Self Employment is a significant step

to have sustained incomes and remove the shackles of poverty. DRDA provides
self employment to rural poor by organizing them into SHGs , motivating to
CHAPTER 1

savings habit

154

providing skill

upgradation

training

and

bring the

assisted

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

poor families (Swarozgaris) above the poverty line by providing them subsidy

and bank credit so as to enable them to undertake economic activities and earn
regular income.
Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY)

CHAPTER 1

Provides additional and supplementary wage employment to rural poor especially

155

to the

agricultural

security and
and

labourers

improve nutritional levels.

Economic assets

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

and

thereby

ensures

food

Creates durable Community, Social

and provides infrastructure

in the rural areas and

thereby increases opportunities of employment through access to the market

CHAPTER 1

oriented economy.

156

Housing Schemes :-

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

a) Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) &

b) Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY)

Housing is one of the basic requirements for human

survival. For a normal

citizen, owning a house provides significant economic security and dignity in

CHAPTER 1

society. DRDA implements two housing schemes viz., Indira

157

Awaas

Yojana

and

the

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Pradhan Mantri Gramodya Yojana

and

provides subsidy

for

construction of houses to the rural poor.

Total Sanitation Campaign Programme (TSCP)

Individual Health and hygiene is largely dependent on adequate availability

CHAPTER 1

of drinking

158

water

and

proper

sanitation. There is,

therefore, a direct

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

relationship between water, sanitation and health. DRDA coverage in rural areas

and bring about an improvement in the general quality of life in the rural areas.
Encourages cost effective and appropriate technologies in Sanitation by providing
incentive subsidy for construction of individual household toilets.
Member of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme (Lok Sabha/ Rajya
CHAPTER 1

Sabha) - MPLAD (LS/RS)

159

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
Undertakes area development works as per the recommendations of the Honrable
Member of Parliament (LS/RS).
Integrated Rural Energy Programme (IREP)

CHAPTER 1

Popularize the use of non-conventional energy sources like solar wind, bio-

160

energy and the devices such

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

as Solar Water Heating system, Solar Cooker, Solar

Street Light and Biogas plant etc., in the U.T of Pondicherry by providing subsidy as

CHAPTER 1

per the guidelines of Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources. (MNES)

161

ORGANIZATIONAL DESCRIPTION

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

The staff positions of the DRDA at district level

S.N
o

STAFF POSITION

REMARKS
Each district has its own District Rural
Development Agency, headed by a project

CHAPTER 1

director who is of the rank of an Additional

162

District Magistrate.

S.No

POSITIONS
Area
coordinator(AC) (To

be

selected

from

APOs(DRDA),DPM
CHAPTER 1

S(SERP)

163

CAPABILITIES AND

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

ROLES
EXPERIENCE
To work with the CBOs
Take decitions relating to
Ability to nurture the
the project implementation
HGs,VOs,MSs
Ability to guide and as per AWFP in the 5-7
Mandals covered by the
mentor
office
CCs,MBKs,MTCs.etc

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Each DRDA has the following wings

Self-employment wing
CHAPTER 1

Womens wing

164

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Wage employment wing

Accounts wing

CHAPTER 1

Monitoring and Evaluation wing

165

CHAPTER 1

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

166

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 4

167

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

CHAPTER 1

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

168

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
4. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
A fundamental indicator of gender inequality in India, and arguably, one of the most powerful, is a preference for sons so strong that it is manifested as limiting the birth and survival of
girls. The 2001 census data for India revealed a sharp decline in the sex ratio for the population

CHAPTER 1

age 0-6, from 945 females in 1991 to 927 females per 1,000 males. The trend in the sex ratio of

169

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

the under-seven population based on National Family Health Survey data for the period

1992-93 to 2005-06 also provides evidence of continued decline and shows that in 2005-06 the under-seven
sex ratio had fallen further to 918 females per 1,000 males.

Trend data based on the three NFHS surveys provide strong evidence of declines in the sex ratio
(females per 1,000 males) of the population age 0-6 and in the sex ratio at birth for births in the five

CHAPTER 1

years preceding each survey.

170

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Females are under-represented among births and over-represented among births that die.
Sex ratios at birth decline with wealth, suggesting that sex selection of births is more common

among wealthier than poorer households.

Ultrasound tests are being widely used for sex selection, with sex selection being more evident for

the wealthiest women than for women in the other wealth quintiles.
Sex ratios of all last births and last births of sterilized women show clearly that couples typically

CHAPTER 1

stop having children once they have the desired number of sons.

171

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

The child mortality rate, defined as the number of deaths to children age 1-4 years per 1,000

CHAPTER 1

children reaching age 1 year, is 61% higher for girls than for boys.

172

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Chart1-Trends in the sex ratio(females per 1,000 males) age 0-6 years, india
940
935
930
925

Trends in the sex

ratio(females per 1,000
males) age 0-6 years, india

934
926

CHAPTER 1

920

173

915
910

918
NHFS-1(1992-93) NHFS-2(1998-99) NHFS-3(2005-06)

4.1 Gender Differences in Education

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Eliminating gender differences in access to education and educational attainment are key elements on the
path to attaining gender equality and reducing the disempowerment of women. In recognition of the pivotal
role of education in development and of persistent gender inequalities in access to education, the

CHAPTER 1

elimination of gender disparity in primary education is one of the Millennium Development Goals.

174

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

The achievement of universal primary education has been a key goal of Indian planning since
Independence. However, increasing access to primary schooling still leaves the twin questions
of educational quality and school retention unanswered. Continued economic development
cannot be sustained with a population that has merely completed primary school; it needs a
dependable supply of highly educated and skilled human capital for which a high level of
educational attainment of both women and men is necessary. However, ensuring a continued
CHAPTER 1

supply of skilled human capital to sustain economic growth is only one objective of reducing

175

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

gender inequalities in educational attainment: the other is that education, particularly higher

education of women, is a key enabler of demographic change, family welfare, and better
health and nutrition of women and their families. Higher education has the potential to
empower women with knowledge and ways of understanding and manipulating the world
around them. Education of women has been shown to be associated with lower fertility, infant

CHAPTER 1

mortality, and better child health and nutrition.

176

Childrens school attendance

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Only two-thirds of girls and three-fourths of boys age 6-17 years are attending school. The sex ratio

of children attending school is 889 girls per 1,000 boys.

There is gender equality in school attendance in urban areas; but, in rural areas, the female

CHAPTER 1

disadvantage in education is marked and increases with age.

177

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Age-appropriate school attendance is lower than any school attendance for both boys and girls.

However, boys and girls who are in school are about equally likely to be in an age-inappropriate

class.
School dropout beyond primary school is a major problem for both girls and boys.

CHAPTER 1

Literacy and educational attainment among adults ..

178

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

The percentage of adults who are literate is much lower in rural than in urban areas; nonetheless,
even in urban areas one-fourth of women and more than one-tenth of men are not literate. Gender
disparity in literacy is much greater in rural than in urban areas and declines sharply with household

wealth.
Forty-one percent of women and 18% of men age 15-49 have never been to school. Educational
attainment remains very low: even among the 20-29 age group, only 27% of women and 39% of

CHAPTER 1

men have 10 or more years of education.

179

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

The percentage of ever-married women with 10 or more years of education has risen very slowly

CHAPTER 1

from 11% in NFHS-1 to 17% in NFHS-3.

180

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
Chart 2 showing percentage of boys and girls attending school in the 2005-06 year,NHFS-3,India
Boys
85
75

81

Girls
80
70

66

CHAPTER 1

49
34

6-17 years

181

6-10 years

11-14 years

15-17 years

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

CHAPTER 1

4.2 Gender Differentials in Adult Literacy

182

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Literacy , i.e., the ability to read and write, is the foundation of education. NFHS-3 shows that

only 55% of women and 78% of men are literate in India. Literacy has, however, been increasing over time
for both women and men as measured by chances across age groups. In fact, literacy among women is
almost twice as high in the 15-19 age group than in the age-group 45-49 that is 30 years older. Nonetheless,

CHAPTER 1

even in the youngest age group, one in four women and one in ten men are not literate.

183

CHAPTER 1

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

184

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
Chart 3 showing percentage literate among women and men age 15-49 by age, NFHS-3,india
Women
89

84

81

Men

76

74

70

69

CHAPTER 1

64
55
48

15-19

185

68

20-24

25-29

30-34

43

35-39

40

38

40-44

45-49

CHAPTER 1

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

186

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
4.3 Employment
In addition to education, employment can also be an important source of empowerment for
women. Employment, particularly for cash and in the formal sector, can empower women by
providing financial independence, alternative sources of social identity, and exposure to

CHAPTER 1

power structures independent of kin networks (Dixon-Mueller, 1993). Nonetheless, early ages

187

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

at marriage and child bearing and limited access to education limit womens ability to

participate in the labour market, particularly in the formal sectors. By contrast, male gender
roles are compatible with employment and men are typically expected to be employed and be
breadwinners for their families. Not surprisingly, men dominate most formal labour markets.
This chapter describes womens and mens labour force participation in order to highlight

CHAPTER 1

gender inequalities in access to employment and types of employment. NFHS-3 found that,

188

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

among all women age 15-49, 43% had been employed at any time in the past 12 months with

the majority of them being currently employed. By contrast, 87% of men in the same age group
have been employed in the past 12 months. In the rest of this chapter and report, men and
women referred to as employed are those who have been employed at any time in the past 12

CHAPTER 1

months.

189

Womens and Mens Employment Status

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Employment according to marital status Since women are much more likely to be
constrained by marriage and child bearing and rearing than men, Table provides information on

CHAPTER 1

womens and mens employment within each marital category.

190

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Among women, employment varies greatly by marital status. Women who are divorced,
separated, deserted, or widowed are much more likely to be employed than currently married
women; never married women are least likely to be employed. For men, employment varies
little between those who are currently married and those who were formerly married;
however, never married men are, as expected, less likely than ever-married men to be
employed. Nonetheless, the proportion of never married men who are employed is almost
CHAPTER 1

twice as high, at 66%, as the proportion of never married women who are employed, at 37%.

191

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Employment by residence Womens employment is likely to be affected by residence, since

agricultural work, which accounts for most employment in rural areas, is typically more
compatible with womens other responsibilities as well as with low levels of education and

skill development. In fact, NFHS-3 finds that women are about two-thirds more likely to be
employed in rural than in urban areas. Table shows that employment is higher in rural
than in urban areas in every marital category, although the differential by residence is greatest,
CHAPTER 1

at 23 percentage points, among currently married and never married women. Among men, the

192

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

differential by residence in employment is negligible across marital categories, with the

highest variation, at only 4 percentage points, being among the never married.

