UrFascism

UmbertoEco

JUNE 22, 1995 ISSUE

In1942,attheageoften,IreceivedtheFirstProvincialAwardofLudiJuveniles
(avoluntary,compulsorycompetitionforyoungItalianFasciststhatis,for
everyyoungItalian).IelaboratedwithrhetoricalskillonthesubjectShouldwe
dieforthegloryofMussoliniandtheimmortaldestinyofItaly?Myanswerwas
positive.Iwasasmartboy.
IspenttwoofmyearlyyearsamongtheSS,Fascists,Republicans,andpartisans
shootingatoneanother,andIlearnedhowtododgebullets.Itwasgoodexercise.
InApril1945,thepartisanstookoverinMilan.Twodayslatertheyarrivedinthe
smalltownwhereIwaslivingatthetime.Itwasamomentofjoy.Themain
squarewascrowdedwithpeoplesingingandwavingflags,callinginloudvoices
forMimo,thepartisanleaderofthatarea.Aformermarescialloofthe
Carabinieri,MimojoinedthesupportersofGeneralBadoglio,Mussolinis
successor,andlostalegduringoneofthefirstclasheswithMussolinisremaining
forces.Mimoshoweduponthebalconyofthecityhall,pale,leaningonhis
crutch,andwithonehandtriedtocalmthecrowd.Iwaswaitingforhisspeech
becausemywholechildhoodhadbeenmarkedbythegreathistoricspeechesof
Mussolini,whosemostsignificantpassageswememorizedinschool.Silence.
Mimospokeinahoarsevoice,barelyaudible.Hesaid:Citizens,friends.After
somanypainfulsacrificeshereweare.Glorytothosewhohavefallenfor
freedom.Andthatwasit.Hewentbackinside.Thecrowdyelled,thepartisans
raisedtheirgunsandfiredfestivevolleys.Wekidshurriedtopickuptheshells,
preciousitems,butIhadalsolearnedthatfreedomofspeechmeansfreedomfrom
rhetoric.
AfewdayslaterIsawthefirstAmericansoldiers.TheywereAfricanAmericans.
ThefirstYankeeImetwasablackman,Joseph,whointroducedmetothe
marvelsofDickTracyandLilAbner.Hiscomicbookswerebrightlycoloredand
smelledgood.
Oneoftheofficers(MajororCaptainMuddy)wasaguestinthevillaofafamily
whosetwodaughtersweremyschoolmates.Imethimintheirgardenwheresome

ladies,surroundingCaptainMuddy,talkedintentativeFrench.CaptainMuddy
knewsomeFrench,too.MyfirstimageofAmericanliberatorswasthusafterso
manypalefacesinblackshirtsthatofacultivatedblackmaninayellowgreen
uniformsaying:Oui,mercibeaucoup,Madame,moiaussijaimele
champagneUnfortunatelytherewasnochampagne,butCaptainMuddygave
memyfirstpieceofWrigleysSpearmintandIstartedchewingalldaylong.At
nightIputmywadinawaterglass,soitwouldbefreshforthenextday.
InMayweheardthatthewarwasover.Peacegavemeacurioussensation.Ihad
beentoldthatpermanentwarfarewasthenormalconditionforayoungItalian.In
thefollowingmonthsIdiscoveredthattheResistancewasnotonlyalocal
phenomenonbutaEuropeanone.Ilearnednew,excitingwordslikerseau,
maquis,armesecrte,RoteKapelle,Warsawghetto.Isawthefirstphotographs
oftheHolocaust,thusunderstandingthemeaningbeforeknowingtheword.I
realizedwhatwewereliberatedfrom.

