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Acknowledgement
I am indebted to Professor Jolanta Szpyra-Kozowska for all her help and
constructive advice in the completion of this paper.
Intonation in Teaching Pronunciation: In Search of a New Perspective
Dariusz Bukowski, Poland
Dariusz Bukowski is an EFL teacher and teacher trainer at Grafton College of
Management Sciences in Dublin, Ireland. He has written and presented several
papers on teaching pronunciation. His main interests in TEFL are teaching the
skill of speaking and pronunciation in a student-centered environment.
E-mail: darbuk@tlen.pl
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Abstract
Introduction
Intonation
Approaches
Intonation
Conclusion
References

to

teach
to

in

ELT

course

or
not
teaching
books

to

teach?
intonation
critical
view

Abstract
The paper argues that intonation, owing to its linguistic functions, can, to some
extent, be responsible for the students level of success in communication. It
contains an analysis of selected ELT materials and demonstrates a visible bias
towards teaching mainly the grammatical and attitudinal functions of intonation. It
claims that the lack of communicative, discourse oriented activities seems to
clash with the contemporary communicative tendencies in foreign language
teaching, which calls for a change in intonation teaching syllabuses by
introducing and gradually increasing the amount of discourse intonation practice.
Introduction
Like a pendulum of a clock, the goals of pronunciation teaching swung in the
past from the Audiolingual Method extreme, which advocated explicit training in
segmental phonetics towards accuracy based communication, (Richards and
Rodgers 1990) to the early Communicative Approach extreme, which rejected
the discrete-point approach as ineffective and proposed a more holistic,
discourse-based view of language teaching whose successful outcome relied

mainly on the instruction in suprasegmental features, including rhythm, stress

and intonation. (Brumfit and Johnson 1979, Widdowson 1978). In other words, in
their search for more effective pronunciation teaching and learning methods,
linguists and language teaching specialists took a wide leap from the so-called
bottom-up (i.e. from segments to suprasegments) to the top-down ( i.e. from
suprasegments to segments) perspective.
Neither of those perspectives, however, turned out adequate and sufficient in
teaching pronunciation for communication because, as Celce-Murcia ( 2004:10)
claim, both the inability to distinguish sounds that carry a high functional load
( list/least ) and an inability to distinguish suprasegmental features ( such as
intonation and stress differences in yes/no and alternative questions) can have a
negative on the oral communication and the listening comprehension abilities
of nonnative speakers of English. This has led to a revision of teaching goals
and resulted in a more balanced or weak Communicative Language Teaching
Approach, (Scrivener 2005). which is neither bottom-up or top-down, and it
assumes that language is communication and the primary goal of teaching
pronunciation is intelligibility that can be attained by attending to both segmental
and suprasegmental aspects of phonetics.
The author of the present paper claims that despite the above mentioned
importance and necessity to teach suprasegmental features, one of them,
namely intonation, is given lower status and priority in pronunciation instruction
in comparison with stress and rhythm, which may, therefore, affect negatively the
learners ability to communicate successfully in English. It is thus my intention to
examine the place intonation occupies in the balanced approach instruction, and
see to what extent the currently employed methods and techniques of teaching
intonation help to develop the speakers ability to communicate in English, both
fluently and intelligibly.
To attain the above aims, I will first consider differing opinions which either justify
or reject the need to teach intonation. Next, the functions of intonation will be
analysed from the so-called pre-communicative or traditional and communicative
perspectives. I will then examine which of those approaches prevail in
contemporary ELT course book syllabuses.
Intonation to teach or not to teach?
Intonation is usually defined as speech melody that consists of different tones
(Dalton & Seidlhofer 1994:44). In fact, however, intonation must not be
understood as a melody in the musical sense, where a singer holds a given pitch
for a time before moving to the next one. In the linguistic sense, the pitch
variation extends over single phonemes, sequences of phonemes and whole
utterances. (Underhill 2005:76). As observed by Kelly (2003:86), It is an
aspect of language we are very sensitive to, but mostly at an unconscious level.
The teaching of intonation is a controversial and problematic issue. The opinions
whether it should or should not be taught differ greatly, which in turn leads to a
confusion about the place of intonation in pronunciation syllabuses. Depending
on a pronunciation teaching specialist, intonation is either considered vital and

