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Introduction To Instrumentation PDF
Introduction To Instrumentation PDF
INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUMENTATION
1.1
Introduction to instrumentation
Instrumentation is the art of science of measurement and control. It is an applied
science that deals with analysis and design of systems for measurement purposes such as
quantify or expressing a variable numerically, determine or ascertain the value
(magnitude) of some particular phenomena, indicate record, register, signal, or perform
some operation on the value it has determined. Measurement is the process of quantifying
input quantity as shown in figure 1.1.
Example: thermometers, barometers, anemometers used by the weather bureau are used
to provide information of the environment by providing the atmospheric temperature,
pressure and wind speed. Their purpose is to measure and indicate the weather variables
and not to take a control action, such as to set these variables to desired ones.
2. Control of process or operations
Controlling of process or operations refers to attain the variable of interest set as
desired point. Thus knowledge or understanding of the process variable or operation is
required through appropriate measurement and then a control action will be taken to let
the output keep track of set point.
Example: Feed back control shown in figure 1.2 is an automatic controller that is used to
control a system or process in such a way that the output (O) is usually the set point(S) or
keep track of the set point(S). To do so the control system employs a measurement
system which continuously reads the output (O) and produces its own measured output
(MO) that can be compared with the set point (S) to provide an error signal(e). The
controller takes the error signal (e) executes a corresponding manipulating variable (m)
which is used to manipulate the system in such a way that the output (O) is the set point
laboratory testing of one kind for the purpose of validating engineering design, collecting
data for future analysis e.t.c
1.2
Standards of measurement
Measurement, the process of quantifying a variable, is made by comparing the
unknown quantity with a predefined standard. The physical embodiment of a unit of
measurement is called Standard. Standards are available for some of the derived units
besides all the fundamentals units.
For example: The fundamental unit of mass in the international system is kilogram (kg)
and is defined as the mass of a cubic decimeter of water at this temperature of maximum
density of 40c. Thus if the mass of a body is said as 2Kg, the numeric value along with
the unit that describes the weight is said in comparisons with its predefined standard in
this case the kilogram.
Basically Standards are classified in to four these are; international standards
(international accepted), primary standards, secondary standards and working standards.
But according by their function, application and accuracy there are so many working
standards such as national standards (nationally accepted), material standards (gold,
diamond)
1.3
Sensing element
The true value is sensed or detected by sensing element. Sensor detects change of
input and produces equivalent quantity which is related to the input, in other words it
provides a corresponding change of output for change of input of physical phenomena as
shown in figure 1.3 a.
Example: A strain gauge is a sensing element that detects change of pressure and
provides change in resistance. The change of resistance can be attained in the form of
voltage by using deflection bridge circuit.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.4 Sensing elements
Often the sensing element is also called as transducer. Literally transducer is any
device that converts one form of energy to another as shown in figure 1.3.b. Specifically
it converts one type of physical quantity, such as temperature, strain, pressure, or light,
into another signal (preferably electrical). Transducers have become convenient,
economical, and highly efficient in operation by converting the various physical
quantities into related electrical values because such electrical values can readily be used
for measuring, amplifying, transmitting, or controlling purposes. In its applied usage, the
term transducer refers to devices of a rather specialized nature. The majority either
converts electrical energy to mechanical displacement and/or convert some non-electrical
physical quantity (such temperature, pressure, etc) to an electrical signal such as voltage
or resistance. Thus a sensor is a transducer but a transducer doesnt necessarily mean
sensor. Some times it is possible to use stages of sensors (more than one sensor) until the
desired output is obtained.
5
Performance characteristics
The first and for most important step in designing instrumentation system is the
Input (I)
Sensor or
transducer
output (O)
Linearity: is the description of relation between the input and output .A sensor or
transducer is said to be linear if corresponding values of input (I) and output (O) lie on a
straight line
Eqn(1.1)
Non lineartiy: is a measure of the deviation of the actual transducer response from the
ideal straight line behavriour. It is expressed as N(I)
N(I)= O(I) (KI+a)
Eqn(1.2)
O(I) = KI + a + N(I)
Eqn(1.3)
X 100%
Eqn(1.4)
OMAX -OMIN
Thermocouple E(T)
Eqn(1.5)
Non linearty behaviour makes Analysis and design for measurement and conrol purposes
difficult.
Threshold: when the input to a transducer is increasing from zero, there is a minimum
value below which no output can be detected .Threshold is defined as the minimum value
of the input that can be detected by the sensing element (tranducer)
Input imepdnace /loading effect: A transdeucr used in any measrument may normally
extract some energy from the measuring medium, there by disturbuing the value of the
measured quantity. This effect is called as loading effect.
Example: Voltmeter may be is used to measure volatge across a terminal of a
circuit. Thus due to the internal resistnace of the instrument, current may be
drawn from the media bieng measured this is called the loading effect.
Enviromental effects:
In general, the output depends not only on real input but also on some other
enviromental inputs such as ambient temprature, atmospheric pressure, relative humudity,
supply voltage e.t.c that causes additional non ideal characterstics.Thus equation must be
modified to account for deviations in environmental conidtions from standard.Two type
of enviroment input ares modifying and interferring inputs which causes slope and
intercept change.
1. Modifying input: causes the linear sensitivity of the element to change Thus if IM is
the deviation in a modfying enviromental input from standard value (IM is zero at
standard conditions) . Then this produces a change in linear sentivity from K to
K+KM IM , where KM is the sesitivity of sensor or trasducer to modfying input
2. Intefering input: causes the intercept or zero bias of the elemetn to change. Thus of
II is the devation in an interfering enviromental input from standard value (II is zero at
standard condition). Then this produces a charge in zero bais from I at to I +K1 II
where K1 is the sesitivity of sensor or trasducer to interfering input. Km, KI are
refemed to as enviromental coupling constants or resistanties Ideal ones have both
km and ki zero
10
the stastical method of analysis to determine the accuracy and precision( degree
repeatablity).
precision: is the degree of closness with which a given value may be repeatedly
measured. It is a measure of repeatability of sensor or transducer. when it is used to
meausre the same input at different instnaces the output may not be the same, thus the
deviation from the nominal output in absolute units or fraction of full scale is called
precision error or repeatablity error.
Accuracy: is the measure of the closness of the measured value to the true value.
Random signal system performance are studied interms of mean, mode, median,
varinace, standard deviation.
Errors in measurement
Measurement is the process of comparing an unknown quantity with an accepted
standard quantity. The measurement thus obtained is a quantitative measure of the socalled true value or expected value. Some factors that affect measurements are
related to the measuring instruments themselves. Others factors are related to the person
using the instrument. The degree to which a measurement conforms to the expected value
is expressed in terms of error of the measurement. Error in measurement (e) is defined as
the algebraic difference between the true value of the variable (or expected value) and the
measured value. Error in measurement in others words is the uncertainty of measured
values. The measured values are enclosed in the error bands, representing the precision of
measurement as shown in figure 1.11.
11
Percent of error
Absolute error
100 %
True value
Eqn(1.5)
Percent of error
Eqn(1.6)
Absolute error
True value
Eqn(1.7)
If a measurement is accurate it must also be precise, that is, accuracy implies precision.
The reverse, however, is not necessary true, that is, precision does not necessary imply
accuracy. The precision of a measurement is a quantitative, or numerical, indication of
the closeness with which a repeated set of measurement of the same variable agree with
the average of the set of measurements. Precision can be expressed in a mathematical
sense, or quantitatively, as:
Precision 1 -
Where:
Xn - Xn
Xn
Eqn(1.8)
The accuracy and precision of measurement depend not only on the quality of the
measuring instrument but also on the person using the instrument.
Error, which has been described quantitatively, may be defined as the deviation of a
reading or set of reading from the expected value of the measured variable. Errors are
generally categorized under the three following major headings.
(a) Gross error: These errors are generally human errors using the instruments such as
misreading instrument, incorrect adjustment , improper application of instrument,
computation errors
(b) Systematic errors: due to short comings of the instrument and changes in external
conditions affecting the measurement. These errors are classified as instruments,
environmental effects, or observational errors.
12
(c) Random errors: These are errors that remain after the gross and systematic errors
have been substantially reduced, or at least accounted for. Random errors are
generally the accumulation of a large number of small effects and may be of real
concern only in measurements requiring a high degree of accuracy. Such errors can
only be analyzed statistically.
Limiting error: the accuracy of a measuring instument is usually specified by its
manufacture as % of full scale reading. thus if the user is not using the instrument in its
full scale the error will be higher than the percentage specified. The limiting error is
defined as the maximum deviation in the reading
For example: The accuracy of a thermometer to measure 0-1500C can be given as + 1%.
The limiting error is thus +1.50C. if the thermometer reads 600C, the maximum deviation
is +1.50C and in percentage it becomes +2.5% (i.e +1.50C/600C x100).
Silimiarly if readings from a number of instrumetns are used to compute or
determine some quantity, each instrumrts accuracy will ontributes reasonable error to the
overall limiting error.
Consider problem computing a quantity from n independent measurment Ui
=f(Ui)= (U1, U2, Un) where i=1 n
Eqn(1.9)
13
+ = f(Ui+U1,U2+ U2 , Un+Un)
Eqn(1.10)
f
f
f
u2
..... un
u1
u2
un
2
2
1 2 2 f
2 f
2 f
.....
...... Eqn(1.11)
u
u
u
1
2
n
2
2
2
u2
u n
u1
In actual practice, the limiting errors U1, U2, e.t.c ar get are small quantities and
hence higher powers of U are neglible, Eqn(2.1) becomes
f
f
f
u2
..... un
u1
u2
un
f
f
f
u2
..... un
u1
u2
un
Eqn(1.12)
f
f
I 2 R
I 2 R
u 2
I
R
u1
u2
I
R
= 2 RII RI 2
= 24 watts
The percenatge error in computed value of power is
100% 5.33%
P
14
an
d n y (t )
d n 1 y (t )
d n 2 y (t )
......... a0 y (t ) b0 x(t )
a
a
2
n
1
n
dt n
dt n 1
dt n 2
Eqn (1.13)
Where n is the order of the differential equation, x(t) is input, and y(t) is the output
The order of the transducer is the highest value of the differential equation that decided to
which its dynamic behavior belongs. According to the value of n, transducers are
categorized as
Because of the reason that real signals are either a function of time or frequency,
the dynamic characteristic of transducer is studied by the time and frequency response.
Practically transducers are subjected to inputs which are random in nature. But for
analysis purposes, test inputs are used to determine the dynamic behavior of transducers,
these are; Impulse input, Step input, ramp input, Sinusoidal input
The dynamic performance of measuring instruments gives insight in to speed of
response, Stability, and bandwidth.
