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BS Chakkrit PDF
BS Chakkrit PDF
to General Relativity
Chakkrit Kaeonikhom
To Mae
....................................
Dr. Burin Gumjudpai, BS MSc PhD AMInstP FRAS
Supervisor
....................................
Dr. Thiranee Khumlumlert, BSc(Hons) MSc PhD
Member
....................................
Alongkorn Khudwilat, BS(Hons) MSc
Member
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Burin Gumjudpai, who gave motivation to me to learn story
that I have never known, thank for his inspiration that lead me to the elegance of
Physics, thank for his explanation of difficult concepts and thank for his training of
LATEX program. I also thank Daris Samart for willingness to spend his time discussing
to me and for help on some difficult calculations. Thanks Chanun Sricheewin and
Alongkorn Khudwilat for some discussions and way out of some physics problems. I
also thank Artit Hootem, Sarayut Pantian and all other members in the new founded
Tah Poe Academia Institute for Theoretical Physics & Cosmology (formerly the Tah
Poe Group of Theoretical Physics: TPTP). Thank for their encouragement that push
me to do my works. Finally, thank for great kindness of my mother who has been
teaching me and giving to me morale and everything.
II
Title:
Candidate:
Mr.Chakkrit Kaeonikhom
Supervisor:
Dr.Burin Gumjudpai
Degree:
Abstract
General relativity theory is a theory for gravity which Galilean relativity fails to
explain. Variational principle is a method which is powerful in physics. All physical
laws is believed that they can be derived from action using variational principle.
Einsteins field equation, which is essential law in general relativity, can also be derived
using this method. In this report we show derivation of the Einsteins field equation
using this method. We also extend the gravitational action to include boundary terms
and to obtain Israel junction condition on hypersurface. The method is powerful and
is applied widely to braneworld gravitational theory.
III
Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Background .
1.2 Objectives . .
1.3 Frameworks .
1.4 Expected Use
1.5 Tools . . . . .
1.6 Procedure . .
1.7 Outcome . . .
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to special relativity
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IV
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1
1
1
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2
2
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3
4
4
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6
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15
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20
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24
24
24
26
28
29
30
30
33
5 Conclusion
38
A Proofs of identities
A.1 c gab = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.2 c g ab = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.3 Covariant derivative for scalar field, a . .
A.4 Ra bcd = Ra bdc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.5 Ra bcd + Ra dbc + Ra cdb = 0 . . . . . . . . . .
A.6 Bianchi identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.7 Conservation of Einstein tensor: b Gab = 0
40
40
40
42
42
43
43
44
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B Detail calculation
B.1 Variance of electromagnetic wave equation under Galilean transformation
B.2 Poissons equation for Newtonian gravitational field . . . . . . . . . .
B.3 Variation of Cristoffel symbols : abc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
45
46
47
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1
Background
1.2
Objectives
To study general relativity and tensor calculus which is applied to derive, with variational principle, Einsteins field equation and Israel junction condition.
1.3
Frameworks
1.4
Expected Use
To obtain Einsteins field equation from variational method and to obtain junction condition by including of surface term in action.
A derived-in-detailed report for those who interest with thoroughly calculation
from variational method in general relativity.
Attaining understanding of concept of general relativity and having skills on
tensor calculus.
1.5
Tools
1.6
Procedure
1.7
Outcome
Understanding of basic ideas of classical mechanics, special relativity and general relativity.
Attaining skills of tensor calculation.
Understanding in detail of the variation method in general relativity.
Chapter 2
Failure of classical mechanics and
introduction to special relativity
2.1
Newton introduced his three laws of motion as axioms of classical mechanics. These
laws have successfully explained motion of most objects known to us. The Newtons
first law states that a body remains at rest or in uniform motion. This law introduces
a frame of reference called inertial frame. All proceeded dynamical laws base on this
law. But what and where is it?
To know or to measure velocity of a particle, we need a frame of reference. For
example when we measure speed of a car, a particular spot on ground is inertial
frame. The ground is on the Earth and is not really inertial frame due to gravity.
Furthermore, all stars in the universe possess gravity therefore nowhere is really locate
on true inertial frame! However we will discuss about inertial frame again in chapter 3.
2.2
In Newtonian mechanics, the concept of time and space are completely separable.
Furthermore time is assumed to be absolute quantity and independent of any observers. Consider inertial frames of reference moving with constant velocity to each
other. In classical mechanics there is transformation law between two inertial frames.
4
v
(x, y, z, t),
vt
(x, y, z, t)
x0 = x vt
y0 = y
z0 = z
t0 = t.
(2.1)
(2.2)
The principle of Galilean transformation yields that the velocity of light in two different inertial frames is measured with different values
u0 = c u and u = c.
(2.3)
1 2
c2 t2
1 2
2 2 2
+
+
= 0.
x2 y 2
z 2
c2 t2
5
(2.4)
(2.5)
2.3
in Cartesian coordinate
(2.6)
Special Relativity (SR) is a theory for physics in flat spacetime called Minkowski
spacetime. If we are talking about spacetime, we must have events. Any events
6
(2.7)
We can see that if ds2 = 0, this equation becomes equation of spherical wave of light
with radius cdt. We can classify four-vectors into 3 classes namely spacelike, lightlike
and timelike vectors. Any line elements are called
spacelike
ds2 < 0
lightlike or null
ds2 = 0
timelike
ds2 > 0.
ds = dx dxa =
3
X
(2.8)
a,b=0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
(2.9)
gab = ab =
0 0 1 0 .
