STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF SKIN

By Nyrees Titchener

What Spirit is so empty and blind that it cannot recognise the fact
that the foot is more noble than the shoe and skin more beautiful than
the garment with which it is clothed

Michelangelo

The skin is the largest organ of the body and is 15% of our body weight. It has a surface area of
1.2 to 2.3 m2. A study of the skin provides understanding of the self both internally and
externally, physical and non physical. Observation of the skin can teach you about your
idiosyncrasies and in medical terms help you to learn signs of ill health and look at underlying
causes.
FUNCTIONS
The skin has numerous functions and is our primary protective organ, a complete, coherent skin
protects us from fatal conditions such as massive infection and allergic shock. It protects the
body from injury, light and chemicals acting like a filter. Special cells in the epidermis protect
epithelial cells from UV rays which can cause genetic mutations and a variety of cells
( keratinocytes, langerhans cells, melanocytes and T cells) reside in the epidermis to alert the
immune system to pathogens. The skin assists vitamin D synthesis important for calcium
absorption from the gut control its deposition in bone.
Some of its functions are maintained through complex ecological processes - to protect against
infection for example the skin secretes antimicrobial substances. The skin harbors a community
of friendly natural bacteria which in turn protect against an invasion of unfriendly micro
organisms by maintaining an environment unfavorable to them. Antibiotics can disrupt this
community opening the way for infections via the skin and chemical deodorants can also
destroy natural skin bacteria. The keratintized cells make it difficult for the physical entry of
pathogens and the acidic, dry surface also controls the numbers of bacteria and fungi. The
keratin filled epithelial cells are strengthened by interconnecting desmosomes which protect the
body from impact and friction.
Skin has many ways of maintaining a stable and harmonious internal environment, it protects us
against loss of water, salts and organic substances from inside the body. It is one of four main

organs responsible for the excretion of waste products and will rid the body of approximately a
quarter of its waste products.
Dysfunction in the skin will put stress on the three other eliminative organs - the kidneys, liver
and bowls thus giving them extra burden. So problems with the skin can lead to secondary
problems however difficulties in these organs can also lead to problems in the skin.
The skin is also involved in temperature regulation, the sweat glands regulate the excretion of
water for example. It sends different signals regarding temperature as wells as receiving signals
that induce appropriate reactions.
The skin is also our contact with our physical environment in terms of touch and has many
sensory nerve endings, it transmits information about touch, texture, pressure, vibration and
tissue injury. As an embryo our skin is formed from the same tissue source as our nervous
tissue. This indicates a close relationship between our skin and our nervous system. Problems
with the skin could be described as a physical manifestation of the close connection.
The skin also assists in non verbal communication as muscles attach to the skin to allow various
facial expressions.
The skin is divided into two layers the epidermis and the dermis, which rests on a layer of
subcutaneous tissue called the hypodermis. The skin is also classified into two types - Thick
skin found on the palms, fingers, soles and toes. It is 400 - 600 um thick and contains sweat
glands. Thin skin is found everywhere else and is between 75 - 150 um thick (1 mm = 1000 um)
It contains sweat glands, hair follicles and sebaceous glands.
EPIDERMIS This is a thin, tough outer layer comprised of stratified epithelium, there are cells in
the emidermis called keratinocytes they make up 90-95% of the epidermis and originate from
the deepest layer of the epidermis called the basal layer. New keratinocytes migrate towards the
surface gradually and then are shed to be replaced by newer cells. The other cell types are
mainly langerhans cells, meloncytes and merkel cells. The epidermis is divided into five
continuous layers containing keratinocytes in different stages of differentiation :
STRATUM CORNEUM This is the very outer most portion of the epidermis and is relatively
waterproof when undamaged. It prevents most bacteria, viruses and other foreign substances
entering the body. It protects (along with all layers) internal organs/muscles/nerves/blood
vessels against trauma. The extra protection we have on our hand and feet is is due to the outer