1.4.2.2 Time response of transducers
(a) Zero order transducer
The inputoutput relationship of zero order transducer is given by
a0 y (t ) b0 x (t ) , i.e. when n=0
Eqn(1.14)
a0Y (s ) b0 X (s ) H ( s)
Y ( s ) b0
k ,
X ( s ) a0
Eqn(1.15)
15
dy (t )
a0 y (t ) b0 x (t )
dt
Eqn(1.16)
b
a
Y (s)
b0
k
, where k 0 , 1
a0
a0
X ( s) a1s a0 s 1
Eqn(1.17)
1
s
k
1 k
1
1
x (s ) .
k(
)
s 1
s s 1
s s 1
Eqn(1.18)
16
y (t ) k (1 e
)u (t )
Eqn(1.19)
As its value decreases, the output reaches the steady state quickly
a2
d 2 y (t )
d 1 y (t )
a
a0 y (t ) b0 x(t )
1
dt 2
dt1
Eqn (1.20)
Y ( s)
b0
kwn2
,
H ( s)
Eqn (1.21)
Where n is called natural frequency, is called as the damping ratio, and k is the static
sensitivity
The denominator s 2 2wn wn2 is called the characteristic equation since it describes
characteristics of the system dynamic behavior. The system response depends on k,
n and values
K is the static sensitivity
17
18
Eqn(1.22)
Input
Eqn(1.23)
It may be noted that an ideal transducer is one whose AR is constant for all
frequencies. In other words the amplitude plot of the frequency response should be flat
for all frequencies.
19
1.5
6 - Time constant.
2 - Output range.
8 - Robustness.
4 - Precision.
9 - Cost
5 - Accuracy.
and storage.
The performance of the measuring elements during the functioning of instruments under
real conditions is influenced by undesirable environmental effects (temperature, pressure,
humidity, etc). The mathematical output-input relationship (ideally an equation of straight
line in linear elements) is also affected. The environmental conditions generally dont
produce affectation in the slope of the I-O characteristic, neither the linearity, but they
introduce an undesirable independent term in the input/output equation. For that reason it
is necessary to know the mathematical model of the measuring elements in order to
represent the effect of external factors, noises and interferences in appropriate manner.
The general equation of the ideal straight line is:
O=KI+a
Where:
Eqn(1.24)
Rewritten the expression (9) we obtain the generalized model of the measuring element,
that is:
O = K I + a + N(I) + KM IM I + KI II
Eqn(1.25)
Where:
II = Interfering input. Represent the undesirable additional input signal to which the
measuring element unfortunately responds.
IM = Modifier input. Represent the alterations or modifications in the I/O relationships
(interferences)
20
21
be also
considered as
modifier
input,
because
it
affects the
Voltage/Deformation relationships.
By analogy with expression (1.25), the mathematical equation for this example is:
R = K e + a + KM T e + KI T
Eqn(1.26)
The Generalized model of strain gauge transducer is shown Figure 1.17 by blocks
diagram.
Figure 1.17 Block diagram of the generalized model of strain Gauge transducer
1.6
22
from the accessible inputs and outputs. Hence the mathematical model can be obtained
from time response or frequency response of the transducer.
A conventional method of obtaining transducer mathematical model requires
knowledge of components, their interconnection and the physical law governing their
functioning. Of course a number of assumptions are mandatory to derive the equation
representing the model. In many practical situations, the components used their numerical
values, behavior, interconnections and the physical laws may not be precisely known. In
such situations the model can be assumed to be black box whose inputs and outputs are
accessible for measurements and the transducer model can identified.
Example: a thermometer is suddenly dipped in a water bath kept at 100oc the following
data was generated
t( sec)
Temp (oc) 30
10
12
14
16
18
54
74.2
81
86
93
96
97
98.4
99
y (t ) k (1 e
)u (t )
How ever there is an initial value of the thermometer, thus equation must be modified to
account for the initial value of the thermometer
The input is a step input of: 100-30=70u(t)
T (t ) k (1 e
)70u (t ) T (t o) k (1 e
)u (t ) 300 c 1000 c k 1
And from a step response, normally at time is equal to the time constant the response
reaches 63.2% of its final value which is 0.632x (100-30) =44.2, from the data or graph
30+44.2=74.2 is the value at t=4sec
Thus the transfer function of the thermometer is given by
T (t )
k
1
s 1 4 s 1
23
1.7
24
Problems
1. When two resistors of value 470+ 10%, and 330+ 5%, are connected in (a)
parallel and (b) in series . Calcuate the total (effective) resistance, taking errors in to
consideration and neglecting errors
2. The power factor in a circuit is determined by measuring current, voltage and power.
The reading obtained are 125V on 150V scale voltmeter of accuracy + 005%, 3A on
5A Scale ammeter of accuracy + 005%,225W on 500W wattmeter of accuracy +
0.25%
a. To what % accuracy can you guarantee that the determined power factor
b. For the possible error show the amount of contribution by each instrument.
3. Determine the response of first order transducer when subjected to ramp input X(t) =
t, sketch the response and determine the transient and steady state error
4. Industrial
a
mercury
in
glass
thermometer
is
described
by
the
equation
dh
h bT where h is height of the mercury in capillary and T is the temperature at
dt
the thermometer bulb. When the temperature is 25oc the height of mercury is the
capillary is 10mm.If the thermometer is immersed in a bath of boiling water
suddenly. How does the height in the capillary rise?
5. A thermometer at room temperature of 28oc is suddenly immersed in a steaming
water bath of 100oc. Calculate the time constant of the thermometer if it takes 30
seconds to show a reading of 96.4oc.
6. Obtain the response of a second order under damped transducer subjected to step
input. Formulate and define settling time, rise time, peak overshot from the response
7. Many commercial transducers are designed to have a damping ratio of 0.6 to 0.7,
why?
8. A second order transducer has a damping ratio of 0.5 and a natural frequency of
oscillation of 3 radians. The transducer is subjected to a step change in input of unity
what is the maximum output of the transducer.
25
CHAPTER TWO
SENSORS FOR MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL
2.1
Introduction
Sensing element, the first block diagram represented in the functional block
diagram of measurement system, is the basic and main building blocks of a measurement
system. Sensor is defined as a component, device or equipment that detects variation of
input or physical phenomenon and responds (or provides) equivalent electrical or non
electrical quantity corresponding to it.
Often a term transducer is also used for sensing element; literally transducer is
defined as a device that transforms one form or type of energy into another. Example: a
microphone, a photoelectric cell, an automobile horn, or bulb. Sensor is a transducer but
transducer is more than a sensor, if it is used for sensing application both terms are used
interchangeably.
2.2
Classification of sensors
Sensors are used to detect physical quantities or variables of multidiscipline. This makes
the subject to broad, leading to different classifications for studying them. Hence there
are different ways of classifying sensors. In these teaching materials the classification of
sensors used is based on
1. The physical effect employed as resistive, inductive, capacitive sensors
2. The source of energy the used to provide an output as active and passive sensors
3. The physical quantity they convert as displacement sensor, temperature sensor,
speed sensor, pressure sensor e.t.c
26
Variation in resistance
Resistance is the character or ability of an element to oppose the flow of current.
l
A
sectional area
R(T ) R0 (1 (T T0 ) Where R0 is resistance at T0
1 1
)
T T0
(1
R(T ) R0 e
Where R0 is resistance at T0
Strain gauge; for stress measurement such as; pressure ,force ,torque
27
Potentiometer
A resistive potentiometer is a resistance wire wound on a former provided with a
sliding contact and excited by dc or ac voltage source. The movement of the slider can be
translational, rotational or combination of these two such as helical motion permitting
measurement of linear or rotational and combination of two. They are the most
commonly used type of sensor mainly for linear and angular displacement measurement
as shown in figure 2.1
Figure 2.1 potentiometer for (a) linear displacement and (b) angular
Displacement measurement
Linear displacement (fig 2.1a)
V0
Vin . X
L
Eqn (2.1a)
V0
K
Vin . 0
eqn (2.1b)
V0 K 0
V0 K . X
X
V0
Eqn (2.2a)
V0
K
eqn (2.2b)
, Where x and 0 are linear and angular displacement, and K is the sensitivity
The sensitivity is the rate of output voltage per input displacement and is given by
K
Vin . V0
L
X
Eqn (2.3)
28
Heat dissipating capacity: Potentiometers are designed on the basic of power rating
which is related directly to their heat dissipating capacity. The maximum input voltage
is limited on account of potentiometer heat dissipating capacity. The maximum input
voltage is limited on account of potentiometer heat dissipating capacity and is give by
The loading effect: Potentiometers are linear devices how ever their linearity is
affected by loading effect thus a care must be taken to avoid a loading effect due to
internal resistance of next stage elements such as; measuring instrument like
voltmeter(if used to measure the output voltage).
Exercise: Consider the Linear displacement measurement circuit of fig2.1a with input
voltage of 5-volt the output voltage is 2.5-volt. The total resistance element length is
100mm. The Linear displacement of an object causes the sliding contact to move such
that the output voltage 2.65-volt. Determine the displacement of the object and the
direction to which it moves.
Solution
Given V0 2.5,Vin 2.5, and L 100mm, the displacement X can be obtained from eqn
(2.1a) as
V0
Vin . X
2.5v 100mm
X
50mm , thus the slider is at the middle
L
5v
If the output is now 2.65, it means that displacement to the up direction of figure 2.1a has
occurred, and the total displacement X is given by
X
2.65v 100mm
53mm
5v
Vin . V0
=20
L
X
Exercise: Consider a voltmeter with internal resistance of 50K is used to measure the
voltage across the terminal. How percentage of measured voltage is lost during full
displacement measurement if the total potentiometer resistance is 5K.
29
Resistance thermometer
Resistance thermometers are temperature dependent resistors made from a conductive
or semiconductor element. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) and thermistor are
the most common transducers that vary their resistance when subjected to temperature
variation. They are passive transducers requiring an excitation source.
(a)
Eqn (2.3)
Since RTD is a passive resistive device, a current is required to pass through the
device to produce a measurable voltage. This current causes the RTD to heat
internally and hence causes as an error, this heating is called as self heating. It is
30
typically specified as the amount of power that will raise the RTD temperature by
10C, or 1 mW/0C. Self heating can be minimized by using the smallest possible
excitation current. The amount of self heating also depends heavily on the medium in
which the RTD is immersed. An RTD can self heat up to 100 times higher in still air
than in moving water
Lead wire resistance can also be a factor Because RTDs are low-resistance devices,
care must be taken in wiring and measuring RTDs to avoid errors caused by lead
resistance
The factors cause significant loss of accuracy especially if manufacturers limits are not
respected, or the design does not properly consider the heat path; thus using small
excitation currents and adopting three- and four-wire, instead of two-wire, connections
can eliminate connection lead resistance effects from measurements as shown in figure
2.3 ; three-wire connection is sufficient for most purposes and almost universal industrial
practice. Four-wire connections are used for the most precise applications as shown in
figure 2.4.
31
Resistance thermometers are constructed in a number of forms and offer greater stability,
accuracy and repeatability advantages and limitations
Advantages of platinum resistance thermometers:
High accuracy
Low drift
Limitations:
RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 C. At temperatures above
660 C it becomes increasingly difficult to prevent the platinum from becoming
contaminated by impurities from the metal sheath of the thermometer. This is why
laboratory standard thermometers replace the metal sheath with a glass construction.
