PHY 4202

ASSIGNMENT 1
PHOTODETECTORS
NOORAISYAH ABDULLAH (175844)
ANNE THAM (176842)

INTRODUCTION
Photodetectors or photosensors are transducers that alter one of their characteristics when
light energy impinges on them. Photodetectors are optoelectronic device that absorbs optical
energy and converts it to electrical energy, which usually manifests as a photocurrent. The light
detectors are commonly made up of semiconductor material. When a light strikes the light
detector, a current is produced in the external circuit proportional to the intensity of the incident
light. Photodetectors are primarily used as an optical receiver with the main function is to
convert light into electricity. Photodetectors applied the principle of photoelectric effect, which is
the effect on a circuit due to light. Plancks discoveries lead to a new form of physics known as
quantum mechanics and the photoelectric effect E = hv which is Planck constant multiplied by
the frequency of radiation. The photo electric effect is the effect of light on a surface of metal in
a vacuum, the result is electrons being ejected from the surface this explains the principle theory
of light energy that allows photo detectors to operate. A photodetector operates by converting
light signals that hit the junction to a voltage or current. In absorbing the light photons, an
illumination window with an anti-reflect coating is used by the junction. The result of the
absorption of photons is the creation of electron-hole pairs in the depletion region. The examples
of photodetectors are photodiodes and phototransistors. Photodetectors are commonly used as
safety devices in homes in the form of a smoke detector, also in conjunction with other optical
devices to form security systems. Photodetectors with sufficiently fast response that provide a
measureable output for a small amount of light are easily reproducible, and are economical are
worth investigating for applications in high-speed optical communications. This category
includes avalanche photodiodes (APDs) and positive intrinsic negative photodiodes (PINs).

Typical photodetector schematic diagram (eg. Photodiode)

PHOTODETECTOR CHARACTERISTICS
Optical signal generally is weakened and distorted when it emerges from the end of the fiber, the
photodetector must meet following strict performance requirements.

A high sensitivity to the emission wavelength range of the received light signal
A minimum addition of noise to the signal
A fast response speed to handle the desired data rate
Be insensitive to temperature variations
Be compatible with the physical dimensions of the fiber
Wide bandwidth
Have a reasonable cost compared to other system components
Have a long operating lifetime

MODES OF OPERATION

There are two distinct modes of operation are possible which are photovoltaic mode and
photoconductive mode. Photovoltaic mode take place when the diode is operated with no applied
voltage. Photoconductive mode is activated when there is an applied reverse voltage.
i)

Photovoltaic mode

Diode is operated as an open circuit. When illuminated, the equilibrium is upset. EHPs are
generated in the depletion region. When E across junction pulls the electrons to the n-side and
the holes to the p-side, the holes in the p-type are increased as are electrons in n-type. A photon
induced current, Iph, flows through the diode from the n side to the p side. The energy barrier is
reduced. Hence, more holes can cross from the p to n side and more electrons cross from n to p
creating a forward current through the diode. As diode is open circuit, the photon current must
exactly balance the forward current. There is no net current can flow. The drop in energy barrier
is seen as a forward voltage across the ends of the diode. The photon induced voltage measured
is known as photovoltaic. The photon generated current is a linear function of light power.
Voltage developed across the diode is logarithmic function of power. Noted that the output
voltage is a non-linear function of incident light power, so the EHPs are pulled to respective
constants under internal field. The speed of response depends on diode thickness itself, which are
generally slow. Thus, the absence of a leakage current provides low noise.
ii)

Photoconductive mode

The pn junction is operated under reverse potential bias. The positive terminal is connected to nside and negative to p-side. This resulted in widen depletion region. The energy barrier increases
by the applied potential. The flow of majority carriers of any kind is halted and the only current
that can flow is the reverse current,io due to thermally generated minority carriers. Under
illumination, the photogenerated EHPs are again swept apart by the internal electric field across
the junction. This constitutes a reverse photon current, iph, in the same direction as the thermally
generated leakage current. The benefits of the this mode is that the photon generated current
constitutes the measured output signal and not the voltage drop across the diode. Simply said that
the output signal is a linear function of the incident light power. Photoconductive operation
results in a higher response speed than photovoltaic because of the wide depletion layer and
higher electric field transit time for change carriers to reach their respective electrodes is

reduced. The main disadvantage of photoconductive mode is that it increased noise due to ever
present leakage current.