0 0 0 1
The line element can be computed in matrix form,
1 0 0 0
dx0
0 1 0 0 dx1
ds2 =
0 0 1 0 dx2
0 0 0 1
dx3
dx0
dx1
dx2
dx3
(2.10)
(2.11)
1
1 v 2 /c2
(2.12)
0 0
0 0
.
=
0
0
1 0
0
0
0 1
(2.13)
p
Here we define1 v/c and 1/ 1 2 .
cdt0
dx0
dy 0 = 0
0
0
dz
0
0
0 0
cdt
0 0
dx .
1 0
dy
0 1
dz
(2.14)
(2.15)
(2.16)
ds2 = ds02
(2.17)
Therefore
(2.18)
where in the angle of rotation in this (x, ct) space, then Lorentz transformation
becomes
0
cosh sinh 0 0
ct
ct
x0 sinh cosh 0 0 x
.
0 =
(2.19)
y
0
0
1 0 y
z0
0
0
0 1
z
1
We can see that the Lorentz boost is actually rotation in (x,ct) space by angle .
Lorentz transformation yields two important phenomena in SR. These are time dilation and length contraction. The dilation of time measured in two inertial reference
frames is described by
t = t0
(2.20)
and length contraction of matter measured in two inertial reference frames is described
by
L0
L=
(2.21)
10
Chapter 3
Introduction to general relativity
3.1
In last chapter, we consider physical phenomena based on flat space which is a spacial case of this chapter. In this chapter is curved space is of interest. A physical
quantity needed here is tensors which are geometrical objects. Tensor is invariant in
all coordinate systems. Vectors and scalars are subsets of tensors indicated by rank
(order) of tensors i.e. vector is tensor of rank 1, scalar is zeroth-rank tensor. Any
tensors are defined on manifold M which is n-dimensional generalized object that
it locally looks like Euclidian space Rn .
3.1.1
1 if a = b
a
b=
0 if a 6= b.
dx0a =
11
Therefore
x0a
xa
=
= a b.
x0b
xb
Another quantity is scalar which is invariant under transformation,
0 (x0a ) = (xa ).
(3.2)
(3.3)
Consider derivative of scalar field = (xa (x0 )) with respect to x0a , using chain rule,
we obtain
xb
=
.
x0a
x0a xb
Covariant vector or 1-form or dual vector Xa in the xa -coordinate system, transforms according to
xb
Xa0 (xa ) =
Xb (xa ) = b a Xb (xa ).
(3.4)
0a
x
There is also a relation
a b b c = a c .
(3.5)
For higher rank tensor transformation follows
0
l10 ......ll0
x0k1
xll k1 k2 ......kk
x0kk xl1
=
...... k
l1 ......ll
0 ......
0T
xk1
x k x0l1
x0ll
0
0
= k1 k1 ......kk kk l1 l10 ......ll ll0 T k1 k2 ......kk l1 ......ll .
(3.6)
(3.8)
We can use the metric tensor to lower and raise tensorial indices,
... ...
= gab T......b...
T...a...
...
(3.9)
... ...
T......a...
= g ab T...b...
.
...
(3.10)
and
12
3.1.2
Covariant derivative
(3.11)
(3.12)
X
(x)
+
X
x 0 xc
1 a
a .
= lim
X
(x)
X
c
xc 0 x
c X a =
lim
c
(3.13)
where the abc (x) are functions of coordinates called Cristoffel symbols of the second
kind. In flat space abc (x) = 0. But in curved space it is impossible to make all the
abc (x) vanish over all space. The Cristoffel symbols of second kind are defined by
.
(3.14)
2
xb
xc
xd
Following from the last equation that the Cristoffel symbols are necessarily symmetric
or we often called it that torsion-free, i.e.
abc = acb .
13
(3.15)
Xa
Xa
Xa
Xa
Xa
Xa
Xa
Q
x a (u )
1 X a (x) c
a
a
b
c
c X = lim
x + bc (x)X (x)x .
xc 0 xc
xc
Therefore the covariant derivative is
c X a = c X a + abc X b .
(3.16)
c = c .
Consider
c = c (Xa Y a )
= (c Xa )Y a + Xa (c Y a )
= (c Xa )Y a + Xa (c Y a + abc Y b )
and
c = (c Xa )Y a + Xa (c Y a ).
From equation (3.17), we equate both equations together:
(c Xa )Y a + Xa (c Y a ) = (c Xa )Y a + Xa (c Y a + abc Y b ).
14
(3.17)
Renaming a to b and b to a for the last term in the right-hand side of the equation
above because they are only dummy indices therefore,
(c Xa )Y a = (c Xa )Y a + (c Xa bac Xb )Y a .
Covariant derivative for covariant vector is then
c Xa = c Xa bac Xb .
(3.18)
(3.19)
(3.20)
c g ab = 0.
(3.21)
and
The proves of these two identities are in Appendix A.