Married

Divorced/

CHAPTER 1

Seperated

193

Women
Widowed

Never
married

Total

Marrie

Divorced/

Seperated

Men
Widowed

Never
marrie

Total

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Deserted

CHAPTER 1

Residence
Urban
Rural
Age
15-19
20-29
30-39

194

Deserted

27.1
49.8

66.4
71.5

63.4
70.9

29
42.1

29.3
49.4

98.8
98.8

94.8
94.2

97.7
98.5

63.9
68.1

84
88.7

31.4
37
48.8

60.4
64.4
76

56.8
68.6
75.8

34
42.2
58.7

33.4
38.5
50.6

87.6
98.5
99.3

100
98.8
93.8

0
100
98.7

49.3
82
95.6

50.4
90.3
99

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
40-49
47.7
70
Education in years of study
None
55.4
77.5
0-4
45.7
68.6
years
5-9
30.9
61.9
years
10-11

CHAPTER 1

years

195

21.5

44.1

64

58.3

49.7

98.8

91.2

97.7

85.3

98.5

75.2

58.6

57

99.2

94.2

98.7

95.5

98.6

71.5

55.7

48.8

99.2

88.2

97.5

92.6

97.6

51.8

37.3

33.6

99

96.6

97.4

70.4

87.2

47.1

22.3

22.3

99.1

99.8

100

50.2

74.7

4.4 Married women and decision making

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Empowerment literally means to invest with power. However, in the context of women s
empowerment the term has come to denote womens increased control over their own lives,
bodies, and environments. Further, the concept of empowerment encompasses a growing
intrinsic

capabilitygreater

self-confidence

and

an

inner

transformation

of

one s

consciousness that enables one to overcome external barriers (Sen and Batliwala, 2000).
CHAPTER 1

Greater control and increased capabilities to overcome barriers all translate into increased

196

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

agency or the ability to make and implement choices. An important indicator of agency is
decision making power.

In this chapter, indicators of married womens participation in various types of decisions typically made in
households are examined. Decisions asked about are decisions about the use of womens own earnings and
husbands earnings, decisions regarding small and large purchases, and other types of personal or

CHAPTER 1

household decisions.

197

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Among those who have earnings, more women (1 in 5) than men (1 in 18) do not have a major say

in how their own earnings are used and fewer women (about 7 in 10) than men (about 9 in 10 men)

have a major say in how their spouses earnings are used.

Womens control over own earnings increases with education and wealth, but mens control remains
consistently high in all educational and wealth categories. Participation in decisions about the
use of spouses earnings increases with education and wealth for women; for men, by contrast, it

CHAPTER 1

does not vary by education and declines with wealth.

198

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

About one in five currently married women who earn, earn at least as much as their husbands.
Women who earn about the same as their husbands are more likely to have a major say in the use of

their husbands earnings than both women who earn less than their husbands and who earn more

CHAPTER 1

than their husbands.

199

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Less than two in three currently married women participate, alone or jointly, in decisions about their own

health care, large household purchases, purchases for daily need, and visits to her family and relatives. The
regression analysis shows:

The number of decisions women make alone varies nonlinearly with education and does not

CHAPTER 1

vary with wealth;

200

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

The number of decisions women make jointly varies positively with education and nonlinearly with

wealth; and
For women, having earnings that they control is associated with greater participation in decisions;
however, having earnings without a major say in their use is negatively associated with the number
of decisions made jointly and, unexpectedly, positively associated with the number of decisions

CHAPTER 1

made mainly alone.

201

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
Chart 4-percentage of currently married (2005-06)women and men age 15-49 employed for cash by whether they have the main say in the use of their earnings,NFHS-3,India
Women Men
94
81
66

CHAPTER 1

57

202

28

24

Alone

Jointly

Alone or Jointly

4.5 Spousal violence

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

About two in five currently married women age 15-49 have experienced spousal violence in their
current marriage, and among women who have ever experienced such violence, more than two in

CHAPTER 1

203

three have experienced violence in the past year.

Slapping is the most common form of spousal physical violence.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Recent experience of spousal violence varies little by marital duration, but, as expected, ever

experience of spousal violence increases with marital duration.

Women who report both physical and sexual violence are more likely to have injuries and are
subject to more severe forms of physical violence than women who have experienced physical but

CHAPTER 1

no sexual violence.

204

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Women who make household decisions jointly with their husbands, including decisions about the
use of their own earnings, are less likely to experience spousal violence than women who do not

have a major say in these decisions or who make the decisions mainly alone.
Although women who agree that wife beating is justified have a higher prevalence of violence, one

CHAPTER 1

out of three women who do not agree that wife beating is justified have also experienced violence.

205

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Higher education and wealth consistently lower womens risk of spousal violence; and husbands

consumption of alcohol and having a mother who was beaten by her spouse significantly increase

the risk.
The prevalence of violence is higher for women whose mothers experienced spousal violence than

for women who have husbands whose mothers experienced spousal violence.
Prevalence of spousal violence is higher for women who are employed than women who are not;

CHAPTER 1

however, controlling for wealth and education, employment for cash is related positively only to

206

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

emotional violence; it is unrelated to physical violence and is associated with lower odds of sexual

CHAPTER 1

violence (OR=0.85).

207

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
4.6 Gender, Womens Empowerment, And Selected Health,
Nutrition, And Demographic Outcomes
Child vaccination and nutritional status

Girls are less likely to be fully immunized than boys and this differential is evident

CHAPTER 1

even when mothers education and household wealth are controlled for.

208

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Childrens likelihood of being fully immunized increases with mothers education;

but girls benefit more than boys from having a mother who is highly educated.
Having mothers who mainly alone decide the use of their husbands earnings

increases a girls but not a boys likelihood of being fully immunized.

Two out of five children age 0-35 months are underweight, with boys and girls

about equally likely to be underweight.

A higher proportion of children are underweight if their mother

CHAPTER 1

209

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

is employed than if she is not; however, this association is explained away by

poverty which affects both underweight and womens employment.

has experienced spousal violence than if she has not. Controlling for wealth, this
association is explained away for girls, but remains significant for boys.

CHAPTER 1

Adult nutritional status

210

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

More than one in three women and men age 15-49 are too thin. Among couples,

wives are more likely than husbands to be too thin.

Controlling for wealth and education, employment, not having a main say in
decisions about large household purchases, and experiencing spousal physical or
sexual violence are all negatively associated with womens nutritional status.
However, women who have the main say alone on the use of their earnings are

CHAPTER 1

less likely to be too thin than other employed women.

211

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Modern contraceptive use among currently married women

Controlling for number of children ever born and other relevant factors, the

likelihood of women using a modern contraceptive method is

higher for women who are employed, particularly for cash, and for women who

make decisions mainly alone about large household purchases; and

lower for women who experience both spousal physical and sexual violence.

CHAPTER 1

212

4.7 DRDA(stats)

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

To overcome the issues and empower women DRDA came into existence and implementing so many

CHAPTER 1

programs. The District Rural Development Agencies (DRDAs) help the Rural Development Department

213

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

in implementation, monitoring and evaluation of various Rural Development Programmes at district level.
These DRDAs are registered societies under the Registration of Societies Act.
Some of the services are..

CHAPTER 1

214

Eradicating poverty in rural areas.

Empower grass root level peoples organizations

Mobilize self-help groups of poor women

Co-ordinating voluntary efforts in poverty eradication

CHAPTER 1

215

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Ameliorate deterioration of natural resources and enable common property resource management by
stakeholders.

Developing skills in rural communities to handle self-employment programmes and microenterprises.

CHAPTER 1

216

Enabling technology to be accessible to rural areas

CHAPTER 1

Schemes implementing

217

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Narrowing down gap between urban-rural Sectors and achieve a urban-rural continue

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

The D.R.D.A. is playing crucial role to bring the various Government Sponsoring Schemes to the door step

of the poor people residing at villages. Following are the variousCentral Government schemes
monitoring by DRDA

CHAPTER 1

S.G.S.Y

218

S.G.S.Y Special projects

National Old Age Pension Scheme
National Family Benefit Scheme
Krishi Shramik Samajik Suraksha Youjana

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

The Government of India introduced a Life Insurance Coverage cum Social Security Scheme

CHAPTER 1

for Poor Agriculture Labourers as Pilot Project in 50 District in the Country and 3 District in the State from

219

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

November, 2002. The West Godavari District is one of the Pilot Project District for implementing the
KSSSY Scheme.

The following State Government schemes are also implementing the District.

CHAPTER 1

State Matching Grant

220

Deepam
Gruhamitra
Self Employment Generation
Additional Old Age Pensions
Weavers Old Age Pensions

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Further the Government of Andhra Pradesh has merged the Youth Welfare and CMEY and directed

CHAPTER 1

the C.E.O., SETWEL to work under the control of P.D., D.R.D.A. The Government of Andhra Pradesh

221

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

emphasizing the Convergency of Self Employment Schemes and established Employment Generation
Mission under the Chairmenship of Honble Chief Minister at State Level, The District Collector at District
Level the Collected designated as Chairman for Employment Generation Committee and P.D., D.R.D.A. as
Special Officer, Employment Generation for monitoring and implementing the various Self Employment

CHAPTER 1

Schemes in the District

222

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

4.8 Self Help Groups

CHAPTER 1

District Total No.of Members

223

(A).Thrift

No.of Groups
22025

2,90,380
Amount(Rs.in lakhs)
5680.06

CHAPTER 1

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

224

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
4.9 Swayamsidha Scheme
Swayamsidha is an integrated scheme for empowerment of women through formation of self help
groups (SHGs). The scheme was launched in February 2001 and aimed for holistic empowerment of
women through sustained mobilization and convergence of all the on-going sectoral programmes by
improving access of women to micro credit, economic resources, bank linkages, etc. The scheme

CHAPTER 1

culminated in March 2008. Against a target of 65,000 SHGs, 69,803 SHGs were formed and 1 million

225

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

women covered under the scheme. The number of SHGs formed under Swayamsidha is given in Table.
S. No.

India/State/UT

Funds Release
during 200708 (Rs. in
Lakhs)

No. of
Districts

2287.3

335

India
Andhra Pradesh

2.

Arunachal Pradesh

CHAPTER 1

1.

226

0
9.35

No. of Blocks
Covered
650

23

38

No. of SHGs
Formed
69803
3874
600

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
Assam*
Bihar

5.

Chhattisgarh

6.

Delhi*

7.
8.

Goa
Gujarat

9.

Haryana

CHAPTER 1

3.
4.

227

110.12
492.45

20
19

24
63

2400
6340

57.63

16

17

1620

69.96

20

27

2772

24.35

13

1300

276

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
Himachal Pradesh

44.25

11.

Jammu & Kashmir

36.85

13

13

1300

12.

Jharkhand

127.47

11

24

2427

13.

Karnataka

12

20

2992

14.

Kerala

4.76

18

2246

15.

Madhya Pradesh

115.4

13

36

3667

CHAPTER 1

10.

228

969

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
Maharashtra

36.04

20

36

17.

Manipur

32.73

300

18.

Meghalaya

534

19.

Mizoram

300

20.

Nagaland

600

S. No. India/State/UT

Funds Release

No. of

No. of Blocks

No. of SHGs

21.

Orissa

105.93
during
2007-08

36

3600

Punjab

99.96

15

2059

CHAPTER 1

16.

