Chapter 7 - Analog I/O

shows the corresponding voltage which is equal to the step times the rated voltage times
(2n-1)/(2n). For our converter, this will be the step times 10 volts x 15/16. Again, notice that
even though this is a 10 volt converter, the highest voltage that it can convert is 9.375 volts,
which is one step below 10 volts.
Example Problem:
A temperature sensor outputs 0-10 volts DC for a temperature span of
0-100 degrees C. What is the bit resolution of a PLC analog input that will digitize
a temperature variation of 0.1 degree C?
Solution:
Since, for the sensor, 10 volts corresponds to 100 degrees, the sensors outputs
10V / 100 degrees = 0.1 volt/degree C. Therefore, a temperature variation of 0.1
degree would correspond to 0.01 volt, or 10 millivolts from the sensor. Using our
rule of thumb, we would need an analog input with a voltage resolution of
10 mV x 25% = 2.5 mV (or less) and an input range of 0-10 volts. This means the
converter will need to divide its 0-10 volt range into 10 V / 2.5 mV = 4000 steps. To
find the bit resolution we find the smallest value of n that solves the inequality
2n>4000. The smallest value of n that will satisfy this inequality is n=12, where
2n = 4096. Therefore, we would need a 12-bit 10 volt analog input. Now we can find
the actual resolution by solving for a 12-bit 10 volt converter. The resolution would
be 10v / 212 = 2.44 mV. This voltage step would correspond to a temperature
variation of 0.0244 degree. This means that the digitized value will be within plus
or minus 0.144 degree of the actual temperature.
Determining the number of bits of resolution for bipolar uses a similar method.
Bipolar converters generally utilize what is called an offset binary system. In this system,
all binary zeros represents the largest negative voltage and all binary ones represents the
largest positive voltage minus one bit-resolution. To illustrate, assume we have an A/D
converter with a range of -10 volts to +10 volts and a bit resolution of 8 bits. Since the
overall range is 20 volts, the voltage resolution will be 20 volts / 28 = 78.125 mV. Therefore,
the converter will equate 000000002 to -10 volts and 111111112 will become
+10 V - 0.078125 V = 9.951875 V. Keep in mind that this will make the binary number
100000002, or 12810 (called the half-range value) be -10 V + 128 x 78.125 mV = 0.000 V.
Consider the table below for a 4 bit 10 volt unipolar converter.

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Chapter 7 - Analog I/O

Step10

Step2

Vout

0000

-10.000

0001

-8.750

0010

-7.500

0011

-6.250

0100

-5.000

0101

-3.750

0110

-2.500

0111

-1.250

1000

0.000

1001

1.250

10

1010

2.500

11

1011

3.750

12

1100

5.000

13

1101

6.250

14

1110

7.500

15

1111

8.750

The leftmost column shows the sixteen discrete steps that the converter is capable of
resolving, 0 through 15. The middle column shows the binary value. The rightmost column
shows the corresponding voltage which is equal to the step times the voltage span times
(2n-1)/(2n). For our converter, this will be the step times 20 volts x 15/16. Notice that digital
zero corresponds to -10 volts, the half value point 10002 corresponds to zero volts, and the
highest voltage that it can convert is 8.750 volts, which is one step below +10 volts.
It is important to understand that expanding the span of the converter (span is the
voltage difference between the minimum and maximum voltage capability of the converter)
to cover both positive and negative voltages increases the value of the voltage resolution
which in turn detracts from the precision of the converter. For example, an 8-bit 10 volt
unipolar converter has a voltage resolution of 10 / 28 = 39.0625 mV while an 8-bit bipolar
10 volt converter has voltage resolution of 20 / 28 = 78.125 mV.
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Chapter 7 - Analog I/O

Example Problem:
A 10-bit bipolar analog input has an input range of -5 to +5 volts. If the converter
outputs the binary number 01101111012 what is the voltage being read?
Solution:
First we find the voltage resolution of the converter. Since the span is 10 volts, the
resolution is 10 / 210 = 9.7656 mV. Next we convert the output binary number to decimal
(01101111012 = 44510) and multiply it by the resolution to get 10 / 210 x 445 = 4.3457 V.
Finally, since the converter uses offset binary, we subtract 5 volts from the result to get
4.3457 V -5 V = -0.6543 V.
The impedance of the source of the voltage to be measured must also be a
consideration. However, this factor usually does not affect the selection of the analog input
because generally all analog inputs are high impedance (1 Megohm or higher). Therefore,
if the source impedance is also high, the designer should exercise caution to make sure
the analog input does not load the source and create a voltage divider. This will cause an
error in the reading. As a simple example, assume the voltage to be read has a source
impedance of 1 Megohm and the analog input also has an impedance of 1 Megohm. This
means that the analog input will only read half the voltage because the other half will be
dropped across the source impedance. Ideally, a 1000:1 or higher ratio between the
analog input impedance and the source impedance is desirable. Any lower ratio will cause
a significant error in the measurement. Fortunately, since most analog sensors utilize
operational amplifier outputs, the source impedance will generally be extremely low and
loading error will not be a problem.

7-4.

Analog (D/A) Output

When selecting an analog output for a PLC, most of the same design considerations
are used as is done with the analog input. Most analog outputs are available in unipolar
0 to 5 V and 0 to 10 V, and in bipolar -5 to +5 V and -10 to +10 V systems. The methods
for calculating bit resolution and voltage resolution is the same as for analog inputs, so the
selection process is very similar.
However, one additional design consideration that must be investigated when
applying an analog output is load impedance. Most D/A converters use operational
amplifiers as their output amplifiers. Therefore, the maximum current capability of the
converter is the same as the output current capability of the operational amplifier, typically
about 25 mA. In most cases, a simple ohms law calculation will indicate the lowest
impedance value that the D/A converter is capable of accurately driving.

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