Language

It is the primary means used by human beings to communicate with one another. It is also the very
thing that gives man the advantage over the lower animals.
Features of Language (SSCLC)
1. IT IS A SYSTEM The individual processes the information inside himself and responds by
sending messages through language outside.
2. SYMBOLIC It is a collection of symbols which possesses certain properties. These elements by
themselves have no meaning. In order to have meaning, they have to be arranged in their proper
sequence.
3. CONVENTIONAL the means accepted by a large number of people.
4. LEARNED Each culture creates its own language to modify the general language to meet its
own needs.
5. CHANGES It is one of the ways by which groups identify themselves. Unique expressions, new
words, and distinct language patterns are formed from language.
Characteristics of Language
1. IT HAS SYMBOLS Each language contains elements which can create meaning when put
together in certain ways.
2. RULE-GOVERNED
A. PHONOLOGICAL RULES govern the formation of sounds into words.
B. SYNTACTIC RULES arrangement of words into sentences.
C. SEMANTIC RULES the way in which the speakers of a language interpret or attach meaning
to a particular symbol.
D. REGULATIVE RULES the appropriate interpretation of a message in a given context.
3. CREATIVE ACT We are not born with a language; we must learn it.
4. MEANINGS ARE IN PEOPLE, NOT WORDS Meanings are personal, our own private property.
We add/change them. Meaning cannot be delivered like a bouquet of flowers or a box of chocolates.
This is more on how the receiver of a message interprets it through his background knowledge or
schema.
DENOTATION refers to the literal definition of a wordits dictionary meaning. CONNOTATION refers
to everything a word suggests.
Shades of meaning may also be POSITIVE, NEGATIVE, or NEUTRAL. The differences in meaning
depend largely on ones impression.
Levels of Communication
1. Intrapersonal Communication communication within yourself.

2. Interpersonal communication between two or more persons.

Two forms
a. DYADIC involves only two persons.
b. GROUP among three or more.
3. Public Communication A one-to-many communication where one person delivers his remarks
to the remaining members called AUDIENCE.
4. Mass Communication Used to reach a bigger audience in different places instantaneously at the
same time (simultaneously).
5. Organizational Communication takes place within a workplace between and among members
in order to carry out the groups aim or goal.
6. Developmental Communication Occurs between progressive and developing societies of the
world in order to facilitate the total development of individuals and nations.
Barriers to Communication
1. PHYSICAL
2. PSYCHOLOGICAL Internal barriers such as improper mind set or lack of focus.
3. PHYSIOLOGICAL Related to the participants bodily malfunctions.
4. SOCIOLOGICAL Differences on human behaviors and perceptions on things, which lead the
participants of communication, to misinterpret each other.
5. CULTURAL Between participants of different cultural backgrounds.
Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication
VERBAL: Consists of all the elements of communication concerning words.
1. VOCAL through spoken words
2. NON-VOCAL written words
NON-VERBAL: Makes use of non-spoken messages that are so clear that we can read them. Also
makes use of non-linguistic symbols (sign language, facial expressions, and body language). Process
of communication through sending and receiving wordless messages.
Characteristics of Non-Verbal Communication
1. Gives hints of how people feel Even without saying a word, it is possible for people to get an
idea of how a person feels through his simple actions.
2. Makes it impossible for people not to communicate Whether a person likes it or not, it is
impossible for him not to communicate for even a single movement can be attributed to a particular
meaning.
3. Primarily involves attitudes not ideas Ideas are easily expressed through words but the
expression of strong feelings and emotions are best conveyed nonverbally.