significant for intelligibility, or regarded as completely unimportant. There are

those for whom it is both significant and insignificant at the same time.
Dalton and Seidlhofer (1994: 75), for example, stress the significance of
intonation by saying: () intonation is a crucial element of verbal interaction,
and most authors of teachers handbooks and teaching materials agree on this.
Parallel to this, they note a severe disproportion in the amount of attention and
practice given to the teaching of various aspects of phonetics, intonation
included, where the latter is usually given short shrift, or left out altogether.
By contrast, Jenkins (2000), the author of the pronunciation model for English as
an International Language, known as the Lingua Franca Core, in her attempt to
decide which features of English pronunciation are indispensable for intelligibility
in communication between non-native speakers of English, regards intonation as
non-significant and maintains that it could be excluded from English
pronunciation courses.
To make matters even more complicated, Kenworthy ( 1987: 19) argues that,
()it is important for intelligibility, because it is used to express intentions. A
speaker can show that he or she is asking for information, or asking for
confirmation, seeking agreement, or simply making a remark that is indisputable
or common knowledge, through the intonation of the voice.(). Only those who
take an extremely narrow view of intelligibility can disregard the importance of
intonation . Nonetheless, when discussing the main causes that affect
intelligibility and result in subsequent miscommunication, Kenworthy
distinguishes between those aspects of pronunciation which are vital for
intelligibility, and as such are to be given a high priority in phonetic training, and
those whose effect on intelligibility is of low value and as such can be given a
low and/or optional priority. In her opinion, intonation belongs to the low value
category and can be left out, because, as she explains, (p.123),() it is difficult
to give priorities for intonation unless one is able to predict what kinds of
conversational encounters the learners will be involved in.
On top of the above, the teaching of intonation appears to be quite problematic
and is done unwillingly, possibly due to such claims as the one by Underhill
(2005: 75), who maintains that, () The teaching of intonation seems to have
been characterized by an even greater uncertainty and lack of confidence than
the other areas of practical phonology. We do not have a practical, workable,
trustworthy system through which we can make intonation comprehensible to
ourselves or to our learners. This may be due to the nature of intonation itself,
that it is somehow less perceptible and less tangible than other areas of
language.
To conclude, on the one hand, a language teacher is either discouraged from
undertaking the effort to teach intonation, or she/he is told that this aspect of
prosody can be neglected altogether as it does not affect intelligibility. On the
other hand, intonation is admittedly considered an important part of prosody and
as such it should constitute an element of language teaching syllabuses.
Approaches to teaching intonation

Descriptions of intonation differ in the way they account for its meaning, which
can be linked to grammar, attitude or discourse, (Underhill 2005). Those linguists
and pronunciation teaching specialists who believe in the importance of teaching
intonation look at this phonetic issue from two perspectives. One is the precommunicative or the traditional approach, while the other is the communicative,
discourse-based approach. Following Collins and Mees (2003) intonation has
four important linguistic functions:

focusing function,

grammatical function,

attitudinal function,

discourse function.

The traditional approach isolates only the first three functions, namely, focusing,
grammatical and attitudinal. From this perspective, intonation tends to be taught
in a de-contextualised form, mainly on the sentence level. Even though the
attitudinal function did appear in a context of dialogues, they were artificially
created , chiefly to illustrate the usage of a given attitudinal tone, and as such
they lacked the features of real-life discourse.
Let us take a closer look at the componential elements of the traditional
approach in order to assess their value in communication.
(1) The focusing function allows the speaker to manipulate the location of the
nucleus in a sentence, which otherwise normally falls on the last element in the
tone unit, and highlight a piece of information one considers important, for
example:
Tom admired
his
new
car.

not
John
Tom admired his
new
car.

not
hated
it
Tom
admired his new
car.

not
someone
elses
Tom
admired
his new car.

not
the
old
one
Tom admired his new car. neutral
In such cases, the sentence stress and the higher intonation pitch overlap.
When a speaker employs the focusing function, he or she gives prominence, or
highlights a selected word in an tone unit. In such cases the semantic focus is
marked by prosodic prominence to signal the known/ unknown or the old/ new
dichotomy, as in:
A:
Ive
lost
my WALLET
B:
A LEATHER wallet?
A: Yes, a leather wallet with a TEN POUND NOTE in it.