3.1.3
Parallel transport
The concept of parallel transport along a path is in flat space. A parallel vector
transporting from a point to another point maintains its unchange in magnitude and
direction. In curve space, components of a vector are expected to change under
parallel transport in different way from the case of flat space. Consider the parallel
transport along a curve xa ( ) with a tangent vector X a = dxa /d where is a
parameter along the curve. Beginning from the formula of the covariant derivative
X a a X b = 0,
we get
c
dxa
dxb
b dx
+ ac
a
= 0
d
d
d
a
c
dxa dxb
b dx dx
+
= 0
ac
a
d x
d d
d
d dxb
dxa dxc
= 0.
+ bac
d d
d d
15
(3.22)
(3.23)
This equation is known as the geodesic equation. The geodesic distance between
any two points is shortest. The geodesic is a curve space generalization of straight
line in flat space.
3.1.4
Curvature tensor
We now discuss the most important concepts of general relativity, That is concept the
of Riemannian geometry or curved geometry which is described in tensorial form.
We will introduce the Riemann tensor by considering parallel transport along an
infinitesimal loop illustrated in Fig. 3.3. The Riemann curvature tensor Ra bcd is
defined by the commutator of covariant derivatives,
Ra bcd X b = (c d d c )X a .
16
(3.24)
Xa
xa
xa
X' a1
X' a2
xa
xa
xa
x a dx a
dx a
(3.25)
Ra bcd depends on the metric and the metrics first and second derivatives. It is
anti-symmetric on its last pair of indices,
Ra bcd = Ra bdc .
(3.26)
(3.27)
Lowering the first index with the metric, the lowered tensor is symmetric under
interchanging of the first and last pair of indices. That is
Rabcd = Rcdab .
(3.28)
(3.29)
(3.30)
The curvature tensor satisfies a set of differential identities called the Bianchi identities:
a Rbcde + c Rabde + b Rcade = 0.
(3.31)
We can use the curvature tensor to define Ricci tensor by the contraction,
Rab = Rc acb = g cd Rdacb .
(3.32)
Contraction of Ricci tensor then also defines curvature scalar or Ricci scalar R
by
R = g ab Rab .
(3.33)
These two tensors can be used to define Einstein tensor
1
Gab = Rab gab R,
2
(3.34)
which is also symmetric. By using the equation (3.31), the Einstein tensor can be
shown to satisfy the contracted Bianchi identities
b Gab = 0
3.2
(3.35)
purely inertial frame is impossible to be found. We can only imagine about. According
to Newtonian gravity, when gravity acts on a body, it acts on the gravitational mass,
mg . The result of the force is an acceleration of the inertial mass, mi . When all bodies
fall in vacuum with the same acceleration, the ratio of inertial mass and gravitational
mass is independent of the size of bodies. Newtons theory is in principle consistent
with mi = mg and within high experimental accuracies mi = mg to 1 in 1,000.
Therefore the equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass implies:
In a small laboratory falling freely in gravitational field, mechanical phenomena are
the same as those observed in an inertial frame in the absence of gravitational field.
In 1907 Einstein generalized this conclusion by replacing the word mechanical phenomena with the laws of physics. The resulting statement is known as the principle
of equivalence. The freely-falling frames introduce the local inertial frames which
are important in relativity.
3.3
In this section, we use Riemannian formalism to connect matter and metric that leads
to a satisfied gravitational theory.
3.3.1
The energy-momentum tensor contains information about the total energy density
measured by an arbitrary inertial observer. It is defined by the notation T ab . We start
by considering the simplest kind of matter field, that is non-relativistic matter or
dust. We can simply construct the energy-momentum tensor for dust by using fourvelocity ua defined as ua = (c, 0, 0, 0) for rest frame and the proper density :
T ab = ua ub .
(3.36)
c 0 0 0
0 p 0 0
T ab =
(3.37)
0 0 p 0
0 0 0 p
where p is the pressure and is the energy density. Form equation (3.37), it is easy
to show that
p
T ab = + 2 ua ub + pg ab .
(3.38)
c
We simply conclude from the above equation that the energy-momentum tensor is
symmetric tensor. The metric tensor g ab here is for flat spacetime (we often write
ab instead of g ab for flat spacetime). Notice that in the limit p 0, a perfect fluid
reduces to dust equation (3.36). We can easily show that the energy-momentum
tensor conserved in flat spacetime:
b T ab = 0.
(3.39)
3.3.2
(3.40)
Einsteins field equation told us that the metric is correspondent to geometry and
geometry is the effect of an amount of matter which is expressed in energy-momentum
tensor. Matters cause spacetime curvature. We shall use Remannian formalism to
connect matter and metric. Since covariant divergence of the Einstein tensor Gab
vanishes in equation (3.35), we therefore write
1
gab R = Tab .
(3.41)
2
If there is gravity in regions of space there must be matter present. The proportional
constant is arbitrary. Contract the Einstein tensor by using the metric tensor, we
obtain
Gab = Rab
G = g ab Gab = g ab Tab
1
g ab Rab g ab gab R = g ab Tab
2
1
R aa R = T.
2
20
1
Rab = Tab gab T .