keratin layer of the stratum corneum being much thicker. Keratin is the strongest protein in the
skin and is dominant in hair and nails, it forms the rigidity of the skin.
STRATUM LUCIDUM (occasionally seen) Cells in this layer are flattened,
anucleated and contain no organelles, making them very eosinphilic
STRATUM GRANDOSUM This 3-5 cell layer contains flattened polygonal cells whose
cytoplasms are filled with coarse basophilic granules named keratohyalin
granules, which convert the intermediate keratin filaments into keratin,
contributing to the skins' resistance to trauma. Furthermore, an electron
micrograph of this layer shows rodlike granules within these cells which discharge
lipids into the intercellular spaces of this stratum forming a tight seal. This
prevents penetration by foreign materials and waterproofs the skin, preventing our
bodies from drying out. In this layer, cells commence apoptosis, which eventually
destroys the cell organelles but leaves the keratin filaments.
STRATUM SIPNSOM This multiple cell layer contains cuboidal cells whose
cytoplasms are filled with bundles of intermediate keratin filaments. During
fixation, the keratinocytes shrink but remain attached to each other by
cytoplasmic spines named tonofilaments, which gives the layer its name.
Tonofilaments adds cohesion to the layer, allowing it to resist abrasion. The deeper
cells of this layer still divide, but cease their mitotic activity as they are pushed
upward.
STRATUM BASALE The basel layer of the epidermis contains cells called melanocytes which
produce the pigment melanin this contributes to skin colour. Its primary function is to filter out
ultra violet radiation from sunlight which damages DNA.
The epidermis also contains langerhans cells which are a part of the bodies immune system.
These cells detect foreign substances, defend the body against infection and play a roll in the
development of skin allergies.
EPIDERMAL-DERMAL JUNCTION The boundary between the epidermis and dermis
has a corrugated appearance. Fingerlike projections of the dermis called dermal
papillae interlock with downward extensions of the epidermis named epidermal
ridges. This histological framework reinforces the skins resistance to abrasion by
preventing the epidermis from slipping across the dermis.

DERMIS The dermis is the next layer and is made up of thick, fibrous and elastic tissue
comprising mostly of the proteins collagen, elastin and fibrillin. They give skin good flexibility
and strength. It also contains nerve endings, sweat glands, sebaceous (oil) glands, hair follicles
and blood vessels.
PAPILLARY LAYER This accounts for the superficial fifth of the dermis and contains
loosely organised tissue that allows immune cells to pass through in response to
an infection. Special collagen fibres called anchoring fibrils bind this layer to the
epidermis above. This layer is so called because it extends into the dermal papillae.
RECTICULAR LAYER This layer accounts for the latter part of the dermis and
contains coarser and thicker collagen bundles that contain the deep parts of
cutaneous appendages, blood vessles and nerves

[2][1]

. The collagen in this layer is

responsible for skin elasticitiy.

HYPODERMIS Though not officially part of the skin, this layer is often included
when studying the skin. It is composed of adipose tissue which adds protection to
the body as well as allowing the skin to slide over underlying tissues. Adipose
tissue is also a reserve energy supply.
CELLS
Meloncoytes These neural crest derived cells are responsible for protecting
keratinocytes from ultraviolet (UV) radiation. They originate from the
embryological neural crest but migrate to the stratum basale. These cells produce
melanin which are injected into keratinocytes in the stratum basale and spinosum.
Once injected, the melanin accumulates in the cell region closest to the surface,
where it absorbs UV radiation. This serves to protect the cells nucleus from the
mutagenic effect of UV radiation. The pigmentation reaction that occurs when
melanin is exposed to UV rays causes skin to darken.
Langerhans cells These mobile, star-shaped cells originate from the bone marrow
and are found mainly in the stratum spinosum. They process and present antigens
found in the skin to nave T cells, contributing to the immunological function of the
skin.

Merkel cells These cells are localised to the stratum basale. They frequently form
synapes with sensory axons in the dermis, suggesting they are mechanoreceptors.
However other evidence suggests they are part of the neuroendocrine system.
NERVE ENDINGS These sense touch, pain, pressure and temperature. Some skin areas more
nerve endings than others eg. fingers and toes are very sensitive to touch.
SWEAT GLANDS these produce sweat in response to heat and stress. Sweat is made up of
water, salt and other chemicals. As sweat evaporates off the skin it helps cool the body.
Specialized sweat glands in the arm pit and genital regional secrete a thick oily sweat that
produces a characteristic body odor when the sweat is digested by the skin bacteria in those
areas.
SEBACEOUS GLANDS Oil glands secrete sebum into the hair follicles, the oil keeps the skin
moist and soft. It acts as a barrier against foreign substances.
Sectetory coil lies deep in the dermis and is composed of 1-2 layers of secretory
cells which produce sweat into the lumen of the secretory gland.
Excretory duct this duct runs through the dermis vertically then coils through the
epidermis to form an opening on the skin (pore). Sweat excreted by glands absorbs
heat and evaporates, lowering body
HAIR FOLLICLES Produce the various types of hair found on the body. They contribute to a
persons physical appearance but have a number of important physical roles including regulating
body temperature, providing protection from injury and enhancing sensation. A portion of the
follicle also contains stem cells capable of regrowing damaged epidermis. The hair follicle
comprise of the bulb, root and shaft.
BLOOD VESSELS OF THE DERMIS Provide nutrients to the skin and help regulate body
temperature. Heat makes the blood vessels dilate allowing large amounts of blood to circulate
near the skin surface where the heat can be released. Cold makes the vessels constrict
retaining the bodies heat.
The number of nerve endings/sweat glands/sebaceous glands/hair follicles and blood vessels
vary over different parts of the body eg top of the head has many hair follicles and the bottom of
the feet has none.