where the NEW /UNKNOWN information is given additional stress or

prominence, while the OLD/KNOWN information is left unstressed. The
prominent element is uttered with a higher pitch while the lower pitch is reserved
for non-focused elements. Additionally, the prominence pitch is uttered with a
greater loudness of the voice.
Other instances of giving prominence are emphatic stress and contrastive stress
as in Ive ALWAYS liked beer. or Its not BLACK, its BLUE. It seems that
teaching the focusing function of intonation, and its known/unknown aspect is an
important preliminary step to instruction in the discourse function, to be
discussed later in this paper.
(2) The grammatical function of intonation draws attention to the grammatical/
syntactic relations within a sentence. It marks the boundaries of syntactic
structures such as phrases or clauses, helps to prevent disambiguation,
differentiates between statements, questions and question-tags. For instance,
there is a relationship between the completion of the intonation contour and the
corresponding completion of a grammatical phrase, which is indicated by the
falling pitch. Also, the difference is signaled in the sentence structure between
defining/non-defining clauses, where intonation marks the presence of the
comma, with the falling pitch, as in: Tom likes poetry which is sentimental and
Tom likes poetry, which is sentimental, or Tom gave me some cake which was
sweet and Tom gave me some cake, which was sweet, (examples mine) can be
misinterpreted if the comma is not signaled by the intonation. When written, a
sentence such as Tristram left directions for Isolde to follow. remains
ambiguous unless it is uttered with the correct intonation that will help make the
meaning clear, whether Tristram wanted Isolde to follow HIM or the
DIRECTIONS (Fromkin 1998:276). To disambiguate such sentences, it is
enough to know which element of the sentence to stress or make more
prominent, bearing in mind that the stress shift must trigger the high fall
intonation contour. Thus, one can say: Tristram left the directions for ISOLDE to
follow. or Tristram left the directions for Isolde to FOLLOW.
Teaching the grammatical function of intonation is often problematic, however,
since the situation is not so clear and systematic as far as affirmatives, negatives
and questions are concerned. The general rule says that statements, commands
and wh-questions in English have a falling intonation contour at the end, while
the yes/no questions have a rising tone. The following table (Collins & Mees
2003: 129) demonstrates that certain types of English utterances have a
generally recognized and accepted intonation pattern, with either falling or rising
pitch. In some cases, however, it is possible to apply other pitch contours instead
of the so called default pattern, and thus it is difficult to formulate clear rules as
to guide learners in their choice of intonation. Cases where a general principle is
immediately followed by an exception to it will obviously be confusing to
students.
utterance type

default
pattern

other patterns / other meaning

STATEMENTS

fall

(1) rise to add non-finality or questioning

(2) rise-fall to add non-finality with an
implication of an additional but unspoken
message

COMMANDS

fall

rise to turn command into request

WH-QUESTIONS

fall

rise to add warmth and interest

YES / NO
QUESTIONS

rise

fall to turn questions into exclamations

Table 1. Intonation contours for yes/no and wh-questions. The default and other
patterns.
Despite a certain amount of difficulty involved in teaching the grammatical
function of intonation, it clearly plays an important role in communication. The
examples quoted above demonstrate that the erroneous employment of
intonation contours in speech production can cause the interlocutor to be misled
either in the recognition of the sentence type or in the interpretation of meaning
of ambiguous sentences.
(3) In its attitudinal function, intonation is an indicator of a speakers attitude as it
helps them to express their approach, emotion, or stance towards other
speakers or a given situation. Thus, by changing the pitch of the voice, and
producing different tones, a speaker may sound friendly, angry, soothing,
encouraging; he or she may want to express reservation, interest or enthusiasm.
Teaching attitudinal intonation has received a lot of criticism as elusive and
difficult to present in a way that offers learners a set of rules from which they
can make meaningful choices affecting their own production. () attitudes are
difficult to recognize in ourselves, they are difficult to label objectively. (Underhill
2005). Moreover, attitudes described as impressed either favourably or
unfavourably, lighter, more casual, concerned, reproachful, hurt, flat, even
hostile or brisk, business-like (Underhill 2005) present shades of meaning that
can be difficult to grasp. Another area of difficulty lies in the fact that even though
the meanings of tones are not directly grammatical, in many instances the
grammatical and attitudinal intonation patterns overlap. Following Cruttenden
(1994:243) some attitudes are inherently more associated with questions; in
particular, high rise, which often has a meaning of surprise, frequently marks an
echo question. Moreover, one and the same tone can be used to express a
variety of meanings, for example, a falling pitch can indicate that the speaker is
either matter-of-factly, disinterested, bored or relieved ( Kelly 2000).
On the other hand, it would be unreasonable to claim that learners should not be
taught how to express their emotions or attitudes, such as joy, anger, happiness,
boredom, disappointment, etc, by means of intonation. It seems that some use
of the attitudinal function of intonation should be made in classroom practice, as
suggested by Kelly (2000): However teachers can do some useful work with

