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American Journal of Clinical

Hypnosis
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Teaching College Students

Better Learning Skills Using
Self-Hypnosis
David M. Wark

University of Minnesota , USA

Published online: 21 Sep 2011.

To cite this article: David M. Wark (1996) Teaching College Students Better Learning
Skills Using Self-Hypnosis, American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 38:4, 277-287, DOI:
10.1080/00029157.1996.10403352
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00029157.1996.10403352

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Teaching college students

better learning skills using self-hypnosis

Downloaded by [Australian National University] at 17:01 27 January 2015

DavidM. Wark
Untversity of'Minnesota
This paper reports the effects of self-hypnosis used by 51 college
students enrolled in a 10-week course on efficient learning skills. All
students were administerd the Creative Imagination Scale.
Subsequently, they learned to enter and deepen alert self-hypnosis.
They gave themselves personal suggestions and then studied in
hypnosis. They reported their depth of hypnosis and satisfaction
with each session. Grades were collected the quarter before, during
and after the course. Satisfaction and depth data indicated the
students were involved all through the course. Statistical testing
showed that students who scored highest on the CIS had the lowest
initial GPA, improved most during the course, and significantly
increased their GPA in the quarter after.

To date, clinicians and researchers

have reported promising but inconstant
use of hypnosis for school learning.
Young (1925) found a 9% to 16%gain in
nonsense and adjective-noun learning
and retention following suggestions to
hypnotized "somnambulistic" subjects.
But he noted generally poorer learning
and retention by "light" or "deep"
subjects. Hammer (1954), selected subjects who demonstrated post hypnotic
amnesia as well as positive visual and
auditory illusion. Using standardized
tests, he found post hypnotic increases
in "satisfaction and pleasure.t'and significantimprovements forlearning meaningful syllables. Cooper and Erickson
(1954), reported one subjectableto learn
nonsense syllable pairs in mean time of
31 seconds awake, but 7 seconds in
For reprints or correspondence concerning this paper, write to David M. Wark,
University Counseling and Consulting Services, University of Minnesota, 192
PillsburyDr. S.E.,Minneapolis, MN55455

Amer J Clin Hypn 38:4, April 1996

hypnotictime distortion. Strickler (1929)

selected subjects who demonstrated
complete post hypnotic amnesia. He
taught these skilled subjects, awake and
hypnotized, symbol-word associations.
The subjects demonstrated 33% better
learning in hypnosis during the early
trials. In other words, the suggestion
that learning would be easier under
hypnosis may have motivated the
subjects to work harder early on, a
manifestation of "motivation" rather
then dissociative or other aspects of
hypnosis. Sears (1955) worked with two
groups decoding Morse code while
awake or hypnotized. The hypnotized
subjects (24% drop out) seemed more
interested in the boring task and
reported being more motivated and less
strained then the awake subjects, who
had 44% drop out. Uhr (1958) reviewed
The author wishes to thank Don Houge,
Ph.D. and Joyce Weinsheimer, Ed.D. for
their encouragement and support.