At very low temperatures, say below -270 C (or 3 K), due to the fact that there are
very few phonons, the resistance of an RTD is mainly determined by impurities and
boundary scattering and thus basically independent of temperature. As a result, the
sensitivity of the RTD is essentially zero and therefore not useful.
(b)
Thermistor
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly (more than
32
R(T ) R0e
, Where R0 is resistance at T0 or
Eqn (2.5a)
Eqn (2.5b)
33
the change in resistance is carried out with a standard Wheatstone bridge network.
Application of thermistors
PTC thermistors are used as timers in the degaussing coil circuit of CRT displays and
televisions. When the unit is initially switched on, current flows through the
thermistor and degauss coil. The coil and thermistor are intentionally sized so that the
current flow will heat the thermistor to the point that the degauss coil shuts off in
under a second.
NTC thermistors are regularly used in automotive applications. For example, they
monitor things like coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine and
provide data to the ECU and, indirectly, to the dashboard. They can be also used to
monitor temperature of an incubator.
Thermistors are also commonly used in modern digital thermostats and to monitor the
temperature of battery packs while charging.
Exercise: A platinum resistance thermometer (RTD) has a resistance of 100 at 25oc and
its temperature coefficient of resistance at 25oc is 0.00392/oc.
a. find the resistance at 65oc
b. if the thermometer has a resistance of 150oc find the temperature
34
Strain gauge
Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force. More
specifically, strain () is defined as the fractional change in length, as shown in Figure
2.6. A strain gauge takes advantage of the physical property of electrical conductance and
its dependence on not merely the electrical conductivity of a conductor, which is a
property of its material, but also the conductor's geometry. When an electrical conductor
is stretched within the limits of its elasticity such that it does not break or permanently
deform, it will become narrower and longer, changes that increase its electrical resistance
end-to-end. Conversely, when a conductor is compressed such that it does not buckle, it
will broaden and shorten changes that decrease its electrical resistance end-to-end.
R
L
L
Eqn (2.5)
35
Photoresistors / Photoconductors
Photoresistor, light dependent resistor (LDR) or cadmium sulfide (CdS) cell is a
resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It is also
referred to as a photoconductor. Often it is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If
light falling on the device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the
semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band.
The resulting free electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering
resistance.
36
2.2.1.2
Variation in Capacitance
Capacitance is the ability of an element to store electric charges in its electric field.
Basically there are two capacitor models; the parallel plate and coaxial cable
The capacitance value is given by
Parallel plate C
Coaxial cable C
0A
d
2l
ln( b / a)
Eqn (2.7a)
Eqn (2.7b)
A change in the parameters expressing the capacitors due to any physical effect employed
will cause a change in capacitance. The parallel plate capacitor is used to measure some
physical parameters such as displacement or density of some materials, thickness as
shown in figure 2.9.
37
Exercise: capacitors are also used for level sensing such as coaxial cable as shown in
figure 2.10. Determine the capacitance as a function of height h.
2.2.1.3
Variation of inductance
Inductance is the ability of an element to store electric energy in its magnetic
N 2 N 2 A
Some of sensor types which provides change of inductance value corresponding to the
physical effect employed are
Magnetostrictive sensors
38
two secondary. When the core is in the center, the voltage induced in the two secondary
winding is equal. When the core is moved in one direction from center, the voltage
induced in one winding increase and that in the other is decreased. Movement in the
opposite direction reverses this effect.
40
I(E) illumination
Thermoelectric (Thermocouple)
Thermoelectricity is the relationship between the temperature of a substance and
electrical energy. If two different dissimilar metals A and B are joined together and,
subjected to temperatures at their junction, there is a potential difference in electrical
potential across the junction called the contact potential and vice versa
Thermoelectric principles
The generation of voltage is by see back effect: when any conductor is subjected to a
thermal gradient, it will generate a voltage. This is now known as the thermoelectric
effect or seebeck effect. Using a dissimilar metal to complete the circuit creates a circuit
in which the two legs generate different voltages, leaving a small difference in voltage
available for measurement. That difference increases with temperature, and is between 1
and 70 microvolt per degree Celsius (V/C) for standard metal combinations.
The voltage is not generated at the junction of the two metals of the thermocouple but
rather along that portion of the length of the two dissimilar metals that is subjected to a
temperature gradient. Because both lengths of dissimilar metals experience the same
temperature gradient, the end result is a measurement of the temperature at the
thermocouple junction.
41
This contact potential depends on the metals A and B and the temperature T0C of the
junction. The voltage generated is non linear and is given as a power series of the form
ETAB a1T a2T 2 .... anT n , Where a, a2 an constants of the metals
Eqn(2.8)
Thermocouple is closed circuits consisting of two dissimilar metals joined at two ends,
and generate a voltage as function of junction temperatures (T1 and T2). The dissimilar
metals used are alloys, for example , a J-type thermocouple has one iron conductor and
one constantan (a copper-nickel alloy) conductor.
Conductor
Temperature
o
Voltage Range
Seebeck Coeff.
couple type
Positive
Negative
Range ( C)
(mV)
(V/ oC)
Chromel
Constantan
-270to 1000
9.835 to 76.358
58.70 at 0 C
Iron
Constantan
-210to 1200
-8.096 to 69.536
50.37 at 0 C
Chromel
Alumel
-270to 1372
-6.548 to 54.874
39.48 at 0 C
Copper
Constantan
-270to 400
-6.258 to 20.869
38.74 at 0 C
Ptatinum-10% Rhodium
Platinum
-50to 1768
-0.236 to 18.698
10.19 at 600 C
Platinum-13% Rhodium
Platinum
-50to 1768
-0.226 to 21.108
11.35 at 600 C
42
Thermocouple laws
To ensure proper installation and measurement often it is necessary to consider
the laws governing thermocouples
Law 1: Law of homogeneous material
A thermoelectric current cannot be sustained in a circuit of a single homogeneous
material by the application of heat alone, regardless of how it might vary in cross section.
In other words, temperature changes in the wiring between the input and output do not
affect the output voltage, provided all wires are made of the same materials as the
thermocouple. The voltage generated is function of junction temprature T1 and T2 and
independent of the temperatures of the wires connecting the junction.
One application of this law is that a voltmeter can be connected to measure voltage.
Law 3: when a third metal is introduced at the junction provided that the junction
temperature of the introduced metal is the same emf generated is the same.
Advantage of this law is that voltmeter can be connected, and the junctions can be either
soldered or brazed
43
at junctions
temperature T1 and T2 is equal to the sum of emf generated by a third metal introduced
AC and CB at the same junction temperature pf T1 and T2
.
Measuring temperature with thermocouples
To measure a thermocouple seebeck voltage, you cannot simply connect the
thermocouple to a voltmeter or other measurement system, because connecting the
thermocouple wires to the measurement system creates additional thermoelectric circuits.
Thermocouples have some special signal conditioning requirements, including coldjunction compensation, amplification, linearization, filtering, and even isolating because
thermocouples generate a very low-level of output voltages. You should use as large a
gain as possible for the best resolution and noise performance.
Thermocouples generate low-voltage signals, typically in the millivolt range. For
example, a J-type thermocouple outputs 8.1 mV at 210 C and 21.8 mV at 400 C.
Therefore, you must amplify the signal to accurately read and digitize it.
When using thermocouples, you should be aware of several measurement issues
such as the following:
Cold-junction compensation
Nonlinear data
Low-voltage signals
Noisy signals
44
Cold-Junction Compensation
Thermocouples measure the temperature difference between two points, not
absolute temperature. To measure a single temperature one of the junctionsnormally
the cold junctionis maintained at a known reference temperature, and the other junction
is at the temperature to be sensed
Thermocouples require some form of temperature reference to compensate for
these unwanted parasitic thermocouples. The term cold-junction comes from the
traditional practice of holding this reference junction at 00C in an ice bath.
Figure 2.13. Traditional temperature measurement with reference junction held at 0oC
In Figure 2.13, the measured voltage depends on the difference in temperatures T1 and
Tref; in this case, T ref is 0oC. Notice that because the voltmeter lead connections are the
same temperature, the voltages generated at these two points are equal and opposing.
Therefore, the net voltage error added by these connections is zero. Under these
conditions, if the measurement temperature is above 0oC, a thermocouple has a positive
output; if below 0oC, the output is negative. When the reference junction and the
measurement junction are the same temperature, the net voltage is zero.
Although an ice bath reference is accurate, it is not always practical. A more
practical approach is to measure the temperature of the reference junction with a directreading temperature sensor and subtract the parasitic thermocouple thermoelectric
voltage contributions. This process is called cold-junction compensation. You can
simplify computing cold-junction compensation by taking advantage of some
thermocouple characteristics such as inserting an extra lead in the isothermal region as
shown in figure 2.14.
45
47
48
Incremental encoder
The incremental encoder produces an output signal showing that some
displacement of a shaft has taken place. Further output signals are counted and from these
the angular displacement of a shaft can be measured, relative to some arbitrary datum.
Figure 2.16a shows a typical incremental shaft encoder. The incremental shaft encoder
consists of a disc rigidly attached to the shaft whose displacement is to be measured. The
disc has a number of equally spaced slots, or windows, through which a beam of light can
pass. The rest of the disc is opaque. A light source, consisting of two light emitting
diodes (LEDs), is aligned with the disc. If the light from the LEDs is uninterrupted, it is
detected by the light detectors.
Figure 2.16 (a) Optical incremental shaft encoder (b) Incremental shaft encoder disc
As the shaft rotates, the light shines through the equally spaced windows in the disc, and
is blocked by the opaque sections of the disc. Hence a pulsed light output from the light
detectors is produced. The LEDs and detectors are arranged so that, as the disc rotates,
the phase difference between the pulse trains from the detectors shows the direction of
rotation. The number of pulses detected is proportional to the angle through which the
shaft and disc travel.
The angular displacement of the shaft can be determined relative to an arbitrarily
selected starting point. The resolution depends on how may windows if contains, the
more windows the disc has, the higher the resolution.
Resolution=
3600 or 2
eqn (2.9)
Number of windows
The number of windows on the rotating disc can vary from 60 to well over l000 with
multi-tracks, allowing very good resolution to be achieved. Typical resolutions of optical
incremental shaft encoders are 0.0034 radians (0.2) to 0.102 radians (6).
49
Absolute encoders
The absolute encoder produces an output signal which shows the total
displacement of a shaft from a null position. Figure 2.17a shows a typical optical absolute
shaft encoder. It differs from the incremental encoder in that the output signal it produces
is in binary or coded form. This provides an absolute displacement of the shaft.
Figure 2.17 (a) Absolute encoder, (b) Binary absolute encoder disc
A rotating disc, with a number of concentric tracks, is attached to the shaft. A light source
consisting of LEDs is aligned with the tracks of the disc as shown in figure 2.17(b). A
light detector is similarly aligned with the disc and beams to detect the light which passes
through the disc. A closed window, which is opaque and so prevents light from the
LEDs reaching the detector, represents a binary '0'. An open window, which allows
light from the LEDs through to the detector, indicates a binary '1'. The combinations of
open and closed windows follow a binary sequence from 0 to 2n-l, where n is the number
of tracks.