22.

229

0
11.31

3922

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
The implementers of the scheme i.e. 6 Programme Officers and 13 CDPOs i.e. Project
Implementing Authorities (PIAs) of Swayamsidha Distt. have been trained in Legal Literacy and Micro
Enterpreneur Development through the NGOs and on Self Help Groups concepts and Income Generation
Activities. One exposure visit was also conducted for the implementers at National Institute of Rural

CHAPTER 1

Development, Hyderabad during July, 2005. During the 6 years of implementation of the project period the

230

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

members of all the SHGs have been imparted training such as Self Defence Training, Confidence Building

Training, Legal Literacy Training, Accounts Keeping Training and Gender Sensitization Training by the

CHAPTER 1

NGOs.

231

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
Some indicators depicting the progress in the situation of Indian women are given in Table
Development Indicators

Women

Men

Total Women

Men

Total

* Demography
- Population

CHAPTER 1

(in million in 1971 & 2001)

232

264.1 284.0

548.1

495.7 531.2 1027.1

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
- Decennial Growth (1971 & 2001)

24.9

24.4

24.6

21.7

20.9

21.34

* Vital Statistics
930 -

- Expectation of Life at Birth

50.2

50.5

(1971 & 2001-06)

- Mean Age at Marriage (1971 & 1991)

17.2

22.4 -

CHAPTER 1

- Sex Ratio (1971 & 2001)

233

933 50.9

66.91 63.87 19.3

23.9 -

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
* Health and Family Welfare
- Birth Rate (1971 & 2008)

36.9 -

- Death Rate (1970 & 2008)

15.6

15.8

15.7

- Infant Mortality Rate (1978 & 2008)

131

123

127 55

CHAPTER 1

Per 1000 live births

234

6.8

22.8
8.0

7.4

52

53

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
-

Child Death Rate (2007) (0-4 years) -

(2007) (5-14 years) - Maternal Mortality Rate (1980 & 2006)

468 -

16.9

15.2

16.0

1.2
1.1
254 -

1.2
-

* Literacy and Education

CHAPTER 1

- Literacy Rates (1971 & 2001)

235

7.9

24.9

16.7

54.28 75.96

65.38

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
- Gross Enrolment Ratio
(1990-91 & 2006-07) (%)
Classes I-V

85.5 113.9

Classes VI-VIII

47.8

- Drop-out Rate

CHAPTER 1

(1990-91 & 2006-07) (%)

236

76.6

100.1
62.1

107.8 114.4
69.5

77.4

111.2
73.6

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
Classes I-V

46

40.1

Classes I-VIII

Development Indicators

Women Men

42.6

26.6

24.4

25.4

45.3

46.6

46.0

Total

Wom Men

Total

en

CHAPTER 1

* Demography

237

- Population

264.1

284.0 548.1

495.7 531.2

1027.

- Decennial Growth (1971 & 2001)

24.9

24.4

21.7

121.34

24.6

20.9

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
* Vital Statistics
- Sex Ratio (1971 & 2001)

930

933

- Expectation of Life at Birth

50.2

50.5

50.9

66.91 63.87

- Mean Age at Marriage (1971 & 1991) 17.2

22.4

19.3

23.9

CHAPTER 1

* Health and Family Welfare

238

- Birth Rate (1971 & 2008)

36.9

22.8

- Death Rate (1970 & 2008)

15.6

15.8

15.7

6.8

8.0

7.4

CHAPTER 1

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

239

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
4.10 Measures for Womens Empowerment
India attained freedom from British rule on 15th August 1947. India was declared a sovereign
Democratic Republic on 26th January 1950. On that date the Constitution of India came into force.

CHAPTER 1

All citizens of India are guaranteed social, economic and political justice, equality of status and

240

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

opportunities before law by the Constitution. Fundamental freedom of expression, belief, faith, worship,
vocation, association and action are guaranteed by the Indian Constitution to all citizens- subject to
law and public morality.

The Constitution of India - Provisions Relating to Women

CHAPTER 1

The Constitution of India not only grants equality to women, but also empowers the State to adopt

241

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

measures of positive discrimination in favour of women for removing the cumulative socio-economic,
educational and political disadvantages faced by them.

Advancement of Women through Five Year Plans

There has been a progressive increase in the plan outlays over the last six decades of planned
CHAPTER 1

development to meet the needs of women and children. The outlay of Rs. 4 crores in the First Plan

242

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

(1951-56) has increased to Rs. 7,810.42 crores in the Ninth Five Year Plan, and Rs. 13,780 crores in the
Tenth Five Year Plan. There has been a shift from welfare oriented approach in the First Five Year Plan

CHAPTER 1

to development and empowerment of women in the consecutive Five Year Plans.

243

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Perspectives on Advancement of Women through Five Year Plans

First Five Year Plan

It was mainly welfare oriented as far as womens issues were concerned. The

(1951-56)

Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB) undertook a number of welfare measures

through the voluntary sector. The programmes for women were implemented
through the National Extension Service Programmes through Community

CHAPTER 1

Second Five Year

244

Development
Efforts wereBlocks.
geared to organise Mahila Mandals (womens groups) at

CHAPTER 1

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

245

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 5

246

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

CHAPTER 1

FINDINGS AND SUGESSIONS

247

CHAPTER 1

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

248

CHAPTER 1

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

249

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
5. FINDINGS AND SUGESSIONS
5.1 WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN INDIA MILESTONES & CHALLENGES

Empowerment is now increasingly seen as a process by which the one's without power gain greater control
over their lives. This means control over material assets, intellectual resources and ideology. It involves

CHAPTER 1

power to, power with and power within. Some define empowerment as a process of awareness and

250

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

conscientization, of capacity building leading to greater participation, effective decision-making power and
control leading to transformative action. This involves ability to get what one wants and to influence others
on our concerns. With reference to women the power relation that has to be involved includes their lives at
multiple levels, family, community, market and the state. Importantly it involves at the psychological level
women's ability to assert themselves and this is constructed by the 'gender roles' assigned to her specially in

CHAPTER 1

a cultural which resists change like India.

251

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

The questions surrounding women's empowerment the condition and position of women have now

become critical to the human rights based approaches to development. The Cairo conference in 1994
organized by UN on Population and Development called attention to women's empowerment as a central
focus and UNDP developed the Gender Empowerment measure (GEM) which focuses on the three
variables that reflect women's participation in society political power or decision-making, education and
health. 1995 UNDP report was devoted to women's empowerment and it declared that if human
CHAPTER 1

development is not engendered it is endangered a declaration which almost become a lei motif for further
development measuring and policy planning. Equality, sustainability and empowerment were emphasized

252

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
Drawing from Amartya Sen's work on 'Human capabilities' an idea drawn from Aristotle a new
matrix was created to measure human development. The emphasis was that we need to enhance human well
being flourishing and not focus on growth of national income as a goal.

CHAPTER 1

People's choices have to be enlarged and they must have economic opportunities to make use of these

253

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

capabilities. States and countries would consider developments in terms of whether its people lead a long
healthy painless life or no are educated and knowledgeable and enjoy decent standards of living.
The intuitive idea behind the capability is twofold according to Martha Nussbaum (2003) first, that
there are certain functions that are particularly central to human life. Second, that there is something do
these in a truly human way, not a mere animal way. The list of capabilities that she draws is cross-cultural
CHAPTER 1

as necessary element of truly human functioning. They include:

254

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Life-being able to live to the end of human life of normal length: not dying prematurely, or before
one's life is so reduced as to be not worth living.

Bodily health being able to have good health including reproductive health, to be adequately

CHAPTER 1

nourished, to have adequate shelter.

255

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Bodily integrity Being able to move freely from place to place, to be secure against violent

assault, including sexual assault and domestic violence; having opportunities for sex satisfaction
and for choice in matters of reproduction.

Senses, imagination and thought Being able to use the sense, to imagine, think and reason in a
truly human way including but not limited to literacy. Being able to use one's mind and imagination

CHAPTER 1

protected by freedom of expression.

256

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Emotions being able to have attachments, to love, to grieve to experience longing gratitude and
justified anger. Not having one's emotional development blighted by fear and anxiety.

Practical Reason Being able to form a conception of the good and to engage in critical reflection

CHAPTER 1

about planning of one's life's protected by liberty of conscience.

257

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Affiliation Being able to live with and toward others to have social interactions, to have the

capability of both justice and friendship. This would entail freedom of assembly and free speech.
Having social bases for self-respect and non-humiliation, being protected against discrimination on
the basis of race, sex sexual orientation religion caste or region.

CHAPTER 1

258

Other species Being able to concern with nature.

Play being able to laugh, play and enjoy.

Control over one's environment.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

a) Political. Being able to participate effectively in political choices that govern one's life, having the
right to political participation, protection of free speech and association.
CHAPTER 1

b) Material. Being able to hold property to seek employment on equal bases and having freedom from

259

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

unwarranted search and seizure. In work, being able to work as a human being, exercising practical
reason and entering into meaningful relationships of mutual recognition with the workers.
These capabilities cover the so called "first generation rights" (political & civil liberties) as well as the
"second generation rights" (economic and social rights0. It has been emphasized that women all over the
world have been short shifted and have not found support for their central human functions. Women are
CHAPTER 1

capable of these functions given sufficient, nutrition, education and other support. Women are most often

260

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

not treated as subjects. Women are as capable as men of exercising will, controlling desires and taking

decisions but males enjoy support of social institutions and women are excluded as the 'other'. Women are
often not treated as "ends in themselves" persons with dignity who deserve respect from laws and
institutions instead they are treated instrumentally as reproducers, caregivers, sexual receivers, agents of
family's general prosperity.
Human development report since 1999 demonstrate that practically no country in the world treats its
CHAPTER 1

women as well as men according to the measures of life expectancy wealth and education. Developing

261

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

countries present especially urgent problems where caste and class result in acute failure of human
capabilities of women. Women in this part of south East Asia lack essential support for fully functioning
human lives. Within the country there are many issues to be addressed closely.
5.1.1 GDI: Inter State Comparison

CHAPTER 1

The virtues of a measure such as the GDI, which can project the status of women by encapsulating

262

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

achievements in three basis dimensions, soon become clear to policy makers. It spurred efforts to rank

States in India by calculating their GDI (Shiv Kumar 1966, Seeta Prabhu, Sarkar and Radha 1996; Aasha
Kapur Mehta 1996; Hirway and Mahadevia 1996). A comparison of the HDI and GDI reveal that in Punjab,
Haryana, Bihar. West Bengal and Rajasthan development has been inequitous and women did not get equal
share in the development. For Uttar Pradesh which has the lowest HDI rank as well as the lowest GDI rank,
the challenge is to see how men and women can more from being equal partners in slow development to
CHAPTER 1

partners in dynamic growth.