TYPES OF PHOTODETECTORS
Photodetectors can be divided into many types which are avalanche photodiodes (APDs),
phototransistor and positive intrinsic negative photodiodes (PINs).

PIN photodiode

i)

InGaAs avalanche photodiode

PIN photodiode

The PIN photodiode is a semiconductor device that consists of an intrinsic (lightly doped) region
that is sandwiched between a p-type and an n-type layer. When this device is reverse-biased, it
exhibits an almost infinite internal impedance (Le., like an open circuit), with an output current
that is proportional to the input optical power. The input-output relationship defines responsivity,
R and quantum efficiency as follows:
Quantum efficiency:

Responsivity:

where Ip: photocurrent; Po: optical power

R and are related through the relationship

where e is the electron charge, is the efficiency, h is Plancks constant, and v is the light
frequency.
When a photon creates an electron-hole pair, the device produces a current pulse with duration
and shape that depends on the response time of the device. The RC time constant determines the
frequency response of the PIN device. The capacitance of the reverse-biased PIN photodiode is a
limiting factor to its response (and switching speed). As the switching speed increases to very
high frequencies, parasitic inductance becomes significant and causes "shot noise," which is
estimated as
2 e ( Is+ Idark )
where is the signal current and dark the current that flows at the absence of signal, or dark
current.

The PIN photodetectors applied the function of reverse-bias voltage. When a photon with an
energy greater than Eg is incident, it become absorbed to generate a free electron-hole pair
(EHP). The field E in the depletion layer separates EHP and drifts them in opposite directions.
The drifting carriers generate a current called photocurrent, Iph.

The advantages of PIN photodiode are first, as we increase the width of the depletion layer
(where the generated carriers can be transported by drift) will eventually increases the area
available for capturing light. Secondly, increasing the width of the depletion layer reduces the
junction capacitance and thereby the RC time constant. Yet, the transit time increases with the
width of the depletion layer. Next, by reducing the ratio between the diffusion length and the
drift length of the device, results in a greater proportion of the generated current being carried by
the faster drift process.
ii)

Avalanche photodiode

An Avalanche photodiode (APDs) is operated at reverse bias close to the breakdown, which
causes photo excited charge carriers to accelerate in the depletion region and produce additional
carriers by avalanching. The avalanche photodiodes are good for fiber optic systems that require
low light levels with quantum efficiency larger than 100%. This type of photodetector ensures
high gain due to avalanche multiplication effect and also increased noise. Silicon has high gain
but low noise. Si-InGaAs APD often used in application.

Avalanche photodiodes internally multiply the primary signal photocurrent before it enters the
input circuitry of the following amplifier. A commonly used structure is the reach-through
construction: n+ : p : i () : p+
In high-field region, photon-generated EHP can gain sufficient kinetic to impact ionizes bound
electrons in valence band and releases EHPs. These generated EHPs can also be accelerated in
the high-field region to sufficiently large kinetic energies to further cause impact-ionization and
release more EHPs, which lead to an avalanche of impact ionization processes.
The gain M of an APD is expressed by

where IAPD is the APD output current and primary is the current due to photon-electrons
conversion. However, during this multiplication (avalanche) process, shot noise is multiplied as
well, and is estimated as
2eIMF,
where F is the APD noise factor.
If

is the effective transit time through the avalanche region, the APD bandwidth is

approximated as:

iii)

Phototransistor

A phototransistor is designed to amplify the output from a photodiode using a transistor.

Compared to the photodiode, it provides higher output signal levels. The phototransistor
amplifies a photocurrent using the amplification function of a transistor, to compensate for the
low sensitivity of photodiodes and PIN photodiodes. It has a structure that basically combines a
photodiode and a transistor. When light strikes the depletion layer between the base and collector
and its surrounding area, the photocurrent that is generated becomes the base current for the
transistor and is amplified by the transistors amplification factor . However, the photocurrent
between the base and collector flows slowly because it flows with diffusion of the carriers. It also
has a slower response than a photodiode of PIN photodiode, because the large diffusion of the
carriers causes the high frequency component inside the photocurrent to short-circuit.