(3.42)
2
We want to choose appropriate value of constant . Let us consider motion of particle
which follows a geodesic equation
b
c
d2 xa
a dx dx
+
= 0.
bc
d 2
d d
(3.43)
In Newtonian limit, the particles move slowly with respect to the speed of light.
Four-velocity is ua
= u0 , therefore the geodesic equation reduces to
0
0
d2 xa
a dx dx
=
= c2 a00 .
00
2
d
d d
(3.44)
Since the field is static in time, the time derivative of the metric vanishes. Therefore
the Christoffel symbol is reduced to:
1 ad
g 0 gd0 + 0 g0d d g00
a00 =
2
1
= g ad d g00 .
(3.45)
2
In the limit of weak gravitational field, we can decompose the metric into the Minkowski
metric, the equation (2.9), plus a small perturbation,
gab = ab + hab ,
(3.46)
where hab 1 here. From definition of the inverse metric, we find that to the first
order in h,
1
gab
= (ab + hab )1
= ab hab .
g ab =
Since the metric here is diagonal matrix. Our approximate is to only first order for
small perturbation of inverse matric. Equation (3.45) becomes
1 ad
had d h00
2
1 ad
d h00 .
=
2
a00 =
21
(3.47)
(3.48)
Using 0 h00 = 0 and since d2 x0 /d 2 is zero, we are left with spacelike components of
the above equation. Therefore,
c2 ij
d2 xi
=
j h00 .
d 2
2
(3.49)
(3.50)
2
.
c2
(3.51)
In non relativistic limit (dustlike), the energy-momentum tensor reduce to the equation (3.36). We will work in fluid rest frame. Equation (3.38) gives
T00 = c2
(3.52)
and
T = g ab Tab
= g 00 T00
= 00 T00
= c2 .
(3.53)
We insert this into the 00 component of our gravitational field equation (3.42). We
get
1 1
R00 = c2 c2 = c2 .
(3.54)
2
2
This is an equation relating derivative of the metric to the energy density. We shall
expand Ri 0i0 in term of metric. Since R0 000 = 0 then
R00 = Ri 0i0 = i i00 0 ii0 + iib b00 i0b bi0 .
22
The second term is time derivative which vanishes for static field. The second order of
Christoffel symbols ()2 can be neglected since we only consider a small perturbation.
From this we get
1
i
ib
R00
= i 00 = i g 0 gb0 + 0 g0b b g00
2
1
1
= i g ib b g00 g ib i b g00
2
2
1
1
= i ij j h00 ij i j h00
2
2
1 ij
= i j h00
2
1
= 2 h00 .
(3.55)
2
Substituting equation (3.51) into the above equation and using equation (3.54), we
finally obtain
1
2 = c4 .
2
(3.56)
The connection to Newtonian theory appears when this equation is compared with
Poissons equation for Newtonian theory of gravity. The theory of general relativity
must be correspondent to Newtons non-relativistic theory in limiting case of weak
field. Poissons equation in a Newtonian gravitational field is
2 = 4G
(3.57)
where G is classical gravitational constant. Comparing this with equation (3.56) gives
the value of ,
=
8G
.
c4
(3.58)
23
(3.59)
Chapter 4
Variational principle approach to
general relativity
4.1
4.1.1
All fundamental physical equation of classical field including the Einsteins field equation can be derived from a variational principle. The condition required in order to
get the field equation follows from
Z
Ld4 x = 0.
(4.1)
Of course the quantity above must be an invariant and must be constructed from
the metric gab which is dynamical variable in GR. We shall not include function
which is first the derivative of metric because it vanishes at a point P M. The
Riemann tensor is of course made from second derivative set of the metrics, and the
only independent scalar constructed from the metric is the Ricci scalar R. The well
gR d4 x
(4.2)
SEH =
24
SEH =
gR d4 x
Z
=
d4 x gg ab Rab
Z
Z
Z
4
ab
4
ab
=
d x gg Rab + d x gRab g + d4 xR g.
Now we have three terms of variation that
SEH = SEH(1) + SEH(2) + SEH(3)
The variation of first term is
SEH(1) =
d4 x gg ab Rab .
(4.3)
(4.4)
(4.5)
Rab = c cab b cac + dba ccd + ccd dba dac cbd cbd dac
(4.6)
(4.7)
and also
(4.8)
c
c
4
ab
SEH(1) =
d x gg c ab b ac
4
ab
c
c
ab
ab
c
c
ab
=
d x g c g ab ab c g b g b ac + ac b g .
25
4
ab
c
c
SEH(1) =
d x gg c ab b ac
Z
ab
c
4
ab
c
=
d x g c g ab b g ac
Z
h
i
=
d4 x g c g ab cab g ac bab
Z
=
d4 x g c J c
where we introduce
J c = g ab cab g ac bab .
(4.9)
If J c is a vector field over a region M with boundary . Stokess theorem for the
vector field is
Z
Z
p
p
c
4
d3 x |h|nc J c
(4.10)
d x |g| c J =
where nc is normal unit vector on hypersurface . The normal unit vector nc can
be normalized by na na = 1. The tensor hab is induced metric associated with
hypersurface defined by
hab = gab + na nb .
(4.11)
Therefore the first term of action becomes
Z
p
SEH(1) =
d3 x |h|nc J c = 0.
