Neurotransmitters

Definition
Neurotransmitters are chemicals located and released in the brain to allow an impulse from one
nerve cell to pass to another nerve cell.

Description
There are approximately 50 neurotransmitters identified. There are billions of nerve cells located
in the brain, which do not directly touch each other. Nerve cells communicate messages by
secreting neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters can excite or inhibit neurons (nerve cells). Some
common neurotransmitters are acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin and gamma
aminobutyric acid (GABA). Acetylcholine and norepinephrine are excitatory neurotransmitters
while dopamine, serotonin, and GABA are inhibitory. Each neurotransmitter can directly or
indirectly influence neurons in a specific portion of the brain, thereby affecting behavior.

Mechanism of impulse transmission

A nerve impulse travels through a nerve in a long, slender cellular structure called an axon, and it
eventually reaches a structure called the presynaptic membrane, which contains
neurotransmitters to be released in a free space called the synaptic cleft. Freely flowing
neurotransmitter molecules are picked up by receptors (structures that appear on cellular surfaces
that pick up molecules that fit into them like a "lock and key") located in a structure called the
postsynaptic membrane of another nearby neuron. Once the neurotransmitter is picked up by
receptors in the postsynaptic membrane, the molecule is internalized in the neuron and the
impulse continues. This process of nerve cell communication is extremely rapid.
Once the neurotransmitter is released from the neurotransmitter vesicles of the presynaptic
membrane, the normal movement of molecules should be directed to receptor sites located on the
postsynaptic membrane. However, in certain disease states, the flow of the neurotransmitter is
defective. For example, in depression, the flow of the inhibitory neurotransmitter serotonin is
defective, and molecules flow back to their originating site (the presynaptic membrane) instead
of to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane that will transmit the impulse to a nearby neuron.
The mechanism of action and localization of neurotransmitters in the brain has provided valuable
information concerning the cause of many mental disorders, including clinical depression and
chemical dependency, and in researching medications that allow normal flow and movement of
neurotransmitter molecules.

Drug addictions
Cocaine and crack cocaine are psychostimulants that affect neurons containing dopamine in the
areas of the brain known as the limbic and frontal cortex. When cocaine is used, it generates a
feeling of confidence and power. However, when large amounts are taken, people "crash" and
suffer from physical and emotional exhaustion as well as depression.
Opiates, such as heroin and morphine, appear to mimic naturally occurring peptide substances in
the brain that act as neurotransmitters with opiate activity called endorphins. Natural endorphins
of the brain act to kill pain, cause sensations of pleasure, and cause sleepiness. Endorphins
released with extensive aerobic exercise, for example, are responsible for the "rush" that longdistance runners experience. It is believed that morphine and heroin combine with the endorphin
receptors in the brain, resulting in reduced natural endorphin production. As a result, the drugs
are needed to replace the naturally produced endorphins and addiction occurs. Attempts to
counteract the effects of the drugs involve using medications that mimic them, such as
nalorphine, naloxone, and naltrexone .
Alcohol is one of the depressant drugs in widest use, and is believed to cause its effects by
interacting with the GABA receptor. Initially anxiety is controlled, but greater amounts reduce
muscle control and delay reaction time due to impaired thinking.