InmycountrytodaytherearepeoplewhoarewonderingiftheResistancehada
realmilitaryimpactonthecourseofthewar.Formygenerationthisquestionis
irrelevant:weimmediatelyunderstoodthemoralandpsychologicalmeaningof
theResistance.ForusitwasapointofpridetoknowthatweEuropeansdidnot
waitpassivelyforliberation.AndfortheyoungAmericanswhowerepayingwith
theirbloodforourrestoredfreedomitmeantsomethingtoknowthatbehindthe
firinglinestherewereEuropeanspayingtheirowndebtinadvance.
Inmycountrytodaytherearethosewhoaresayingthatthemythofthe
ResistancewasaCommunistlie.ItistruethattheCommunistsexploitedthe
Resistanceasifitweretheirpersonalproperty,sincetheyplayedaprimerolein
itbutIrememberpartisanswithkerchiefsofdifferentcolors.Stickingcloseto
theradio,Ispentmynightsthewindowsclosed,theblackoutmakingthesmall
spacearoundthesetaloneluminoushalolisteningtothemessagessentbythe
VoiceofLondontothepartisans.Theywerecrypticandpoeticatthesametime
(Thesunalsorises,Theroseswillbloom)andmostofthemweremessaggiper
laFranchi.SomebodywhisperedtomethatFranchiwastheleaderofthemost
powerfulclandestinenetworkinnorthwesternItaly,amanoflegendarycourage.
Franchibecamemyhero.Franchi(whoserealnamewasEdgardoSogno)wasa
monarchist,sostronglyantiCommunistthatafterthewarhejoinedveryright
winggroups,andwaschargedwithcollaboratinginaprojectforareactionary
coupdtat.Whocares?Sognostillremainsthedreamheroofmychildhood.
Liberationwasacommondeedforpeopleofdifferentcolors.
InmycountrytodaytherearesomewhosaythattheWarofLiberationwasa

tragicperiodofdivision,andthatallweneedisnationalreconciliation.The
memoryofthoseterribleyearsshouldberepressed,refoule,verdrngt.But
Verdrngungcausesneurosis.Ifreconciliationmeanscompassionandrespectfor
allthosewhofoughttheirownwaringoodfaith,toforgivedoesnotmeanto
forget.IcanevenadmitthatEichmannsincerelybelievedinhismission,butI
cannotsay,OK,comebackanddoitagain.Weareheretorememberwhat
happenedandsolemnlysaythatTheymustnotdoitagain.
ButwhoareThey?
IfwestillthinkofthetotalitariangovernmentsthatruledEuropebeforethe
SecondWorldWarwecaneasilysaythatitwouldbedifficultforthemto
reappearinthesameformindifferenthistoricalcircumstances.IfMussolinis
fascismwasbasedupontheideaofacharismaticruler,oncorporatism,onthe
utopiaoftheImperialFateofRome,onanimperialisticwilltoconquernew
territories,onanexacerbatednationalism,ontheidealofanentirenation
regimentedinblackshirts,ontherejectionofparliamentarydemocracy,onanti
Semitism,thenIhavenodifficultyinacknowledgingthattodaytheItalian
AlleanzaNazionale,bornfromthepostwarFascistParty,MSI,andcertainlya
rightwingparty,hasbynowverylittletodowiththeoldfascism.Inthesame
vein,eventhoughIammuchconcernedaboutthevariousNazilikemovements
thathavearisenhereandthereinEurope,includingRussia,Idonotthinkthat
Nazism,initsoriginalform,isabouttoreappearasanationwidemovement.
Nevertheless,eventhoughpoliticalregimescanbeoverthrown,andideologies
canbecriticizedanddisowned,behindaregimeanditsideologythereisalwaysa
wayofthinkingandfeeling,agroupofculturalhabits,ofobscureinstinctsand
unfathomabledrives.IstherestillanotherghoststalkingEurope(nottospeakof
otherpartsoftheworld)?

Ionescooncesaidthatonlywordscountandtherestismerechattering.
Linguistichabitsarefrequentlyimportantsymptomsofunderlyingfeelings.Thus
itisworthaskingwhynotonlytheResistancebuttheSecondWorldWarwas
generallydefinedthroughouttheworldasastruggleagainstfascism.Ifyoureread
HemingwaysForWhomtheBellTollsyouwilldiscoverthatRobertJordan
identifieshisenemieswithFascists,evenwhenhethinksoftheSpanish
Falangists.AndforFDR,ThevictoryoftheAmericanpeopleandtheirallies
willbeavictoryagainstfascismandthedeadhandofdespotismitrepresents.
DuringWorldWarII,theAmericanswhotookpartintheSpanishwarwerecalled
prematureantifascistsmeaningthatfightingagainstHitlerintheFortieswas
amoraldutyforeverygoodAmerican,butfightingagainstFrancotooearly,in