(4.12)
This equation is an integral with respect to the volume element of the covariant divergence of a vector. Using Stokess theorem, this is equal to a boundary contribution
at infinity which can be set to zero by vanishing of variation at infinity. Therefore
this term contributes nothing to the total variation.
4.1.2
Firstly we consider metric gab . Since the contravariant and covariant metrics are
symmetric matrices then,
gca g ab = c b .
(4.13)
We now consider inverse of the metric:
1
1
g ab = (Aab )T = Aba
g
g
26
(4.14)
where g is determinant and Aba is the cofactor of the metric gab . Let us fix a, and
expand the determinant g by the ath row. Then
g = gab Aab .
(4.15)
(4.16)
g =
= gg ba gab .
Remembering that g ab is symmetric, we get
g = gg ab gab .
Using relation obtained above, we get
1
g =
g
2 g
1 g
=
g ab gab .
2 g
(4.17)
(4.18)
1
g =
g g ab gac gbd g dc
2
1
=
g cb gbd g dc
2
1
=
g gcd g dc .
2
27
(4.19)
1
g =
g gab g ab .
2
The variation of Einstein-Hilbert action becomes
Z
Z
1
4
ab
SEH =
d x gRab g
d4 xR g gab g ab
2
Z
h
i
1
=
d4 x g Rab gab R g ab
2
The functional derivative of the action satisfies
Z X
S
i
S =
d4 x
i
(4.20)
(4.21)
(4.22)
where {i } is a complete set of field varied. Stationary points are those for which
S/i = 0. We now obtain Einsteins equation in vacuum:
1 SEH
1
= Rab gab R = 0.
ab
g g
2
4.1.3
(4.23)
Previously we derived Einsteins field equation in vacuum due to including only gravitational part of the action but not matter field part. To obtain the full field equations,
we assume that there is other field presented beside the gravitational field. The action
is then
S=
1
SEH + SM
16G
(4.24)
where SM is the action for matter. We normalize the gravitational action so that we
get the right answer. Following the above equation we have
1
1
1 SM
1 S
=
Rab gab R +
= 0.
ab
g g
16G
2
g g ab
We now define the energy-momentum tensor as
1 SM
.
Tab = 2
g g ab
(4.25)
(4.26)
4.2
1
dxa dxb 1/2
dxa dxb
dxa dxb
=
ds gab
2gab
.
gab
2
ds ds
ds ds
ds ds
Considering the last term,
b
dxa dxb
d
dgab a dxb
d2 xb
a dx
2gab
=
2gab x
+2
x
+ 2gab xa 2 .
ds ds
ds
ds
ds
ds
ds
The two points, P and Q are fixed. We can set first term of above equation to zero.
Therefore we obtain
1
dxa dxb 1/2
dxa dxb
dgab dxb a
d2 xb a
S =
ds gab
gab
+2
x + 2gab 2 x
2
ds ds
ds ds
ds ds
ds
Z
1
ds2
dxa dxb
dgab dxb a
d2 xb
=
d 2 gab
+2
x + 2gab 2 xa
2
d
ds ds
ds ds
ds
Z
a
b
b
2 b
dx dx
dx a
1
dgab dx a
=
d gab
+2
x + 2gab 2 x .
2
d d
d d
d
By using chain rule we get
Z
1
gab dxa dxb c
gab dxc dxb a
d2 xb a
S =
d
x + 2 c
x + 2gab 2 x
2
xc d d
x d d
d
Z
a
c
c
a
dx dx b
dx dx
dxc dxa b
d2 xa b
1
b
d b gac
x + c gba
x + a gbc
x + 2gba 2 x
=
2
d d
d d
d d
d
a
2 a
c
dx dx
dx
1
=
d xb
b gac + c gba + a gbc
+ gba 2 .
2
d d
d
29
= 0
ac
d 2
d d
4.3
(4.29)
In section 4.1 we have derived field equation without boundary term which is set to
be zero at infinity. In this section, we shall generalize field equation to general case
which includes boundary term in action.
4.3.1
We begin by putting boundary term in the first part of the action in section 4.1 of
Einstein-Hilbert action,
Z
Z
1
1
1
ab 4
SEH =
g Rab gab R g d x +
hnc J c d3 x. (4.30)
16G M
2
16G
Considering vector J c in the last term of equation (4.9) we have
J c = g ab cab g ac bab .
Using formula (prove in appendix B)
1
cab = g cd a gbd + b gad d gab ,
2
we get
1 cd
= g
g a gbd + b gad d gab
2
ac 1 bd
g
g a gbd + b gad d gab
2
1 ab cd
1
1
=
g g a gbd + g ab g cd b gad g ab g cd d gab
2
2
2
1 ac bd
1 ac bd
1
g g a gbd g g b gad + g ac g bd d gab .
2
2
2
ab
30
(4.31)
Interchanging dummy indices a and b in the second term, a and d in the fourth term,
and a and d in the last term, we obtain result
(4.32)
J c = g ab g cd a gbd d gab .
Now our discussion is on hypersurface. Lowering index of J c with metric gce ,
Jc = g ab a gbd d gab .
