Table of Contents

1. Introduction
2. Types of Maps
2.1 Topographic Maps
2.2 Special-Purpose, or Thematic, Maps

2
2
2
2

3. Basic Elements of a Map

3.1 Geographic Grid

3.2 Scale

3.3 Relief

4. Map projections

4.1 Cylindrical Projections

4.2 Azimuthal Projection

4.3 Conic Projections

4.4 Mathematical Computation

5. Mapmaking

5.1 Observation

5.2 Compilation and Reproduction

6. History of Maps

6.1 Babylonian Maps

6.2 Anaximanders Map

10

6.3 America on the Map

10

6.4 Latitude and Longitude

11

6.5 Topographical Maps

12

6.6 Aerial Maps

12

A Short History of Maps

1.Introduction

Map, representation of a geographic area, usually a portion of

the earth's surface, drawn or printed on a flat surface. In most
instances a map is a diagrammatic rather than a pictorial
representation of the terrain; it usually contains a number of
generally accepted symbols, which indicate the various
natural, artificial, or cultural, features of the area it covers.

2.Types of Maps
Maps may be used for a variety of purposes, and as a result a
number of specialized types of maps have been developed.

2.1 Topographic Maps

The basic type of map used to represent land areas is the
topographic map. Such maps show the natural features of the
area covered as well as certain artificial features, known as
cultural features. Political boundaries, such as the limits of
towns, countries, and states, are also shown. Because of the
great variety of information included on them, topographic
maps are most often used as general reference maps.

2.2 Special-Purpose, or Thematic, Maps

Among the most important of the special-purpose maps are
hydrographic and aviation charts. Hydrographic charts are
used for the navigation of ships and cover the surface of the
oceans and other large bodies of water and their shores. Over
the water portion of a chart, depths are shown at frequent
intervals by printing the number of fathoms of water at low
tide. Shoal areas are circled or shaded to give them greater
visibility, and the limits of channels are shown by lines. The
type of bottom, such as sand, mud, or rock, is also indicated.
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An important feature of such charts is the exact location of
lighthouses, buoys, and other aids to navigation. The only
other shore features shown on a chart are such landmarks as
tall buildings or prominent peaks on which a navigator may
wish to take a bearing. Aviation charts for use over land
somewhat resemble topographic maps but bear in addition the
location of radio beacons, airways, and the areas covered by
the beams of radio range stations.

Other special-purpose maps include political maps, which

show only towns and political divisions without topographic
features; geologic maps, showing the geologic structure of an
area; and maps indicating the geographic distribution of
crops, land use, rainfall, population, and hundreds of other
kinds of social and scientific data. Another useful type of map
is the relief map, which is a three-dimensional model of the
terrain of an area. Such maps are usually carved out of clay or
plaster of paris. To emphasize relief, the vertical scale of relief
maps is usually several times the horizontal scale. Such maps
can also be manufactured by stamping plastic sheets in a
mold. Relief maps are extensively used in military and
engineering planning.

3.Basic Elements of a Map

For a map to contain a large amount of easily read
information, a system of symbols must be employed. Many
commonly used symbols have become generally accepted or
are readily understood. Thus cities and towns are indicated by
dots or patches of shading; streams and bodies of water are
often printed in blue; and political boundaries are shown by
colored ribbons or dotted lines. A cartographer, as mapmakers
are called, may, however, devise a great variety of symbols to
suit various needs. For example, a dot may be used to
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symbolize the presence of 10,000 head of cattle, or crossed
pickaxes may be used to denote the location of a mine. The
symbols used on a map are defined in the map's key, or
legend.

3.1

Geographic Grid
In order to locate a feature on a map or to describe the extent
of an area, it is necessary to refer to the map's geographic
grid. This grid is made up of meridians of longitude and
parallels of latitude. By agreed convention, longitude is
marked 180 east and 180 west from 0 at Greenwich,
England. Latitude is marked 90 north and 90 south from the
0 parallel of the equator. Points on a map can be accurately
defined by giving degrees, minutes, and seconds for both
latitude and longitude (see Latitude and Longitude). Maps are
usually arranged so that true north is at the top of the sheet,
and are provided with a compass rose or some other
indication of magnetic variation (see Magnetic Pole).

3.2

Scale
The scale to which a map is drawn represents the ratio of the
distance between two points on the earth and the distance
between the two corresponding points on the map. The scale
is commonly represented in figures, as 1:100,000, which
means that one unit measured on the map (say 1 cm)

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represents 100,000 of the same units on the earth's surface. A
map to this scale is also sometimes called a centimeter-to-thekilometer map. On most maps the scale is indicated in the
margin, and frequently a divided line showing the scale length
of such units as 1, 5, and 10 km or mi, or both, on the original
area is provided. The scales used in maps vary widely.
Ordinary topographic maps, such as those of the U.S. issued
by the U.S. Geological Survey, are usually made to a scale of
1:62,500 (about 1 in to the mile). For military purposes scales
as large as 1:15,800 are used. Since the early years of the
20th

century,

number

of

governments

have

been

collaborating on a standard map of the world at a scale of

1:1,000,000.