The binary absolute shaft encoder disc shown in Figure 2.17b has four tracks and
consequently there are four bits in each binary number. The numbers of positions which
can be detected are 16 (24), since the binary sequence runs from 0 to 15 (0 to 24-1).
The resolution is given by
Resolution=
2 or 3600
eqn(2.10)
50
In this case 16 binary numbers are 0.393 radians or 22.5. If we use a rotating disc with
eight tracks, giving eight bits in each binary number, the number of positions that can be
detected is 28 = 256. The resolution is then 0.024 radians or 1.41.
In practice there are problems with this type of binary absolute encoder. The exact
alignment of the window edges in each track is difficult to achieve, and consequently
errors are sometimes introduced. These errors occur at the boundaries between windows
and, in some cases, it is possible to make a 180oerror in determining the shaft angular
displacement. A major disadvantage of the binary absolute encoder is that on many
occasions more than one window will change condition for one increment. This is
because of the nature of the binary number system. Examples of this are;
Example
0011
to
0100
to
0111
to
1000
to
The most significant change is from 1111 to 0000 (15 to 0 in base 10). Hence if the
absolute encoder system misreads one window, it can lead to serious errors in position
measurements. To overcome this, the Gray Code (named after Frank Gray of Bell
Laboratories) was developed. This produces a sequence where only one 'bit' or 'window'
changes condition between consecutive positions.
Table 2.2 Gray code and binay code sequence
Decimal
Gray code
binary code
1
0000
0000
2
0001
0001
3
0011
0010
4
0010
0011
5
0110
0100
6
0111
0101
7
0101
0110
8
0100
0111
Angular optical encoders have applications in numerically controlled machines,
such as computer controlled lathes or millings machines. They are also used in robotics
and positioning systems. A common application of relative optical encoders is in the
computer mouse.
51
52
displayed on a voltage or current meter. Typical variable resistance proximity sensor can
sense up to 2.5 mm. some of the very common applications are crank angle sensing,
ignition timing of engine, in disk drives in computers, speed sensing in motors
Advantage of these sensors is that they can be made very small and so deployed where
other sensors may not fit. Since these devices have to be close to the physical parameter
to be measured, they suffer from unwanted signals or noise.
Reed Switch sensor
Reed Switch consists of two small ferromagnetic reeds hermetically sealed (air tight)
in a glass tube. The reeds are thin, and flexible and as they are ferromagnetic they
become magnetized in the presence of a magnetic a magnetic felid. The reeds may have
normally open or change over contacts depending on the application
The angular rotation of a shaft can be determined using a reed switch by embedding
or attaching a permanent magnetic to a shaft and the reed switch is fixed near the shaft, so
that when the shaft rotates the magnet passes close by. As the magnet passes, the reed
switches make or break a circuit and produces a pulsed output. These processes can be
used to determine angular displacement, velocity or acceleration using approximate
signal conditioning. Reed switches have application speed and distance measurement of
bicycle, automatically breaking of circuits to shut a machine off when a guard is
removed, and in switches on doors and windows for burglar alarms.
Hall Effect sensor
A Hall Effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in response to
changes in magnetic field. Hall sensors are used for proximity sensing, positioning, speed
detection, and current sensing applications.
In its simplest form, the sensor operates as an analogue transducer, directly
returning a voltage. When a current carrying conductor or semiconductor is acted by a
magnetic field positioned at right angles to it, the electrons passing through the conductor
are acted up on by a force which concentrates them more to one side of the conductor
than the other. This variation in current distribution creates an emf across the conductor.
The generated emf is proportional to the strength of the magnetic flux and can be used as
a principle for proximity sensing.
53
K H BI
,
t
eqn (2.11)
54
Because of the weight of air, everything on the surface of the earth is under pressure
which is known as atmospheric pressure. The standard value of atmospheric pressure at
sea level is 1.01325 X 105 N.m2. The term gauge pressure is used for measurement,
which used atmosphere at its zero points. Absolute pressure is then the sum of gauge
pressure and atmospheric pressure.
There are so many types of sensor used for measurement of pressure these are;
Liquid manometers
Barometers
Manometers
Technically a manometer is any device used to measure. However, the word
manometer is commonly used to mean a pressure sensor which defects change by means
of liquid in tube. Manometers are differential pressure sensors. A differential pressure
sensor measures the difference between a pressure being applied to it and a reference
pressure (often atmosphere)
A barometer is a pressure sensor used to measure atmosphere pressure. Hence they
have to be sensitive enough to measure absolute points. They are mainly used for
metrological purposes
Elastic pressure sensors
Elastic sensors are so called because something flexes, stretches, or temporarily
deforms when a pressure is being applied. Elastic sensors initially convert pressure in to a
displacement. This allows displacement sensors to be used to condition the output signal
from the pressure sensor. Some pressure sensors are referred to by the method they use to
measure this displacement such as piezoelectric and capacitive pressure sensors. When
55
electronic displacement sensors are used, the method of detecting charge is usually by
means of diaphragm. Elastic pressure sensors measure differentially.
56
Thermoelectricity; thermocouple
57
expanses for degree rise in temperature. The two metals which form the strip are usually
an iron-nickel alloy with a very small expansively, and a metal with high expansively,
such as brass.The bending of the bimetallic strip is due to the different coefficient of
expansion of the metals. Brass has high expansibility hence expands significantly more
than the iron-nickel alloy for the same temperature rise as shown in figure 2.22.
58
Heat radiation
The property of all hot substance emits heat radiation can be used to measure the
temperature of the body with out having direct contact. When a substance or body is at
above a suitable temperature, we can see it glow. This is heat energy being transferred
from the substance by radiation of electromagnetic rays. If the substance changes color or
becomes brighter, it indicates that more heat energy is radiating off the substance it is
hotter.
A body which completely absorbs any heat or light radiation falling on it is
known as a blackbody (blade body only exist in theory).The amount of energy given off
by the surface of a particular substance is called its emissivity (E) is the ratio of the
radiation emitted by a given surface to the radiation emitted by the surface of a slave
body heated to the dimension less number between 0 and 1. A black body would have an
emissivity of E=1. Knowing the emissivity of a substance, then measuring the
electromagnetic radiation it is possible to measure temperature.
At a given wavelength, brightness will vary with temperature. The radiation can
be measured by looking at its intensity or color. Devices which measure temperature in
this has are referred to as radiation pyrometers. Radiation pyrometer energy measure is
used to high temperature. One major advantage in that there is no contact with the
substance whose temperature they are measuring.
The disappearing filament optical pyrometer
The disappearing filament optical pyrometer compares the visible electromagnetic
radiation given off by the hot body with the light emitted by the lamp. The lamp is
calibrated so that its filament brightness corresponds to know temperature. Adjusting the
current to the lamp will adjust the brightness. When the filament disappears it means that
the temperature is the same. The current to the lamp at which the filament disappears is
thus indication of the temperature of the body. These type of sensors have application in
measurement of temperature of molten metals, furnaces and heat treatment
Infrared pyrometer
They use the in force electromagnetic rays emitted by a hot body and measure the
interring of them by thermocouple or thermopile. Thermopile is groups of thermocouples
are bright together for measurement so as to increase sensitivity.
59
60
62
Capacitance variation (figure 2.27-f) has been employed in various ways for level
sensing, for essentially non-conducting liquids (where the resistance is sufficient high)
obtaining satisfactory results. For conductive liquids the probe must be insulated to
prevent short circuiting of the capacitance by the liquid resistance. Capacitance levelsensing techniques have been used with many common liquids, powdered or granular
solids, liquid metals (high temperatures), liquefied gases (low temperatures), corrosive
materials such acids, and in very high pressure processes. Figure 2.27-g) illustrates the
use of radioisotopes for level measurement. Since the absorption of -ray or -ray
radiation varies with the thickness of absorbing material between the source and the
detector.
Figure 2.27-h) shows the method of using hot-wire or carbon resistor elements for
the measurement of liquid level in discrete increments. The basic concept is that the heattransfer coefficient at the surface of the resistance element changes radically when the
liquid surface passes it. This changes its equilibrium temperature and thus its resistance,
causing a change in bridge output voltage. By locating resistance elements at known
height intervals, the tank level may be measured in discrete increments. Such
arrangements have been used in filling fuel tanks of large rocket engines with cryogenic
liquids fuels. Ultrasonic techniques can also be applied to liquid-level sensing, as in
figure 2.27-i). Ultrasonic devices utilizing wave propagation principles to obtain a digital
output representing the measured value of the variable (liquid level of the tank in the
example illustrated).
63
64
vl
Where:
The value of Re implies laminar or turbulent flow. Re < 2x103 Laminar flow, Re > 104
Turbulent flow, 2x103 < Re < 104
Transition region
Orifice-plate meter
The orifice meter is the most common type of head flow measuring device for
medium and large-pipe sizes. The orifice plate inserted in a pipe line causes an increase
in the flow velocity and a corresponding decrease in the pressure. The flow pattern shows
an effective decrease in the cross-section of flow beyond the orifice plate with the
maximum pressure. The particular position where the velocity is maximum and the static
pressure is minimum is known as vena contracta.
The orifice plate inserted in the line is basically a thin plate of metal with circular
opening with different configurations (figure 2.29). The concentric orifice plate consists
of a central hole in a metal plate concentric with the circumference of the plate (see figure
2.30).
65
By measuring the different pressure using pipe tapping locate at distances D and D/2 in
the upstream and downstream respectively is possible to obtain the flow rate. The
materials used for orifice plates are mild steel, stainless steel, phosphor bronze, or gun
metal, depending upon the application. The main advantages of an orifice meter its
simple construction and high reliability. The limitations are its poor accuracy, calibration
changes appreciably with wear, high pressure loss, and possible maintenance problems
with blocked tapping. Since the pressure losses are high, the device is not recommended
for high velocities. The effect of inserting an orifice plate in a fluid stream causes an
abrupt change in the stream area accompanied by a fairly high pressure loss. In cases
where such pressure loss is not acceptable, it is preferable to use an element possessing a
gradual stream area change, such as the Venturi tube, which is described below.
Pitot tube
The Pitot is one of the earliest devices developments for flow measurement. It consists of
a cylindrical probe inserted into the fluid stream. In this device, the velocity head is
converted into an impact pressure, and the difference between the static pressure and the
impact pressure is a measure of the flow rate. Pitot tubes are widely used for air-speed
measurements on board an aircrafts.
66
The sketch of the Pitot tube is shown in figure 2.31, it consists simply of a tube supported
in the pipe with the impact opening of about to in diameter arranged to point directly
forward the oncoming fluid. The process taking place in the fluid is one of converting the
"velocity" head to an additional static head. If therefore the pressure difference (p2 - p1)
can be measured the velocity of the fluid in the stream tube may be found by knowing the
density of the flow.
67
The dimensions of Venturi tube are relatively large, and its cost is also high. Since the
device is sufficiently resistant to abrasion, it is well suited for suspended liquids.