relating intonation to attitude in the classroom in the same way as we did with
grammar and intonation. He suggests that the attitudinal or emotive intonation
practice should be done on lexical phrases such as How do you do, How are
you, See you later, See you soon, At last, Look on the bright side, Dont get me
wrong, or As for me, which are used in colloquial everyday language and
constitute a major feature of English.
To sum up briefly, the pre-communicative approach to the teaching of intonation
does not seem enough considering the fact that communication between people
is not limited to the sentence level exclusively. The sentences which are uttered
by interlocutors usually constitute a part of a larger whole, called discourse. That
is why intonation should be analysed and practiced at the level of exchanges of
utterances in conversations.
Let us now consider an alternative, discourse-based approach to intonation,
known as the Discourse Intonation model, developed by Brazil. It became
influential in English Language Teaching (ELT) in the mid 1980s and 1990s, both
for teacher training (language awareness) and classroom practice
(pronunciation). The analysis of discourse, understood as any meaningful
stretch of language (Kelly 2000) takes into account the interactive and
interpersonal nature of communication in which two interlocutors follow
conventions of turn-taking and other ways of maintaining a conversation such
as clarification, shifting, avoidance and interruption. (Brown 1994) By analyzing
intonation at the level of discourse it is possible to see how it conveys ideas and
information, how it enables the interlocutors to signal what knowledge is shared
and what is new/unknown between them. In the discourse approach intonation
patterns are no longer limited to single sentences, single instances of grammar
or attitude, but go beyond the sentence level so it is possible to observe what
choices speakers make in real life exchanges of utterances, and how intonation
functions in authentic contexts. It is thus possible to see how the speakers
organize information and how pieces of information relate to each other in
conversations.
Brazils discourse intonation is a system / a structure in which utterances are
made up of tone units which, in turn, comprise one or two prominent syllables.
The last prominent syllable is always tonic. If there are two, the first one is called
onset.

In the above examples, the tone units are enclosed in between brackets [ ].
Prominent syllables are indicated by the use of the upper-case letters The tonic
syllable is underlined. It is important for a learner to identify the prominent
syllable(s) in a tone unit. If there is only one prominent syllable, as in the first
example, it is always tonic. If there are two, as in the other example, the pitch

movement starts on the first (onset) and undergoes a significant change on the
last (tonic). This change of pitch is perceived as a tone. The are five tones that
speakers employ, namely fall, rise, fall-rise, rise-fall and level. In the above
examples the falling tone is indicated by an arrow. The tone can be realized at a
certain level, known as key, which is either high, mid or low, depending on what
the speaker signals in his utterance in relation to what has been said. The
choice of key for any tone unit depends on the assumption one makes about the
listeners present view of things. High key attributes certain expectations to the
listener and contradicts them. High key has contrastive implications: not X ( as
one might expect) but Y (Brazil 1994).

The use of low key, on the other hand attributes expectations and confirms them:
which you would naturally expect after Y. (Brazil 1994:21)

The mid key can be said to attribute no expectation of this kind. (Brazil 1995:21).
It is used to just add something to what has been said.
The key, whether high, mid or low, is relative to the speakers voice qualities and
typical speaking habits. (Kelly 2000). In other words, the use of key is speakerspecific, what is a mid key to one speaker, can be a low or high key to another
one.
Owing to the fact that discourse intonation deals with the moment to moment
real life exchanges, much significance is placed on the amount of shared
knowledge that exists between speakers during their exchanges. (Kelly 2000)
This knowledge refers to how much speakers together know about a particular
topic, how much meaning has already been established between them through
negotiation, clarification, etc. Consequently, this knowledge will determine what
type of tone they will adopt in order to convey meaning. The basic tonal
distinction in Brazils system is between fall and fall-rise. (Cruttenden 1986)
Thus, speakers can either use the proclaiming tone for the new/unknown
information, additional to what is already shared, most frequently signaled by the
falling tone, as in:
There is a cup of TEA in the picture. used with the proclaiming tone, for
NEW/UNKNOWN.
or the referring tone, most frequently signaled by the falling-rising tone for the
information that already exists between them or is assumed as shared, as in:

The TEA is on the table. used with the referring tone for the SHARED bit of
information.
Additionally, there is the oblique tone, with the falling pitch, used when the
language is being quoted, including rhymes, poems, multiplication tables,
recipes, etc, so what the speaker communicates is just what is on the page,
without attaching any meaning to it. Due to the fact that it has no direct
communicative value (Underhill 2005), it will be disregarded in this paper.
The proclaiming and referring, apart from their meaning discussed above, can
be given an additional emotional value which is signaled by the change of the
tone. Thus, the referring plus tone is conveyed by the rising tone while
the proclaiming plus tone is marked by the rising- falling tone.
The following diagram (Underhill 2005) summarizes the choices that speakers
can make in utterances, depending on the situation:

The advantages of teaching the discourse function of intonation over the

grammatical and attitudinal ones are numerous. First of all, it is a reflection of
language as used for communication between real speakers and in a real
context, which is concomitant with the contemporary language teaching
tendencies. As argued by Kelly (2003) The analysis of intonation in spoken
discourse gives a relatively straightforward way of describing and narrowing
down a whole range of intonation possibilities. By concentrating on tonic
syllables, and by showing an initial choice between referring and proclaiming
tones, we divide those possibilities into two groups that can be analysed further.
In this way pronunciation teaching is systematic and governed by a set of rules
that are clear and learnable. Unlike in the case of the attitudinal function, based
on the 24 tunes which a learner is expected to memorize, usually with the help
or artificial dialogues, then correctly interpret such indicators of attitude as mild
pleasure or business-like or express attitudes, which may be alien to him or her,
or cause embarrassment, (Kelly 2000) the discourse intonation is based on the
speakers assessment of the state and extent of the shared knowledge between
him and the listener and gives the speaker a simple binary choice of either
referring to what is common, or proclaiming to what is new .
Intonation in ELT course books a critical view

As has been demonstrated in the preceding section, a significant shift of focus in

the approach to intonation has taken place. It is interesting to examine whether it
is reflected in contemporary teaching materials. Towards this purpose, the
following section of this paper will deal with the analysis of how much attention is
devoted to the teaching of intonation in contemporary English classrooms, what
is the scope of intonation practice, and finally which aspects of intonation tend to
be most frequently taught. The results of research conducted by SzpyraKozowska et.al.(2003) on a comprehensive sample of 20 Communicative
Approach course books to determine which aspects of English phonetics are
included in ELT syllabuses, show that intonation is, in fact, taught with attention
given to its following aspects :
Aspect of intonation

number of course books

intonation in emotional statements

16

intonation in emotional questions

13

intonation in questions tags

12

intonation in wh-questions

12

intonation in neutral statements

12

intonation in yes/no questions

11

intonation in enumeration

33

intonation in commands and exclamations

The conclusion which emerges from the analysis of the above list is that
intonation tends to be approached by course book writers rather selectively.
There is a visible bias towards practising primarily the grammatical and
occasionally the attitudinal functions, with a stronger emphasis put on the
grammatical role. Moreover, even though the syllabuses in the 20 course books
reflect the teaching principles of the Communicative Approach, the intonation
practice activities seem to lack the communicative purpose, due to the fact that
intonational patterns are taught in a de-contextualized form, mainly on the
sentence-level.
Among the ELT materials, the course book which is considered to be particularly
useful in teaching pronunciation is New Headway Pronunciation Course, which
is part of the New Headway English Course and can be used with the regular
course book or separately. It is advertised as the phonetic instruction whose aim

is to help students to express themselves both clearly and confidently, by

training them in the key areas of pronunciation, in particular the production of
individual sounds, word and sentence stress and intonation. (NHPC, 1999)
The close examination of the contents of the NHPC reveals that the key areas,
with respect to intonation, are as follows:
Elementary level (NHPC 2002)