277

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EFFICACY OF HYPNOTIC SUSCEPTIBILITY SCALES

WARK

these and other reports on learning three groups: (1) The experimental
under hypnosis. He notes 2% to 40% group, on two different days, received
increases in verbal learning from hypno- an hour of induction and deepening, and
sis. Thus there is evidence that hypno- four quarter-hour sessions of post
sis and suggestions can improve labora- hypnotic suggestions to improve their
tory learning task efficiency, concentra- study. (2) The active control group
tion and motivation to study, and that listened to two hours of recorded humor,
the effects may be greater for the more and received the same suggestions
hypnotizable students.
without hypnosis. (3) The inactive
On the other hand, there are some control group members were identified
arguments against the general use of but received no special treatment.
hypnosis for improving learning skills Beyond that, the students in all three
by college students. Fowler (1961) gave groups were given the same instruction
suggestions for reading and test taking and practice exercises in learning skills
improvement in trance or in the waking (rapid reading, comprehension, listenstate. Testing immediately after hypno- ing) as the non-volunteering students in
sis seemed to lower scores, but his the class.
hypnotized subjects reported subjecCole (1979) evaluated his treatments
tively better concentration when study- by changes in scores on standardized
ing, even after "many weeks." Oetting tests. The McGraw Hill Basic Skills tests
(1964) opined that relaxation needed for (Raygor, 1970) covered reading, spelling
a traditional trance was antithetical to and other study skills and were systemactive study, and students in deep atically designed to measure changes
trance may become dependent on the produced by the self-instructional books
therapist to solve their study problems and tapes used in the course. Cole (1979)
magically. Oetting described a tech- found no evidence the suggestions for
nique in which concentration is sug- better study had any effect on any test
gested without mention of hypnosis, scores significantly greater than the
relaxation or drowsiness. He presented curriculum alone. He does not mention
no data. Porter (1978) and Krippner any relation between hypnotizability
(1963) also encouraged treating study and any other variables. Cole (1979)
problems with hypnosis when students concluded that hypnosis has no special
expect it. Again, neither offered con- impact on learning or using study skills.
trolled data.
There are factors that weaken Cole's
On balance, it seems reasonable to (1979) conclusions. All the subjects
expect some impact by hypnosis on were students in a validated training
learning, concentration and grades. course, so the impact of the carefully
However, a computer search of the constructed teaching materials may
hypnosis and education literature pro- have hidden the effects of the one hour
duced only two controlled studies of of hypnosis. Nor was there any measure
college students using hypnosis to of students' involvement in the project
improve learning skills.
throughout the sessions.
Cole (1979) taught a traditional
In a later study, Cooper (1990) also
semester-long learning skills class. Vol- taught learning skills using self-hypnounteers were randomized into one of sis. Subjects were 167 volunteers self278

Arner J Clin Hypn 38:4, April 1996

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TEACHING LEARNING SKILLS USING HYPNOSIS

identified as academic underachievers.

They were pretested on state, trait and
test anxiety, as well as hypnotizability,
and randomized into one of three
treatments: (1) Self-hypnosis practice
and suggestions for better study, (2)
Study skills instruction without hypnosis, and (3) A no-contact control group.
The treatment groups had four sessions
of one hour each.
Cooper (1990) found some positive
effects. In reducing state anxiety, selfhypnosis training was more effective
than study skills, which was more
effective then the control treatment.
More importantly, the two training
groups made more grade improvement
than the control subjects. However,
hypnosis was not different from study
skills training. At least the study
indicates hypnosis can reduce state
anxiety and may have helped raise
grades. Since Cooper's students were
part of a special hypnosis experiment
and the groups met for just four hours, it
is difficult to generalize results to a more
typical academic situation.
This paper reports use of self
hypnosis in a learning skills course at a
public university. The students were
typical of a college population who
wanted to learn self hypnosis. Thus, the
results are somewhat applicable. The
study isolates the effect of image ability,
tracks hypnotic depth and satisfaction,
and uses grades as pre and follow-up
outcome measure.

Method
The students enrolled in a lO-week,
credited, learning skills course. All who
registered were fully informed and
confirmed they wanted to participate in
self- hypnosis rather than a traditional
Amer J Clin Hypn 38:4, April 1996

section that met at the same time. Since

there was no randomly selected control
group of students who wanted hypnosis
but did not receive it, the independent
variable was level ofhypnotizabilty.

Instrumentation
Each student filled out the Learning
and Study Skills Inventory (LASSI) by
Weinstein & Palmer (1987) during the
first week of the course. The LASSI has
10 scales, five of which measure
orientation (attitude toward college,
motivation to get tasks done, time
management, anxiety control and concentration) and five measure specific
study skills (information processing,
selecting the main idea, study aids from
books, self testing, and test-taking
strategies). Coefficient Alpha ranges
from .68 to .86 and test-retest correlations from. 72 to .85. The results were
used by each student to plan an
individual set of suggestions for personal change.
Students were assessed for hypnotic
skill by the Creative Imagination Scale
(CIS) ofWilson & Barber (1978). The CIS
contains 10 items involving ideomotor
behavior and imagery. The CIS has been
shown to have 24-hour test-retest
reliability of r = .82, a Spearman-Brown
split half r = .89, and measure a single
factor, on which all 10 items have
loadings from .55 to .72, with a mean
loading of. 67 (Wilson and Barber, 1978).
In a sample of Polish female students,
Siuta (1987) found a lO-month test-retest
r=.79anda Spearman-Brownr= .50. He
also found a single factor that accounted for 47.9% of the variance.
Sheehan, McConkey & Law (1978)
concluded that the test has a single
underlying factor, strongly related to
imagery vividness and imagery control.
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WAR!(