theThirties,smelledsourbecauseitwasmainlydonebyCommunistsandother
leftists.WhywasanexpressionlikefascistpigusedbyAmericanradicals
thirtyyearslatertorefertoacopwhodidnotapproveoftheirsmokinghabits?
Whydidnttheysay:Cagoulardpig,Falangistpig,Ustashepig,Quislingpig,
Nazipig?
MeinKampfisamanifestoofacompletepoliticalprogram.Nazismhadatheory
ofracismandoftheAryanchosenpeople,aprecisenotionofdegenerateart,
entarteteKunst,aphilosophyofthewilltopowerandoftheUbermensch.
NazismwasdecidedlyantiChristianandneopagan,whileStalinsDiamat(the
officialversionofSovietMarxism)wasblatantlymaterialisticandatheistic.Ifby
totalitarianismonemeansaregimethatsubordinateseveryactoftheindividualto
thestateandtoitsideology,thenbothNazismandStalinismweretruetotalitarian
regimes.
Italianfascismwascertainlyadictatorship,butitwasnottotallytotalitarian,not
becauseofitsmildnessbutratherbecauseofthephilosophicalweaknessofits
ideology.Contrarytocommonopinion,fascisminItalyhadnospecial
philosophy.ThearticleonfascismsignedbyMussoliniintheTreccani
EncyclopediawaswrittenorbasicallyinspiredbyGiovanniGentile,butit
reflectedalateHegeliannotionoftheAbsoluteandEthicalStatewhichwas
neverfullyrealizedbyMussolini.Mussolinididnothaveanyphilosophy:hehad
onlyrhetoric.Hewasamilitantatheistatthebeginningandlatersignedthe
ConventionwiththeChurchandwelcomedthebishopswhoblessedtheFascist
pennants.Inhisearlyanticlericalyears,accordingtoalikelylegend,heonce
askedGod,inordertoproveHisexistence,tostrikehimdownonthespot.Later,
MussolinialwayscitedthenameofGodinhisspeeches,anddidnotmindbeing
calledtheManofProvidence.

ItalianfascismwasthefirstrightwingdictatorshipthattookoveraEuropean
country,andallsimilarmovementslaterfoundasortofarchetypeinMussolinis
regime.Italianfascismwasthefirsttoestablishamilitaryliturgy,afolklore,even
awayofdressingfarmoreinfluential,withitsblackshirts,thanArmani,
Benetton,orVersacewouldeverbe.ItwasonlyintheThirtiesthatfascist
movementsappeared,withMosley,inGreatBritain,andinLatvia,Estonia,
Lithuania,Poland,Hungary,Romania,Bulgaria,Greece,Yugoslavia,Spain,
Portugal,Norway,andeveninSouthAmerica.ItwasItalianfascismthat
convincedmanyEuropeanliberalleadersthatthenewregimewascarryingout
interestingsocialreform,andthatitwasprovidingamildlyrevolutionary
alternativetotheCommunistthreat.

Nevertheless,historicalprioritydoesnotseemtomeasufficientreasontoexplain
whythewordfascismbecameasynecdoche,thatis,awordthatcouldbeusedfor
differenttotalitarianmovements.Thisisnotbecausefascismcontainedinitself,
sotospeakintheirquintessentialstate,alltheelementsofanylaterformof
totalitarianism.Onthecontrary,fascismhadnoquintessence.Fascismwasafuzzy
totalitarianism,acollageofdifferentphilosophicalandpoliticalideas,abeehive
ofcontradictions.Canoneconceiveofatrulytotalitarianmovementthatwasable
tocombinemonarchywithrevolution,theRoyalArmywithMussolinispersonal
milizia,thegrantofprivilegestotheChurchwithstateeducationextolling
violence,absolutestatecontrolwithafreemarket?TheFascistPartywasborn
boastingthatitbroughtarevolutionaryneworderbutitwasfinancedbythemost
conservativeamongthelandownerswhoexpectedfromitacounterrevolution.
Atitsbeginningfascismwasrepublican.Yetitsurvivedfortwentyyears
proclaimingitsloyaltytotheroyalfamily,whiletheDuce(theunchallenged
MaximalLeader)wasarminarmwiththeKing,towhomhealsoofferedthetitle
ofEmperor.ButwhentheKingfiredMussoliniin1943,thepartyreappearedtwo
monthslater,withGermansupport,underthestandardofasocialrepublic,
recyclingitsoldrevolutionaryscript,nowenrichedwithalmostJacobin
overtones.
TherewasonlyasingleNaziarchitectureandasingleNaziart.IftheNazi
architectwasAlbertSpeer,therewasnomoreroomforMiesvanderRohe.
Similarly,underStalinsrule,ifLamarckwasrighttherewasnoroomforDarwin.
InItalytherewerecertainlyfascistarchitectsbutclosetotheirpseudoColiseums
weremanynewbuildingsinspiredbythemodernrationalismofGropius.
TherewasnofascistZhdanovsettingastrictlyculturalline.InItalytherewere
twoimportantartawards.ThePremioCremonawascontrolledbyafanaticaland
uncultivatedFascist,RobertoFarinacci,whoencouragedartaspropaganda.(Ican
rememberpaintingswithsuchtitlesasListeningbyRadiototheDucesSpeechor
StatesofMindCreatedbyFascism.)ThePremioBergamowassponsoredbythe
cultivatedandreasonablytolerantFascistGiuseppeBottai,whoprotectedboththe
conceptofartforartssakeandthemanykindsofavantgardeartthathadbeen
bannedascorruptandcryptoCommunistinGermany.
ThenationalpoetwasDAnnunzio,adandywhoinGermanyorinRussiawould
havebeensenttothefiringsquad.Hewasappointedasthebardoftheregime
becauseofhisnationalismandhiscultofheroismwhichwereinfact
abundantlymixedupwithinfluencesofFrenchfindesicledecadence.
TakeFuturism.Onemightthinkitwouldhavebeenconsideredaninstanceof
entarteteKunst,alongwithExpressionism,Cubism,andSurrealism.Buttheearly