(4.33)
By using equation (4.11), we have
ab
= 0
(4.34)
(4.35)
(4.36)
nc Jc = nc hab d gab .
(4.37)
Therefore we obtain
Now let us consider arbitrary tensor T a1 ...ak b1 ...bl at P . It is a tensor on the
tangent space to at P if
T a1 ...ak b1 ...bl = ha1 c1 ...hak ck hd1 b1 ...hdl bl T c1 ...bk d1 ...dl
(4.38)
(4.39)
(4.40)
Da hbc = ha d hb e hc f d gaf + ne nf = 0
since d gef = 0 and hab nb = 0 (remembering nb is perpendicular to hypersurface.
Therefore its dot product with metric on hypersurface is zero). Next we introduce
extrinsic curvature in the form
Kab = ha c c nb
31
(4.41)
(4.42)
K = hab a nb
= hab a nb + hab a nb hab cab nc hab cab nc
= hab a nb hab cab nc hab cab nc
= hab a nb hab cab nc
= hbc ha c a nb hab cab nc
bc
bc
= Dc h nb nb h hab cab nc
= hab cab nc .
(4.43)
h1
i
g cd a gbd + b gad d gab
2
1 ab d
h n d gab .
=
2
(4.44)
hnc J c d3 x =
=
=
1
K = nc Jc .
2
Einstein-Hilbert action
Z
hnc Jc d3 x
2
hKd3 x
Z
Z
3
2
hKd x + 2 hKd3 x
(4.45)
c 3
3
hnc J d x = 2
hKd x
hKhab hab d3 x.
c 3
hnc J d x = 2
hKd3 x.
32
(4.46)
Z
Z
1
1
1
ab 4
SEH =
g Rab gab R g d x
hKd3 x.
16G M
2
8G
(4.47)
We generalize this equation by naming the first term as the variation of gravitational
action, SGravity , we finally get
Z
1
hKd3 x
SEH = SGravity
8G
Z
1
SGravity = SEH +
hKd3 x
8G
Z
Z
1
1
4
SGravity =
gRd x +
hKd3 x.
(4.48)
16G M
8G
The last term is known as Gibbons-Hawking boundary term. In next section,
we will vary this term using junction condition.
4.3.2
1
1
4
gRd x +
hKd3 x.
=
16G M
8G
Its variation is
SGravity
Z
Z
1
1
ab 4
=
gGab g d x +
hna J a d3 x
16G M
16G
Z
Z
1
1
3
+
hKd x +
hKd3 x.
8G
8G
(4.49)
In this section, we are not interested in boundary when performing variation of gravitational action then there is no boundary condition. Variation of K is
K = hb a a nb
= hb a a nb + hb a a nb hb a bac nc + hb a bac nc
= hb a a nb + hb a bac nc + hb a a nb .
Considering the first term of equation (4.50),
hb a a nb = b a + na nb a nb
= na nb + nb na a nb .
33
(4.50)
Using identity
nb = nb nc nc ,
(4.51)
we get
na nb nc nc + nb na a nb
= na nc nc + c a nc nb a nb
hb a a nb =
= nb nc hc a a nb
= nb nc Kc b
= 0.
(4.52)
Since extrinsic curvature is associated with hypersurface then its dot product with
normal vector on vanishes yielding equation (4.52). We continue to do variation of
the second term of the equation (4.50) by using formula (4.31), we then have
1 a c bd
hb n g a gcd + c gad d gac .
hb a bac nc =
2
Therefore variation of K is
1
K = had nc a gcd + c gad d gac + hb a a nb .
(4.53)
2
1
h hab hab .
(4.54)
h =
2
Using the equation (4.32), finally the gravitational action is
Z
Z
1
1
ab 4
SGravity =
gGab g d x
h hab Khab d3 x
16G M
16G
Z
1
+
hna g cb g ad c gbd d gcb d3 x
16G
1
ad c
a
b
+
h h n a gcd + c gad d gac + 2hb a n d3 x.
16G
Considering
Therefore
SGravity
na g cb g ad = nd hcb + nc nb = nd hcb .
(4.55)
Z
Z
1
1
ab 4
=
gGab g d x
h hab Khab d3 x
16G M
16G
1
+
h nd hcb c gbd nd hcb d gcb + had nc a gcd
16G
a
b
ad c
ad c
+h n c gad h n d gac + 2hb a n d3 x.
34
Interchanging dummy indices between d and c and rename b to a of the first and the
second term in bracket of the third integral term results that the first term and the
last term in bracket cancel out. So do the second and the forth term in bracket of
the third integral term. Therefore
Z
Z
1
1
ab 4
SGravity =
gGab g d x
h hab Khab d3 x
16G M
16G
Z
ad c
1
+
h h n a gcd + 2hb a a nb d3 x.
(4.56)
16G
Considering the first term in the third integral term
had nc a gcd = had a (nc gcd ) had gcd a nc .
Using equation (4.19), we get
had nc a gcd = had a (nc gcd ) + had gde gcf g ef a nc
= had a (nc gcd ) + had (hde + nd ne )gcf g ef a nc
= had a (nc gcd ) + ha e g ef a nf
= had a (nc gcd ) + Kef g ef .