263

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
Empowerment of women is a commitment for PACS and some others strategic programmes, while
developing strategies for empowering women some programmes are sensitive to recognizing women's
contribution and their knowledge as the first step. The appreciate that women require principally social
support to fight their sense of inadequacy and fears to enhance their self-respect and dignity. Empowering
women means control over their bodies and becoming economically independent, controlling resources like
CHAPTER 1

land and property and reduction of burden of work. A society or programme which aims at women's

264

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

empowerment needs to create and strengthen sisterhood and to promote overall nurturing, caring and
gentleness. PACS emphasis on emphasis on women SHG's as a collective is one such efforts. Being
conference 1995 had identified certain quantitative and qualitative indicators of women empowerment.

CHAPTER 1

5.1.2 Beijing conference 1995 indicators of women empowerment, qualitative &

quantitative Qualitative:
Increase in self-esteem, individual and collective confidence;

265

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Increase in articulation, knowledge and awareness on health, nutrition reproductive rights, law and

literacy;
Increase an decrease in personal leisure time and time for child care;
Increase on decrease of work loads in new programmes;
Change in roles and responsibility in family & community;
Visible increase on decrease in violence on women and girls;
Responses to, changes in social customs like child marriage, dowry, discrimination against widows;
Visible changes in women's participation level attending meeting, participating and demanding
CHAPTER 1

participation;

266

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Increase in bargaining and negotiating power at home, in community and the collective;
Increase access to and ability to gather information;
Formation of women collectives;
Positive changes in social attitudes;
Awareness and recognition of womens economic contribution within and outside the household.
Women s decision-making over her work and income.

CHAPTER 1

Quantitative indicators:

267

A. demographic trends
maternal mortality rate

fertility rate

sex ratio

life expectancy at birth

average age of marriage

CHAPTER 1

268

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

B. Number of women participating in different development programmers

C. Greater access and control over community resources/government schemescrche, credit cooperative, non formal education
D. Visible change in physical health status and nutritional level
E. Change in literacy and & enrollment levels
CHAPTER 1

F. Participation levels of women in political processMonitorable targets for the Tenth Plan and beyond had

269

certain key issues related to gender.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

All children in school by 2003; all children to complete five years of schooling by 2007.

Reduction of gender gaps in literacy and wage rates by at least 50% by 2007.

Reduction of IMR to 45 per 1000 live births by 2007 and 28 by 2012.

Reduction of maternal mortality ratio (MMR) to 2 per 1000 live births by 2007 onto to by 2012.

CHAPTER 1

270

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
India's declining sex ratio caused through foeticide, infanticide and systematic neglect requires urgent and
comprehensive action. It is well evidenced that low literacy, endemic under nutrition and social inequality
are closely related gender inequality is a crucial antecedent to endemic undernutrition.

CHAPTER 1

5.1.3 Education:

271

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Women's education is extremely important intrinsically as it is their human right and required for the
flourishing of many of their capacities.
It is, however, noticed that most programmes for education of girls and women in India have

reinforced Gender roles specially motherhood in curriculum as well as impact evaluation. The huge study of
nearly 94% of India's population done by Drez and others looks at female literacy and its negative and
CHAPTER 1

statistically significant impact on child mortality.

272

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
The questions of power are interlinked and we understand that what is necessary is both objective
power in terms of economic resources, laws, institutional roles and norms held by others as well as
subjective power in terms of self efficacy and entitlements. Empowerment of women is closely related to
formal and informal sources of education. Late 19

th

century & 20th century reformers advocated women's

education as a principal strategy to answer the 'women's question'. Many innovative efforts are accelerated
CHAPTER 1

after the NPE. In UP a renewal process of correcting gender stereotyping was initiated in 1998 looking at

273

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

textbooks and training besides infrastructure and community mobilization. There is marked improvement in
girls enrollment and steady decline in drop out rates.
Despite statistically positive trends closer studies show that privileged spaces in classrooms are

occupied by boys. Girls are rarely addressed by their names. Girls sit in last rows in classes of mathematics
and rarely muster courage enough to come close to the board where the teacher sits (usually a male in most
remote areas? Private school initiative for gender concerns is rare Madarsas have large number of girls but
CHAPTER 1

like convents and Arya Kanya Pathshala's gender transformation is not their agenda. Moral science text

274

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

books still have preponderance of men. Women as agents of social reform are not mentioned. CSO efforts

have very often shown greater enhancement of girls self-esteem but in many cases there is poor cognitive
development generally attributed to low paid, low qualified but highly motivated instructor. Kanya Vidya
Dhan, free uniforms, mid-day meal, school attached crche, mothers meetings have all had positive results.
In various surveys conducted by ISST it has been apparent that parental apathy or opposition to
CHAPTER 1

girl child education is fast reading even in traditional male dominated states of north Indian. Given the right

275

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

infrastructure-schools located in neighbourhoods, preferably with female teachers parents would allow girls
to study "as long as they would like to". It may however be noticed as evidenced by researchers, the same
families who are willing to see girls in college react violently if the girl decides to choose her partner in
marriage or challenge other norms of feminine behavior.

CHAPTER 1

5.1.4 Health:

276

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

2005-06 National Family Health Survey (NFHS 3) conducted through 18 research organizations
between 2005 December and August 2006 provides us with several important data based insights not

provided by earlier surveys. There has been a steady increase in institutional delivery percentages from
NFHS 1 to 3 from 26 to 41 the increase in rural from 17 to 31 is more promising than urban from 58 to
69. Overall fertility rate has declined from 3.4 to 2.7. The states of Punjab and Maharashtra have reached
the replacement level of fertility, i.e. around 2 children per woman. Women in Chatisgarh and Orrissa are
CHAPTER 1

expected to have an average of about 2.5 children at current fertility rates. The urban areas in five states

277

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

studied by NFHS, Chattisgarh, Gujrat, Maharashtra, Orissa and Punjab have reached below replacement
level fertility. There is a difference between the fertility of women with no education and those with 10 or

more years of schooling. Trends in antenatal care have remained more or less constant in NFHS 1 and 2
between rural and urban women but have increased from 65 to 77% total. The five state study shows
regional imbalances in post natal care from only 23 per cent in Chhatisgarh to 54-59 per cent in

CHAPTER 1

Maharashtra, Punjab and Gujrat.

278

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

More than 40% ever married women and about one third men in orissa and Gujrat are thin for

their height, undernutrition is much lower in Punjab (12-14%) obesity is the major problem in Punjab 38%
women are overweight. Overweight or obese women percfedntage hjas incrfeased in the last 7 years from
16 to 20 per cent in Gujrat from 12 to 17 per cent in Maharashtra and from 4 to 7 per cent in Orissa. The
extent of overweight is greater in women than men. Overall 14.8% women are obese. Except in Punjab in
the other states more than 50 per cent of the children of women without any education are underwseight.
CHAPTER 1

The percentage of anaemia ranges from 38% in Punjab to 63% in Orissa. Anaemia prevalence is alarming
among pregnant women 57.9 which is more than last recorded 49.7%. 33% of women still have BMI below

279

5.1.5 Political Participation:

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Women's political participation has been considered a major measure of women's empowerment.
Globally, through histories of the world we have records of very few regents, sovereigns, and active agents
in nobility who were women. Champions of liberalism like John Stuart Mill had advocated women's
participation in governance by the struggle for women suffrage in the self avowed liberal west very well
CHAPTER 1

illustrates the entrenched nature of Patriarchical resistance to women's empowerment. In the last century

280

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

more women heads of state could be counted in Asia as compared to Europe and the struggle for women
suffrage in India was physically less violent but this is not reflective of greater acceptance of women in
decision-making in public spaces.
To measure women's empowerment now GEM takes 3 indicators, women's participation in economic,

political and professional activities. Within political power what is measured is mainly women in
CHAPTER 1

parliament, judiciary or in local bodies. Women's empowerment or disempowerment has to be seen in all

281

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

areas physical, socio cultural religious, political legal and economic.

It is also now often pointed out that women's empowerment must be seen as a process where in we
must consider women's awareness consciousness, choices with live alternatives, resources at their disposal,
voice, agency and participation. These are all related to enhancement of women's capabilities and decisions
they take individually or collectively for themselves.

CHAPTER 1

Several programmes in India like Mahila Samakhya have accepted the process nature of women's

282

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

empowerment. The understandings of empowerment in PACS has also been similar but planning of activity,
time and budgets to ensure the empowering processes need greater scrutiny. Women's education, livelihood
and personal exercise of agency have to be systematically promoted .

The 73 rd and 74th Amendments of the Constitution have impacted nearly 600 million Indian people in
500,000 villages. Interestingly the percentage of women at various levels of political activity have risen
CHAPTER 1

from 4-5% to 25-40%. Both nationally as well as at the state and local levels women in elected bodies have

283

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

been very few and even those who have been elected when observed from closer quarters present a complex

picture. The money and muscle associated with the electoral process inhibits a large number of women from
joining politics. Restriction on mobility, lack of control over resources and low literacy rates are well
known obstacles but recent panchayat elections have evidenced a phenomenally large number of elected
leaders much beyond reserved 33% seats. Areas where PACS, Mahila Samakhya or other CSO initiatives
are working women are more articulate and vigilant and have used opportunity to improve ICPS centres,
CHAPTER 1

primary schools sanitation and have also publicly dealt with issues of misbehavour with girls, violence and

284

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

alcoholism as well as sensitive issues of widowed women dressing in coloured clothes. Women are
increasingly demanding not only basis but also land literacy and fuller longer trainings instead of being
short changed through orientations.
It is obvious that a more active Gram Sabha which is sensitive to women's specific issues is a much

desired goal as a woman sarpanch or BDC member in a gender hostile panchayat may not be able to
CHAPTER 1

accomplish and sustain much for the benefit of women or the village community at large. More women in

285

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

grass root organizations; better law and order will ensure better engagement of women in decision-making.

More than one million women have now entered political life in India and 43% of the seats are
occupied by them district, province and national level. Women's participation is understood in terms of
voter turn out, number of women contestants apart from the number of those who succeeded in winning.

CHAPTER 1

In an interesting study sponsored by State Planning Commission in U.P. 2006 about 45% women

286

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

both rural and urban reported being influenced by men of the family (father/husband) in decision- making

in the exercise of their ballot. 9 per cent reported external influence while 46 per cent exercise independent
choice.
However, the battle to make the PRI's affective instruments of local rural governance is a battle, a
struggle of the grass roots, population (women and men) against administrative apathy and listlessness,
CHAPTER 1

against ignorance and low awareness. For women these odds are accompanied and intermeshed with deep

287

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

rooted patriarchal practices that determine and sanction norms of speech and behaviour both within and
outside the home.
Thus while Pre election trainings of voluntary organisations and CSVOs serve to build awareness
about the duties, responsibilities of PR's and about voting practices, the presence and working of women's
voluntary organisations at the grass roots have served to sharpen women's understanding about the
CHAPTER 1

operation of patriarchy in personal lives and work places and the methods and practices to overcome and

288

combat them individually and collectively.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Organisations such as Mahila Samakhya working to conscientise and organise women in groups
and sanghas are able to address the issue of women and their participation in a two fold manner. On the one
hand they organise intensive training programmes for women PRI representatives to make them effective
functionaries and on the other hand tghere own programmes with their members within there collectives
CHAPTER 1

serve to build a culture of questioning, critical thinking, collective decision-making and mobilisation on

289

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

public issues. A mobilised community of women is thus able to raise issues of significance to the local

community within the meetings, demand accountably from representatives and administrative officials
regarding financial and procedural matters and intervene with creative suggestions.
It is thus that the dominance of patriarchy money power, party politics muscle power are steadily
undercut and eroded and women's concerns are gradually pushed to the forefront of local politics.

