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ComplexityWikipedia

Complexity
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Complexitydescribesthebehaviourofasystemormodelwhosecomponentsinteractinmultiplewaysandfollow
localrules,meaningthereisnoreasonablehigherinstructiontodefinethevariouspossibleinteractions.[1]
Thestemofthewordcomplexityi.e.ComplexiscomposedoftheLatinwordscom(meaning:"together")and
plex(meaning:woven).ThisisbestcontrastedwithComplicatedwhereplic(meaning:folded)referstomany
layers.Acomplexsystemistherebycharacterisedbyitsinterdependencies,whereasacomplicatedsystemis
characterisedbyitslayers.
Complexityisgenerallyusedtocharacterizesomethingwithmanypartswherethosepartsinteractwitheachother
inmultipleways,culminatinginahigherorderofemergencegreaterthanthesumofitsparts.Justlikethereisno
absolutedefinitionof"intelligence",thereisnoabsolutedefinitionof"complexity"theonlyconsensusamong
researchersisthatthereisnoagreementaboutthespecificdefinitionofcomplexity.However,acharacterizationof
whatiscomplexispossible.[2]Thestudyofthesecomplexlinkagesatvariousscalesisthemaingoalofcomplex
systemstheory.
Inscience,[3]thereareasof2010anumberofapproachestocharacterizingcomplexitythisarticlereflectsmany
ofthese.NeilJohnsonstatesthat"evenamongscientists,thereisnouniquedefinitionofcomplexityandthe
scientificnotionhastraditionallybeenconveyedusingparticularexamples..."Ultimatelyheadoptsthedefinition
of'complexityscience'as"thestudyofthephenomenawhichemergefromacollectionofinteractingobjects."[4]

Contents
1
2
3
4
5
6

Overview
Disorganizedvs.organized
Sourcesandfactors
Variedmeanings
Study
Topics
6.1 Behaviour
6.2 Mechanisms
6.3 Simulations
6.4 Systems
6.5 Data
6.6 Inmolecularrecognition
7 Applications
8 Seealso
9 References
10 Furtherreading
11 Externallinks

Overview

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Definitionsofcomplexityoftendependontheconceptofaconfidential"system"asetofpartsorelementsthat
haverelationshipsamongthemdifferentiatedfromrelationshipswithotherelementsoutsidetherelationalregime.
Manydefinitionstendtopostulateorassumethatcomplexityexpressesaconditionofnumerouselementsina
systemandnumerousformsofrelationshipsamongtheelements.However,whatoneseesascomplexandwhat
oneseesassimpleisrelativeandchangeswithtime.
WarrenWeaverpositedin1948twoformsofcomplexity:disorganizedcomplexity,andorganizedcomplexity.[5]
Phenomenaof'disorganizedcomplexity'aretreatedusingprobabilitytheoryandstatisticalmechanics,while
'organizedcomplexity'dealswithphenomenathatescapesuchapproachesandconfront"dealingsimultaneously
withasizablenumberoffactorswhichareinterrelatedintoanorganicwhole".[5]Weaver's1948paperhas
influencedsubsequentthinkingaboutcomplexity.[6]
Theapproachesthatembodyconceptsofsystems,multipleelements,multiplerelationalregimes,andstatespaces
mightbesummarizedasimplyingthatcomplexityarisesfromthenumberofdistinguishablerelationalregimes
(andtheirassociatedstatespaces)inadefinedsystem.
Somedefinitionsrelatetothealgorithmicbasisfortheexpressionofacomplexphenomenonormodelor
mathematicalexpression,aslatersetoutherein.