The fabrication complexities are less than that of a Venturi tube. At high velocity flows,
the performance is better than the orifice device. The curved profile of the nozzle renders
its usefulness whenever fluids with suspended solid matter are encountered. The
following general characteristics of differential pressure flow meters should be borne in
mind when deciding on the most suitable meter for a given application.
1. No moving parts, robust, reliable and easy to maintain, widely established and
accepted.
2. There is always a permanent pressure loss due to frictional effects. The cost of the
extra pumping energy may be significant for large installations.
3. These devices are non-linear this limits the useful range of a meter to between 25
and 100 % of maximum flow. At lower flows the differential pressure
measurement is below 6 % of full scale and is clearly inaccurate.
4. Can only be used for clean liquids, where is well established turbulent flow.
5. Considerable care must be taken with the installation of the meter, minimum
lengths of straight pipe upstream and downstream of the meter, the geometry of
the flow meter, the arrangement of the pressure pipes connecting the flow meter
to the differential pressure device.
A typical modern flow meter system using differential pressure sensor is shown in figure
2.34. It consists of the differential pressure sensing element, differential pressure
transmitter, interface circuit and microcomputer. Transmitter received the P pressure
signal as input giving a DC current output signal (typically 4 -20mA). The interface
circuits consist of an amplifier, signal conditioning circuit, and analogue-to-digital
converter. The computer reads the input binary number, converts it into differential
pressure P and then calculates the measured flow rate Qm, according with the formulas
and constants values of fluid density, dynamic viscosity, temperature of the fluid, etc,
stored in memory.
Figure 2.34 Microcomputer used for flow measurement with differential pressure
sensing element.
69
Rotameters
Rotameter is considered variable-area meter, it consist of a vertical tube with
tapered bore in which a float assumes a vertical position corresponding to each flow
rate through the tube (see figure 2.35). For a given flow rate, the float remains stationary
since the vertical forces of differential pressure, gravity, viscosity, and buoyancy are
balanced. This balance is self-maintaining since the meter flow area (annular area
between the float and tube) varies continuously with vertical displacement; thus the
device may be thought of as an orifice of adjustable area. The downward force (gravity
minus buoyancy) is constant and so the upward force (mainly the pressure drop times the
float cross-section area) must be constant also. Since the float area is constant, the
pressure drop must be constant. For a fixed flow area, P varies with the square of flow
rate, and so to keep P constant for differing flow rates, the area must vary. The tapered
tube provides this variable area. The float position is the output of the meter and can be
made essentially linear with flow rate by making the tube area vary linearly with the
vertical distance. Rotameters thus have an accurate range of about 10:1, considerably
better others flow meters. Accuracy is typically 2 % full scale with repeatability about
0.25 % of reading. Assuming incompressible flow and the area of float relatively smaller
than the area of the tube, we can estimate the flow by the expression:
Q = K (At-Af)
Eqn(2.8)
fluid.
If the tube is shaped so that At varies linearly with the float position (x), then:
Q = K1 +K2 x
Eqn(2.9)
The floats of rotameters may be made of various materials to obtain the desired density
difference, for metering a particular liquid or gas. Floats shaped to include turbulence
can give viscosity insensitivity over a 100:1 range.
70
71
and the body of the flow meter. The meters are self-powered and drive mechanical
counters. The upstream flow conditions are of no importance, and these can be used for
viscous fluids. One of the most popular types is the rotary piston meter which has a large
flow range (50:1), long life, low frictional loss, and an accuracy of 1 % of reading. Being
a precision device, the cost is high. Also, the fluid should be clean. The pressure drop in
the meter is high.
72
The instantaneous frequency is a measure of the flow rate, and the total number of
pulses over a period of time is a measure of the total flow, these measurements can be
made very accurately because of their digital nature.The theory of operation of the
turbine transmitter is complex. Turbine meters behave essentially as first-order dynamic
systems for small changes about an operating point. However, the time constant
(typically 2 to 10 ms at maximum factor) is inversely proportional to the operating-point
flow rate.
The most serious disadvantage of these meters is their susceptibility to damage
with particles suspended in the fluid, and any damage to the blade requires recalibration.
Also, there should be at least a 15-diameter length straight pipe upstream to the meter, to
obtain the required flow pattern. These are expensive and useful for fluids in a limited
viscosity range.
Electromagnetic flow meter
The electromagnetic flow meter is ideally suited for measuring the flow rate of
fluids in installations where the other common methods of measurement are
unsatisfactory. The principle feature is that it does not present any obstruction to the flow
of liquid. The electromagnetic flow meter is based in the principle of Faradays law of
electromagnetic induction. A schematic arrangement of the flow meter is shown in figure
2.38. The flow tube lies in a magnetic field of uniform flux density. Two electrodes are
inserted in the tube, their surfaces beings flush with the inner surface of the tube and in
contact with the fluid. As the conductive fluid flows through the insulated tube, it will be
considered as a series of flat conductor discs passing through the magnetic field inducting
an e.m.f across the electrode. The induced voltage is generated in a direction mutually
perpendicular to both the velocity plane of the conducting liquid and phase of the
magnetic field, independent of Reynolds number, viscosity and density of the liquid.
This value multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the pipe gives the volume flow rate.
In principle, both AC and DC magnetic fields can be used but DC method has the danger
of electrolytic polarization at the electrodes.
73
Figure 2.38 (a) Schematic arrangement of a magnetic flow meter (b) Section showing
electrodes and magnetic field.
The main advantage of the devices is that its construction is simple and rugged with no
moving parts, and hence the hysteresis is nil and head loss is low. If the process liquid is
an electrolyte, it is relatively insensitive to changes in the fluid density, temperature,
pressure, viscosity and flow disturbances. The only condition is that the pipe should
always be full.
The device has an essentially linear fast response independent of the properties of
the fluid except for electrical conductivity. It has a range of 10:1, with good accuracy and
reliability. It is ideal for bi-directional measurements and particularly suited for
measuring flows of corrosive acids and alkalis as well as slurries with coarse or fine
suspended materials. The main limitations are that the fluid must be conductive and the
electrical output signal is of a low level (usually a few micro volts), requiring high
amplification and special instrumentation. Further the device tends to be expensive for
small pipe sizes.
74
measurement is not sensitive to the viscosity, pressure, and temperature variations. They
do not disrupt the flow, and are often portable. Other advantages are fast response, wide
frequency range and versatility. However particles of suspended matter in the liquid are
required for either ultrasonic technique to work successfully. Ultrasonic flow meters
cannot be used with gases.
Problems
1. What is the resolution (in voltage and in radians ) of a potentiometer for a 360 single
turn wire which has 150 number of turns per cm and with 20 v excitation
2. What is the resolution (in voltage and in radians ) of 50 turn helical wire wound
potentiometer with 20v excitation and 5cm diameter ,
3. A linear resistance potentiometer is 50mm long and is uniformly wound with a wire
of total resistance of 5kohm under normal conditions, the slider at the center of the
potentiometer, Determine
i. The linear displacement when the resistance of the potentiometer as measured
by the Bridge is 1.85kohm.
ii. The Resolution of the potentiometer in mm, the minimum measurable
iii. Consider a voltmeter with internal resistance of 50Kohm is used to measure the
voltage across the terminal. How percentage of measured voltage is lost during
full displacement measurement.
4. A potentiometer transducer with a stroke length of 5cm has a total resistance of 10k.
The voltage across the potentiometer is 7.5v. When the wiper is 2 cm from one end
what is the output voltage of the potentiometer from the end.
5. A LVDT has a voltage excitation of 10v at 400Hz having a maximum range
movement of +1.5cm and output range of 2.5v. Calculate the output voltage when the
core is +1cm away from null
6. A LVDT has a voltage excitation of 6v rms when the displacement is 0.4X10-3.
Determine the sensitivity of this instrument in volts/mm. A 10 volt voltmeter with
100 scales division and in which two tenths a division is used to read the output.
Determine the resolution o f the voltmeter
7. A thickness measuring device transducer has parallel plate capacitive sensor having a
pair of plates of area of 10cmX20cm, which are separated by a distance of 0.02cm. A
76
mica sheet of thickness 0.010.00cm is being passed between the plates .calculate
the variation of capacitance when the dielectric constant of mica is 8 and the
permittivity of air is 8.85X10F/m.
8. A capacitive transducer is made up of two concentric cylinder plates with inner and
outer concentric diameter of 5mm and 5.2mm respectively. The length of the
electrode is 25mm. Calculate the capacitance value if the outer cylinder is pulled by
5mm, what is the capacitance change.
9. A peizo electric transducer has a capacitance of 1000pf and a charge sensitivity of
4X10-6 coulumb/cm. The connecting cables has capacitance of 400pf. the display
device has an input impedance of 1M resistance and 50pf connected in parallel
i. What is the voltage sensitivity of the piezoelectric transducer alone
ii. What is the high frequency sensitivity in V/cm of the entire system
iii. What is the lowest frequency that can be measured with 2 percent error
10. Capacitor pressure sensors use the electrical property of a capacitance to measure the
displacement of a diaphragm. The diaphragm is an elastic pressure sensor displaced
in proportion to changes in pressure. It acts as a one plate of a capacitor.
77
CHAPTER THREE
SIGNAL CONDITIONING AND INTERFACING CIRCUITS
3.1
Introduction
The output of sensors is usually small or not suitable to directly process or present
it. Thus conditioning or suiting of the signal is necessary. Signal conditioners are circuit
that takes the output of a sensor or transducer and converts it in to a form more suitable
for further processing or presenting. Usually the output is current, voltage or frequency
Some of the very commonly used type of signal conditioning and interfacing circuits
are; Deflection bridge, Instrumentation Amplifier(INA), filters, V/I,I/V,V/F,F/V and as
interfacing circuits, ADC, DAC
3.2
Deflection Bridge
The Deflection Bridge finds an extensive application in electrical instrumentation
for conditioning the output of sensors typically if the sensor output is variation of
resistance, inductance and capacitance. The deflection bridge has four arms of impedance
designated as ZA, ZB, ZN and ZX. One of these, ZX is the unknown impedance that
usually forms the sensor as shown in Figure. 3. 1
78
The operation of the deflection bridge lies in the two states or conditions of the
bridge namely balanced and unbalanced condition in which is the first is a reference
(starting from zero) while the imbalance accounts for the measurement of the physical
parameter under going change.
Mathematically
At balanced condition, Vab 0 , which is a reference point(start) for measurement
I1Z1 I 2 Z 2
Eqn(3.1)
I1 Z 4 I 2 Z 3
Eqn (3.2)
Z1 Z 2
Z1
Z2
Vab
VS
Z1 Z 4 Z 2 Z 3
Eqn (3.3)
located in a single arm adjacent to the unknown arm (e.g. ZB) are called ratio-arm
bridges. Bridge circuits in which two shunt-connected adjustable elements both located in
the arm opposite the unknown (e.g. ZA) and the product of impedance in the remaining
arms is either purely real or purely imaginary are called product-arm bridges.