4. NVC behavior provides clues, not facts Since NVC gives hints of how people feel, it is not
100% accurate. This gives verbal communication an advantage in terms of verified interpretation.
5. Provides much more information than verbal communication A person in general may only
transmit a single word at a time, but he can send a number of NV messages at the same time.
Functions of Non-Verbal Communication
1. Complementing verbal message sometimes matches non-verbal behavior that supports the
conveying of the speakers ideas.
2. Contradicting these happens whenever our actions tend to do the opposite of what we are
saying.
3. Accenting NVC is greatly used to emphasize verbal messages.
4. Substituting NV messages are often used as substitute or alternative to that of verbal or oral
messages.
Types of NVC
1. Kinesics (Body Motions) refers to the ways in which people use body movements.
a. OCULESICS (Eye Contact or Gaze).
b. FACIAL EXPRESSION / DISPLAY
c. GESTURE is a movement made with a part of the body
d. POSTURE is the physical pose that conveys a mental or emotional attitude.
2. Paralanguage (use of voice) is a NV vocal element in communication that may add a nuance of
meaning to language as it is used in context.
3. Haptics (use of touch) is the study of how touch is used to convey meaning through the hands,
arms, and other body parts.
Depending on the function it serves:
a. FUNCTIONAL / PROFESSIONAL TOUCHES used at work, or in the exercise of a profession.
b. SOCIAL / POLITE governed by social norms.
c. FRIENDSHIP / WARMTH show affection and affiliation.
d. LOVE / INTIMATE permitted and enjoyed among people who are intimate with one another.
4. Proxemics (use of space) refers to the distance individuals maintain between each other in
social interaction and how this separation is significant.
5. Chronemics (use of time) refers on how people make use of time and how they value it, thus,
implying something.
DURATION: length of time that is considered appropriate for an activity or event.

ACTIVITY: specific action that people generally regard as appropriate to be taking place at a given
time.
PUNCTUALITY: being exact to the time agreed on. It is the time dimension that most closely
affects our self-presentation.
6. Physical Appearance refers to the way somebody looks that reflects his own personality.

NOUNS
A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.
CONCRETE NOUNS name something that you can physically see, touch, taste, hear, or smell.
ABSTRACT NOUNS name something that is non-physical, that you cant readily perceive through any
of your five senses. An idea.
SINGULAR NOUNS name one person, place, or thing. One entity. PLURAL NOUNS name more than
one.
1. Most nouns are made plural by adding S (boy, boys)
2. Most nouns ending S, -CH, -SH, -X, -Z form plural by adding ES.
3. Most nouns ending in O form plural by adding ES
4. Most nouns ending in Y preceded by a consonant form plural by changing Y into I and adding
ES. Nouns ending in Y preceded by a vowel form plural by adding S.
5. Most nouns ending in F, -FF or FE form plural by changing into V and adding ES.
6. Some irregular nouns change their spelling (goose, geese). Some nouns have no plural (furniture).
COUNT NOUN names anything that can be counted, while a MASS NOUN names something that cant
be counted.
Collective Nouns
They name groups of individual people or things. They can take on a singular form but are composed
of more than one person or thing.
Although a collective noun looks singular, its meaning may be either singular or plural depending on
how you use it in a sentence.
Compund Nouns
Noun that is composed of two or more words acting as a single unit.
1. Separated (open form)
2. Hyphenated
3. Combined (closed form)

COMMON NOUN names any of a class of people, places, or things. PROPER NOUN names a
specific/particular person, place, or thing.

PRONOUNS
They are words that stand for nouns or for words that take the place of nouns. The nouns for which
pronouns stand are called its antecedents.
1. Personal Pronouns
Theyre used to refer to:
a. The person speaking / speaker (first person)
b. The person spoken to, (second person) or
c. The person, place, or thing spoken about (third person).

First Person
Second Person
Third Person

SINGULAR
I, me
My, mine
You
Your, yours
He, she, it
Him, her
His, her, hers
its

PLURAL
We, us
Our, ours
You
Your, yours
They, them
Their, theirs

REFLEXIVE: used to add information to a sentence by pointing back to a noun or pronoun near the
beginning of the sentence.
INTENSIVE: used simply to add emphasis to a noun or pronoun.
Demonstrative Pronouns. (this, that, these, those)
Used to point out a specific person, place, or thing.
Relative Pronouns
Used to begin a subordinate clause and relate it to another idea in the sentence.
That, which, who, whom, whose

Each relative pronoun links the information in a subordinate clause to a word in an independent
clause.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
We began reading The Cyclops
I wish to thank Leonard Cook
The show focused on people

Interrogative Pronouns

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
Which is a play by Euripedes.
To whom we are grateful.
Whose talent is extraordinary.