ItalianFuturistswerenationalisttheyfavoredItalianparticipationintheFirst
WorldWarforaestheticreasonstheycelebratedspeed,violence,andrisk,allof
whichsomehowseemedtoconnectwiththefascistcultofyouth.Whilefascism
identifieditselfwiththeRomanEmpireandrediscoveredruraltraditions,
Marinetti(whoproclaimedthatacarwasmorebeautifulthantheVictoryof
Samothrace,andwantedtokilleventhemoonlight)wasneverthelessappointed
asamemberoftheItalianAcademy,whichtreatedmoonlightwithgreatrespect.
ManyofthefuturepartisansandofthefutureintellectualsoftheCommunist
PartywereeducatedbytheGUF,thefascistuniversitystudentsassociation,
whichwassupposedtobethecradleofthenewfascistculture.Theseclubs
becameasortofintellectualmeltingpotwherenewideascirculatedwithoutany
realideologicalcontrol.Itwasnotthatthemenofthepartyweretolerantof
radicalthinking,butfewofthemhadtheintellectualequipmenttocontrolit.
Duringthosetwentyyears,thepoetryofMontaleandotherwritersassociated
withthegroupcalledtheErmeticiwasareactiontothebombasticstyleofthe
regime,andthesepoetswereallowedtodeveloptheirliteraryprotestfromwithin
whatwasseenastheirivorytower.ThemoodoftheErmeticipoetswasexactly
thereverseofthefascistcultofoptimismandheroism.Theregimetoleratedtheir
blatant,eventhoughsociallyimperceptible,dissentbecausetheFascistssimply
didnotpayattentiontosucharcanelanguage.
AllthisdoesnotmeanthatItalianfascismwastolerant.Gramsciwasputinprison
untilhisdeaththeoppositionleadersGiacomoMatteottiandthebrothersRosselli
wereassassinatedthefreepresswasabolished,thelaborunionsweredismantled,
andpoliticaldissenterswereconfinedonremoteislands.Legislativepower
becameamerefictionandtheexecutivepower(whichcontrolledthejudiciaryas
wellasthemassmedia)directlyissuednewlaws,amongthemlawscallingfor
preservationoftherace(theformalItaliangestureofsupportforwhatbecamethe
Holocaust).