Other studies have qualified the because unlike the HGSHS:A, it can be
interpretation of the CIS. McConkey et validly and comfortably administered in
aI. (1979) found a correlation ofr = .28 a single 50-minute class session.
The CIS was modified in the present
with the HGSHS:A, when using "think
with" instructions (Barber and Wilson, study for two reasons. First, the
1977). In that induction there is no students expected a hypnotic induction
mention of "sleep," "drowsiness," or ritual. The "think-with" instructions,
"hypnosis." McConkey, Sheehan and typically used with the CIS, mentioned
White (1979) concluded that the CIS neither hypnosis nor trance experience.
using that induction is a valid and Second, the high correlations with the
reliable measure of imagery ability, but HGSHS:A reported by Monteiro,
probably not the dissociative skills McDonald and Hilgard (1980) suggest
tapped by the Harvard Group Scale of that the CIS might be a better measure of
Hypnotic Susceptibility: Form A hypnotic disassociation if it were pre(HGSHS:A) of Shor and Orne (1962) ceded by a more traditional induction. In
when subjects are openly inducted into the study, the CIS was preceded by the
traditional and standardized induction
hypnosis.
Later Monteiro, McDonald and Hil- from the Stanford Clinical Scale (Morgan
gard (1980) studied the CIS along with and Hilgard, 1978/79). (The five items,
theHGSHS:A,(ShorandOme 1962),the ideomoter, dream, regression, amnesia
Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale and post hypnotic suggestions, were
form C, (WeitzenhofIer and Hilgard, not administered).
1962), the Tellegen-Atkinson Absorption Scale (Tellegan and Atkinson, 1974) Content of the course
and the Questionnaire Upon Mental
In the second week of the term,
Imagery (Sheehan, 1967). They report a following the modified CIS, the students
correlation ofr =.55 between the CIS and learned to induce an alert trance (Banyai
the HGSHS:A, using the "think with" & Hilgard (1976); Banyai, Zseni & Tury
induction. Their analysis of the intercor- (1993), deepen the trance, give themrelations among these tests of motor selves a suggestion for study improveresponse, imagery, absorption and am- ment, open their eyes and begin to study
nesia concluded that the CIS loaded on while hypnotized. The induction they
two subfactors, those tapping ideo learned is as follows:
motor skills or cognitive illusion.
"This is a practical technique to
In a companion study, Hilgard, quickly bring your mind to a state of
Sheehan, Monteiro and McDonald (1981) focused tension and your body to a
concluded that the CIS seemed to be state of efficient relaxed calmness. The
weighed on two factors, (1) Hypnotic technique is called the LEVER because
responsiveness that seems related to you lift your mind to a state of sharp
ideo motor skill and (2) absorption! focus and relax your body while holding
imagery that seems related to cognitive your mind's tension. Then you lever up
illusions. Thus both studies support the your mental focus a bit higher, and again
conclusion that the CIS is a measure of relax your body. And then a third time
hypnotic-like behavior and imagery. A you raise your mental focus, and relax
modified CIS was used in this study your body. In that alert state you give
280

Amer J cu Hypn 38:4, April 1996

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TEACHING LEARNING SKILLS USING HYPNOSIS

suggestions to affect your study.