Disorganizedvs.organized
Oneoftheproblemsinaddressingcomplexityissueshasbeenformalizingtheintuitiveconceptualdistinction
betweenthelargenumberofvariancesinrelationshipsextantinrandomcollections,andthesometimeslarge,but
smaller,numberofrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsystemswhereconstraints(relatedtocorrelationofotherwise
independentelements)simultaneouslyreducethevariationsfromelementindependenceandcreatedistinguishable
regimesofmoreuniform,orcorrelated,relationships,orinteractions.
Weaverperceivedandaddressedthisproblem,inatleastapreliminaryway,indrawingadistinctionbetween
"disorganizedcomplexity"and"organizedcomplexity".
InWeaver'sview,disorganizedcomplexityresultsfromtheparticularsystemhavingaverylargenumberofparts,
saymillionsofparts,ormanymore.Thoughtheinteractionsofthepartsina"disorganizedcomplexity"situation
canbeseenaslargelyrandom,thepropertiesofthesystemasawholecanbeunderstoodbyusingprobabilityand
statisticalmethods.
Aprimeexampleofdisorganizedcomplexityisagasinacontainer,withthegasmoleculesastheparts.Some
wouldsuggestthatasystemofdisorganizedcomplexitymaybecomparedwiththe(relative)simplicityof
planetaryorbitsthelattercanbepredictedbyapplyingNewton'slawsofmotion.Ofcourse,mostrealworld
systems,includingplanetaryorbits,eventuallybecometheoreticallyunpredictableevenusingNewtonian
dynamicsasdiscoveredbymodernchaostheory.[7]
Organizedcomplexity,inWeaver'sview,residesinnothingelsethanthenonrandom,orcorrelated,interaction
betweentheparts.Thesecorrelatedrelationshipscreateadifferentiatedstructurethatcan,asasystem,interactwith
othersystems.Thecoordinatedsystemmanifestspropertiesnotcarriedordictatedbyindividualparts.The
organizedaspectofthisformofcomplexityvisavistoothersystemsthanthesubjectsystemcanbesaidto
"emerge,"withoutany"guidinghand".
Thenumberofpartsdoesnothavetobeverylargeforaparticularsystemtohaveemergentproperties.Asystem
oforganizedcomplexitymaybeunderstoodinitsproperties(behavioramongtheproperties)throughmodeling
andsimulation,particularlymodelingandsimulationwithcomputers.Anexampleoforganizedcomplexityisa
cityneighborhoodasalivingmechanism,withtheneighborhoodpeopleamongthesystem'sparts.[8]
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Sourcesandfactors
Therearegenerallyruleswhichcanbeinvokedtoexplaintheoriginofcomplexityinagivensystem.
Thesourceofdisorganizedcomplexityisthelargenumberofpartsinthesystemofinterest,andthelackof
correlationbetweenelementsinthesystem.
Inthecaseofselforganizinglivingsystems,usefullyorganizedcomplexitycomesfrombeneficiallymutated
organismsbeingselectedtosurvivebytheirenvironmentfortheirdifferentialreproductiveabilityoratleast
successoverinanimatematterorlessorganizedcomplexorganisms.Seee.g.RobertUlanowicz'streatmentof
ecosystems.[9]
Complexityofanobjectorsystemisarelativeproperty.Forinstance,formanyfunctions(problems),sucha
computationalcomplexityastimeofcomputationissmallerwhenmultitapeTuringmachinesareusedthanwhen
Turingmachineswithonetapeareused.RandomAccessMachinesallowonetoevenmoredecreasetime
complexity(GreenlawandHoover1998:226),whileinductiveTuringmachinescandecreaseeventhecomplexity
classofafunction,languageorset(Burgin2005).Thisshowsthattoolsofactivitycanbeanimportantfactorof
complexity.