ThecontradictorypictureIdescribewasnottheresultoftolerancebutof
politicalandideologicaldiscombobulation.Butitwasarigiddiscombobulation,a
structuredconfusion.Fascismwasphilosophicallyoutofjoint,butemotionallyit
wasfirmlyfastenedtosomearchetypalfoundations.
Sowecometomysecondpoint.TherewasonlyoneNazism.Wecannotlabel
FrancoshyperCatholicFalangismasNazism,sinceNazismisfundamentally
pagan,polytheistic,andantiChristian.Butthefascistgamecanbeplayedin
manyforms,andthenameofthegamedoesnotchange.Thenotionoffascismis
notunlikeWittgensteinsnotionofagame.Agamecanbeeithercompetitiveor

not,itcanrequiresomespecialskillornone,itcanorcannotinvolvemoney.
Gamesaredifferentactivitiesthatdisplayonlysomefamilyresemblance,as
Wittgensteinputit.Considerthefollowingsequence:
1234
abcbcdcdedef

Supposethereisaseriesofpoliticalgroupsinwhichgrouponeischaracterized
bythefeaturesabc,grouptwobythefeaturesbcd,andsoon.Grouptwois
similartogrouponesincetheyhavetwofeaturesincommonforthesame
reasonsthreeissimilartotwoandfourissimilartothree.Noticethatthreeisalso
similartoone(theyhaveincommonthefeaturec).Themostcuriouscaseis
presentedbyfour,obviouslysimilartothreeandtwo,butwithnofeaturein
commonwithone.However,owingtotheuninterruptedseriesofdecreasing
similaritiesbetweenoneandfour,thereremains,byasortofillusorytransitivity,
afamilyresemblancebetweenfourandone.
Fascismbecameanallpurposetermbecauseonecaneliminatefromafascist
regimeoneormorefeatures,anditwillstillberecognizableasfascist.Takeaway
imperialismfromfascismandyoustillhaveFrancoandSalazar.Takeaway
colonialismandyoustillhavetheBalkanfascismoftheUstashes.Addtothe
Italianfascismaradicalanticapitalism(whichnevermuchfascinatedMussolini)
andyouhaveEzraPound.AddacultofCelticmythologyandtheGrail
mysticism(completelyalientoofficialfascism)andyouhaveoneofthemost
respectedfascistgurus,JuliusEvola.

Butinspiteofthisfuzziness,Ithinkitispossibletooutlinealistoffeaturesthat
aretypicalofwhatIwouldliketocallUrFascism,orEternalFascism.These
featurescannotbeorganizedintoasystemmanyofthemcontradicteachother,
andarealsotypicalofotherkindsofdespotismorfanaticism.Butitisenough
thatoneofthembepresenttoallowfascismtocoagulatearoundit.
1.ThefirstfeatureofUrFascismisthecultoftradition.Traditionalismisof
coursemucholderthanfascism.Notonlywasittypicalofcounterrevolutionary
CatholicthoughtaftertheFrenchrevolution,butitwasborninthelateHellenistic
era,asareactiontoclassicalGreekrationalism.IntheMediterraneanbasin,
peopleofdifferentreligions(mostofthemindulgentlyacceptedbytheRoman
Pantheon)starteddreamingofarevelationreceivedatthedawnofhumanhistory.
Thisrevelation,accordingtothetraditionalistmystique,hadremainedforalong
timeconcealedundertheveilofforgottenlanguagesinEgyptianhieroglyphs,in
theCelticrunes,inthescrollsofthelittleknownreligionsofAsia.