Structure of a phototransistor

IMPORTANT PARAMETERS IN PHOTODETECTOR

i)

Photodetector Noise

Detection of weak optical signal requires that the photodetector and its following amplification
circuitry be optimized for a desired signal-to-noise ratio. It is the noise current which determines
the minimum optical power level that can be detected. This minimum detectable optical power
defines the sensitivity of photodetector. That is the optical power that generates a photocurrent
with the amplitude equal to that of the total noise current (S/N=1).
The principal noises associated with photodetectors are:
1) Quantum (Shot) noise: arises from statistical nature of the production and collection of
photo-generated electrons upon optical illumination. It has been shown that the statistics
2)

follow a Poisson process.

Dark current noise: is the current that continues to flow through the bias circuit in the
absence of the light. This is the combination of bulk dark current, which due to thermally
generated e and h in the p-n junction, and the surface dark current, due to surface defects,
bias voltage and surface area.

Surface dark current is also known as surface leakage current. It depends on surface defects,
cleanliness, bias voltage and surface area. The surface current can be reduced by using the guard
rings so that the surface current should not flow through the load resistor. In order to calculate
the total noise present in photodetector, we should sum up the root mean square of each noise
current by assuming that those are uncorrelated. Total photodetector noise current is equal to
quantum noise current added with bulk dark current noise + surface current noise.
ii)

Detector Response Time

There are there main factors regarding the response time of photodiode with its output circuit.
First is the transit time of the photocarriers in the depletion region. Next is the diffusion time of
the photocarriers generated outside the depletion region. Lastly, the RC time constant of the
photodiode and its associated circuit. Response time is described by the rise time and the fall
time of the detector output when the detector is illuminated by the step input of optical radiation.
The rise time is typically measured from the 10 to 90 percent points of the leading edge of the

output pulse. For fully depleted photodiodes, the rise time and the fall time are generally the
same. They can be different at low bias levels where the photodiode is not fully depleted.

APPLICATIONS OF PHOTODETECTORS

Photo detectors are used in various different applications such as radiation detection,

smoke detection, flame detection and to switch on relays for street lighting.
Photodetectors are widely used in optical communication system. In this application,
detectors receive the transmitted optical pulses and convert them, with as little loss as
possible, into electronic pulses that can be used by a telephone, a computer, or other

terminal at the receiving end.

The circuits that use photodiodes use either normally closed or normally open contacts

depending on the desired operation.

In a smoke detector circuit the photo diode is attached to a relay switch, this switch is
normally closed and attached to the fire alarm. When the photo diode conducts it picks up
the relay switch, this causes the normally closed switch to open preventing the alarm
from activating. When the photodiode fails to conduct, the normally closed contact

activates the alarm.

Photodiodes are also used in modern oil burning furnaces as a safety feature. The
photodiode is comprised of lead sulphide and is used to detect the flame from the boiler,
in the event that the flame goes out or fails to occur the photo diode opens the circuit,

cutting power to the motor and step up transformer.

Another commonly used application is street lights. The photo diode in the circuit uses
switch-on relays to turn on the street lights when the diode fails to conduct and turns the

lights off with when sufficient light is present.

Another application is the AFM (Atomic Force Microscope), a laser beam is projected
from a laser diode onto the back of the cantilever, and the beam is then reflected to a
photodiode. The position of the beam of light on the diode gives the (x,y,z) position of the
material as the probes of the cantilever scraps across the surface of the material. This

gives a three dimensional representation of the surface being scanned.

Photodiodes are also used with lasers to form security system. When the light projected
by a laser to the photodiode is broken a security alarm is tripped.

Conclusion
A photodetector is an optoelectronic device that absorbs optical signals and converts them
into electrical signals. The junction uses an illumination window with an anti-reflect coating to
absorb the light photons. The result of the absorption of photons is the creation of electron-hole
pairs in the depletion region such as photodiodes and phototransistors. The basic requirements of
a photodetector are sensitivity at the required wavelength, efficient conversion of photons to
electrons; fast response to operate at high frequencies, low noise for reduces errors, sufficient
area for efficient coupling to optical fiber, high reliability and low costs.

Reference
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Wikipedia. Photodiode. Photodiode. (2009): web source
Poole. Photodiode Operation & Theory. Radio-Electronics.com. Radio-Electronics, 2016. Web.
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Introduction

to

photodetectors

LaserFocusWorld, 2000. Web. 19 Apr. 2016.

and

applications.

LaserFocusWorld.com.