Used to ask questions or introduce questions. Used to begin a direct or indirect question.
What, which, who, whom, whose

Indefinite Pronouns
Used to refer to persons, places, or things, often without specifying which ones.
SINGULAR
Another, anybody, anyone, anything, each,
either, everybody, everyone, everything, little,
much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one,
other, somebody, someone, something

PLURAL
Both, few, many,
others, several

SINGULAR OR PLURAL
All, any, more most,
none, some, such

VERBS
Action Verbs express either physical or mental actionthat is, what someone or something does,
did, or will do. Linking Verbs serve a more passive function, expressing a condition; it may also be
used simply to show that something exists (state of being). Verbs associated with the senses such as
look, smell, taste, feel, and seem are linking verbs. Connects a subject and its complement. They
dont show action. LVs are often forms of the verb TO BE. Sometimes they are verbs related to the five
senses (look, sound, smell, feel, taste); sometimes they reflect a state of being (appear, seem,
become, grow, turn, prove, remain).
A verb is TRANSITIVE if it directs action toward someone or something named in the same sentence.
It requires an object to complete its meaning.
A verb is INTRANSITIVE if it does not direct action toward someone or something named in the
same sentence. Complete by itself and doesnt require an object to complete its meaning.
You can determine whether a verb has an object by asking:
1. WHOM? Or
2. WHAT? after the verb.
VERB PHRASES
When a verb consists of more than one word, it is called a VERB PHRASE. It is a verb with 1, 2, or
3 helping verbs before it.
Helping verbs, also known as AUXILIARY VERBS or AUXILIARIES (be, do, have), add meaning to
other verbs. These are verbs that are used with main verbs. Theyre added before another verb in
order to make a verb phrase. It may be formed from have, can, may, be, shall, will, might, must, and
do, or a combination of them.
PHRASAL VERBS consist of a verb and another word or phrase, usually a preposition.
Mood refers to the verb form that expresses the attitude of a speaker or writer.
1

Indicative This is the most common. It is used to make factual statements and to ask
questions.

2
3

Imperative Limited to sentences that give orders or directions

Subjunctive when you express a wish or a hypothetical condition.

ACTIVE VOICE. Any action verb can be in the active voice. The action verb may be transitive
(it may have a direct object which receives the action) or intransitive (without a DO).
PASSIVE VOICE.
ADJECTIVES

It can answer four questions about a noun or pronoun:

1. What kind?
2. Which one?
3. How many?
4. How much?
ARTICLES.
A and AN are called INDEFINITE ARTICLES because they refer to any one of a class of nouns. Used
with a nonspecific noun. A is used to modify singular count nouns that begin with a consonant. AN is
used to modify singular count nouns that begin with a vowel.
THE refers to a specific noun and, therefore, is called the DEFINITE ARTICLE. It is used when the noun
it modifies refers to something that is one of a kind.
NOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVES. Words that are usually nouns sometimes act as adjectives.
PROPER ADJECTIVES. Proper nouns used as adjectives or adjectives formed from proper nouns.
They usually begin with capitals.
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES. Group of words that functions as a single adjective.
PRONOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVES.
Possessive Adjectives [my, your, his, her, its our, their] Possessive pronoun used to modify a
noun.
Demonstrative Adjectives [This, that, these, those] One that points out.
Interrogative Adjectives [Which, what, whose] Used to ask questions.
Indefinite Adjectives. Indefinite pronouns used to modify a noun.
VERBS USED AS ADJECTIVES. They usually end in ING or ED and are called PARTICIPLES.
ADVERBS
When modifying a VERB, it will answer any of the following questions:
Where? When? In what manner? Or To what extent?
When modifying an adjective or another verb, only one question: To what extent?

KINDS OF ADVERBS:

3
4
5

1 ADVERB OF MANNER how?

2 ADVERB OF PLACE where?
ADVERB OF FREQUENCY how often? EVERY MONTH. OFTEN. NEVER.
ADVERB OF TIME when? EARLY. ALREADY. SOON.
ADVERB OF DEGREE how much? To what extent? ALMOST. VERY.