"Sit comfortably in your chair. Pick a
spot to focus on, and attend to it alertly.
Take in a deep breath, sit straight up in
your chair and extend your spine right
up to the sky. Focus your attention on
the target and begin to exhale. As you
do, keep your spine straight, but allow
your shouldersto relax like a capefalling
over your back.
"Take another deep breath while
focusing on your target. Tense all the
muscles below your waist; your hips and
thighs and calves and feet. Increase
your alert attention on the target, and
slowly relax your lower body as you
exhale.
"Take a third deep breath. Tense your
whole body, and even more alertly
observe your target as you keep your
spine erect but exhale and relax your
whole body.
"Notice that your mind is alert and
your gaze is fixed on the target while
your body relaxes."
When you are ready, give yourself
your suggestion and begin to study
(Wark, 1990).
This self-hypnotic maneuver has
been shown, in a systematic controlled
study, to help students improve reading
comprehension (Wark and LaPlant,
1991).
After learning to use alert hypnosis,
students applied self-hypnosis to several learning skills. They generated
suggestions to overview assignments

before starting to study, (Ellis, 1994), to

listen and take notes more attentively in
lecture, to control the perceptual passage of time (Cooper and Erickson,
1954), and to generate creative ideas for
papers (Raikov, 1976; Sanders, 1991).
They learned that hypnosis will probably not increase their memory for what
they have studied (Sheehan, 1988). However, they are taught that if they imaged
taking a test in trance they may increase
their confidence in their recall
(McConkey, 1991),which mayhelp in an
actual test situation. Finally, they
leamed how to use self-hypnosis to
reduce test anxiety (Stanton, 1993;
Wark & Flippo, 1991).
Students reported their experience for
each hypnotic study session. Before
hypnosis they wrote the suggestion
they planned to use. They also made two
reports after each session. First, using
the 10-level Long Stanford Self-Report
Scaleof Depth (Tart, 1970)they reported
their depth just before they gave
themselves a suggestion. Second, after
study they recorded their satisfaction
with the experience. The scale items
were as shown in Figure 1.
The journals were the source of two
dependent measures; hypnotic depth
and satisfaction with the experience.
Grades, the third dependent measure,
were collected the quarter before, the
quarter while learning self-hypnosis,
and the quarter after so there was
adequate follow-up of effects.

Figure 1

Circle the number that indicates your feeling about the session
Very
Disappointed

Very

Disappointed

What I
Expected

Satisfied

Satisfied

Amer J Clin Hypn 38:4. April 1996

281

WARK

Figure 2

Depth of trance and satisfaction with experience

for 19 study sessions
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10
9

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DAYS
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Results
In the published CIS norms (Wilson
and Barber, 1978), standardization subjects had M = 20.8 and SD = 8.70. Fiftyone students in the self-hypnosis
classes had m = 22.7 and sd = 6.67, not
significantly different.
Mean reported depth of trance for
each day of practice is presented in
Figure 2. Note the change at Day 4. That
was the session in which the students
began to create their own personal
suggestions. Following that change,
students continued to report a consistant
depth even when using self-hypnosis
for different study skills.
The daily journals show how students regarded self-hypnosis. The re282

T
I

3.5

2.5
3

S
A

SATISFACTION .

suIts, also presented in Figure 2, show

that once the students learned to
develop their own suggestions they
were satisfied with the effects they were
getting from hypnosis. There were some
fluctuations at the point where students
began to practice a new study skill, such
as skimming before reading texts, listening in trance, or reducing test anxiety.
But across the sessions, satisfaction
was more positive than negative.
Taken together, the data from the
depth and satisfaction measures suggest that the students maintained
involvement and participation throughout the course.
The journals contained the interesting personal suggestions, the students
used to improve their study. Most
students gave themselves instructions
Amer J C/in Hypn 38: 4, April J996

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TEACHING LEARNING SKILLS USING HYPNOSIS

to relax. That alone probably helped

them study. Then they included personally chosen suggestions for focus and
support. Here is an example from a
student reading art history: "I am going
to read each word carefully. The words
are interesting and clear. Art is interesting. Where I end will be a good spot to
stop. It will be like me sitting in my boat
with mydog. It will be smoothand calm."
Another student wrote this suggestion
for math: "I'm going to look at the
problem and concentrate on it as though
I was working on the engine of my
motorcycle." He rated himself as "satisfied" and happy with the outcome and
his ability to follow the problem solving
steps. Another student used this suggestion to help stay focused and
supported: "When I am reading my
biology, my professor will be write (sic)
with me explaining what everything is
talking about." Some student's suggestions give a hint of the developmental
issues that are behind their study
problems. One student wrote this suggestion to help with her math studies: "It
will be as if I'm playing hopscotch with
my brother, jumping from number to
number ahead of Mark. Understanding
how to win."
A critical question is whether the
training had an impact on grades. The
students were divided into three groups
of mental imagery ability: Low (CIS I to
20), Medium(CIS 21to 28) and High (CIS
29 +). The cutting scores were established in the CIS norms published by
Wilson and Barber (1978) and confirmed
by Siuta (1987). Each student's GPA was
recorded the quarter before they took
the class, the quarter in which they
learned and used self-hypnosis, and the
quarter after. Students who formally
withdrew from the University after
Amer J C/in Hypn 38:4, April 1996