3.3

Relief
The varying heights of hills and mountains, and the depths of
valleys and gorges as they appear on a topographic map, are
known as relief; unless the relief is adequately represented,
the map does not give a clear picture of the area it represents.
In the earliest maps, relief was often indicated pictorially by
small drawings of mountains and valleys, but this method is
extremely inaccurate and has been generally supplanted by a
system of contour lines. The contour lines represent points in
the mapped area that are at equal elevations. The contour
interval selected may be any unit, depending on the amount of
relief and the scale of the map, such as 50 m, and in drawing
the map the cartographer joins together all points that are at
a height of 50 m above sea level, all points at a height of 100
m, all points at a height of 150 m, and so on. The shapes of the
contour lines provide an accurate representation of the
shapes of hills and depressions, and the lines themselves show
the actual elevations. Closely spaced contour lines indicate
steep slopes.

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Other methods of indicating elevation include the use of

colors or tints, and of hachures (short parallel lines) or
shadings. When colors are used for this purpose, a graded
series of tones is selected to color areas of similar elevations;
for example, all the land between 0 and 100 m above sea level
may be colored a light shade of green, all land between 100
and 200 m a darker shade, and so on. Hachures are used to
show slopes; they are made heavier and closer together for
steeper slopes. Often only southeast slopes are hachured or
shaded, giving somewhat the effect of a bird's-eye view of the
area illuminated by light from the northwest. Shadings or
carefully drawn hachures, neither of which give elevations,
are more easily interpreted than contour lines and are
sometimes used in conjunction with them for greater clarity.

4.Map Projections
For the representation of the entire surface of the earth
without any kind of distortion, a map must have a spherical
surface; a map of this kind is known as a globe. A flat map
cannot accurately represent the rounded surface of the earth
except for very small areas where the curvature is negligible.
To show large portions of the earth's surface or to show areas
of medium size with accuracy, the map must be drawn in such
a way as to compromise among distortions of areas, distances,
and direction. In some cases the cartographer may wish to
achieve accuracy in one of these qualities at the expense of
distortion in the others. The various methods of preparing a
flat map of the earth's surface are known as projections and
are classified as geometric or analytic, depending on the
technique

of

development.

Geometric

projections

are

classified according to the type of surface on which the map is

assumed to be developed, such as cylinders, cones, or planes;

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plane projections are also known as azimuthal or zenithal
projections.

Analytical

projections

are

developed

by

mathematical computation.

4.1 Cylindrical Projections

In making a cylindrical projection, the cartographer regards
the surface of the map as a cylinder that encircles the globe,
touching it at the equator. The parallels of latitude are
extended outward from the globe, parallel to the equator, as
parallel planes intersecting the cylinder. Because of the
curvature of the globe, the parallels of latitude nearest the
poles

when

projected

onto

the

cylinder

are

spaced

progressively closer together, and the projected meridians of

longitude

are

represented

as

parallel

straight

lines,

perpendicular to the equator and continuing to the North and

South poles. After the projection is completed, the cylinder is
assumed to be slit vertically and rolled out flat. The resulting
map represents the world's surface as a rectangle with
equally spaced parallel lines of longitude and unequally
spaced parallel lines of latitude. Although the shapes of areas
on the cylindrical projection are increasingly distorted toward
the poles, the size relationship of areas on the map is
equivalent to the size relationship of areas on the globe.

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The familiar Mercator projection, developed mathematically
by the Flemish geographer Gerardus Mercator, is related to
the cylindrical projection, with certain modifications. A
Mercator map is accurate in the equatorial regions but greatly
distorts areas in the high latitudes. Directions, however, are
represented faithfully, and this is especially valuable in
navigation. Any line cutting two or more meridians at the
same angle is represented on a Mercator map as a straight
line. Such a line, called a rhumb line, represents the path of a
ship or an airplane following a steady compass course. Using
a Mercator map, a navigator can plot a course simply by
drawing a line between two points and reading the compass
direction from the map. See Navigation.

4.2 Azimuthal Projection

This group of map projections is derived by projecting the
globe onto a plane that may be tangent to it at any point. The
group includes the gnomonic, orthographic, and stereographic
plane projections. Two other types of plane projections are
known as the azimuthal equal area and the azimuthal
equidistant; they cannot be projected but are developed on a
tangent plane. The gnomonic projection is assumed to be
formed by rays projected from the center of the earth. In the
orthographic projection the source of projecting rays is at
infinity, and the resulting map resembles the earth as it would
appear if photographed from outer space. The source of
projecting rays for the stereographic projection is a point
diametrically opposite the tangent point of the plane on which
the projection is made.