CHAPTER 1

Drawing from intensive discussions at the level of sanghas and mahasanghas and the experiences

290

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

culled called from functionaries and from trainings, Mahila Samakhya has drawn out learnings to

strengthen women's participation in the Panchayats. A memorandum incorporating these has been presented
to the Panchayat Raj Department. It states
It is imperative to inscribe the budget for the village on the Panchayat Bhawan.

CHAPTER 1

Thefre should be rules and strategies to train and activate women members who have been elected

291

to the post of Pradhans or members.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

There should be strict rules for ensuring the participation of 2/3 voters in the open meeting.

CHAPTER 1

the signatures of the people in the executive register of the open meeting should be ensured.

292

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

It should be compulsory for the Pradhan/Secretary to sit in the panchayat Bhawan.

The development plan should be widely disseminated so that it can reach the general public.

CHAPTER 1

The dates and time of the panchayat meetings in the state of U.P. should be decided in advance.

293

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

The venue of the meeting should be either the Panchayat Bhawan ofr a public place, to enable all
gram sabha members to present their problems.
Thus it is apparent that women see effective and efficient functioning of panchayats closely linked to the
issue of active women's participation. (Mahila Samakhya U.P. Annual Report 20045-05.

CHAPTER 1

Entry into public space, utilisation of authority in practice, trainings by government and non-

294

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

government agencies are all part of a process of gradual growth of knowledge, self -esteem and
empowerment, which gives women the agency to function effectively in the political process.
Even proxy and dummy candidates may experience this process of empowerment women who stand
and win from general seats are more likely to have a higher commitment towards, and an understanding of

CHAPTER 1

the political process.

295

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Having a high participation of women at the local self government level can create an environment

which is enabling for other women, receptive to the idea of gender based initiatives and can serve to
monitor and implement community and gender based programmes of the government related to education,
nutrition and health.
It offers a potential opportunity which can be utilised at an optimum level by appropriate trainings both
CHAPTER 1

capacity binding and information enhancing by government departments and the NGO Sector.

296

5.1.6 Decision-Making:

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

In terms of decision-making NFHS II had reported in the rural areas women take 71%
decisions regarding "what items to cook" 26% decisions regarding obtaining health care fro herself 10% in
purchasing jewellery or other major household items. 12% decisions were taken by women with reference
to staying with their parents or siblings and 37% about how to spend money, which they had earned. In the
CHAPTER 1

urban areas these figures were 71%, 35%, 13%, 18% and 57% respectively. Women between ages 15 to 19

297

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

nearly 24% are not involved in any kind of decision-making only. 14% do not ask permission to go to the
market. In rural sector 10% are involved with any decision-making and 74% need permission for going to
the market. In urban sector however only 7% are not involved with any decision-making and 53% need

permission for going to the market. Survey reports that of the 52% illiterate women 74% of urban resident
and 55% of rural resident have access to money. Small studies on elected Panchayat leaders show episodic
increase of their decision-making in personal, social and political spaces. Studies of the NFHS scale are
CHAPTER 1

necessary to retrieve such data specially in PACs programme areas. This could be done with reference to

298

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

internal lending of SHG's as well as leveraging through other agencies in terms of both economic status

enhancement and their decision- making. Interestingly some studies reflect that women's working outside
home in paid job does not always translate into appreciably greater autonomy within the household for most
women. In a sample study at Sonepat and Noida 66% need to consult somebody and take permission before
changing jobs 27.6% women in Noida and 35.3% in Sonepat said they are allowed to buy nothing at all.

CHAPTER 1

Working outside home women do believe that they have more experience (91.6%), enlarged social

299

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

networks (48.3%) and stronger personality (32.2%) and an increased self esteem 985.3%) besides their

decision-making power (62.2%). The researchers however observe that objective state of affairs do not bear
this out and women's decision-making is concentrated to making small purchases. In buying and selling
assets they have no say.
Methodologically here there is a dilemma about privileging of perspective that of the responmdent or
CHAPTER 1

that of the urban middle class educated researcher. This is particularly pertinent as the sense of being

300

empowered is also importantly about "feeling empowered".

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

5.1.7 Self Help Groups:

PACS programme has largely utilized SHG's as an empowsering instrument. More than 80% of these are
exclusively for women. The fifth national synthesis report (Draft) reports that official perception has

CHAPTER 1

changed as SHG's are firmly raising voices and SHG's are being used to achieve RTI awareness:

301

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
> Women members are elected as PRI representatives.
> SHG/PRIs are regularly organising Gram Sabha as a forum for public appraisal.
Anecdotal accounts suggest that women are economically empowered those suffering domestic violence are
CHAPTER 1

given legal reference and awareness to prevent child marriage promote girls education and prevent dowry

302

marriage and alcoholism.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Self-help groups have emerges as an important strategy for empowering women and alleviating
poverty. SHG's are based on idea of dialogic small groups, which shall function at developing collective
consciousness. Linked with micro credit these groups are able to access credit and subsidy to meet crisis
needs as well as developmental needs reducing their dependence on money lenders. There is fair amount of
CHAPTER 1

evidence to suggest that PACS SHG's have successfully ensured people's entitlements including women.

303

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
Statistically PAC's initiatives in realizing entitlements show that In Balika Samriddhi Yojana 189
females have been benefitted rfealizing 2572400 Rs. in Employment Guarantee Scheme 55397 women have
been provided, 1271 girls enrolled and 9524 women provided Indira Awas Yojna. Kanya Vidya Dhan has
been availed by 131 girls while Mahila Samridhi Yojana has benefitted 7 women. Maternity benefits have
reached 2943 women and NFE educated 862 women. Old age pension went to 7774 women while no
CHAPTER 1

woman benefitted from the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojna. Sam Vikas Yojna benefitted 975 women compared

304

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

to 467 men Bridge courses benefitted 740 girls. Widow pension was ensured to 2948 women and 217
women get yellow cards.
The realization of entitlements has been primarily through RTI, NREGS and the women further train

communities. in Jharkhand a large number of women were trained in social audit. In total number of
beneficiaries of entitlement 13342 women in Bihar 156217 in Jharkhand 19906 women in Maharashtra
CHAPTER 1

18762 in M.P. and Chhattisgarh and 55114 in U.P. were reached. Men have however benefitted more except

305

in Bihar.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

5.1.8 Violence:
The questions regarding crimes against women are most entrenched, as most of them are committed
within the family NCRB records that the highest percdentage of crime against women is torture (37.7%)

CHAPTER 1

followed by Moleslation (22.4%), Rape (11.8%), Kidnapping (8.8%) and immoral traffic (3.7%). 4.6 Dowry

306

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Death and 6.5% eve teasing were recorded. the further details report that in victims of rape 532 were below
10 and 1090 below 14. 3189 within ages of 30-50. No age is safe for women. In U.P. nearly 32% crimes

against women were committed within the family by husbands and relatives. This figure when compounded
with 12% dowry deaths makes 45% of crimes domestically located. Incidents of honour killings and battery
through not large are often threats to women's functioning and their emotional development is severely
blighted. In caste ridden society women's caste membership increase her vulnerability. Small efforts to train
CHAPTER 1

police by UN agencies and state initiatives are encouraging but very small in scale. They require follow-ups

307

and support monitoring.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

5.1.9 Women and Work:

Women's work is statistically less visible non monetized and relegated to subsistence production and
domestic side this accounts for 60% of unpaid family work and 98% of domestic work. The non paid work

CHAPTER 1

includes domestic chares like cooking, cleaning, child care aand care for the elderly and the handicapped-

308

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

traditonally understood as women's work. Subsistence activities like pitches gardening post harvest

processing, feeding farm hands, live stock maintenance, gathering of fuel, forest produce, unpaid family
labour in family farm or enterprise are done by women who are reported to be non working housewives
Census estimates 51.93% men & 25% women workers while NSS estimates 52.7 male and 25.68 female
workers. Most men are in stable employment. Micro studies report many challenges 20 out of 104 women
reported in a survey as non working were actually winnowwwing, thrashing or paraboling (WB). S.
CHAPTER 1

Mukhopadhyaya in her study reports 4 times more work participation in her study. Female work

309

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

participation rate in U.P. is reported as 11% with a Gender gap of 52% equal to. West Bengal but less than

Punjab. 56% women are in community service 17% in Manufacturing & 8.6 rural women in agriculture.
Only 4% women as against 10% men are in the formal sector. If women's work is rendered visible specially
unpaid household work there will be many dramatic results. Studies show that working women but 664
hours & others put 872 hours on child care, womens' share of work in 55% women's unpaid work is 51%
while men's is 33%. R. Malathy's extrapolation estimates 23,773 core as the value of wowmen's household
CHAPTER 1

reserve rendered by women in the urban sector alone. From 17% women's contribution will increase to 33%
of agricultural earning will include unpaid household work. Restriction on women's mobility, complete

310

5.1.10 Women and Reforms:

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

It is often argued that economic reforms have had a differential gender impact but there are further
complexities. The reforms have meant more openness in trade regime and progressive decontrol of
domestic production sector. There seems a steady withdrawal of state presence from the production sector
arguing that this would promote greater efficiency and accountability. There has however been much protest
CHAPTER 1

that this will leave labour more vulnerable as profit motive alone drives the market. Market argue that since

311

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

women are crowded towards the bottom end of labour market they will be more adversely impacted. The

55th round of National Sample Survey organization (1999-2000) generally reflects that over the years
specially in urban areas gender differences in the structure of industrial and occupational distributions and
distribution of labour status categories seems to have lessened. There is higher demand of female labour in
some sectors which can be linked to a thrust towards export orientation and deregulation in the domestic
production sector. According to Swapna Mukhopadhyaya changes in structure of job opportunities have not
CHAPTER 1

translated into overall reduction in the degree of market segmentation along gender lines. There is marginal

312

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

decrease in employment of men and marginal increase for women in urban India. Educated women in the
labour market who are unemployed are for more than their male counterparts 62.7% unemployed women in
rural areas as compared to 56.9% men. It seems IT enabled sectors in recent years may have benefitted
educated women. There is not enough reliable data but persistently low wages of women to the tune of 50%
to 80% compare to men suggest systematic wage discrimination. Wage earnings in casual female workers in
1999-2000 were 64.70% of corresponding male earnings in rural India are even lower at 60.57% in urban
CHAPTER 1

India. 2005 HDR reports that women spend 457 minutes at work as compared to 391 minutes per day for
men.