Variedmeanings
Inseveralscientificfields,"complexity"hasaprecisemeaning:
Incomputationalcomplexitytheory,theamountsofresourcesrequiredfortheexecutionofalgorithmsis
studied.Themostpopulartypesofcomputationalcomplexityarethetimecomplexityofaproblemequalto
thenumberofstepsthatittakestosolveaninstanceoftheproblemasafunctionofthesizeoftheinput
(usuallymeasuredinbits),usingthemostefficientalgorithm,andthespacecomplexityofaproblemequal
tothevolumeofthememoryusedbythealgorithm(e.g.,cellsofthetape)thatittakestosolveaninstance
oftheproblemasafunctionofthesizeoftheinput(usuallymeasuredinbits),usingthemostefficient
algorithm.Thisallowstoclassifycomputationalproblemsbycomplexityclass(suchasP,NP,etc.).An
axiomaticapproachtocomputationalcomplexitywasdevelopedbyManuelBlum.Itallowsonetodeduce
manypropertiesofconcretecomputationalcomplexitymeasures,suchastimecomplexityorspace
complexity,frompropertiesofaxiomaticallydefinedmeasures.
Inalgorithmicinformationtheory,theKolmogorovcomplexity(alsocalleddescriptivecomplexity,
algorithmiccomplexityoralgorithmicentropy)ofastringisthelengthoftheshortestbinaryprogramthat
outputsthatstring.Minimummessagelengthisapracticalapplicationofthisapproach.Differentkindsof
Kolmogorovcomplexityarestudied:theuniformcomplexity,prefixcomplexity,monotonecomplexity,
timeboundedKolmogorovcomplexity,andspaceboundedKolmogorovcomplexity.Anaxiomaticapproach
toKolmogorovcomplexitybasedonBlumaxioms(Blum1967)wasintroducedbyMarkBurgininthepaper
presentedforpublicationbyAndreyKolmogorov(Burgin1982).Theaxiomaticapproachencompasses
otherapproachestoKolmogorovcomplexity.ItispossibletotreatdifferentkindsofKolmogorov
complexityasparticularcasesofaxiomaticallydefinedgeneralizedKolmogorovcomplexity.Insteadof
provingsimilartheorems,suchasthebasicinvariancetheorem,foreachparticularmeasure,itispossibleto
easilydeduceallsuchresultsfromonecorrespondingtheoremprovedintheaxiomaticsetting.Thisisa
generaladvantageoftheaxiomaticapproachinmathematics.TheaxiomaticapproachtoKolmogorov
complexitywasfurtherdevelopedinthebook(Burgin2005)andappliedtosoftwaremetrics(Burginand
Debnath,2003DebnathandBurgin,2003).
Ininformationprocessing,complexityisameasureofthetotalnumberofpropertiestransmittedbyanobject
anddetectedbyanobserver.Suchacollectionofpropertiesisoftenreferredtoasastate.
Inphysicalsystems,complexityisameasureoftheprobabilityofthestatevectorofthesystem.Thisshould
notbeconfusedwithentropyitisadistinctmathematicalmeasure,oneinwhichtwodistinctstatesare
neverconflatedandconsideredequal,asisdoneforthenotionofentropyinstatisticalmechanics.
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Inmathematics,KrohnRhodescomplexityisanimportanttopicinthestudyoffinitesemigroupsand
automata.
InNetworktheorycomplexityistheproductofrichnessintheconnectionsbetweencomponentsofasystem.
Insoftwareengineering,programmingcomplexityisameasureoftheinteractionsofthevariouselementsof
thesoftware.Thisdiffersfromthecomputationalcomplexitydescribedaboveinthatitisameasureofthe
designofthesoftware.
InabstractsenseAbstractComplexity,isbasedonvisualstructuresperception[10]Itiscomplexityof
binarystringdefinedasasquareoffeaturesnumberdividedbynumberofelements(0'sand1's).Features
compriseherealldistinctivearrangementsof0'sand1's.Thoughthefeaturesnumberhavetobealways
approximatedthedefinitionispreciseandmeetintuitivecriterion.
Otherfieldsintroducelesspreciselydefinednotionsofcomplexity:
Acomplexadaptivesystemhassomeorallofthefollowingattributes:[4]
Thenumberofparts(andtypesofparts)inthesystemandthenumberofrelationsbetweenthepartsis
nontrivialhowever,thereisnogeneralruletoseparate"trivial"from"nontrivial"
Thesystemhasmemoryorincludesfeedback
Thesystemcanadaptitselfaccordingtoitshistoryorfeedback
Therelationsbetweenthesystemanditsenvironmentarenontrivialornonlinear
Thesystemcanbeinfluencedby,orcanadaptitselfto,itsenvironment
Thesystemishighlysensitivetoinitialconditions.

Study
Complexityhasalwaysbeenapartofourenvironment,andthereforemanyscientificfieldshavedealtwith
complexsystemsandphenomena.Fromoneperspective,thatwhichissomehowcomplexdisplayingvariation
withoutbeingrandomismostworthyofinterestgiventherewardsfoundinthedepthsofexploration.
Theuseofthetermcomplexisoftenconfusedwiththetermcomplicated.Intoday'ssystems,thisisthedifference
betweenmyriadconnecting"stovepipes"andeffective"integrated"solutions.[11]Thismeansthatcomplexisthe
oppositeofindependent,whilecomplicatedistheoppositeofsimple.
Whilethishasledsomefieldstocomeupwithspecificdefinitionsofcomplexity,thereisamorerecentmovement
toregroupobservationsfromdifferentfieldstostudycomplexityinitself,whetheritappearsinanthills,human
brains,orstockmarkets.Onesuchinterdisciplinarygroupoffieldsisrelationalordertheories.

