Functions and Composition of Blood

Blood helps maintain homeostasis in

several ways:
1. Transport of gases, nutrients, waste products
2. Transport of processed molecules
3. Transport of regulatory molecules
4. Regulation of pH and osmosis
5. Maintenance of body temperature
6. Protects against foreign substances such as
microorganisms and toxins
7. Blood clotting prevents fluid and cell loss and
is part of tissue repair

Functions and Composition of Blood

Blood is a connective tissue consisting of
plasma and formed elements
Blood is the bodys only fluid tissue
It is composed of liquid plasma and formed
elements
Formed elements include:
Erythrocytes, or red blood cells (RBCs)
Leukocytes, or white blood cells (WBCs)
Platelets

Hematocrit: the percentage of RBCs out of the

total blood volume

Functions and Composition of

Blood
Total blood
volume is
approximately
5 liters

Fig. 16.1

Functions and Composition of Blood

Blood is a sticky, opaque fluid with a
metallic taste
Color varies from scarlet to dark red
The pH of blood is 7.357.45
Temperature is 38C
Blood accounts for approximately 8% of
body weight
Average volume: 56 L (1.5 gallons) for
males, and 45 L for females

Plasma
Pale yellow fluid containing over 100 solutes
Mostly water (91%)
Contains proteins (7%)
Albumin (58% of the plasma proteins)
Helps maintain osmotic pressure

Globulins (38% of the plasma proteins)

Immunity: antibodies and complement
Transport: bind to molecules such as hormones
Clotting Factors

Fibrinogen (4% of the plasma proteins)

Converted to fibrin during clot formation

Other substances (2%)

Ions (electrolytes): sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride,
bicarbonate
Nutrients: glucose, carbohydrates, amino acids
Waste products: lactic acid, urea, creatinine
Respiratory gases: oxygen and carbon dioxide

Plasma

Tab. 16.1

Formed Elements
Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBCs)
About 95% of formed elements
RBCs have no nuclei or organelles

Leukocytes or white blood cells (WBCs)

Most of the remaining 5% of formed elements
Only WBCs are complete cells
Five types of WBCs

Platelets
Just cell fragments

Most formed elements survive in the bloodstream

for only a few days

Tab.
16.2

Production of Formed Elements

Most blood cells do not divide but are renewed
by stem cells (hemocytoblasts) in bone marrow
Hematopoiesis: blood cell production
Occurs in different locations before and after birth
Fetus
Liver, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and red bone marrow

After birth
In the red bone marrow of the
Axial skeleton and girdles
Epiphyses of the humerus and femur
Some white blood cells are produced in lymphatic tissues

Hemocytoblasts give rise to all formed elements

Growth factors determine the type of formed element
derived from the stem cell

Hematopoiesis

Fig. 16.2

Red Blood Cells

Biconcave discs, anucleate, essentially no organelles
RBCs are dedicated to respiratory gas transport
Filled with hemoglobin (Hb), a protein that functions in gas
transport

RBCs are an example of how structure fits function

Biconcave shape has a huge surface area relative to volume
Structural characteristics contribute to its gas transport function

Biconcave shape also allows RBCs to bend or fold around their

thin center
Gives erythrocytes their flexibility
Allow them to change shape as necessary

Fig. 16.3

Red Blood Cells

Hemoglobin (Hb)
Accounts for about a third of the cells volume
Consists of
The protein globin, made up of two alpha and two beta
chains, each bound to a heme group
Each heme group bears an atom of iron, which can bind to
one oxygen molecule
Heme molecules transport oxygen (Iron is required)
Oxygen content determines blood color
Oxygenated: bright red
Deoxygenated: darker red

Globin molecules transport carbon dioxide

One RBC contains 250 million Hb groups thus it

can carry 1 billion molecules of O2

Hemoglobin

Fig. 16.4

Red Blood Cells

Transport of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Oxygen
Transported bound to hemoglobin ~98.5%
Dissolved in plasma ~1.5%
Each Hb molecule binds four oxygen atoms in a
rapid and reversible process

Carbon dioxide
Dissolved in plasma ~7%
Transported as bicarbonate(HCO3) ~70%
Chemically bound to hemoglobin ~23%

Red Blood Cells

Transport and Exchange of Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide diffuses into RBCs and combines with
water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3), which quickly
dissociates into hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions

CO2
Carbon
dioxide

H2O
Water

H2CO3
Carbonic
acid

H+
Hydrogen
ion

HCO3
Bicarbonate
ion

In RBCs, carbonic anhydrase reversibly catalyzes the

conversion of carbon dioxide and water to carbonic
acid

Red Blood Cells

Erythropoiesis is the production of RBCs
A hemocytoblast is transformed into a
proerythroblast
Proerythroblasts develop into early erythroblasts
The developmental pathway consists of three
phases
1. Ribosome synthesis in early erythroblasts
2. Hb accumulation in intermediate erythroblasts and
late erythroblasts
3. Ejection of the nucleus from late erythroblasts and
formation of reticulocytes
Reticulocytes are released from the red bone marrow
into the circulating blood, which contains ~1-3%
reticulocytes