Thisnewculturehadtobesyncretistic.Syncretismisnotonly,asthedictionary
says,thecombinationofdifferentformsofbelieforpracticesucha
combinationmusttoleratecontradictions.Eachoftheoriginalmessagescontains
asilverofwisdom,andwhenevertheyseemtosaydifferentorincompatible
thingsitisonlybecauseallarealluding,allegorically,tothesameprimevaltruth.
Asaconsequence,therecanbenoadvancementoflearning.Truthhasbeen
alreadyspelledoutonceandforall,andwecanonlykeepinterpretingitsobscure
message.
Onehasonlytolookatthesyllabusofeveryfascistmovementtofindthemajor
traditionalistthinkers.TheNazignosiswasnourishedbytraditionalist,
syncretistic,occultelements.Themostinfluentialtheoreticalsourceofthe
theoriesofthenewItalianright,JuliusEvola,mergedtheHolyGrailwithThe
ProtocolsoftheEldersofZion,alchemywiththeHolyRomanandGermanic
Empire.TheveryfactthattheItalianright,inordertoshowitsopenmindedness,
recentlybroadeneditssyllabustoincludeworksbyDeMaistre,Guenon,and
Gramsci,isablatantproofofsyncretism.
Ifyoubrowseintheshelvesthat,inAmericanbookstores,arelabeledasNew
Age,youcanfindthereevenSaintAugustinewho,asfarasIknow,wasnota
fascist.ButcombiningSaintAugustineandStonehengethatisasymptomof
UrFascism.
2.Traditionalismimpliestherejectionofmodernism.BothFascistsandNazis
worshipedtechnology,whiletraditionalistthinkersusuallyrejectitasanegation
oftraditionalspiritualvalues.However,eventhoughNazismwasproudofits
industrialachievements,itspraiseofmodernismwasonlythesurfaceofan
ideologybaseduponBloodandEarth(BlutundBoden).Therejectionofthe
modernworldwasdisguisedasarebuttalofthecapitalisticwayoflife,butit
mainlyconcernedtherejectionoftheSpiritof1789(andof1776,ofcourse).The
Enlightenment,theAgeofReason,isseenasthebeginningofmoderndepravity.
InthissenseUrFascismcanbedefinedasirrationalism.
3.Irrationalismalsodependsonthecultofactionforactionssake.Actionbeing
beautifulinitself,itmustbetakenbefore,orwithout,anypreviousreflection.
Thinkingisaformofemasculation.Thereforecultureissuspectinsofarasitis
identifiedwithcriticalattitudes.Distrustoftheintellectualworldhasalwaysbeen
asymptomofUrFascism,fromGoeringsallegedstatement(WhenIheartalk
ofcultureIreachformygun)tothefrequentuseofsuchexpressionsas
degenerateintellectuals,eggheads,effetesnobs,universitiesareanestof
reds.TheofficialFascistintellectualsweremainlyengagedinattackingmodern

cultureandtheliberalintelligentsiaforhavingbetrayedtraditionalvalues.
4.Nosyncretisticfaithcanwithstandanalyticalcriticism.Thecriticalspiritmakes
distinctions,andtodistinguishisasignofmodernism.Inmodernculturethe
scientificcommunitypraisesdisagreementasawaytoimproveknowledge.For
UrFascism,disagreementistreason.
5.Besides,disagreementisasignofdiversity.UrFascismgrowsupandseeksfor
consensusbyexploitingandexacerbatingthenaturalfearofdifference.Thefirst
appealofafascistorprematurelyfascistmovementisanappealagainstthe
intruders.ThusUrFascismisracistbydefinition.
6.UrFascismderivesfromindividualorsocialfrustration.Thatiswhyoneofthe
mosttypicalfeaturesofthehistoricalfascismwastheappealtoafrustrated
middleclass,aclasssufferingfromaneconomiccrisisorfeelingsofpolitical
humiliation,andfrightenedbythepressureoflowersocialgroups.Inourtime,
whentheoldproletariansarebecomingpettybourgeois(andthelumpenare
largelyexcludedfromthepoliticalscene),thefascismoftomorrowwillfindits
audienceinthisnewmajority.
7.Topeoplewhofeeldeprivedofaclearsocialidentity,UrFascismsaysthat
theironlyprivilegeisthemostcommonone,tobeborninthesamecountry.This
istheoriginofnationalism.Besides,theonlyoneswhocanprovideanidentityto
thenationareitsenemies.ThusattherootoftheUrFascistpsychologythereis
theobsessionwithaplot,possiblyaninternationalone.Thefollowersmustfeel
besieged.Theeasiestwaytosolvetheplotistheappealtoxenophobia.Butthe
plotmustalsocomefromtheinside:Jewsareusuallythebesttargetbecausethey
havetheadvantageofbeingatthesametimeinsideandoutside.IntheUS,a
prominentinstanceoftheplotobsessionistobefoundinPatRobertsonsThe
NewWorldOrder,but,aswehaverecentlyseen,therearemanyothers.
8.Thefollowersmustfeelhumiliatedbytheostentatiouswealthandforceoftheir
enemies.WhenIwasaboyIwastaughttothinkofEnglishmenasthefivemeal
people.TheyatemorefrequentlythanthepoorbutsoberItalians.Jewsarerich
andhelpeachotherthroughasecretwebofmutualassistance.However,the
followersmustbeconvincedthattheycanoverwhelmtheenemies.Thus,bya
continuousshiftingofrhetoricalfocus,theenemiesareatthesametimetoo
strongandtooweak.Fascistgovernmentsarecondemnedtolosewarsbecause
theyareconstitutionallyincapableofobjectivelyevaluatingtheforceofthe
enemy.
9.ForUrFascismthereisnostruggleforlifebut,rather,lifeislivedforstruggle.
Thuspacifismistraffickingwiththeenemy.Itisbadbecauselifeispermanent