Topics
Behaviour
Thebehaviorofacomplexsystemisoftensaidtobeduetoemergenceandselforganization.Chaostheoryhas
investigatedthesensitivityofsystemstovariationsininitialconditionsasonecauseofcomplexbehaviour.

Mechanisms
Recentdevelopmentsaroundartificiallife,evolutionarycomputationandgeneticalgorithmshaveledtoan
increasingemphasisoncomplexityandcomplexadaptivesystems.

Simulations
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Insocialscience,thestudyontheemergenceofmacropropertiesfromthemicroproperties,alsoknownasmacro
microviewinsociology.Thetopiciscommonlyrecognizedassocialcomplexitythatisoftenrelatedtotheuseof
computersimulationinsocialscience,i.e.:computationalsociology.

Systems
Systemstheoryhaslongbeenconcernedwiththestudyofcomplexsystems(inrecenttimes,complexitytheoryand
complexsystemshavealsobeenusedasnamesofthefield).Thesesystemsarepresentintheresearchofavariety
disciplines,includingbiology,economics,andtechnology.Recently,complexityhasbecomeanaturaldomainof
interestofrealworldsociocognitivesystemsandemergingsystemicsresearch.Complexsystemstendtobehigh
dimensional,nonlinear,anddifficulttomodel.Inspecificcircumstances,theymayexhibitlowdimensional
behaviour.

Data
Ininformationtheory,algorithmicinformationtheoryisconcernedwiththecomplexityofstringsofdata.
Complexstringsarehardertocompress.Whileintuitiontellsusthatthismaydependonthecodecusedto
compressastring(acodeccouldbetheoreticallycreatedinanyarbitrarylanguage,includingoneinwhichthevery
smallcommand"X"couldcausethecomputertooutputaverycomplicatedstringlike"18995316"),anytwo
Turingcompletelanguagescanbeimplementedineachother,meaningthatthelengthoftwoencodingsin
differentlanguageswillvarybyatmostthelengthofthe"translation"languagewhichwillendupbeing
negligibleforsufficientlylargedatastrings.
Thesealgorithmicmeasuresofcomplexitytendtoassignhighvaluestorandomnoise.However,thosestudying
complexsystemswouldnotconsiderrandomnessascomplexity.
Informationentropyisalsosometimesusedininformationtheoryasindicativeofcomplexity.
Recentworkinmachinelearninghasexaminedthecomplexityofthedataasitaffectstheperformanceof
supervisedclassificationalgorithms.HoandBasupresentasetofcomplexitymeasuresforbinaryclassification
problems.[12]
Thecomplexitymeasuresbroadlycover:
theoverlapsinfeaturevaluesfromdifferingclasses.
theseparabilityoftheclasses.
measuresofgeometry,topology,anddensityofmanifolds.Instancehardnessisanotherapproachseeksto
characterizethedatacomplexitywiththegoalofdetermininghowhardadatasetistoclassifycorrectlyand
isnotlimitedtobinaryproblems.[13]
Instancehardnessisabottomupapproachthatfirstseekstoidentifyinstancesthatarelikelytobemisclassified
(or,inotherwords,whichinstancesarethemostcomplex).Thecharacteristicsoftheinstancesthatarelikelytobe
misclassifiedarethenmeasuredbasedontheoutputfromasetofhardnessmeasures.Thehardnessmeasuresare
basedonseveralsupervisedlearningtechniquessuchasmeasuringthenumberofdisagreeingneighborsorthe
likelihoodoftheassignedclasslabelgiventheinputfeatures.Theinformationprovidedbythecomplexity
measureshasbeenexaminedforuseinmetalearningtodetermineforwhichdatasetsfiltering(orremoving
suspectednoisyinstancesfromthetrainingset)isthemostbeneficial[14]andcouldbeexpandedtootherareas.

Inmolecularrecognition
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Arecentstudybasedonmolecularsimulationsandcomplianceconstantsdescribesmolecularrecognitionasa
phenomenonoforganisation.[15]Evenforsmallmoleculeslikecarbohydrates,therecognitionprocesscannotbe
predictedordesignedevenassumingthateachindividualhydrogenbond'sstrengthisexactlyknown.