Generally in order to attain the relation ship governing the operation of the bridge,
circuit analysis is necessary to obtain three basic informations
1. The relation ship among the impedance when the bridge is at balanced condition
2. The sensitivity of the bridge i.e. the output voltage per unit change of impedance
3. Loading effect:
The obtained information will help design appropriate deflection bridge that
encompasses calibration, compensation (environmental effects such as temperature,
humidity), adjustment of sensitivity and the provision of adjustment of output voltage to
zero.
79
(a) DC Bridges
With a d-c galvanometer used as a detector and resistive arms the bridge of Figure
3.1 becomes a dc bridge known as Wheatstone bridge. It is almost the standard means of
measuring resistance based on resistance variations over wide ranges. By means of a
suitable variation of the values of RA and RB, the ratio arms, RX can be detected. The
ratio RN/RA should be so chosen that the unknown resistance is determined. The
Wheatstone bridge is usually used to measure resistance values ranging from 1 ohm to
1mega ohm with accuracy of 0.02 percent. Special difficulties can be encountered in the
measurement of very low and very high resistance or resistance variations. For low
resistance the Kelvin double bridge (Fig. 3.2) which is a modification of the Wheatstone
bridge can reduce the uncertainty introduced by the resistance of leads and contacts.
Where r is the resistance of connection between RB = S which is assumed to be very
small
80
81
VIm in
1
1
VS
R
R
4
3
1 R
1 R
2
Im in
Eqn (3.4)
VIm ax
1
1
VS
R4
R3
1 R
1 R
2
Im ax
Eqn (3.5)
VIm ax VIm in
1
1
VS
R
1 R4 R
1 4 R
Im ax
Im in
Eqn (3.6)
R
R
R4
3 R4 3 RIm in
RIm in R2
R2
2. The electrical power dissipated in the sensor must not exceed the maximum
power
3. The non linearity must be with in the limited value , the ratio r3/r2 gives in
sight in to the non linearity
83
Vab
1
1
VS
R4
R3
RI
R 2
Substituting R4
Eqn (3.7)
R3
RIm in in Eqn (3.7)
R2
1
1
VS
Vab
1 R3 RIm in 1 R3
R2
R R
I
2
Eqn (3.8)
Vab 1
1
VS 1 r
1 r
x
1
R
V
R
1
Where r 3 , x I and v ab
v
R2
RIm in
VS
1 r
1 r
x
Eqn (3.9)
v( x)
x
1
1
1
1 r x r 1 r
1 r
x
Eqn (3.10)
The degree of non linearity is dependent on r i.e. the graph v versus x is dependent on
the value of r . The design should consider achieving high sensitivity
Example: consider quarter bridge strain gauge circuit shown in figure 3.6 which
comprises a strain gauge sensor R3 in its arm for strain measurement
84
In a strain gauge, the relation between strain, gage factor and resistance is given by
R
F . Where F is gauge factor and e is strain, R is the unstrained resistance
R0
R F . .R0
However; R is usually small x
RI
R R
I
1
RIm in
RIm in
v
x
v
x
Eqn (3.11)
x 1
x 1
x
1
0 r 1
x x r 1 r x 1
x
1
1 x 1 1
x 1 Since r 1
x r 1 r 2 x 1 4
1 R
1 RI
1 .
4 RIm in
4 R0
Vab
VS R VS
.
.F . ,
4 R0
4
Eqn (3.13)
Eqn (3.14)
From Eqn (3.14) it is seen that relation between the ouput ( Vab ) and input (strain) is linear
and the sensitivity of the quarter bridge is given by
K
Vab
VS
.F
4
Eqn (3.14)
85
86
Practically the third wire carries no current (due to the voltmeter's extremely high internal
resistance) and its resistance will not drop any substantial amount of voltage
Compensation for temperature
Another kind of measurement error associated with the strain measurement is due
environmental effects such as temperature. An unfortunate characteristic of strain gauges
is that its resistance change with changes in temperature. This is a property common to all
conductors, some more than others. Thus, the quarter-bridge circuit as shown (either with
two or with three wires connecting the gauge to the bridge) works as a thermometer just
as well as it does a strain indicator. By using a "dummy" strain gauge in place of R2, the
effects of temperature change can be cancelled. As both elements of the rheostat arm will
same resistance change in response to temperature changes the effect of temperature can
be avoided. For example, Figure 3.9 illustrates a strain gauge configuration where one
gauge is active (RG + R), and a second gauge is placed transverse to the applied strain.
Therefore, the strain has little effect on the second gauge, called the dummy gauge.
However, any changes in temperature will affect both gauges in the same way. Because
the temperature changes are identical in the two gauges, the ratio of their resistance does
not change, the voltage V0 does not change, and the effects of the temperature change are
minimized.
Figure 3.9 Use of Dummy Gauge to Eliminate Temperature Effects quarter bridge strain
gauge circuit with temperature compensation
Resistors R1 and R3 are of equal resistance value and the strain gauges are identical to
one another. With no applied force, the bridge should be in a perfectly balanced condition
and the voltmeter should read 0 volts. Both gauges are bonded to the same test specimen,
but only one is placed in a position and orientation so as to be exposed to physical strain
87
(the active gauge). The other gauge is isolated from all mechanical stress, and acts merely
as a temperature compensation device (the "dummy" gauge). If the temperature changes,
both gauge resistances will change by the same percentage, and the bridge's state of
balance will remain unaffected. Only a differential resistance (difference of resistance
between the two strain gauges) produced by physical force on the test specimen can alter
the balance of the bridge. Wire resistance doesn't impact the accuracy of the circuit as
much as before, because the wires connecting both strain gauges to the bridge are
approximately equal length. Therefore, the upper and lower sections of the bridge's
rheostat arm contain approximately the same amount of stray resistance, and their effects
tend to cancel:
88
V0
GF
Vi
2
In applications where such complementary pairs of strain gauges can be bonded to the
test specimen, it may be advantageous to make all four elements of the bridge "active" for
even greater sensitivity. This is called a full-bridge circuit as shown in figure 3.12.
V0
GF
Vi
Both half-bridge and full-bridge configurations grant greater sensitivity over the quarterbridge circuit, but often it is not possible to bond complementary pairs of strain gauges to
the test specimen. Thus, the quarter-bridge circuit is frequently used in strain
measurement systems. When possible, the full-bridge configuration is the best to use.
89
This is true not only because it is more sensitive than the others, but because it is linear
while the others are not. Quarter-bridge and half-bridge circuits provide an output
(imbalance) signal that is only approximately proportional to applied strain gauge force.
Linearity, or proportionality, of these bridge circuits is best when the amount of
resistance change due to applied force is very small compared to the nominal resistance
of the gauge(s).With a full-bridge, however, the output voltage is directly proportional to
applied force, with no approximation (provided that the change in resistance caused by
the applied force is equal for all four strain gauges). Strain gauges may be purchased as
complete units, with both strain gauge elements and bridge resistors in one housing,
sealed and encapsulated for protection from the elements, and equipped with mechanical
fastening points for attachment to a machine or structure. Such a package is typically
called a load cell
Example A quarter strain gauge bridge has a strain gauge of resistance R1=200 and
gauge factor G=1.9, while R2, R3 and R4 are fixed resistance at 200. The strain gauge
experiences a tensile strain of 400micro strain. If the input voltage is 4 determine the
change in output voltage V.
Solution
Given at the balanced condition R1=R2=R3=R4=200, and GF=1.9
For e=400x10-6 , the resistane change is
R=GF.e.R= 0.152
The output voltage is
1 V .R
V . i
0.76mV
4 R
90
3.3
Amplifiers
Since most of the electrical signals produced by most sensors or transducers are
low voltage or power level, often it is necessary to amplify them before they are used for
further processing, indication or recording. An Amplifier is an electronic device or group
of devices used to increase the size of a voltage or current signal without changing the
signals basic characteristics.
Operational amplifiers (OPAMPs) are special types of amplifiers which essential
component of both practical and precision instruments. Their characteristics make opamp to find wide application in instruments as signal conditioning and signal conversion
circuits such as ; Instrumentation Amplifier(INA), filters, oscillator, integrator,
differentiator, V/I,I/V,V/F,F/V,ADC,DAC
3.3.1 Operational amplifier (OPAMP)
Opamp have two inputs indicated by and + sign which stands for inverting and noninverting inputs as shown figure 3.13.
Eqn (3.15)
This is ideal opamp have same amplification (A) for both inputs thus the ouput voltage is
the difference of the inputs meaning if there is a common voltage(Vc) to both input
terminals then it will be cancelled How ever in practice there is amplification called as
common gain for common voltages, thus the output is
vo Av 2 v1 AcVc
Eqn (3.16)
91
The degree of deviation form the ideal opamp is specified by common mode rejection
ratio (CMRR)
CMRR
A
Ac
Eqn (3.17)
The common voltage is not limited to steady state or intentionally effect rather could be
any signal equally applied to both inputs paths such as noise voltage pick. Thus in any
case the use of amplifiers with high CMRR ratio and careful attention to the symmetry in
the lead wire are helpful in reducing errors.
Common opamp circuit configurations
Some of the most common circuit configuration where Opamp is used to for
suiting signal are; Voltage comparator Inverting amplifier Non inverting amplifier
Summing amplifier Voltage follower Differential amplifier Integrating amplifier
Differentiating amplifier, Current to voltage converter, Voltage to current converter,
Voltage to frequency converter, Frequency to voltage converter
a. Voltage comparator
This is used for comparing input voltages, it is a differential amplifier
If v2>v1 the output voltage is positive
If v2<v1the output voltage is negative
If v2=v1, then the output voltage is zero
Figure 3.14a Voltage comparator
Consider a sine wave is applied to v1 and v2 is zero, the output will be high for the
positive parts of the sine wave, negative for the negative part and zero when equal, thus
the output becomes square wave. Such type of comparator circuit is often refereed to as
zero crossing detectors
b. Inverting amplifier
The out put is an inverted (opposite polarity) form of the input voltage
R
v o v1 2
R1
Figure 3.14b Inverting amplifier
92
R
vo v2 1 2
R1
Figure 3.14c Non inverting amplifier
d. Summing amplifier
The output is the sum of the input voltages
vo v1
R3
R
v2 3
R1
R2
vo v1
Figure 3.14 e Voltage follower
f. Differential amplifier
The output is used to amplify the difference of inputs
vo
R3
(v2 v1 )
R1
93
The difference amplifier output can be determined by superposition theorem i.e the
output is due to an inverting amplifier and non-inverting amplifier inputs.
-
Eqn (3.18)
Eqn (3.19)
Eqn (3.20)
vo
R3
(v 2 v1 )
R1
Eqn (3.21)
g. Integrating amplifier
vo
v1 t
RC
vo
v1 c R
t
94
vo I R
I'
v1
R1
95
Eqn (3.22)
R
R
v1 v 2 2 1 2
R1
R1
Eqn (3.21)
2R
v1 v 2 1 2
R1
Eqn (3.23)
96
The front end of the instrumentation amplifier is a difference amplifier that can be
analyzed by superposition theorem i.e. the output is due to an inverting amplifier and
non-inverting amplifier.