313

5.1.11 Ownership of Land:

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

A recent legislation of the Central Government, the Hindu succession Amendment Act 2005 has also
moved towards women's equality in property rights. It makes Hindu women's inheritance rights in
agricultural land legally equal to those of men. All daughters including married daughters age Co-parceners
in joint family properly daughters now have the right to claim partition and to become 'Karta'. All
CHAPTER 1

daughters, married or unmarried can reside, seek partition of the parental dwelling place.

314

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
This law of the centre well have the power to displace any conflicting laws of the state which are
unequal to women. this is a far reaching message to assure women control over property.
According to a recent study made by Bina Agarwal in Kerala, women's risk of physical violence from
husbands is dramatically less of they own hand or a house. The incidence of violence is 49 per cent among
CHAPTER 1

women without property, but 18 per cent among land owning women and 7 per cent of they own both land

315

and house.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Recent initiative of the state of U.P. (ordinance of 23 Feb. 2006) regarding the reduction of stamp
duty on the purchase of land from 7 per cent 6 per cent has worked in the direction of more land being
bought in the name of women in the family. This transfer of asset in favour of women though initially used
by male members of the family to save family money will gradually contribute to build women's agency.
CHAPTER 1

2,97715 transactions have been done in the name of women in 68 districts of Uttar Pradesh between April

316

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

2006 and August 2006. The women move out of their homes to sign the papers in Tehsils and in many cases

it is their first exposure to an office. This initiative developed with women's trainings on legal, land and
human rights literacy will go a long way.
However, this effectiveness is greatly linked with the willingness of the state administration to devolve
effective administrative and financial power to the local self-governing units, and the responsiveness and
CHAPTER 1

sensitivity of the lower echelons of the administrative machinery to the aspiration and needs of the local

317

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

population. Alcohol has not favoured women and increase in indirect taxes has also impacted them poorly.
The thrust of budgets also seems to push people to private providers.
Government schemes could be seen as Relief policies like widow pension schemes. Gender reinforcing

assistance like mother support schemes in health and Empowering schemes for women to demand and

CHAPTER 1

enjoy full human rights.

318

5.1.12 State Initiatives:

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Development writers are so often used to repeating that focus of women development in India has shifted
from 'welfare' in the 50's to development in the 70's and now to empowerment. This is hardly borne out in
the programmes on the ground. There are largely schemes for relief like old age and widowhood schemes
and major schemes related to Gender reinforcing assistance related to reproduction National Institute of
CHAPTER 1

Public Finance and Policy undertook the first gender budget exercise and categorized expenditure in 3

319

categories.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

5.1.13 National Institute of Public Finance & Policy Gender Analysis of the
Budget

CHAPTER 1

NIPFP undertook the first gender budget exercise and categorized expenditure in 3 categories.

320

1. Specifically targetted expenditure on women.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

2. Pro women allocation composite expenditure in the women component (at least 30%).
3. Mainstream expenditure with gender differential impact.
It was understood that public expenditure can be clustered in terms of 4 categories:
a) Protective and welfare services accounting for 67%
CHAPTER 1

b) Social service-education, water housing health 26%

321

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

c) Economic resources-self employment training fuel supply management 4%

d) Regulatory services awareness generation NCW 3%

Allocation for women directed scheme is pitiful. Only ten ministries/Departments have specially targetted
schemes for women in India. The share of women specific programmes in departments like education,
agriculture, tribal affairs and social justice is also only around one percent. No proper administrative
CHAPTER 1

mechanism for execution and monitoring of expenditure. Heads still under ruberic of benefits for mother

322

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

and child. Shelter homes and counselling centres are still low on priority. NIPF observed that reduction in
cost of foreign liquour has not positively impacted them.
It is, however, necessary that even though schemes are relief oriented the process of accessing them has

often been an individual and collected struggle which has sometimes led to empowerment and at others
disheartening. PACS strategy of collective pressure to access public resources for women has largely been
CHAPTER 1

empowering though anecdotal.

323

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
There are several critical issues to ensure a just an equitable state with reference to gender. Some issues
are not addressable due to procedural limitations of data collection which makes specific recommendations
difficult. There is need to develop a workable gender audit system for govt. & CSO programmes which
would look at targets, training recruitments promotion, infrastructure and decision making opportunities.
The verbal change from women welfare to women rights needs to be converted into reality. This has some
CHAPTER 1

direct fall outs. Pitiful allotment for Vriddha and Vidva Pension and minimum wages will have to be

324

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

reconsidered in terms of living wages, recent work and human right to opportunities for highest form of
physical and mental health.
Greatest inequity exits in family but poverty alleviation schemes address only the family. Just as one
poverty calculation takes per capita consumption it should also address per capita income enhancement not

CHAPTER 1

family.

325

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Gender budgets need participation of other departments besides the existing ones. Gender auditing of
all organizations is necessary.
As is evidenced in many studies level of awareness of government schemes is very low so more

effective publicity is necessary. A more effective MIS system for monitoring women welfare, women
empowerment programmes is to be developed which is simple, transparent and involves both government
CHAPTER 1

and non government functionaries. Gender resource centres with autonomy need to be established in all

326

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

states and in case of larger states there must be more than one such centre involving academic & activities.

Practically no schemes exist to encourage women in non stero typical occupations. Training of
women in leadership market research and entrepreneurship with follow ups must be institutionalized. At the
national as well as state levels we need a full fledged mechanism to ensure gender sensitive policy,
implementation through a participatory apex body. Clearer definition of work, Joint Pattas for women &
CHAPTER 1

men will ensure better control of women over resources as well as their acknowledgement in National

327

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

income. Country's inclusive agenda requires a consistent engendering at all levels.

5.2 International Policies and Indias Constitutional Provisions,

Policies and Programmes for Women

CHAPTER 1

5.2.1 UN Human Rights Instruments

328

 Universal Declaration of Human Rights - adopted in 1948

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights adopted in 1966 / entered into
force in 1976, monitored by the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR)
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination - adopted in
1965 / entered into force in 1969, monitored by the Committee on the Elimination of Racial
Discrimination (CERD)
CHAPTER 1

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women - adopted in 1979 /

329

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

entered into force in 1981, monitored by the Committee on CEDAW

Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment adopted in 1984 / entered into force in 1987, monitored by Committee Against Torture (CAT)
Convention on the Rights of the Child - adopted in 1989 / entered into force in 1990, monitored by

CHAPTER 1

the Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC)

330

5.2.2 Commitments at UN Conferences

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

World Conference on Education for All (1990) Jomtien

UN Conference on Environment and Development (1992) Rio de Janiero
Second UN World Conference on Human Rights (1993) Vienna

CHAPTER 1

International Conference on Population and Development (1994) Cairo

331

 World Summit on Social Development (1995) Copenhagen

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Fourth World Conference on Women (1995) Beijing

Second UN Conference on Human Settlements (1996) Istanbul
World Food Summit (1997) Rome

CHAPTER 1

Education for All Dakar Framework (2000) Dakar

332

5.2.3 Constitution of India Guarantees

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Equality Before Law for Women (Article 14)

The State not to discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex,
place of birth or any of them [Article 15 (I)]

CHAPTER 1

The State to make any special provision in favour of women and children [Article 15 (3)]

333

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office
under the State (Article 16)

The State to direct its policy towards securing for men and women equally the right to an adequate
means of livelihood [Article 39 (a)]; and equal pay for equal work for both men and women [Article
39 (d)]

To promote justice, on a basis of equal opportunity and to provide free legal aid by suitable

CHAPTER 1

legislation or scheme or in any other way to ensure that opportunities for securing justice are not denied

334

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

to any citizen by reason of economic or other disabilities [Article

39A)

The State to make provision for securing just and humane conditions of work and for maternity
relief (Article 42)
The State to promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections
of the people and to protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation (Article 46)
CHAPTER 1

The State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living of its people and the improvement

335

of Public Health (Article 47)

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of
India and to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women [Article 51(A) (e)]

Not less than one-third (including the number of seats reserved for women belonging to the
scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes) of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election
in every panchayat to be reserved for women and such seats to be allotted by rotation to different

CHAPTER 1

constituencies in a panchayat [Article 243 D (3)]

336

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Not less than one-third of the total number of offices of chairpersons in the panchayats at each level to
be reserved for women [Article 243 D (4)]

Not less than one-third (including the number of seats reserved for women belonging to the
scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes) of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election
in every municipality to be reserved for women and such seats to be allotted by rotation to different
constituencies in a municipality [Article 243 T (3)]

CHAPTER 1

337

Reservation of offices of chairpersons in municipalities for the scheduled castes, the scheduled

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

tribes and women in such manner as the legislature of a State may by law provide [Article 243 T (4)]

5.3 SCHEMES FOR ASSISTANCE

5.3.1 Ministry of Women and Child Development

CHAPTER 1

> Support to Training and Employment Programme (STEP)

> Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent Girls (RGSEAG)
> Swawlamban, erstwhile Setting up of Employment and Income Generating Training- cum-

338

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

>
>
>
>

Production Units for Women (NORAD)

Construction/Expansion of Hostel Building for Working Women with a Day Care Centre(WWH)
Balika Samriddhi Yojana (BSY)
National Programme for Adolescent Girls (Kishori Shakti Yojana)
Shishu Greh Scheme (Erstwhile - Homes for Infants and Young Children for Promotion of In-

CHAPTER 1

Country Adoption)
>Integrated Scheme for Street Children
> Scheme for Welfare of Working Children in Need of Care and Protection
> Prevention and Control of Juvenile Maladjustment

339

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

> Integrated Child Protection Scheme (ICPS)

> Conditional Cash Transfer Scheme for the Girl Child with Insurance Cover
> General Grant-in-Aid for Voluntary Organisations in the Field of Women and Child

CHAPTER 1

>
>
>
>
>

340

Development
National Mission of Empowerment of Women
Scheme for Leadership Development of Minority Women
Conditional Maternity Benefit Scheme
Other Programmes (Relief to and Rehabilitation of Rape Victims)
Education Scheme, Food and Nutrition Board (FNB)

>
>
>
>

Ujjawala, Scheme for Combating Trafficking

Nutrition Programme for Adolescent Girls (NPAG)
Wheat Based Nutrition Programme
Anganwadi Karyakati Bima Yojana

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

5.3.2 Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB)

> General Grant-in-Aid for Voluntary Organisations in the field of Women and Child
CHAPTER 1

Development

341

> Mahila Mandal Programme (MMP)

> Short Stay Homes for Women and Girls (SSH)
> Socio-Economic Programme (SEP)

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Other Schemes

CHAPTER 1

> Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS)

> The Swa-Shakti Project, a scheme for Rural Womens Development and Empowerment
> Swadhar, Scheme for Women in Difficult Circumstances

342

>
>
>
>
>

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (Credit for Women)

Scheme for Rescue of Victims of Trafficking
Priyadarshini, Womens Empowerment and Livelihood Programme in the Mid Gangetic Plains
Innovative Work on Women and Children
Scheme for Relief to and Rehabilitation of Victims of Rape