Reticulocytes then become mature erythrocytes

Red Blood Cell Production

Circulating erythrocytes: The number remains constant
and reflects a balance between RBC production and
destruction
Too few RBCs leads to tissue hypoxia
Too many RBCs causes undesirable blood viscosity

Erythropoiesis is hormonally controlled and depends on

adequate supplies of iron, amino acids, and B vitamins
(folate and B12)
Erythropoietin (EPO) release by the kidneys is triggered by
Hypoxia due to decreased RBCs
Decreased oxygen availability
Increased tissue demand for oxygen

Enhanced erythropoiesis increases the

RBC count in circulating blood
Oxygen carrying ability of the blood

Red Blood Cell Production

Fig. 16.5

Red Blood Cells

The life span of an erythrocyte is 100120 days
Old RBCs become rigid and fragile, and their Hb begins to
degenerate
Dying RBCs are engulfed by macrophages located in the
spleen or liver
Heme and globin are separated and the iron is salvaged
for reuse
Globin chains are broken down to individual amino acids and are
metabolized or used to build new proteins
Iron released from heme is transported to the red bone marrow
and is used to produce new hemoglobin
Heme becomes bilirubin that is secreted in bile
In the intestines bilirubin is converted by bacteria into other pigments
Gives feces its brown color
Gives urine its yellow color

Hemoglobin Breakdown

Fig. 16.6

White Blood Cells

Only blood components that are complete cells

Are less numerous than RBCs
Make up 1% of the total blood volume
Can leave capillaries via ameboid movement and move
through tissue spaces
Two functions of WBCs
Protect the body against invading microorganisms
Remove dead cells and debris from tissues by phagocytosis

Named according to their appearance in stained

preparations
Granulocytes: contain large cytoplasmic granules
Agranulocytes: very small granules that cannot be easily seen
with the light microscope

White Blood Cells

Granulocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils,
and basophils
Contain cytoplasmic granules that stain
specifically (acidic, basic, or both) with
Wrights stain
Are larger and usually shorter-lived than
RBCs
Have lobed nuclei
Are all phagocytic cells

White Blood Cells

Neutrophils most common type of WBC
Have two types of granules that:
Take up both acidic and basic dyes
Give the cytoplasm a lilac color
Contain peroxidases, hydrolytic enzymes, and
defensins (antibiotic-like proteins)

Neutrophils are our bodys bacteria slayers

Pus is an accumulation of dead
neutrophils, cell debris and fluid at sites of
infections

White Blood Cells

Basophils account for 0.5% of WBCs
Have large, purplish-black (basophilic)
granules that contain
Histamine: inflammatory chemical that acts as a
vasodilator and attracts other WBCs
(antihistamines counter this effect)
Heparin: prevents the formation of clots

White Blood Cells

Eosinophils account for 14% of WBCs
Have red-staining, bilobed nuclei connected
via a broad band of nuclear material
Have red to crimson (acidophilic) large,
coarse, lysosome-like granules
Lessen the severity of allergies by reducing
inflammation
Lead the bodys counterattack against
parasitic worms

White Blood Cells

Agranulocytes: lymphocytes and
monocytes
Lack visible cytoplasmic granules
Are similar structurally, but are functionally
distinct and unrelated cell types
Have spherical (lymphocytes) or kidneyshaped (monocytes) nuclei

White Blood Cells

Lymphocytes account for 25% or more of WBCs
Have large, dark-purple, circular nuclei with a thin rim
of blue cytoplasm
Are found mostly enmeshed in lymphoid tissue (some
circulate in the blood)

There are two types of lymphocytes: T cells and

B cells
B cells
Stimulated by bacteria or toxins
Give rise to plasma cells, which produce antibodies

T cells
Protect against viruses and other intracellular
microorganisms
Attack and destroy the cells that are infected

White Blood Cells

Monocytes account for 48% of
leukocytes
They are the largest leukocytes
They have an abundant pale-blue cytoplasm
They have purple-staining, U- or kidneyshaped nuclei
They leave the circulation, enter tissue, and
differentiate into macrophages
Are highly mobile and actively phagocytic
Activate lymphocytes to mount an immune
response

Tab. 16.2

Fig. 16.7

Identification of WBCs

Fig. 16.8

Platelets

Fragments of megakaryocytes with a

blue-staining outer region and a purple
granular center
Function in clotting by two mechanisms
1. Formation of platelet plugs, which seal holes
in small vessels
2. Formation of clots, which help seal off larger
wounds in the vessels