warfare.This,however,bringsaboutanArmageddoncomplex.Sinceenemies
havetobedefeated,theremustbeafinalbattle,afterwhichthemovementwill
havecontroloftheworld.Butsuchafinalsolutionimpliesafurthereraof
peace,aGoldenAge,whichcontradictstheprincipleofpermanentwar.Nofascist
leaderhaseversucceededinsolvingthispredicament.
10.Elitismisatypicalaspectofanyreactionaryideology,insofarasitis
fundamentallyaristocratic,andaristocraticandmilitaristicelitismcruellyimplies
contemptfortheweak.UrFascismcanonlyadvocateapopularelitism.Every
citizenbelongstothebestpeopleoftheworld,themembersofthepartyarethe
bestamongthecitizens,everycitizencan(oroughtto)becomeamemberofthe
party.Buttherecannotbepatricianswithoutplebeians.Infact,theLeader,
knowingthathispowerwasnotdelegatedtohimdemocraticallybutwas
conqueredbyforce,alsoknowsthathisforceisbasedupontheweaknessofthe
massestheyaresoweakastoneedanddeservearuler.Sincethegroupis
hierarchicallyorganized(accordingtoamilitarymodel),everysubordinateleader
despiseshisownunderlings,andeachofthemdespiseshisinferiors.This
reinforcesthesenseofmasselitism.
11.Insuchaperspectiveeverybodyiseducatedtobecomeahero.Inevery
mythologytheheroisanexceptionalbeing,butinUrFascistideology,heroismis
thenorm.Thiscultofheroismisstrictlylinkedwiththecultofdeath.Itisnotby
chancethatamottooftheFalangistswasVivalaMuerte(inEnglishitshouldbe
translatedasLongLiveDeath!).Innonfascistsocieties,thelaypublicistold
thatdeathisunpleasantbutmustbefacedwithdignitybelieversaretoldthatitis
thepainfulwaytoreachasupernaturalhappiness.Bycontrast,theUrFascist
herocravesheroicdeath,advertisedasthebestrewardforaheroiclife.TheUr
Fascistheroisimpatienttodie.Inhisimpatience,hemorefrequentlysendsother
peopletodeath.
12.Sincebothpermanentwarandheroismaredifficultgamestoplay,theUr
Fascisttransfershiswilltopowertosexualmatters.Thisistheoriginof
machismo(whichimpliesbothdisdainforwomenandintoleranceand
condemnationofnonstandardsexualhabits,fromchastitytohomosexuality).
Sinceevensexisadifficultgametoplay,theUrFascistherotendstoplaywith
weaponsdoingsobecomesanersatzphallicexercise.
13.UrFascismisbaseduponaselectivepopulism,aqualitativepopulism,one
mightsay.Inademocracy,thecitizenshaveindividualrights,butthecitizensin
theirentiretyhaveapoliticalimpactonlyfromaquantitativepointofviewone
followsthedecisionsofthemajority.ForUrFascism,however,individualsas
individualshavenorights,andthePeopleisconceivedasaquality,amonolithic

entityexpressingtheCommonWill.Sincenolargequantityofhumanbeingscan
haveacommonwill,theLeaderpretendstobetheirinterpreter.Havinglosttheir
powerofdelegation,citizensdonotacttheyareonlycalledontoplaytheroleof
thePeople.ThusthePeopleisonlyatheatricalfiction.Tohaveagoodinstanceof
qualitativepopulismwenolongerneedthePiazzaVeneziainRomeorthe
NurembergStadium.ThereisinourfutureaTVorInternetpopulism,inwhich
theemotionalresponseofaselectedgroupofcitizenscanbepresentedand
acceptedastheVoiceofthePeople.
BecauseofitsqualitativepopulismUrFascismmustbeagainstrotten
parliamentarygovernments.OneofthefirstsentencesutteredbyMussoliniinthe
ItalianparliamentwasIcouldhavetransformedthisdeafandgloomyplaceinto
abivouacformymaniplesmaniplesbeingasubdivisionofthetraditional
Romanlegion.Asamatteroffact,heimmediatelyfoundbetterhousingforhis
maniples,butalittlelaterheliquidatedtheparliament.Whereverapolitician
castsdoubtonthelegitimacyofaparliamentbecauseitnolongerrepresentsthe
VoiceofthePeople,wecansmellUrFascism.
14.UrFascismspeaksNewspeak.NewspeakwasinventedbyOrwell,in1984,as
theofficiallanguageofIngsoc,EnglishSocialism.ButelementsofUrFascism
arecommontodifferentformsofdictatorship.AlltheNaziorFascist
schoolbooksmadeuseofanimpoverishedvocabulary,andanelementarysyntax,
inordertolimittheinstrumentsforcomplexandcriticalreasoning.Butwemust
bereadytoidentifyotherkindsofNewspeak,eveniftheytaketheapparently
innocentformofapopulartalkshow.