Applications
Computationalcomplexitytheoryisthestudyofthecomplexityofproblemsthatis,thedifficultyofsolving
them.Problemscanbeclassifiedbycomplexityclassaccordingtothetimeittakesforanalgorithmusuallya
computerprogramtosolvethemasafunctionoftheproblemsize.Someproblemsaredifficulttosolve,while
othersareeasy.Forexample,somedifficultproblemsneedalgorithmsthattakeanexponentialamountoftimein
termsofthesizeoftheproblemtosolve.Takethetravellingsalesmanproblem,forexample.Itcanbesolvedin
time
(wherenisthesizeofthenetworktovisitthenumberofcitiesthetravellingsalesmanmustvisit
exactlyonce).Asthesizeofthenetworkofcitiesgrows,thetimeneededtofindtheroutegrows(morethan)
exponentially.
Eventhoughaproblemmaybecomputationallysolvableinprinciple,inactualpracticeitmaynotbethatsimple.
Theseproblemsmightrequirelargeamountsoftimeoraninordinateamountofspace.Computationalcomplexity
maybeapproachedfrommanydifferentaspects.Computationalcomplexitycanbeinvestigatedonthebasisof
time,memoryorotherresourcesusedtosolvetheproblem.Timeandspacearetwoofthemostimportantand
popularconsiderationswhenproblemsofcomplexityareanalyzed.
Thereexistacertainclassofproblemsthatalthoughtheyaresolvableinprincipletheyrequiresomuchtimeor
spacethatitisnotpracticaltoattempttosolvethem.Theseproblemsarecalledintractable.
Thereisanotherformofcomplexitycalledhierarchicalcomplexity.Itisorthogonaltotheformsofcomplexity
discussedsofar,whicharecalledhorizontalcomplexity.
BejanandLorenteshowedthatcomplexityismodest(notmaximum,notincreasing),andisafeatureofthenatural
phenomenonofdesigngenerationinnature,whichispredictedbytheConstructallaw.[16]
BejanandLorentealsoshowedthatalltheoptimality(max,min)statementshavelimitedadhocapplicability,and
areunifiedundertheConstructallawofdesignandevolutioninnature.[17][18]

Seealso
Chaostheory
CommandandControlResearchProgram
Complexsystems
Complexitytheory(disambiguationpage)
Constructallaw
Cyclomaticcomplexity
Digitalmorphogenesis
Dualphaseevolution
Emergence
Evolutionofcomplexity
Gamecomplexity
Holisminscience
Interconnectedness
LawofComplexity/Consciousness
Modelofhierarchicalcomplexity
Namesoflargenumbers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexity

Namesoflargenumbers
Networkscience
Networktheory
Noveltytheory
Occam'srazor
Processarchitecture
ProgrammingComplexity
Sociologyandcomplexityscience
Systemstheory
Thorngate'spostulateofcommensurate
complexity
Variety(cybernetics)
Volatility,uncertainty,complexityandambiguity
Computationalirreducibility