5.3.3 Ministry of Human Resource Development, Department of Education

CHAPTER 1

> Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)

343

CHAPTER 1

>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>

344

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

District Primary Education Programme (DPEP)

National Programme of Mid Day Meals in Schools
The Scheme for Providing Quality Education in Madrassas
Scheme for Infrastructure Development in Minority Institutions
Prarambhik Shiksha Kosh (PSK)
Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)
Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC)
Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary School (IEDSS)
Scheme of Vocationalisation of Education +2 Level
Scheme for Universal Access and Quality at the Secondary Stage (SUCCESS)

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

> National Scheme for Incentive to Girls for Secondary Education (SUCCESS)
> National Means cum Merit Scholarship Scheme (NMMS)
> Scheme for Construction and Running of Girls Hostel for Students of Secondary andnHigher

CHAPTER 1

>
>
>
>
>

345

Secondary Schools
Adult Education and Skill Development Scheme
Development of Womens Studies in Universities and Colleges
Schemes for Promotion of Higher Education for SC/ST/Minorities/OBC
Post Graduate Scholarships for Students belonging to SC/ST/Minorities/OBC
Post Doctoral Fellowship for Women

CHAPTER 1

>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>

346

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) for Special Groups

National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL)
Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV)
Kendriya Vidyalayas (KV)
Navodaya Vidyalayas (NV)
National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)
Focus on Minority Areas
National Literacy Mission (NLM)
Jan Shikhan Sansthan (JSS)
Mahila Samakhya : Education for Womens Equality

5.3.4 Ministry of Rural Development

CHAPTER 1

>
>
>
>
>
>
>

347

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)

Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY), including Food Grains Component
Assistance for Rural Employment Guarantee Schemes
National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP)
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA)
National Food for Work Programme (NFWP)
National Common Minimum Programme (NCMP)

CHAPTER 1

>
>
>
>
>
>
>

348

Central Rural Sanitation Programme (CRSP)

Cash Component for Food for Work Programme
Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY)
Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP)
Rural Sanitation
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY)
Provision of Urban Amenities in Rural Areas (PURA)

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

5.3.5 Ministry of Urban Development

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

> Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM)

> Water Supply and Sanitation
> Housing

CHAPTER 1

5.3.6 Ministry of Textiles

349

> Handloom Weavers Comprehensive Welfare Scheme

> Handicraft Artisans Comprehensive Welfare Scheme

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

5.3.7 Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation

CHAPTER 1

>
>
>
>

350

The Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY)

Jawahar Lal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM)
Interest Subsidy Schemes for Housing for Urban Poor (ISSHU)
Integrated Low Cost Sanitation Programme

> UNDP Assistance for National Strategy for Urban Poor

> Valmiki Ambedkar Awas Yojana (VAMBAY)
> Other Housing Schemes

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

5.3.8 Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment

CHAPTER 1

> Book Banks for Scheduled Caste Students

> Hostels for OBC Boys and Girls
> Hostels for Scheduled Caste Girls and Boys

351

CHAPTER 1

>
>
>
>
>
>
>

352

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Scheme of Pre-Matric Scholarship to the Children of Scheduled Castes and OBCs

Post Matric Scholarship to Students belonging to Scheduled Castes and OBCs
Scheme of Assistance to Voluntary Organisations for Welfare of Scheduled Castes
Scheme of Pre-examination Coaching for Weaker Sections based on Economic Criteria
Aids and Appliances for the Handicapped
Schemes for Implementation of Persons with Disability Act
Education Work for Prohibition and Drug Abuse Prevention

5.3.9 Ministry of Tribal Affairs

>
>
>
>
>

Schemes for Pre-Matric Scholarship (PMS), Book Bank and Upgradation of Merit of ST Students
Scheme of Top Class Education for Scheduled Tribe Students
Coaching and Allied Scheme for Scheduled Tribes
Scheme for Construction of Hostels for Scheduled Tribe Girls and Boys
Educational Complex in Low Literacy Pockets for Development of Womens Literacy in Tribal

CHAPTER 1

Areas

353

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

>
>
>
>

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Post Matric Scholarship for Scheduled Tribes Students

Scheme for the Development of Primitive Tribal Groups
Ashram Schools in Tribal Sub-Plan Area
ACA for Educational Development of Tribal Children in Schedule-V areas and Naxal- affected

areas
> National/State ST Finance and Development Corporations
> Scheme of Assistance to State Scheduled Tribes Finance and Development Corporation(STFDCs)
> Scheme of GrantInAid to Voluntary Organisations Working for Welfare of the Scheduled
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Tribes

354

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

> National Overseas Scholarship Scheme

> Village Grain Banks Scheme for Protection of Tribals from Starvation
> Vocational Training in Tribal Areas
5.3.10 Ministry of Science and Technology

CHAPTER 1

> Science and Technology Programmes for Socio - Economic Development

> Science and Technology Application Programme
> Tribal Sub-Plan and Scheduled Castes Sub-Plan for Development of Scheduled

355

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

> Caste Population

> National Science and Technology Entrepreneurship Development
5.3.11 Ministry of Health and Family Welfare

CHAPTER 1

>
>
>
>

356

Reproductive and Child Health Programme (Maternal Health and Child Health)
National Rural Health Mission (NRHM)
National Urban Health Mission (NUHM)
Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana for Primary Health Sector

CHAPTER 1

>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>

357

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Universal Immunization Programme

Pulse Polio Immunization Programme
Prophylaxis Programme to Prevent Blindness due to Vitamin A Deficiency
Prophylaxis Programme to Prevent Anaemia due to Iron Deficiency
Prophylaxis Programme to Prevent Iodine Deficiency Disorders (Goitre)
Janani Suraksha Yojana (National Maternity Benefit Scheme)
National Mental Health Programme
Rashtriya Arogya Nidhi (Financial Assistance to BPL Patients)
National AIDS Control Programme
National Diseases Control Programmes (TB, Leprosy, Malaria, etc.)

5.3.12 Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

> Assistance to National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC) for Cooperative

Development
> Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY)

CHAPTER 1

5.3.13 Ministry of Labour & Employment

358

>
>
>
>
>
>
>

CHAPTER 1

Insurance Scheme for Tea Plantation Workers in Assam

> Rajiv Gandhi Shramik Kalyan Yojana

359

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Labour Welfare Schemes

Improvement in Working Conditions of Child and Women Labour
Vocational Training for Women
Beedi Workers Welfare Fund
Cine Workers Welfare Fund
Employees Pension Scheme
Family Pension cum Life Insurance Scheme for Plantation Workers in Assam, Deposit link

>
>
>
>
>
>

CHAPTER 1

5.3.14 Ministry of Minority Affairs

360

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Diversification and Extension of Vocational Training Programmes for Women

Establishment of Regional Vocational Training Institutes (RVTI)
Establishment of Placement Cells and Conducting Training Needs Assessment
Grants-in-Aid for State Governments for Establishing Women Industrial Training Institutes(ITI)
Social Security (Health Insurance) for Unorganised Sector Workers
Rehabilitation of Bonded Labour

>
>
>
>
>

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Grants-in-Aid to Maulana Azad Education Foundation

Free Coaching and Allied Scheme for Minorities
Pre-Matric Scholarship for Minorities
Post Matric Scholarship for Minorities
Merit - cum - Means Scholarships for Professional and Technical Courses of

Undergraduate and Post Graduate Level

> Multi - Sectoral Development Programme for Minorities in Selected Minority

CHAPTER 1

Concentration Districts
> National Fellowship for Students for the Minorities Communities

361

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

> Schemes for Leadership Development of Minority Women

> Grants-in-Aid to Wakf
> National Minority Development and Finanace Corporation

5.3.15 Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution,

Department of Food and Public Distribution

CHAPTER 1

> Village Grain Bank Scheme

> Evaluation, Monitoring & Research in Food Grain Management and Strengthening of Public

362

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

>
>
>
>

Distribution System
Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS)
Antyodaya Anna Yojana
Mid-Day Meal Scheme (Implemented by Ministry of Human Resource Development)
Wheat Based Nutrition Programme (WBNP) (Implemented by Ministry of Women and Child

CHAPTER 1

Development under ICDS Scheme)

> Annapurna Scheme (Implemented by Ministry of Rural Development)
> Emergency Feeding Programme (EFP)
> Schemes for Supply of Foodgrains to Hostels/Welfare Institutions (5% of BPL Allocation)

363

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

> Schemes for Supply of Foodgrains for SC/ST/OBC Hostels

> Nutritional Programme for Adolescent Girls (NPAG) (Implemented by Ministry of Women and
Child Development)
5.3.16 Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises

CHAPTER 1

> Credit Support Programme

> Rajiv Gandhi Udyami Mitra Yojana

364

> Prime Ministers Employment Generation Programme

> Workshed Scheme for Khadi Artisans

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

5.3.17 Ministry of Law and Justice

CHAPTER 1

> Fast Tracks Courts

> Assistance to State Governments for Establishing and Operating Gram Nyayalayas

365

5.3.18 Policy Documents

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

> National Commission for Self Employed Women and Women in the Informal Sector: Shram

CHAPTER 1

>
>
>
>

366

Shakti Report 1988

Committee on Status of Women in India CSWI Towards Equality 1975
National Child Labour Policy 1987
National AIDS Control Policy 2002
National Commission on Women Act 1990

CHAPTER 1

>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>

367

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

National Health Policy 2002

National Nutrition Policy 1993
National Perspective Plan 1988
National Plan for Action 1976
National Plan of Action for the Girl Child (1992-2000) 1992
National Policy for the Empowerment of Women 2001
National Policy on Education 1986
National Population Policy 2000
Report of National Expert Committee on Women Prisoners 1987
National Charter for Children 2004

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

> National Plan of Action for Children 2005

> Protocol for Pre-Rescue, Rescue and Post-Rescue Operations of Child Victims of Trafficking
5.3.19 International Documents

CHAPTER 1

>
>
>
>

368

Beijing Declaration - Platform for Action

Declaration of Mexico Plan
Narobi Forward Looking Strategies
United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women

(UN CEDAW)

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

5.4 The Objectives of the National Policy for Empowerment of

Women include
(i) Creating an environment through positive economic and social policies for full development of

CHAPTER 1

women to enable them to realize their full potential

369

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

(ii) The de-jure and de-facto enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedom by women on
equal basis with men in all spheres - political, economic, social, cultural and civil

(iii) Equal access to participation and decision making of women in social, political and economic life
of the nation
(iv) Equal access to women to health care, quality education at all levels, career and vocational
guidance, employment, equal remuneration, occupational health and safety, social security and public
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office, etc.

370

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

(v) Strengthening legal systems aimed at elimination of all forms of discrimination against women

(vi) Changing societal attitudes and community practices by active participation and involvement of
both men and women
(vii) Mainstreaming a gender perspective in the development process
(viii) Elimination of discrimination and all forms of violence against women and the girl child; and
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(ix) Building and strengthening partnerships with civil society, particularly womens organizations

371

5.5 Critical Areas of Concern

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

A. Women and Poverty

o Strategic Objective: Review, adopt and maintain macroeconomic policies and
development strategies that address the needs and efforts of women in poverty.
o Revise laws and administrative practices to ensure womens equal rights and access to
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economic resources.