intonation in questions, UP and DOWN tones ( single words)

sounding polite single words, short dialogues

wh-questions a single sentence level

polite requests a single sentence level

sounding enthusiastic question-answer utterances, enthusiasm limited

to a single word OK

Pre-intermediate (NHPC 2001)

sentence stress sentence level

difference between polite and impolite offers short dialogues

OR questions friendly or unfriendly intonation short dialogues

sentence stress for showing interest and surprise two-sentence

utterances

corrective stress focusing function on the sentence level

Intermediate (NHPC 2000)

wh-questions sentence level

intonation in single words a word level

showing interest through short questions two sentence utterances

polite requests with could and would two sentence utterances

showing degrees of enthusiasm two sentence utterances

question tags with falling intonation sentence level

intonation with really and absolutely two sentence utterances

correcting politely short dialogues, bearing elements of discourse such

as Well, actually

rising and falling intonation in question tags a sentence level

showing disbelief with reported speech sentence stress in two-sentence

utterances

Upper-intermediate (NHPC 1999)

hellos and goodbyes singe phrase utterances

exclamations one sentence level

rising and falling intonation in questions single sentences

wh-questions with rising intonation short artificial dialogues

special / contrastive stress short dialogues

sentence phrasing defining and non-defining clauses a sentence level

exaggeration and understatement sentence and dialogue level

polite intonation in wh-questions single sentence requests

sentence stress emphatic forms in short dialogues

The conclusion one may draw from the analysis of the above syllabus in terms of
the focus and the nature of the exercises is very similar to the findings in SzpyraKozowska et.als (2003) research. The following table demonstrates the
proportional distribution of intonation practice activities in relation to the functions
of intonation:
Total number of
activities
29

Grammatical /
Focusing function
14 + 2 = 56%

Attitudinal
Function
12 = 41%

Discourse
Function
1= 3%

Table 2. Proportional distribution of intonation teaching activities as related to

intonation function.
The amount of grammatically oriented intonation practice is overwhelming.
Strikingly, the grammatical and the attitudinal functions dominate throughout the

4-level course. Very little attention is devoted to teaching the focusing and
discourse functions.
It should be clarified that I am not trying to undermine the value of the
grammatical and attitudinal functions of intonation, as they are of great
significance for the clarity and precision of the intended message. Also, they may
cause problems to learners because the rules for using intonation in statements,
yes/no and wh-questions are not always very clear and systematic, and, as
such, they need a lot of practicing. Still, in the majority of cases the grammatical
and attitudinal intonation training is either done on a sentence or a short
dialogue level, which does not seem enough. In a communicative course book,
that naturally is supposed to advocate the principles of the balanced approach,
one might expect at least some elements of the discourse function training at the
intermediate and particularly at the upper-intermediate levels as the students
linguistic and communicative competences are advanced enough to allow for
such activities.
Teaching intonation should, in my opinion, consist of two stages, the first one,
which is largely perceptive and imitative (based on the accurate reproduction of
intonation patterns) and a subsequent perceptive / productive stage with a
tendency towards the so-called immediate creativity, with focus on the
discourse-based practice. Thus, in the early stages of language instruction the
intonation training should be proportionally more imitative / reproductive,
whereas in the latter stages of language teaching the activities should have a
more productive, discourse-type character. Clearly, the focusing, grammatical
and emotive functions lend themselves very well to be taught at the sentence
level, and could thus constitute a major part of an intonation training syllabus at
the early stages of pronunciation instruction. Gradually, with the development of
students conversational skills, the syllabus should be expanded and elements of
the discourse approach should be included in the intonation teaching process.
Conclusion
In this paper it has been argued that intonation, owing to its linguistic functions,
can, to some extent, be responsible for the students level of success in
communication. That is why, despite differing opinions that concern the
justifiability of intonation teaching, this element of prosody should not be
overlooked in foreign language instruction. The analysis of selected ELT course
books has shown a visible bias towards teaching mainly the grammatical and
attitudinal functions of intonation, with disregard for the discourse function. The
lack of communicative, discourse oriented activities seems to clash with the
contemporary communicative tendencies in foreign language teaching, which
calls for a change in intonation teaching syllabuses by introducing and gradually
increasing the amount of discourse intonation practice.
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