Considering
g ef = (hef + ne nf )
= hef + nf ne + ne nf
= hef + nf ne na na + ne nf nb nb
= hef .
(4.57)
Therefore
had nc a gcd = had a (nc gcd ) + Kef hef .
(4.58)
1
1
ab 4
SGravity =
gGab g d x
h hab Khab d3 x
16G M
16G
Z
i
h ad c
1
+
h h a n gcd + Kef hef + 2hb a a nb d3 x
16G
Z
Z
1
1
ab 4
=
gGab g d x +
h Kab hab K hab d3 x
16G M
16G
Z
i
h
1
a
b
c
ad
(4.59)
+
h h a n gcd + 2hb a n d3 x
16G
35
= hb a a g bd nd + nb
= hb a a g bd nd nc nc + b c nc
h
i
= hb a a nb nc + b c nc
= Db hb c nc
(4.60)
1
1
ab 4
SGravity =
gGab g d x +
h Kab hab K hab d3 x
16G M
16G
Z
1
+
hDb hb c nc d3 x.
(4.61)
16G
Since the last term in the equation (4.61) is divergence term. It yields vanishing of
this integral with boundary at infinity on . Finally, the variation of gravity is
Z
1
gGab g ab d4 x
SGravity =
16G M
Z
1
+
h Kab hab K hab d3 x.
(4.62)
16G
The action for matter on hypersurface is
Z
Smat =
Lmat d3 x
(4.63)
Smat =
htab hab
(4.64)
1 Smat
.
h hab
(4.65)
(4.66)
(4.67)
The bulk is the region of one dimension left beyond the hypersurface. The bulk and hypersurface
37
Chapter 5
Conclusion
Relativity begins with concept of inertial reference frame which is defined by Newtons
first law. Therefore relative frames in one direction is considered allowing us to do
Galilean transformation for inertial frame moving not so fast. However under this
transformation, the speed of light is no longer invariant and electromagnetic wave
equations are neither invariant. Special relativity came along based on Einsteins
principle of spacial relativity. In this theory, there is a unification of time and space
so called spacetime. It uses Lorentz transformation under which electromagnetic
wave equations are invariant. Moreover it reduces to Galilean transformation in
case of small velocity. Therefore SR implies no absolute inertial reference frame
in the universe. Einstein introduced transformation law when including effects of
gravitational field and also introduced the equivalence principle which suggest that
purely inertial reference frame is not sensible. It introduces us local inertial frame in
gravitational field. Therefore Newtonian mechanics based on inertial frame fails to
explain gravity. SR based on flat space is extended to general relativity using concept
of curved space. Curved space is indicated by Riemann tensor, Ra bcd . This theory
attempts to explain gravity with geometry. It tells us that mass is in fact curvature
of geometry This fact is expressed in the Einsteins field equation,
Gab = 8GTab .
All physical laws are believed to obey principle of least action, S = 0. The dynamical
variable in GR is gab therefore the Lagrangian density in action must be a function of
gab . We used Ricci scalar in term of second derivative of metric. We did not choose
function of first derivative of metric since it vanishes at any point on manifold. With
38
the action
SEH =
gRd4 x
we can derive Einsteins field equation by neglecting boundary term (surface term).
If including boundary term then, we must have dynamical variable on boundary or
hypersurface, such as hab which is an induced metric on the hypersurface. Bounding
the manifold, we obtain extrinsic curvature K which is constructed from hab in the
action on the hypersurface. That is
Z
hKd3 x.
SGH =
This is called Gibbon-Howking boundary term. The result of this variation is Israel
junction condition,
Kab hab K = 8Gtab
which is shown in detail calculations in this report. This result can be applied widely
to braneworld gravity.
39
Appendix A
Proofs of identities
A.1
cgab = 0
The identity c gab = 0 is proved by using covariant derivative to tensor type(0, 2):
(A.1)
1
c gab = c gab gbd g de c gae + a gce e gac gad g de c gbe + b gce e gbc
2
2
1
1 b
= c gab e c gae + a gce e gac ea c gbe + b gce e gbc
2
2
1
1
c gab + a gcb b gac
c gba + b gca a gbc
= c gab
2
2
= 0.
(A.2)
A.2
cg ab = 0
40
(A.3)
Therefore
1
c g ab = c g ab + g bd g ae c gde + d gce e gcd + g ad g be c gde + d gce e gcd
2
2
1
1
1
= c g ab + g ae g bd c gde + g bd g ae d gce g ae g bd e gcd
2
2
2
1 be ad
1 ad be
1 be ad
+ g g c gde + g g d gce g g e gcd
2
2
2
1
1 bd
ab
ae
bd
bd
ae
ae
= c g + g c gde g
gde c g + g d gce g
gce d g
2
2
1 ae
1 be
bd
bd
ad
ad
gcd e g + g c gde g
gde c g
g e gcd g
2
2
1 ad
1 be
be
be
ad
ad
+ g d gce g
gce d g g e gcd g
gcd e g
2
2
1
1
= c g ab + g ae c eb gde c g bd + g bd d ca gce d g ae
2
2
1
1 ae b
bd
be
g e c gcd e g
+ g c ea gde c g ad
2
2
1
1 ad b
be
+ g d c gce d g
g be e ca gcd e g ad
2
2
ca are constant then their partial derivatives vanish. Therefore we get
1
1
1
1
c g ab = c g ab g ae gde c g bd g bd gce d g ae + g ae gcd e g bd g be gde c g ad
2
2
2
2
1 ad
1
g gce d g be + g be gcd e g ad
2
2
1
1
1
1
= c g ab da c g bd g bd gce d g ae + g ae gcd e g bd db c g ad
2
2
2
2
1 ad
1
g gce d g be + g be gcd e g ad
2
2
1
1
1
1
= c g ab c g ba g bd gce d g ae + g ae gcd e g bd c g ab
2
2
2
2
1 ad
1
g gce d g be + g be gcd e g ad .