-
Eqn (3.24)
Eqn (3.25)
R
vo vo 2 v o1 4
R3
Eqn (3.26)
Eqn (3.27)
R R
R R
vo v1 v 2 1 2 4 v 2 v1 1 2 4
R1 R3
R1 R3
The INA is having additional buffer amplifiers to the inputs so as to make Rin infinity at
both V1 and V2 especially as compare to the front differential amplifier. In practice these
differential signals typically emanate from sensors such as resistive bridges or
thermocouples.
97
98
v1 v2
v
.... nn )
2 4
2
Eqn (3.28)
Usually v0 v1 v2 .... vn , then for a n binary bit inputs the analog output voltage is
given
vout (b0
b1 b2
b
.... nn )v0 , where b0 is MSB and bn is LSB
2 4
2
Eqn (3.29)
If we drive the inputs of the circuit with digital gates so that each input is either 0 volts or
full supply voltage, the output voltage will be an analog representation of the binary
value of these three bits. Each input voltage has exactly half the effect on the output as
the voltage before it. In other words, input voltage V1 has a 1:1 effect on the output
voltage (gain of 1), while input voltage V2 has half that much effect on the output (a gain
of 1/2), and V3 half of that (a gain of 1/4). These ratios are the same ratios corresponding
to weights in the binary numeration system.
Example: For a reference voltage of 5v and 3 bit binary inputs the analog output voltages
is summarized in table 3.4.1
Table 3.4.1 The R/2R DAC output voltage
Binary input
b0b1b2
000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111
Analog output
v0
0.00 V
-1.25 V
-2.50 V
-3.75 V
-5.00 V
-6.25 V
-7.50 V
-8.75 V
99
Example: Consider the 4 bit DAC shown figure 3.20(a) which has the MSB and LSB
bits ON. In each case redrawing of the circuit will give ease to find the output voltage.
Figure 3.20b and figure 3.20c are the redrawn circuits when MSB and LSB are ON
respectively
100
Analog output
v0
0.00 V
-1.25 V
-2.50 V
-3.75 V
-5.00 V
-6.25 V
-7.50 V
-8.75 V
101
102
If the vin exceeds the vref at each comparator, the comparator outputs will
be high
If the vin is less than vref at each comparator, the comparator outputs will
be low
The priority encoder generates a binary number based on the highest-order active
input, ignoring all other active inputs. For this particular application, a priority encoder is
realized by a set of Exclusive-OR gates and the encoder circuit is made from a matrix of
diodes when operated, the flash ADC produces a digital output that looks like in figure 3.
23.
103
104
If the input voltage is greater than the DAC output, the comparator's
output will be high and the counter will continue counting normally.
105
If the input voltage is equal or lower than the DAC output, the
comparator's output will be low and the counter will be reset and the latch
will execute a binary output
The effect of this circuit is to produce a DAC output that ramps up to whatever level the
analog input signal is at, output the binary number corresponding to that level, and start
over again. This ADC is relatively slow since conversion time could be up to 2N, where
N is the resolution of the ADC
Successive approximation ADC
One method of addressing the digital ramp ADC's shortcomings is the so-called
successive-approximation ADC. The only change in this design is a very special counter
circuit known as a successive-approximation register. Instead, of counting up in binary
sequence, this register counts by trying all values of bits starting with the most significant
bit and finishing at the least-significant bit. Throughout the count process, the register
monitors the comparator's output to see if the binary count is less than or greater than the
analog signal input, adjusting the bit values accordingly. The way the register counts is
identical to the "trial-and-fit" method of decimal- to-binary conversion, whereby different
values of bits are tried from MSB to LSB to get a binary number that equals the original
decimal number.
Operation is based on a binary search
Initially, the register provides an output corresponding to half the range (10000)
The advantage to this counting strategy is much faster results: the DAC output converges
on the analog signal input in much larger steps than with the 0-to-full count sequence of a
regular counter. The inner workings of the successive-approximation register (SAR) is
shown in figure 3.26, note that the SAR is generally capable of outputting the binary
number in serial (one bit at a time) format, thus eliminating the need for a shift register.
When the analog input signal exceeds the DAC output, the counter goes into
the "count up" mode.
When the DAC output exceeds the analog input, the counter switches into the
"count down" mode.
Either way, the DAC output always counts in the proper direction to track the input
signal as shown in figure 3.27.
107
108
then compared against the analog input by a comparator. The types slope integrating
ADC are; single slope and dual slope
Single-slope integrating ADC
The single slope integrating ADC basically comprises ramp integrator,
comparator and a counter to convert analog to digital signals. The ramp integrator
generates saw tooth wave form and the time it takes for the saw tooth waveform to
exceed the input signal voltage level is measured by means of a digital counter clocked
with a precise-frequency square wave (usually from a crystal oscillator). The basic
schematic diagram is shown in figure 3.28
When the comparator output is low (input voltage greater than integrator
output), the integrator is allowed to charge the capacitor in a linear fashion.
Meanwhile, the counter is counting up at a rate fixed by the precision clock
frequency. The time it takes for the capacitor to charge up to the same voltage
level as the input depends on the input signal level and the combination of
Vref, R, and C.
109
When the comparator output goes high i.e. the capacitor reaches that voltage
level, the counter's output is feed into the shift register for a final output. And
the IGFET is triggered "on" by the comparator's high output, discharging the
capacitor back to zero volts.
Thus the integrator output voltage falls to zero, the comparator output switches
back to a low state, clearing the counter and enabling the integrator to ramp up
voltage again.
This ADC circuit behaves very much like the digital ramp ADC, except that the
comparator reference voltage is a smooth saw tooth waveform rather than a "stair step:
The single-slope ADC suffers all the disadvantages of the digital ramp ADC, with the
added drawback of calibration drift. The accurate correspondence of this ADC's output
with its input is dependent on the voltage slope of the integrator being matched to the
counting rate of the counter (the clock frequency). With the digital ramp ADC, the clock
frequency had no effect on conversion accuracy, only on update time. In this circuit,
since the rate of integration and the rate of count are independent of each other, variation
between the two is inevitable as it ages, and will result in a loss of accuracy. One
advantage of this circuit is that it avoids the use of a DAC, which reduces circuit
complexity. An answer to this calibration drift dilemma is found in a design variation
called the dual slope converter.
Dual slope integrating converter
The dual-slope integrating ADC comprises of four basic elements these are; an integrator,
a zero-crossing detector, a binary counter, Logic gates and switches as shown in figure
3.29.
110
The integrator circuit is driven positive and negative in alternating cycles to ramp
down and then up, rather than being reset to 0 volts at the end of every cycle. The
integrator has two direction of ramping
In one direction of ramping, the integrator is driven by the positive analog input
signal (producing a negative, variable rate of output voltage change, or output
slope) for a fixed amount of time, as measured by a counter with a precision
frequency clock.
Then, in the other direction, with a fixed reference voltage (producing a fixed rate
of output voltage change) with time measured by the same counter.
The counter stops counting when the integrator's output reaches the same voltage as it
was when it started (the fixed-time portion of the cycle). The amount of time it takes for
the integrator's capacitor to discharge back to its original output voltage becomes the
digital output of the ADC circuit,
The sequence of operation of dual-slope integrating ADC can described as
The comparator goes HIGH, enabling clock pulses into the counter
When counter overflows, it resets to zero and the control circuit switches the
switch to a reference negative voltage
When this ramp reaches zero, the comparator goes low and stops the
counter, whose value represents the analog input
The dual-slope method can be thought of analogy in terms of a rotary spring used to
measure the rotary speed of a shaft. Initially the spring is at a relaxed state, and then it is
turned, or "wound up," by the rotating shaft (input signal) for a fixed amount of time.
Then it is allowed to unwind at a fixed rate, thus the time it takes to unwind is directly
proportional to the speed at which it was wound.
This technique of analog-to-digital conversion escapes the calibration drift problem
of the single-slope ADC because both the integrators integration coefficient ("gain") and
111
the counter's rate of speed are in effect during the entire "winding" and "unwinding"
cycle portions.
Even though slow rate of conversion dual-slope ADCs have the advantages of
providing very high resolution, insensitive to clock drift (RC drifts) and high-frequency
noises. It is widely used in digital multi-meters.
3.4.3 Performance characteristics of ADC circuits
The most important consideration in selecting or designing an ADC is their
performance characteristics which is described by resolution, Sample frequency (or
conversion rate) and step recovery
Resolution
Resolution is the number of binary bits output by the converter. An ADC with a 10bit output can represent up to 1024 unique conditions of signal measurement. Over the
range of measurement from 0% to 100%, there will be exactly 1024 unique binary
numbers output by the converter (from 0000000000 to 1111111111, inclusive). Similarly
an 11-bit ADC will have 2048 representing which is twice of 10 bit resolution.
Resolution is very important in instrument employing ADC such as data acquisition
systems (circuits designed to interpret and record physical measurements in electronic
form).
Example: Suppose we were measuring the height of water in a 40-feet capacity tank
using an instrument with a 10-bit ADC having 1024 possible states (1023 steps). To
determine how much physical water level will be represented in each step of the ADC,
0.039101 feet per step. This step value of 0.039101 feet represents the smallest amount of
tank level change detectable by the instrument. Admittedly, this is a small amount, less
than 0.1% of the overall measurement span of 40 feet.
Sample frequency or conversion rate
This is simply the speed at which the converter outputs a new binary number. Like
resolution, this consideration is linked to the specific application of the ADC. Depending
up on the signal to be measured (slow or fast varying) the sample frequency need to
fulfill the nyquist criterion so that substantial part of the signal is not missed during the
conversion process.
112
Example: If the converter is being used to measure slow-changing signals such as room
temperature, it could probably have a very slow sample frequency and still may perform
adequately. Conversely, if it is being used to digitize an audio frequency signal cycling at
several thousand times per second, the converter needs to be considerably faster.
Theoretically the highest-frequency waveform that an ADC can capture is the socalled Nyquist frequency, equal to one half of the ADC's sample frequency. If an ADC
circuit has a sample frequency of 5000 Hz, the highest-frequency waveform it can
successfully resolve will be the Nyquist frequency which is 2500 Hz. But if the ADC is
subjected to an analog input signal whose frequency exceeds the Nyquist frequency
(2500 Hz), then the ADC will output a digitized signal of false low frequency. This
phenomenon is known as aliasing. The Nyquist frequency is an absolute maximum
frequency limit for ADC, and does not represent the highest practical frequency
measurable. To be safe, one shouldn't expect an ADC to successfully resolve any
frequency greater than one- fifth to one-tenth of its sample frequency.
A practical means of preventing aliasing is to place a low-pass filter before the
input of the ADC, to block any signal frequencies greater than the practical limit, so that
the ADC circuit is prevented from seeing any excessive frequencies and hence will not
digitize them. Generally it is better to have such frequencies go unconverted than to have
them be "aliased" and appear in the output as false signals.
Step recovery
The step recovery is a measure of how quickly an ADC changes its output to match a
large, sudden change in the analog input. In some converter technologies especially, step
recovery is a serious limitation. For example the tracking converter has a typically fast
update period but a disproportionately slow step recovery. An ideal ADC has a great
many bits for very fine resolution, samples at lightning-fast speeds, and recovers from
steps instantly. It also, unfortunately, doesn't exist in the real world. Of course, any of
these traits may be improved through additional circuit complexity, either in terms of
increased component count and/or special circuit designs made to run at higher clock
speeds. Different ADC technologies, though, have different strengths.