FAT LAYER This is below the dermis and is a layer of fat which helps insulate the body from
heat and cold. It provides protective padding and serves as an energy storage area, the fat is
contained in living cells called fat cells and held together by fibrous tissue. The fat layer can vary
from a fraction of an inch on the eyelids to several inches on the abdomen and buttocks although this will vary person to person.

SKIN PENETRATION AND ABSORPTION

1 Skin Penetration represents the amount of a topically chemical that exists
between the top layer (stratum corneum) and the bottom layer (stratum
basale.) During penetration, the body does not yet absorb the chemical,
and it cannot affect the body systems.
2 Skin Absorption occurs when the topically applied chemical breaks the skin
barrier to reach the bloodstream. Whether this chemical becomes a risk is
determined by what occurs after absorption. You body can filter (The
bouncers!) out the chemical via bodily fluids, or bio accumulation (build up)
occurs.
3 Many variables affect the speed (or probability) of penetration and
absorption. First, the composition of the chemical to which skin is exposed
and how it acts once in the body. The area of skin that is exposed (thinnerskinned areas are more susceptible to penetration and thicker skin is less)
and the condition of the skin are all significant factors.
Not everything we touch or put on our skin is absorbed into our bodies for example when we
come out of the bath our skin is wrinkled due to the dead skin cells in the Stratum Corneum that
pop up as they soak up the water. The Stratum Corneum is lipopihic (oil loving) and
hydrophobic (water hating) any chemical has a long way to go to reach the blood stream and it
depends on the size of the molecules, chemical solubility and the carrier (cream,lotion etc.) Oil
will penetrate the top layer and then be repelled by the water. The oil traps the water beneath it (
unless the sweat glands are in operation) and prevents loss of water through evaporation
thereby making your skin softer and smoother.
The way to navigate past this barrier is to make an Emulsification which is a blend of oil and
water in a similar way to how you make mayonnaise. You can then trap your chosen

compounds/herb material in the mix and it will penetrate deeper into the body - depending on
the ingredients, the skin and your own individual make up! The compound penetrating into your
body has the potential to react with the enzymes in your skin and this can activate an inactivate
various compounds be it herbal/drugs or other foreign compounds.
In 1775 an English doctor Percivall Pott discovered an increase in scrotal cancer in chimney
sweeps due to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soot. These hydrocarbons are actually
harmless but when absorbed into the body they react with a specific enzyme which then
converts them into reactive compounds which can then go on to damage cellular DNA and
cause cancer.
As we are all individuals effects can vary depending on things like age, skin colour, environment
and if you are doing a specific activity regularly. In addition absorption rates on our face and
scalp are 5-10 times higher than on other parts of our body. Certain chemical compounds also
actually remain in the skin which acts like a reservoir and release slowly (eg. saliclic acid) this is
used in the pharmaceutical industry to design products where a slow release would be a
beneficial action.
The beauty industry is a multi million pound industry, praying on and reinforcing peoples pre
occupation with the self and the way they look many cosmetics contain unnecessary and toxic
ingredients over the years and it is important to consider why the chemicals are there in the first
place, however the cosmetic chemist does want their product to stay in your skin as that is the
kind of product they are selling if it is absorbed further it becomes a drug not a cosmetic skin
product. That said certain compounds can increase the absorption such as ethanol and certain
compounds found in fragrance ingreidents. It is important to be cautious but not alarmist and
remember that every compound is different just as every person is different, it is best to always
read labels, get informed and know your own body or make your own natural product! A natural
product in moderation when its actions are properly understood is more likely to be processed
and make beneficial changes as opposed to unfamiliar chemicals which may have an unknown
reaction.
Other things that can be absorbed into the skin are from the environment such as
pollution,cigarette smoke and by products of industrial process these compounds contain
nanoparticles. When absorbed by the skin cigarette smoke can cause the breakdown of
collagen and elastic fibers. It can also deprive the skin of oxygen and arterially supplied
nutrients. Air pollution can be converted into quinones by the body and cause problems when