The nature of the projection varies with the source of the

projecting rays. Thus the gnomonic projection covers areas of
less than a hemisphere, the orthographic covers hemispheres,
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the azimuthal equal area and the stereographic projections
map larger areas, and the azimuthal equidistant includes the
entire globe. In all these types of projection, however (except
in the case of the azimuthal equidistant), the portion of the
earth that appears on the map depends on the point at which
the imaginary plane touches the earth. A plane-projection map
with the plane tangent to the surface of the earth at the
equator would represent the equatorial region, but would not
show the entire region in one map; with the plane tangent at
either of the poles, the map would represent the polar
regions.

Because the source of the gnomonic projection is at the center

of the earth, all great circles, that is, the equator, all
meridians, and any other circles that divide the globe into two
equal parts, are represented as straight lines. A great circle
that connects any two points on the earth is always the
shortest distance between the two points. The gnomonic map
is

therefore

great

aid

to

navigation

when

used

in

conjunction with the Mercator.

4.3 Conic Projections

In preparing a conic projection a cone is assumed to be placed
over the top of the globe. After projection, the cone is
assumed to be slit and rolled out to a flat surface. The cone
touches the globe at all points on a single parallel of latitude,
and the resulting map is extremely accurate for all areas near
that parallel, but becomes increasingly distorted for all other
areas in direct proportion to the distance of the areas from
the standard parallel.

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To provide greater accuracy, the Lambert conformal conic
projection assumes a cone that passes through a part of the
surface of the globe, intersecting two parallels. Because the
resulting map is accurate in the immediate vicinity of both
parallels, the area represented between the two standard
parallels is less distorted than the same area reproduced by a
single conic projection.

The polyconic projection is a considerably more complicated

projection in which a series of cones is assumed, each cone
touching the globe at a different parallel, and only the area in
the immediate vicinity of each parallel is used. By compiling
the results of the series of limited conic projections, a large
area may be mapped with considerable accuracy. Because a
cone cannot be made to touch the globe in the extreme polar
and equatorial regions, the various conic projections are used
to map comparatively small areas in the temperate zones.
Polyconic maps offer a good compromise in the representation
of area, distance, and direction over small areas.

4.4 Mathematical Computation

For accurate delineation of large areas on a small scale, a
number

of

so-called

projections

have

been

developed

mathematically. Maps based on mathematical computation

represent the entire earth in circles, ovals, or other shapes.
For special purposes the earth often is drawn not within the
original form of the projection but within irregular, joined
parts. Maps of this type, called interrupted projections,
include Goode's interrupted homolosine and Eckert's equalarea projection.

5.Mapmaking
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Mapmaking, or cartography, has been greatly assisted by
technological advancements since World War II. Perhaps most
important has been the use of remote sensing techniques, that
is, techniques that gather data about an object without
actually touching it. Examples include aerial photography
(including infrared photography) and satellite photography.
Satellite triangulation has substantially reduced the margin of
error in determining the exact location of points on the earth's
surface. Among the more recent innovations has been the use
of the computer to draw maps.

5.1 Observation
The basis of a modern map is a careful survey giving
geographical locations and relations of a large number of
points in the area being mapped. Today, nearly all original
maps make use of aerial photographs in addition to traditional
land-surveying information (see Aerial Survey; Surveying).
Satellite photographs can furnish a wealth of accurate
information about various features on the earth's surface,
including the location of mineral deposits, the extent of urban
sprawl, vegetation infestations, and soil types.

5.2 Compilation and Reproduction

Once the data have been collected, the map must be carefully
planned with regard to its final use so that all relevant
information can be rendered clearly and accurately. The
collected surveys and photographs are then used to enter a
large

number

corresponding

of
to

points
the

on

projection

grid

of

chosen

crossed
for

the

lines
map.

Elevations are determined and contour lines, if used, are

drawn directly from stereoscopic pairs of photographs by
using very complex instruments such as the multiplex. The

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courses of roads and rivers and the positions of other features
are drawn in the same way. Final preparation of a map for
printing begins by making a series of sheets, one for each
color used on the map. These sheets are made of an opaque
coated plastic; lines and symbols are scribed onto the surface
by a sharp etching tool that removes the opaque coating. Each
such sheet is a negative from which a lithographic plate is
made. See Lithography.

Another type of map is an orthophotomap, in which actual

photographs form the body of the map. Such a map is a
mosaic of carefully pieced portions of aerial photographs,
which have been changed by the use of an orthophotoscope to
eliminate scale and angle distortion. During the 1970s
advancements were made in computer-generated maps. Data
can be stored on the coordinates of a geographic area and on
the distribution of statistical phenomena in the area. A device
such as a continuous-curve plotter enables a computer to
draw

accurate

maps

from

the

stored

data. Computer-

generated maps can also be displayed on a video screen,

where an operator can easily make alterations in the content.
Because such maps, and each incorporated change, can be
stored in the computer, they are useful in furnishing an
animated picture of a change over a period of time.