113
Problems
1. In unbounded strain gauge of circuit shown in figure 3.12 the nominal resistance is
120 each and the gaga factor is 2.4. If the excitation voltage is 10v, what is the open
circuit output voltage for tensile strain of 0.001?
2. For resistive half and full bridge derive the expression for the output voltage and their
sensitivity.
3. The instrumentation amplifier is available in the form of controllable also called as
programmable. Sketch the circuit diagram of such type of INA and drive the equation
relating the input and its output. What its advantage over the INA discussed in section
3.3.2.
4. Determine the analog voltage of a 3 bit binary weighted DAC if the reference voltage
is 5v, and having feedback resistor value of 800 and the input resistance R=1 k .
5. design a 4 bit R/2R DAC of your own and determine the analog output for each
binary combination of input
6. Design a 3 bit flash ADC having a reference voltage of 5v. And determine the output
binary digital outputs for each stage of analog input. How much is the resolution?
7. Rank the ADC , Single-slope integrating, dual-slope integrating, counter, tracking,
successive approximation, flash from best to worst in terms of
a. Resolution/complexity ratio:
b. Speed
c. Step recovery
114
CHAPTER FOUR
OUTPUT PRESENTATION
4.1
Introduction
A measuring instrument is simply a device for determining the value of a quantity
or physical phenomenon. The purpose served by the instrument is, first, to determine or
ascertain the value (magnitude) of some particular phenomena. The instrument may be
required to indicate or record the value of the measured quantity in different forms such
as graphically or numerically.
The output presentation is classified in to display, recording or both.
1. Display or indicating
a. pointer deflection
b. Graphically
c. numerically, alpha numerically
2. Recording
a. chart recording
b. magnetic digital recording
3. Data acquisition systems and data logging
4.2
Display or Indicating
Display or indicating is one of output presentation mechanism in which a device
gives an instantaneous visible indication of the signal from sensor, in other words it is a
real time device that indicates the phenomena happing at present, and it does not save it
for future use or reference. Often the output presentation is either in analog or digital
display form. The analog display instruments usually uses pointer deflection or graphical
means of presenting, while the digital display instruments use numbers such as using the
seven segment light emitting diodes (LED) or liquid crystal display (LCD).
4.2.1 Pointer deflection
Pointer deflection display or Indicating refers to an instrument that indicates the
measured variable in calibrated scale by pointer defection as shown in figure 4.1. The
value of the quantity is presented to the observer on the scale to any fraction with the
limitations of the instrument and the human eye.
115
116
The oscilloscope displays the wave form on a cathode ray tube, which is also found in
television sets and computer monitors. The basic structures of a general purpose cathode
ray tube (CRT) are illustrated in Figure 4.3
4.2.3 Numerical/digital display
Rather than showing the measured value in terms of pointer deflection or wave
form, digital display instruments indicate the output as number. The electronic circuitry
of these digital instruments uses the analog to digital converter (ADC) and display driver
to present the number to the observer as shown in figure 4.3. The display driver is an
electronic circuit that is used to drive the seven segment light emitting diodes (LED) or
light crystal display (LCD).
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be power by battery), how ever their time response is much slower than LED example
typical LED responses in 100 nanoseconds while LCD 10micro seconds. Now a days
LCD are the most widely used in many display screens such as watches, mobile and
meters.
4.3
Recording
Recording is another way of output presentation mechanism in which is a device
is used to make permanent record of a measured value or signal. Recording is useful for
analysis, interpretation or monitoring of data. The recording of measured variable can be
in the form of graphical or numerical on paper or chart, or on magnetic tape, disk or
semiconductor memory. Recorders are categorized as chart recorders and magnetic
recorders.
4.3.1 Chart recording /Graphical recording
Chart recording is a mechanism by which an instrument makes a written record,
usually on paper, of the value of the measured quantity against some other variable or
against time. Chart recorders also referred as a graphical recorder which plots or draws
measured variations of electrical or non-electrical quantities with respect to time over
seconds, minutes, hours, or days. In many instances, the recording is needed to check the
performance of industrial processes or electrical power generation and distribution
systems.
Important features of the basic graphical recorders are: input impedance,
timescale, event markers, and writing mechanism. The use of amplifier ensures the input
impedance to the recorder is maintained relatively high. The writing mechanism can be
an ink pen with a capillary feed system, or heated stylus recording the variations of the
input (Vin) on a heat sensitive paper. Other recorders, commonly known as photographic
or ultraviolet (UV) recorders, use a light beam as a pointer leaving traces on photographic
papers. Recorders known as multi-channel recorders contain a number of writing pens in
all making marks simultaneously on a wide roll of paper thereby permitting easy
comparison of several simultaneous functions. The common chart recorders are Moving
coil chart recorder (galvanometric chart recorder), Servo chart recorder, XY plotter, Ultra
violent chart recorder, Thermal array recorder. Figure 4.3 shows some of the chart
recorders
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y are applied through their respective terminals of X and Y. the pen which is hold in the
transverse bar moves according to the inputs in the two dimensions of input. XY plotters
are fairly slow and are also not used to record signal against time. The static performance
of such an instrument is described by accuracy, resolution, functions of an X-Y
recorders electronic and mechanical characteristics. The slow speed and acceleration in
response to the capture rapid and transient signal input determine the dynamic response.
Other important features include chart size, number of pens,
4.3.2 Magnetic tape recorders
The principle of recording with instrumentation magnetic tapes is illustrated in
Figure 4.4. There are three main components: a core with a small nonmagnetic gap, a coil
wound on the core, and a thin magnetic coating sitting on a base. The latter can be a wire,
but inmost application it consists of a flexible plastic tape.
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instrumentation works as well as for audio recordings. With one head, one needs only to
switch from a record to reproduce (playback) mode. At the same time the direction of
tape travel has accordingly to is set by the sense of rotation of the motor moving the tape
transport.
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maintenance of accurate tape and head alignments. For computer application, recording is
mostly made in a block form, meaning that a block of information is recorded at one
time, in place of conventional or incremental recording where data is continuously stored
on the tape. As the recorded binaries are typically obtained by digitizing input analog
signals, the latter can be recovered by use of digital to analog converters.
Alternative recording systems which are gaining wide applications use the same
principles as already described for magnetic recording, but with the flexible tapes
replaced by rigid disk packs, diskettes or floppy disks, all operated with use of movable
heads to scan magnetically coated surfaces. Storage capacities measured in kilo (i.e.
thousand), millions, and possibly billions of bytes (i.e 8-bit words), and access times
ranging from 35 to 100 ms are the two important features of these recording devices.
Data recorded on these devices is therefore much more voluminous than those recorded
in tapes, and can also be accessed much faster
4.4
(measuring variables) for purposes of measurement and control often recording for later
study and analysis such as further processing. The advancement of semiconductor
technology has made instrumentation systems to comprise the features of computing in
output presentation mechanisms. A data acquisition refers to a process where information
is converted in to a form that can be handled by computer
4.4.1 Computer and data acquisition systems
A Computer data acquisition system is a system where a parameter or parameters
are detected by a sensor or transducer is suitably conditioned and converted in to a form
that can be stored or processed by a computer. The use of computer provides advantages
of quality measurement and control by reducing error. Computers are useful in solving
complex mathematical models, performing repetitive analysis or manipulations quickly
with high accuracy and precision. By the inclusion of multiplexers, data acquisition
system can be made to acquire several physical parameters at a time. A multiplexer
(MUX) is a switch that routes information from several sources to one common
destination.
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period. This allows for a comprehensive, accurate picture of the environmental conditions
being monitored, such as air temperature and relative humidity.
Data logging versus data acquisition
The terms data logging and data acquisition are often used interchangeably. However, in
a historical context they are quite different. A data logger is a data acquisition system, but
a data acquisition system is not necessarily a data logger.
Data loggers typically have slower sample rates. A maximum sample rate of 1 Hz
may be considered to be very fast for a data logger, yet very slow for a typical data
acquisition system.
Data loggers are implicitly stand-alone devices, while typical data acquisition system
must remain tethered to a computer to acquire data. This stand-alone aspect of data
loggers implies on-board memory that is used to store acquired data. Sometimes this
memory is very large to accommodate many days, or even months, of unattended
recording. This memory may be battery-backed static random access memory, flash
memory or EEPROM. Earlier data loggers used magnetic tape, punched paper tape,
or directly viewable records such as "strip chart recorders".
Given the extended recording times of data loggers; they typically feature a time- and
date-stamping mechanism to ensure that each recorded data value is associated with a
date and time of acquisition. As such, data loggers typically employ built-in real-time
clocks whose published drift can be an important consideration when choosing
between data loggers.
The unattended and remote nature of many data logger applications implies the need
in some applications to operate from a DC power source, such as a battery. Solar
power may be used to supplement these power sources. These constraints have
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generally led to ensure that the devices they market are extremely power efficient
relative to computers. In many cases they are required to operate in harsh
environmental conditions where computers will not function reliably.
This unattended nature also dictates that data loggers must be extremely reliable.
Since they may operate for long periods nonstop with little or no human supervision,
and may be installed in harsh or remote locations, it is imperative that so long as they
have power, they will not fail to log data for any reason. As such data loggers are
almost completely immune to the problems that might affect a general-purpose
computer in the same application, such as program crashes and the instability of some
operating systems.
Applications of data logging include:
Unattended hydrographic recording (such as water level, water depth, water flow,
water pH, water conductivity).
Data Loggers are changing more rapidly now than ever before. The original model of a
stand alone data logger is changing to one of a device that collects data but also has
access to wireless communications for alarming of events, automatic reporting of data
and remote control. Data loggers are beginning to serve web pages for current readings email their alarms and FTP their daily results into databases or direct to the users.
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Examples
A flight data recorder (FDR), a piece of recording equipment used to collect specific
aircraft performance data. The term may also be used, albeit less accurately, to
describe the cockpit voice recorder (CVR), another type of data recording device
found onboard aircraft.
A voyage data recorder (VDR), a data recording system designed to collect data from
various sensors on board a ship.
The growing, preparation, storage and transportation of food. Data logger is generally
used for data storage and these are small in size.
In automobiles, all diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs) are logged in engine control units
(ECUs) so that at the time of service of a vehicle, a service engineer will read all the
DTCs using Tech-II or similar tools and will come to know problems occurred in the
vehicle.
Problems
1. some types of voltmeters and ammeter have both types of analog and digital display
what advantage do you think such meters have
2. Common error in pointer deflection meters is the parallax error. What is parallax
error, and describe the way to overcome parallax error.
3. Computer based oscilloscopes are available which have the features of standard
cathode ray oscilloscopes, what advantages do you think computer based
oscilloscopes offer as compare to the standard CRO.
4. Describe briefly the principle of operation of each of pointer deflection meter
discussed in section 4.2.1 by static and dynamic performance characteristics of
instruments
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