Their granules contain ADP and

thromboxanes

Preventing Blood Loss

A series of reactions for stoppage of
bleeding
Three phases occur in rapid sequence
Vascular spasms: immediate
vasoconstriction in response to injury
Thromboxanes and endothelin can cause vascular
spasms

Platelet plug formation

Coagulation (blood clotting)

Preventing Blood Loss

Platelet Plugs
Platelets do not stick to each other or to blood vessels
Upon damage to blood vessel endothelium platelets:
With the help of von Willebrand factor (VWF) adhere to
collagen
Are stimulated by and then release more thromboxane and
ADP, which attract still more platelets
Stick to exposed collagen fibers and form a platelet plug

The platelet plug is limited to the immediate area of

injury by prostacyclin
Can seal up a small breaks in a blood vessels that
occur many times each day

Platelet Plug Formation

Fig. 16.9

Blood Clotting
Blood clotting, or coagulation, is the
formation of a clot (a network of protein
fibers called fibrin)
Blood clotting begins with the extrinsic or
intrinsic pathway
Both pathways end with the production of
activated factor X
Extrinsic pathway begins with the release of
thromboplastin from damaged tissue
Intrinsic pathway begins with the activation of
factor XII

Blood Clotting
Activated factor X, factor V, phospholipids, and
Ca2+ form prothrombinase
Prothrombin is converted to thrombin by
prothrombinase
Fibrinogen is converted to fibrin by thrombin
Insoluble fibrin strands form the structural basis of a clot
Fibrin causes plasma to become a gel-like trap
Fibrin in the presence of calcium ions activates factor XIII
that:
Cross-links fibrin
Strengthens and stabilizes the clot

Away from the site of injury anticoagulants in the

blood, such as antithrombin and heparin, prevent
clot formation

Fig.
16.10

Clot Retraction and Fibrinolysis

Clot retraction: stabilization of the clot by
squeezing serum from the fibrin strands
Results from the contraction of platelets,
which pull the edges of damaged tissue closer
together
Serum, which is plasma minus fibrinogen and
some clotting factors, is squeezed out to the
clot

Thrombin and tissue plasminogen

activator activate plasmin, which dissolves
fibrin (fibrinolysis)

Fig.
16.11

Blood Grouping
RBC membranes have glycoprotein antigens on
their external surfaces
These antigens are:
Unique to the individual
Recognized as foreign if transfused into another
individual
Promoters of agglutination and are referred to as
agglutinogens

Presence or absence of these antigens is used

to classify blood groups

Blood Grouping
Transfusion reactions occur when
mismatched blood is infused
Antibodies can bind to the donors RBC
antigens, resulting in agglutination or
hemolysis of RBCs, leading to
Diminished oxygen-carrying capacity
Clumped cells that impede blood flow
Ruptured RBCs that release free hemoglobin
into the bloodstream

ABO Blood Group

The ABO blood groups consists of:
Two antigens (A and B) on the surface of the RBCs
Two antibodies in the plasma (anti-A and anti-B)
Blood type

Antigens Present

Antibodies Present

Anti-A

Anti-B

AB

Fig.
16.12

Agglutination Reaction

Fig. 16.13

Rh Blood Group
Rh-positive blood has certain Rh antigens
(the D antigen), whereas Rh-negative
blood does not
Antibodies against the Rh antigen are
produced when a Rh-negative person is
exposed to Rh-positive blood
The Rh blood group is responsible for
hemolytic disease of the newborn, which
can occur when the fetus is Rh-positive
and the mother is Rh-negative

Hemolytic
Disease
of the
Newborn
(HDN)

Fig. 16.14

Diagnostic Blood Tests

Laboratory examination of blood can
assess an individuals state of health
Microscopic examination:
Variations in size and shape of RBCs:
prediction of anemia
Type and number of WBCs: diagnostic of
various diseases

Chemical analysis can provide a

comprehensive picture of ones general
health status in relation to normal values

Diagnostic Blood Tests

The complete blood count consists of the following
Red blood cell count
(million/mL)
Male 4.6-6.2 million/mL
Female 4.2-5.4 million/mL

Hemoglobin
measurement (grams of
hemoglobin per/mL of
blood

Male 14-18 g/100mL

Female 12-16 g/100mL
Hematocrit measurement
(percent volume of RBCs)
Male 40%-52%
Female 38%-48%

White blood cell count

(WBCs/mL)
Male and Female 50009000 WBCs/mL

Differential white blood

cell count (the percentage
of each type of WBC)

Neutorphils 60%-70%
Lymphocytes 20%-25%
Monocytes 3%-8%
Eosinophils 2%-4%
Basophils 0.5%-1%

Fig.
16.15

Diagnostic Blood Tests

Clotting
Platelet count and prothrombin time measure the
ability of the blood to clot

Blood Chemistry
The composition of materials dissolved or suspended
in plasma can be used to assess the functioning and
status of the bodys systems

Glucose
Urea
Nitrogen
Bilirubin
Cholesterol