OnthemorningofJuly27,1943,Iwastoldthat,accordingtoradioreports,
fascismhadcollapsedandMussoliniwasunderarrest.Whenmymothersentme
outtobuythenewspaper,Isawthatthepapersatthenearestnewsstandhad
differenttitles.Moreover,afterseeingtheheadlines,Irealizedthateach
newspapersaiddifferentthings.Iboughtoneofthem,blindly,andreadamessage
onthefirstpagesignedbyfiveorsixpoliticalpartiesamongthemthe
DemocraziaCristiana,theCommunistParty,theSocialistParty,thePartito
dAzione,andtheLiberalParty.
Untilthen,Ihadbelievedthattherewasasinglepartyineverycountryandthatin
ItalyitwasthePartitoNazionaleFascista.NowIwasdiscoveringthatinmy
countryseveralpartiescouldexistatthesametime.SinceIwasacleverboy,I
immediatelyrealizedthatsomanypartiescouldnothavebeenbornovernight,
andtheymusthaveexistedforsometimeasclandestineorganizations.
Themessageonthefrontcelebratedtheendofthedictatorshipandthereturnof

freedom:freedomofspeech,ofpress,ofpoliticalassociation.Thesewords,
freedom,dictatorship,liberty,Inowreadthemforthefirsttimeinmy
life.IwasrebornasafreeWesternmanbyvirtueofthesenewwords.
Wemustkeepalert,sothatthesenseofthesewordswillnotbeforgottenagain.
UrFascismisstillaroundus,sometimesinplainclothes.Itwouldbesomuch
easier,forus,ifthereappearedontheworldscenesomebodysaying,Iwantto
reopenAuschwitz,IwanttheBlackShirtstoparadeagainintheItaliansquares.
Lifeisnotthatsimple.UrFascismcancomebackunderthemostinnocentof
disguises.Ourdutyistouncoveritandtopointourfingeratanyofitsnew
instanceseveryday,ineverypartoftheworld.FranklinRooseveltswordsof
November4,1938,areworthrecalling:Iventurethechallengingstatementthat
ifAmericandemocracyceasestomoveforwardasalivingforce,seekingdayand
nightbypeacefulmeanstobetterthelotofourcitizens,fascismwillgrowin
strengthinourland.Freedomandliberationareanunendingtask.
LetmefinishwithapoembyFrancoFortini:
Sullaspallettadelponte
Letestedegliimpiccati
Nellacquadellafonte
Labavadegliimpiccati.
Sullastricodelmercato
Leunghiedeifucilati
Sullerbaseccadelprato
Identideifucilati.
Morderelariamordereisassi
Lanostracarnenonpiduomini
Morderelariamordereisassi
Ilnostrocuorenonpiduomini.
Manoislettonegliocchideimorti
Esullaterrafaremolibert
Malhannostrettaipugnideimorti
Lagiustiziachesifar.
***
(Onthebridgesparapet
Theheadsofthehanged
Intheflowingrivulet

Thespittleofthehanged.
Onthecobblesinthemarketplaces
Thefingernailsofthoselinedupandshot
Onthedrygrassintheopenspaces
Thebrokenteethofthoselinedupandshot.
Bitingtheair,bitingthestones
Ourfleshisnolongerhuman
Bitingtheair,bitingthestones
Ourheartsarenolongerhuman.
Butwehavereadintotheeyesofthedead
Andshallbringfreedomontheearth
Butclenchedtightinthefistsofthedead
Liesthejusticetobeserved.)
poemtranslatedbyStephenSartarelli
CopyrightbyUmbertoEco

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