372

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

o Provide women with access to savings and credit mechanisms and institutions.
B. Education and Training of Women

o Ensure equal access to education

o Eradicate illiteracy among women
o Improve womens access to vocational training, science and technology, and
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continuing education

373

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

o Develop non-discriminatory education and training

o Allocate sufficient resources for and monitor the implementation of educational reforms
o Promote lifelong education and training for girls and women
C. Women and Health

o Increase womens access throughout the life cycle to appropriate, affordable and quality
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health care, information and related services

374

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

o Strengthen preventive programmes that promote womens health

o Undertake gender-sensitive initiatives that address sexually transmitted diseases,
HIV/AIDS, and sexual and reproductive health issues
o Increase resources and monitor follow-up for womens health
D. Violence against Women

CHAPTER 1

o Take integrated measures to prevent and eliminate violence against women

375

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

o Study the causes and consequences of violence against women and the
effectiveness of preventive measures
o Eliminate trafficking in women and assist victims of prostitution and trafficking.
E. Women and Armed Conflict
o Increase the participation of women in conflict resolution at decision-making levels and
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protect women living in situations of armed and other conflicts or under foreign occupation

376

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

o Reduce excessive military expenditures and control the availability of armaments

o Promote nonviolent forms of conflict resolution and reduce the incidence of human rights

abuse in conflict situations

o Promote womens contribution to fostering a culture of peace
o Provide protection, assistance and training to refugee women, other displaced women in

CHAPTER 1

need of international protection and internally displaced women

o Provide assistance to women of the colonies and non-self governing territories

377

F. Women and Economy

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

o Promote womens economic rights and independence, including access to

employment, appropriate working conditions and control over economic resources
o Facilitate womens equal access to resources, employment, markets and trade
o Provide business services, training and access to markets, information and

CHAPTER 1

technology, particularly to low income women

o Strengthen womens economic capacity and commercial networks

378

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

o Eliminate occupational segregation and all forms of employment discrimination

o Promote harmonization of work and family responsibilities for women
G. Women in Power and Decision-making

o Take measures to ensure womens equal access to and full participation in power

CHAPTER 1

structures and decision-making

o Increase womens capacity to participate in decision-making and leadership

379

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

H. Institutional Mechanisms for the Advancement of Women

o Create or strengthen national machineries and other government bodies

o Integrate gender perspectives in legislation, public policies, programmes and projects
o Generate and disseminate gender-disaggregated data and information for planning and

CHAPTER 1

evaluation

380

I. Human Rights of Women

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

o Promote and protect the human rights of women, through the full implementation of all
human rights instruments, especially the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of

CHAPTER 1

Discrimination Against Women

o Ensure equality and non-discrimination under the law and in practice
o Achieve legal literacy

381

J.

Women and the Media

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

o Increase the participation and access of women to expression and decision-making in and
through the media and new technologies of communication
o Promote a balanced and non-stereotyped portrayal of women in the media

CHAPTER 1

K. Women and the Environment

382

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

o Involve women actively in environmental decision-making at all levels

o Integrate gender concerns and perspective in policies and programmes for
sustainable development
o Strengthen or establish mechanism at the national, regional and international levels to
assess the impact of development and environmental policies on women

CHAPTER 1

L. Womens Empowerment

383

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

The National Policy for the Empowerment of Women with the objective of bringing about
advancement, development and empowerment of women in all walks of life has been formulated
Stree Shakti Puraskars to honour and recognize the achievement and contribution of individual

women and institutions who have done outstanding work in the social sector have been instituted
Guidelines for operationalisation of District Level Committees on Violence against Women and

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Helplines for women in distress have been issued

A National level Committee to monitor Supreme Courts Guidelines on prevention of sexual

384

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

harassment of women at workplace has been set up.

A National Resource Centre for Women (NRCW) Portal has been set up to inform and empower
women, and lodge complaints of womens rights violations on-line.
Gender Budget analysis of various Ministries spending was undertaken to assess the utilization of
funds for women.

CHAPTER 1

5.6 Programmes for Women

385

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Swawlamban, the erstwhile Training-cum-Employment Programme for Women provides skill training
to women to facilitate their employment or self- employment on a sustained basis in traditional and

non- traditional trades. Till December 2002, 902 projects including 262 continuing projects benefiting
58,458 women were sanctioned. With effect from 1.4.2006, Swawlamban is being transferred to
the States. During 2005-06, 7660 beneficiaries availed benefits under the scheme.
The Department has initiated the gender budgeting exercise to assess the impact and
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outcome of Government spending on Women. Gender Budget Cells have been set up in 9

386

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Departments/Ministries namely, Health, Family Welfare, Elementary Education and Literacy,

Labour and Employment, Rural Development, Social Justice and Empowerment, Tribal Affairs,
Urban Employment and Poverty Alleviation and Small Scale Industries.
Measures have been initiated for preparing Gender Development Index for the States and
Districts.

CHAPTER 1

Swayamsiddha, an integrated scheme for womens empowerment, is based on the

387

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

formation of women into Self Help Groups (SHGs) and aims at the holistic empowerment of women

through awareness generation, economic empowerment and convergence of various schemes.

Against the target of 65,000 SHGs, 69,803 Womens Self Help Groups have been formed, covering
a total of 1.002 million beneficiaries till 2008. The scheme ended on 31.03.2008.
Support and Training for Employment Programme (STEP) provides updated skills and new
knowledge to poor and asset-less women in traditional occupations for enhancing their productivity
CHAPTER 1

and income generation. A package of services such as training, extension, infrastructure, market

388

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

linkages, etc. is provided besides linkage with credit for transfer of assets. Since its inception in 1987,
about 0.8 million women have been covered under various projects till 2008-09. Since 2005-06, each

year between 31,000 to 40,000 women benefit under STEP. So far women in dairying sector have
received maximum support keeping in view the nature of demands. This is followed by handlooms,

CHAPTER 1

handicrafts, sericulture, piggery and poultry.

389

5.6.1 Working Womens Hostels

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

876 Working Womens Hostels have been sanctioned benefiting 63,989 women, with 321 having Day
Care Centres, benefiting 8442 children in 2009.
5.6.2 Legislative Reforms

CHAPTER 1

Comprehensive review of legislation affecting women has been undertaken by Sub- Groups formed

390

under the Task Force on Women and Children.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

5.6.3 Status of Major International Human Rights Instruments

CHAPTER 1

International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination 1965

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women 1979

391

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989

Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment

CHAPTER 1

1984
Ratification, accession or succession
Signature not yet followed by ratification

392

Conclusion

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

The primary objective of this project was to assess progress in India toward the twin goals of
gender equality and womens empowerment. The specific areas investigated included son preference,
education, age at marriage, spousal age differentials, employment, female household headship, womens

CHAPTER 1

access to resources, gender relations in the household, womens participation in decisionmaking, and

393

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

spousal violence. In general, the report finds that gender inequality is persistent in every domain examined,
and women are disempowered both absolutely and relative to men. Further, an examination of indicators for
which trend data are available shows that the progress toward gender equality and womens empowerment
remains very slow.
In addition to examining progress toward achieving gender equality and womens empowerment, the

CHAPTER 1

report also examined gender differentials in selected health and nutritional outcomes and evaluated

394

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

differences by sex in the relationship of womens empowerment and experience of spousal violence with

indicators of these selected health and nutrition outcomes. Finally, the variation in current use of modern
contraception by indicators of womens empowerment and experience of spousal violence was also

CHAPTER 1

explored.

395

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
Bibliography
> DATA FROM THE 2005-06 NATIONAL FAMILY HEALTH SURVEY (NFHS-3) AND ITS TWO

CHAPTER 1

PREDECESSOR SURVEYS, NFHS-1 (1992-93) AND NFHS-2 (1998-99).

396

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

> ECONOMIC RESTRUCTURING AND GENDER IN CANADA: FEMINIST POLICY

INITIATIVES
Macdonald, M.

> MEASURING WOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT AS A VARIABLE IN INTERNATIONAL

DEVELOPMENT
Malhotra, A. Et Al

CHAPTER 1

> INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES (ICT) AND THEIR IMPACT ON

AND USE AS AN INSTRUMENT FOR THE ADVANCEMENT AND EMPOWERMENT OF

397

WOMEN
Marcelle, G.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

> WOMEN EMPOWERMENT: PARTICIPATION AND DECISION-MAKING

Marilee, K.

CHAPTER 1

> GENDER EMPOWERMENT AND THE WILLINGNESS OF STATES TO USE FORCE

Marshall, M.G. And D.R. Marshall

398

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

> PROPOSED GLOBAL RESEARCH FRAMEWORK FOR CARE'S STRATEGIC IMPACT

INQUIRY ON WOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT
Martinez, E. And K. Glenzer (CARE USA, Atlanta, 2005)

CHAPTER 1

> MICRO FINANCE AND THE EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN: A REVIEW OF THE KEY
ISSUES
Mayoux, L.

399

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

> WOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT THROUGH SUSTAINABLE MICRO FINANCE: RETHINKING

BEST PRACTICE
Mayoux, L.
> WOMEN, EMPOWERMENT AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Mehra, R.

CHAPTER 1

> TRENDS, COUNTERTRENDS, AND GAPS IN WOMEN'S EMPLOYMENT

Mehra, R. And S. Gammage

400

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

> RECASTING INDICES FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: A GENDER EMPOWERMENT

MEASURE
Mehta, A. Kapur
> MICRO FINANCE AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT: A CRITICAL EVALUATION
Menon, S.V.

CHAPTER 1

> WOMEN EMPOWERMENT AND HD IN INDIA, Indian Economic Review, 47(3), 2005)
Mitra, T.K. And G. Sinha

401

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

> MEASURING WOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT: PARTICIPATION AND RIGHTS IN CIVIL,

POLITICAL, SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, AND CULTURAL DOMAINS
Moghadam, V.M. And L. Senftova
> ON THE CONCEPT OF 'EMPOWERMENT'
Mohanty, M.

CHAPTER 1

> ASSESSING WOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT: TOWARDS A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Mosedale, S.

402

> GENDER AND INDICATORS: OVERVIEW REPORT

Moser, A.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

> THE CHANGING STATUS OF WOMEN IN INDIA- THE CHALLENGES AHEAD

Mukherjee, I. And S. Sen

CHAPTER 1

> TOWARDS GENDER-AWARE DATA SYSTEMS: INDIAN EXPERIENCE

Mukherjee, M.

403

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

> GENDER EQUALITY AND WELL-BEING OF RURAL WOMEN

Mukherjee, N.

CHAPTER 1

> GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN'S SOLIDARITY ACROSS RELIGIOUS, ETHNIC AND
CLASS DIFFERENCE IN THE KENYA CONSTITUTIONAL REVIEW PROCESS
Mutua, A.

404