2
2
Interchanging dummy indices d and e, we get
1
1
1
1
c g ab = g be gcd e g ad + g ad gce d g be g ad gce d g be + g be gcd e g ad
2
2
2
2
= 0.
(A.4)
41
A.3
We will show that covariant derivative for scalar field is just ordinary derivative.
Considering
a = a Xb X b
= Xb a X b + X b a Xb
= 2Xb a X b + 2Xb bac X c
= 2a 2X b a Xb + X c a gdc X d X c gdc a X d
= 2a 2X b a Xb + X c a Xc Xd a X d
= 2a X b a Xb Xd a X d
= 2a a Xb X b
= a
A.4
(A.5)
Ra bcd = Ra bdc
Ra bcd = Ra bdc
42
(A.6)
A.5
1.
2.
3.
Ra bcd + Ra dbc + Ra cdb = c abd d abc + ebd aec ebc aed + b adc
c adb + edc aeb edb aec + d acb
b acd + ecb aed ecd aeb
= 0
A.6
(A.7)
Bianchi identities
(A.8)
Hats on their indices represent locally inertial coordinate. Notice that for locally
inertial coordinate, Cristoffel symbols which contain first-order derivatives of metrics
must vanish at any points. But the second derivatives of metrics in Riemann tensor
do not vanish. Therefore
a
Rbcd
e = ga
b R cd
e
= gab dce ed
c
1
dcgeb db gce ecgdb + eb gd
(A.9)
Rbcd
c .
e =
2
We therefore obtain
a Rbcd
e + cRa
e + b Rca
e
bd
d
1
=
a dcgeb a db gce a ecgdb + a eb gd
c
2
+cdb gea cda gbe ceb gd
a + cea
gdb
+b da gec b dcgae b ea gd
c + b ecgd
a
= 0.
(A.10)
43
A.7
1
a
Rad gad R = 0.
2
We then see that twice-contracted Bianchi identities is equivalent to
a Gad = 0.
44
(A.11)
Appendix B
Detail calculation
B.1
= 0.
x2 y 2
z 2
c2 t2
(B.1)
Transforming t t0 ,
t0 x0
y 0 z 0
=
+
+
+
.
t
t t0
t x0
t y 0
t z 0
Using x0 = x vt, y 0 = y, z 0 = z, t0 = t, we get
v
0
t
t0 x
2
=
v
t2
t t0
t x0
0 2
t x0 2
y 0 2
z 0 2
=
+
+
+
t t02
t x0 t0
t y 0 t0
t z 0 t0
0 2
t
x0 2 y 0 2
z 0 2
v
+
+
+
t t0 x0
t x02
t y 0 t0
t z 0 t0
2
2
2
=
2v 0 0 + v 2 02 .
02
t
x t
x
45
(B.2)
Transforming x x0
t0 x0
y 0 z 0
=
+
+
+
x
x t0
x x0
x y 0
x z 0
=
x0
2
2
=
x2
x02
The y-axis and z-axis do not change, we have
(B.3)
2
2
=
y 2
y 02
(B.4)
2
2
=
.
z 2
z 02
(B.5)
and
,
x02 y 02 z 02 c2 t02
c2 x0 t0
c2 x02
we finally have equation (2.5):
c2 v 2 2 2v 2
2
2
1 2
+
+
+
= 0
c2 x02
c2 t0 x0 y 02 z 02 c2 t02
B.2
(B.6)
46
From application of divergence theorem, the left side of this equation can be rewritten
Z
Z
g ndS = gdV.
(B.8)
S
Therefore we obtain
g = 4G.
Recall that
g = .
(B.9)
B.3
1 ad
abc =
g b gdc + c gbd d gbc
2
1
abc =
g ad b gdc + c gbd d gbc + g ad b gdc + c gbd d gbc .
2
2
ad
Considering variation of g ,
g ad = f d d f g ad
= f d gde g ef g ad
h
i
d ef
ad
ad
= f g gde g g gde
h
i
= f d g ef (e a ) g ad gde
= g ed g ad gde ,
therefore
1
abc = g ed g ad gde b gdc + c gbd d gbc + g ad b gdc + c gbd d gbc .
2
2
1
= g ad ebc ged + g ad b gdc + c gbd d gbc
2
1 ad
=
g b gdc + c gbd d gbc 2ebc ged
2
1 ad
=
g b gdc ebc ged ebd gec + c gbd ebc ged edc geb
2
1 ad
abc =
(B.10)
g b gdc + c gbd d gbc .
2
47
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