Formulas from Trigonometry:

sin2 A + cos2 A = 1
cos(A B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
tan 2A =

sin(A B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B

tan Atan B
tan(A B) = 1tan
A tan B
2
2
cos 2A = cos
A

sin
A
q

2 tan A
1tan2 A

sin A2 =

q
A
A
cos 2 = 1+cos
2
sin2 A = 21 12 cos 2A
sin A + sin B = 2 sin 21 (A + B) cos 12 (A B)
cos A + cos B = 2 cos 21 (A + B) cos 12 (A B)
sin A sin B = 12 {cos(A B) cos(A + B)}
sin A cos B = 21 {sin(A B) + sin(A + B)}

1cos A
2

sin A
tan A2 = 1+cos
A
cos2 A = 21 + 12 cos 2A
sin A sin B = 2 cos 21 (A + B) sin 21 (A B)
cos A cos B = 2 sin 21 (A + B) sin 21 (B A)
cos A cos B = 12 {cos(A B) + cos(A + B)}

Differentiation Formulas:
dv
d
(uv) = u dx
+ du
v
dx
dx
dy
dy du
Chain rule: dx
= du
dx
d
du
cos
u
=

sin
u
dx
dx


1
1

du
d
1
sin
u
=
,

<
sin
u
<
2
dx
2
2

1u dx
d
1 du

1
1
tan
u
=
,

<
tan
u
<
2
dx
1+u dx
2
2
d
1 du
ln
u
=
dx
u dx

d
u
= v(du/dx)u(dv/dx)
dx v
v2
d
du
sin
u
=
cos
u
dx
dx
d
2 du
tan
u
=
sec
u
dx
dx
d
1
1 du , (0 < cos1
cos
u
=
dx
1u2 dx
d u
u du
e = e dx
dx
d
loga u = logua e du
, a 6= 0, 1
dx
dx

u < )

Integration Formulas:
Z

Integration by parts:
u dv = uv
Z
du
= ln |u|
Z u
au
, a > 0, a 6= 1
au du =
ln a
Z

v du
Z

sin u du = cos u
Z
tan u du = ln cos u

cos u du = sin u
Z
Z
Z

sin2 u du =
cos2 u du =

u
2
u
2

eu du = eu

sin 2u
4
sin 2u
4

= 12 (u sin u cos u)
= 12 (u + sin u cos u)



du
1
ua
=
ln
2a
u+a
2 a2
u
Z

du

= ln(u + u2 + a2 )
u2 + a2
Z
ax
cos bx)
eax sin bx dx = e (a sina2bxb
+b2
Z
ax
x sin ax dx = sina2ax x cos
a
Z
sin2 ax dx = x2 sin4a2ax
Z
 2
x
x2 cos ax dx = 2x
cos
ax
+
2
a
a
Z
tan2 ax dx = tanaax x
Z
ln x dx = x ln x x

tan2 u du = tan u u

du
= a1 tan1 ua
+ a2
du

= sin1 ua
a2 u2

du

= ln(u + u2 a2 )
u2 a2
ax
bx+b sin bx)
eax cos bx dx = e (a cos
a2 +b2


2
x2
sin
ax
+

x2 sin ax dx = 2x
2
3
a cos ax
a
a

Z
Z
Z
Z

u2

cos ax
a2

x cos ax dx =
2
a3

Z
sin ax
Z

cos2 ax dx =
xeax dx =

eax
a

x ln x dx =

x2
2

x
2

x sin ax
a

sin 2ax
4a

1
a

ln x

1
2

Summation Formulas:
N2
X
N1 N2 +1
k
=
, 6= 1
1
k=N1

X
a
kak =
, |a| < 1
(1 a)2
k=0
n
X
a{1 (n + 1)an + nan+1 }
kak =
(1 a)2
k=0
Signals:

(t) =

d
u(t)
dt

X
k=0
n
X

ak =

1
,
1a

|a| < 1

1 an+1
,
a =
1a
k=0
k

a 6= 1

[n] = u[n] u[n 1]

x1 (t)x2 (t) dt hx1 [n], x2 [n]i =

x1 [n]x2 [n]

hx1 (t), x2 (t)i =

n=

Ev{x(t)} = 21 {x(t) + x(t)}

Od{x(t)} = 12 {x(t) x(t)}

Complex Exponential Signals:

ej0 t

ej0 n

Distinct signals for distinct w0

Periodic for any choice of w0
Fundamental frequency w0
Fundamental period:
w0 = 0: undefined
w0 6= 0: 2/w0

Identical signals for values of w0 separated by multiples of 2

Periodic only if w0 /(2) = m/N Q
Fundamental frequency w0 /m
Fundamental period:
w0 = 0: one
w0 6= 0: 2m/w0

Systems:
System H is linear if H{ax1 (t) + bx2 (t)} = aH{x1 (t)} + bH{x2 (t)}.
System H is time invariant if H{x(t t0 )} = y(t t0 ).
System H is memoryless if the current output does not depend on future or past inputs.
System H is invertible if distinct inputs produce distinct outputs.
System H is invertible if an inverse system G exists which undoes the action of H.
System H is causal if the current output does not depend on future inputs.
LTI system H is causal iff h(t) = 0 t < 0.
Bounded: x(t) is bounded if B R, B > 0, such that |x(t)| B t R.
System H is BIBO stable if everyZbounded input produces a bounded output.

LTI system H is BIBO stable iff

|h(t)| dt < .

Z
Z
y(t) = x(t) h(t) =
x( )h(t ) d =
x(t )h( ) d

y[n] = x[n] h[n] =

x[k]h[n k] =

k=

x[n k]h[k]

k=

s(t) =

h( ) d

h(t) =

s[n] =

n
X

h[k]

d
s(t)
dt

h[n] = s[n] s[n 1]

k=