taking the course were excluded from the

data set. The results for the remaining 45
students are presented in Figure 3.
Across all levels of imagery, the
average gain in grade from before to
after (m = .448, sd = 1.024) is highly
significant (t = 2.37, P = .005). The most
interesting finding is the impact of
imagery. An ANOVA showed that the
gain for the High CIS students (m= 1.03,
sd = .846) is greater then either the
Medium(m= .378, 00= .726) or the Low
(m = .257, sd= 1.317)atp < .01.

Discussion
What is distinctive about students in
this study who scored high on the CIS?
The reviews summarized above suggested that the CIS is a measure of both
hypnotic-like behavior and absorption
in imagery. That analysis would lead to
the speculation that the high CIS
scoring students in this study were
deeply absorbed in their imagery. It is
tempting to speculate that these students create many internal responses
during their study. The teacher or author
moves from topic to topic in an
organized, inductive or deductive pattern. The students may start to track but
soon follow their own associative
fantasy to the detriment of their grades.
The High CIS student's thinking may be
more responsive to internal associations
than the structure of the lecturer's leads
and cues. Such students may not know
how to control their imagery. Subjectively, they would report difficulty
concentrating. Those are the high
mental image, low achieving students
who took the learning skills course.
Perhaps during the course students
learn some image control. They find
ways to focus their attention, give task283

WAR!(

Figure 3

Grade Point Average (GPA) for the quarter before, during and
after learning hypnosis for three levels of hypnotizability
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Before

During

After

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~ Cis

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relevant self talk, create personal structures to recall important learning, and
make positive associations to reduce
test anxiety. For example, recall the
student who in hypnosis directed
himself to solve a math problem as if he
were fixing his motorcycle. Another
student improved astronomy grades by
imaging herself orbiting around each
planet, focusing minutely and storing
data for analysis and retrieval on exams.
In other words, they learned to control
their imagery using self-hypnosis. The
relation between the CIS and GPA
supports the speculation that imagery
and hypnotic-like behavior accounts for
some part of the effect.
It is possible to draw conclusions
about why the high CIS students make
284

o.. Cis High 29+

changes in their academic performance.

First, as shown in Figure 4, High CIS
students were consistently lower on all
the study orientation and skills scores
on the LASSI. Second, for the High CIS
students, the clearly highest score was
INF, a measure of information processing using images of the material studied.
Example itemsare: "I try to seehowwhat
I am studying would apply to my
everydaylife" and "I translate what I am
studying into my own words." At the
beginning of the course the High CIS
students have a tendency to use
imagery in their studies, but have
generally poor study skills. During the
course they learn to apply their ability in
the service of better grades. While the
finding is based ideographically on one
Amer J C/in Hypn 38: 4, April 1996

TEACHING LEARNING SKILLS USING HYPNOSIS

Figure 4

Learning and Study Strategies Inventory Scale

percentiles for three levels of hypnotizability

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45
40

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R

35

30

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N

25

20

I
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IS

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class room, the logic of the relation

guides further research that may apply
more nomothetically(Nadon & Laurence,
1994).
It is important to recognize limitations on these results. All the students
were interested in hypnosis, knew it
would be taught in the class, and made a
conscious decision to enroll. Thus, the
same results can not be expected in a
typical class. In addition, since the
instruction was offered as part of a
course, there were no control groups.
Future research should have a neutral
hypnosis group to test the effects of
simple relaxation and a waking suggestion group which learns to give themselves metacognitive suggestions
(Nelson, 1996)without hypnosis.
Amer J Clin Hypn 38:4. April 1996

-0- Cis High N

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