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References
1.Johnson,Steven(2001).Emergence:TheConnectedLivesofAnts,Brains,Cities.NewYork:Scribner.p.19.
ISBN3411040742.
2.Antunes,RicardoGonzalez,Vicente(3March2015)."AProductionModelforConstruction:ATheoretical
Framework".Buildings.5(1):209228.doi:10.3390/buildings5010209.Retrieved17March2015.
3.J.M.Zayed,N.Nouvel,U.Rauwald,O.A.Scherman.ChemicalComplexitysupramolecularselfassemblyofsynthetic
andbiologicalbuildingblocksinwater.ChemicalSocietyReviews,2010,39,28062816
http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/ArticleLanding/2010/CS/b922348g
4.Johnson,NeilF.(2009)."Chapter1:Two'scompany,threeiscomplexity".Simplycomplexity:Aclearguideto
complexitytheory(PDF).OneworldPublications.p.3.ISBN9781780740492.
5.Weaver,Warren(1948)."ScienceandComplexity"(PDF).AmericanScientist.36(4):53644.PMID18882675.
Retrieved20071121.
6.Johnson,Steven(2001).Emergence:theconnectedlivesofants,brains,cities,andsoftware.NewYork:Scribner.p.46.
ISBN068486875X.
7."SirJamesLighthillandModernFluidMechanics",byLokenathDebnath,TheUniversityofTexasPanAmerican,US,
ImperialCollegePress:ISBN9781848161139:ISBN1848161131,Singapore,page31.Onlineat
http://cs5594.userapi.com/u11728334/docs/25eb2e1350a5/Lokenath_Debnath_Sir_James_Lighthill_and_mode.pdf
8.Jacobs,Jane(1961).TheDeathandLifeofGreatAmericanCities.NewYork:RandomHouse.
9.Ulanowicz,Robert,"Ecology,theAscendantPerspective",Columbia,1997
10.MariuszStanowski(2011)AbstractComplexityDefinition,Complicity2,p.7883[1](https://ejournals.library.ualberta.c
a/index.php/complicity/article/view/11156)
11.Lissack,MichaelR.JohanRoos(2000).TheNextCommonSense,TheeManager'sGuidetoMasteringComplexity.
InterculturalPress.ISBN9781857882353.
12.Ho,T.K.Basu,M.(2002)."ComplexityMeasuresofSupervisedClassificationProblems(http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl
s/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=990132&tag=1)".IEEETransactionsonPatternAnalysisandMachineIntelligence24(3),pp
289300.
13.Smith,M.R.Martinez,T.GiraudCarrier,C.(2014)."AnInstanceLevelAnalysisofDataComplexity(http://link.sprin
ger.com/article/10.1007%2Fs109940135422z)".MachineLearning,95(2):225256.
14.Saez,J.Luengo,J.Herrera,F.(2013)."PredictingNoiseFilteringEfficacywithDataComplexityMeasuresforNearest
NeighborClassification(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031320312003251)".PatternRecognition46
(1)pp355364.
15.JorgGrunenberg(2011)."Complexityinmolecularrecognition".Phys.Chem.Chem.Phys.13:1013610146.
16.[2](http://www.constructal.org/en/art/Phil.%20Trans.%20R.%20Soc.%20B%20%282010%29%20365,%201335%96134
7.pdf)BejanA.,LorenteS.,TheConstructalLawofDesignandEvolutioninNature.PhilosophicalTransactionsofthe
RoyalSocietyB,BiologicalScience,Vol.365,2010,pp.13351347.
17.LorenteS.,BejanA.(2010).FewLargeandManySmall:HierarchyinMovementonEarth,InternationalJournalof
DesignofNatureandEcodynamics,Vol.5,No.3,pp.254267.
18.KimS.,LorenteS.,BejanA.,MilterW.,MorseJ.(2008)TheEmergenceofVascularDesigninThreeDimensions,
JournalofAppliedPhysics,Vol.103,123511.

Furtherreading
Chu,Dominique(2011).Complexity:AgainstSystems.TheoryinBiosciences.Springer.PMID21287293.
Waldrop,M.Mitchell(1992).Complexity:TheEmergingScienceattheEdgeofOrderandChaos.NewYork:Simon&
Schuster.ISBN9780671767891.
Czerwinski,TomDavidAlberts(1997).Complexity,GlobalPolitics,andNationalSecurity(PDF).NationalDefense
University.ISBN9781579060466.
Sol,R.V.B.C.Goodwin(2002).SignsofLife:HowComplexityPervadesBiology.BasicBooks.ISBN9780465
019281.
Heylighen,Francis(2008)."ComplexityandSelfOrganization"(PDF).InBates,MarciaJ.Maack,MaryNiles.
EncyclopediaofLibraryandInformationSciences.CRC.ISBN9780849397127.
Burgin,M.(1982)GeneralizedKolmogorovcomplexityanddualityintheoryofcomputations,NoticesoftheRussian
AcademyofSciences,v.25,No.3,pp.1923
Meyers,R.A.,(2009)"EncyclopediaofComplexityandSystemsScience",ISBN9780387758886
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Mitchell,M.(2009).Complexity:AGuidedTour.OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford,UK.
Gershenson,C.,Ed.(2008).Complexity:5Questions.AutomaticPeess/VIP.

Externallinks
ComplexityMeasures(http://bactra.org/notebooks/complexitymeasu
Wikiquotehasquotations
res.html)anarticleabouttheabundanceofnotthatuseful
relatedto:Complexity
complexitymeasures.
ExploringComplexityinScienceandTechnology(http://web.cecs.pd
Lookupcomplexityin
x.edu/~mm/ExploringComplexityFall2009/index.html)
Wiktionary,thefree
IntroductorycomplexsystemcoursebyMelanieMitchell
dictionary.
SantaFeInstitute(http://www.santafe.edu/)focusingonthestudyof
complexityscience:LectureVideos(http://www.santafe.edu/researc
h/videos/catalog/)
UCFourCampusComplexityVideoconferences(http://eclectic.ss.uci.edu/~drwhite/center/cac.html)
HumanSciencesandComplexity
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Complexity&oldid=748251912"
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