exposed to UVA light. There is alot of research currently looking further into the effects these
things have on our bodies one such study analysis the squalene content in peoples sebum.
The other thing that can effect skin is stress and can cause all sorts of problems and secondary
problems including premature aging. This effect should not be under estimated as stress can
have a massive effect on the body and mind as a whole and leave the body weak and open to
many other issues.
SKIN ON SOIL
during the research of this paper i was struck by the similarities in function between our own
skin and soil. Soil could be described as the skin of the Earth! The functions of soil include
regulating and partitioning water and solute flow. Soil sustains life, it filters and acts as a buffer.
It will break down material immobilizing some things thereby detoxifying but will also store and
cycle nutrients. Soil has more diversity below ground much like our skin. Micro organisms have
the second largest bio mass on the plant next to living plants. Soil also provides support to
structures again like our own skin it is a very complex system.
So a few words on skin on soil - when we touch soil on the one hand we should be mindful that
there are soil related bacterial and fungal infections such as tentus, anthrax, botulism and soil
bacteria which may cause gastrointestinal wounds on the skin or cause problems in the
respiratory tract.
However there are also many benefits to the skin and body being exposed to soil. It is good for
our immune system to be exposed to various compounds in the soil and in fact there is a
particular strain of bacterium found in soil called Mycobacterium Vacce which is found to trigger
the release of serotonin which elevates mood, decreases anxiety and improve cognitive
function.
This is another area that much research is looking into right now in regards to various illnesses
such as aids, the New England Journal of Medicine found children who grow up of traditional
farms are 30-50% less likely to develop asthma.

HERBS FOR THE SKIN

Vulneraies - These are plants which promote the healing of wounds and are abundant in nature
all over the world. They are part of our ecological system and provide us with this specific niche.

Some can be used externally and some internally. Some are astringent so they stop bleeding
and condense tissue such as Aloe and Chickweed. With some of these plants the clue is in the
name woundwort and Self heal for example. Other useful herbs in this area are Crainesbill,
Comfrey , Elder, Golden seal, Horsetail, Marshmallow root, Slippery elm and Witch Hazel
Alterative - These plants correct a polluted condition of the blood stream and restore healthy
function. How they work specifically is not all together understood but it is thought that the roots
of it lie in our metabolism and cleanse the whole body whilst having activity focused in different
areas accordingly eg. Liver. Some of the Herbs that fall into this category are Cleavers, Golden
seal, Nettle,Red Clover and Yellow Dock.
Anti - Microbials - These are plants which help to rid our bodies of micro organisms that have
invaded or are having a party on your skin! Plants used for this purpose include Chickweed,
Echinacea, Eucalyptus, Garlic, Marigold and Thyme.
When dealing with problems of the skin you should be mindful that causes can be internal for
example Psoriasis, external such as wounds or sunburn or an internal reaction to an outside
factor such as Allergic Eczema.

BRUISES
Bruises or contusions occur when tiny blood vessels are damaged or broken, the raised area of
a bump or bruise results from blood leaking from these injured blood vessels into the tissues as
well as indicating the bodies response to the injury. For example a purplish flat bruise occurs
when blood leaks out into the very top layers of skin and is referred to as ecchymosis. It is
important to remember bruises can occur in isolation or they can point to an underlying
cause.The injury required to produce a bruise varies with age or certain medications. Individual
bruises change appearance over time. In older people the capillaries and blood vessels are
more fragile and bruising can occur in the elderly even without prior injury. Medications that
interfere with blood clotting thus causing more bleeding in the skin or tissues are things such as
arthritis medications such as ibuprofen and naproxen or over the counter medicine such as
aspirin. In addition cortisone medicine such as predinisone promotes bruising by increasing the
fragility of the tiny blood vessels in the skin. Patients with inherited clotting problems eg
hemophilia or acquired clotting problems eg patients with liver diseases can sometimes develop

extensive unexplained bruising or even life threatening bleeding. sometimes spontaneous

bruising is a sigh of a bone marrow problem.
Herbs that can be used to help bruising include Arnica, Daisy, Marigold, Witch Hazel, Parsley,
Comfery and Yarrow. It is also worth noting that ice is frequently used as the cold helps to
reduce swelling.
SOURCES
1. Holistic Herbs byDavid Hoffmann
2. http://php.med.unsw.edu.au/medwiki/index.php?
title=Histological_structure_and_function_of_normal_skin_
%28contrasted_with_skin_affected_by_bacterial_cellulitis%29
3. http://www.medicinenet.com/bruises/page2.htm
4. http://personalcaretruth.com/2011/01/the-impermeable-facts-of-skinpenetration-and-absorption/
5. http://dermatologytimes.modernmedicine.com/dermatologytimes/content/tags/anti-aging/pollution-stress-take-toll-skin-aging?page=full