6.History of Maps
6.1 Babylonian Maps
The earliest existing maps were made by the Babylonians
about 2300 bc. Cut on clay tiles, they consisted largely of land
surveys made for the purposes of taxation. More extensive
regional maps, drawn on silk and dating from the 2nd century
bc, have been found in China. The ability and need to make
maps would appear to be universal. One of the most

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A Short History of Maps

interesting

types

of

13
primitive

map

is

the

cane

chart

constructed by the Marshall Islanders in the South Pacific

Ocean. This chart is made of a gridwork of cane fibers
arranged to show the location of islands. The art of
mapmaking was advanced in both the Maya and Inca
civilizations, and the Inca as early as the 12th century ad
made maps of the lands they conquered.

6.2 Anaximanders Map

The first map to represent the known world is believed to have
been made in the 6th century bc by the Greek philosopher
Anaximander. It was circular in form and showed the known
lands of the world grouped around the Aegean Sea at the
center and surrounded by the ocean. One of the most famous
maps of classical times was drawn by the Greek geographer
Eratosthenes about 200 bc. It represented the known world
from England on the northwest to the mouth of the Ganges
River on the east and to Libya on the south. This map was the
first to be supplied with transverse parallel lines to show
equal latitudes. The map also had some meridians of longitude
but

they

were

Alexandrian

irregularly

scholar

spaced.

Ptolemy

About

published

ad

his

150

the

geography

containing maps of the world. These were the earliest maps to

use a mathematically accurate form of conic projection,

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14
although they incorporated many errors, such as the excessive
extent of the Eurasian landmass. Following the fall of the
Roman Empire, European mapmaking all but ceased; such
maps as were made were usually drawn by monks, who often
portrayed the earth inaccurately. Arabian seamen, however,
made and used highly accurate charts during this same
period. The Arabian geographer al-Idrisi made a map of the
world in 1154. Beginning approximately in the 13th century,
Mediterranean navigators prepared accurate charts of that
sea, usually without meridians or parallels but provided with
lines to show the bearings between important ports. These
maps are usually called portolano or portolan charts. In the
15th century, editions of Ptolemy's maps were printed in
Europe; for the next several hundred years these maps
exerted great influence on European cartographers.

6.3 America on the Map

A map produced in 1507 by Martin Waldseemller, a German
cartographer, probably was the first to apply the name
America to the newly discovered transatlantic lands. The map,
printed in 12 separate sheets, was also the first to clearly
separate North and South America from Asia. In 1570
Abraham Ortelius, a Flemish mapmaker, published the first
modern atlas, Orbis Terrarum. It contained 70 maps. During
the 16th century many other cartographers produced maps
that incorporated the ever-increasing information brought
back by navigators and explorers. It is Gerardus Mercator,
however, who stands as the greatest cartographer of the age
of discovery; the projection he devised for his world map
proved invaluable to all future navigators.

6.4

Latitude and longitude

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The accuracy of later maps was greatly increased by more
precise determinations of latitude and longitude and of the
size and shape of the earth. The first maps to show compass
variation were produced in the first half of the 17th century,
and the first charts to show ocean currents were made about
1665. By the 18th century, the scientific principles of
mapmaking were well established and the most notable
inaccuracies in maps involved unexplored parts of the world.

6.5

Topographical Maps
By the late 18th century, as the initial force of world
exploration subsided and as nationalism began to develop as a
potent force, a number of European countries began to
undertake

detailed

national

topographic

surveys.

The

complete topographic survey of France was issued in 1793;

roughly square, it measured about 11 m (about 36 ft) on each
side. Britain, Spain, Austria, Switzerland, and other countries
followed suit. In the United States the Geological Survey was
organized in 1879 for the purpose of making large-scale
topographic

maps

of

the

entire

country.

In

1891

the

International Geographical Congress proposed the mapping of

the entire world on a scale of 1:1,000,000, a task that still
remains

to

mapmaking

be

completed.

underwent

During
series

the
of

20th

major

century,
technical

innovations.

6.6

Aerial Maps
Aerial photography was developed during World War I and
used extensively during World War II in the making of maps.
Beginning in 1966 with the launching of the satellite Pageos,
and continuing in the 1970s with the three Landsat satellites,
the U.S. has been engaged in a complete geodetic survey of

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the surface

of

the

16
earth by

means

of

high-resolution

photographic equipment. In spite of the great advancements

in cartographic technique and knowledge, substantial portions
of the earth's surface have not been surveyed in detail.
Surveying work continues, for instance, on the continent of
Antarctica.

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