Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Advance Marine Engineering PDF
Advance Marine Engineering PDF
:r Cf3,X* evv-0lr-
It .: 3 --d
Functions :
Page Nos
5 - 28.
29 - 60.
61 - 95.
.. ~..
Advanced &wine Engineering .Knowledge VoI. 111
be p,uided, from the control console, over the bottom and sides of the hull, by
foilowing weld runs and by reference to other features, such as inlets and tank
p l u g . Pictures and navigational information are relayed back and video films
recorded, along with plate thickness, giving the surveyor an integrated picture of
all the required and relevant information. In addition to plate thickness, print-out
can be produced andlor an audio recording.
The vehicle will also provide pictures of such items as Stem frame, Rudder,
Fropcller, Bilse keels and hull ~penings.A diver may b s used. with a hanu held
camera. for closer inspection of these items and also for inspection of plating on
the tun? of the bilge. It should be ensured during this operation, that there is a 2
way co~mnunicationbctween diver a d attending surveyor.
Q.2. Describe toe h.;:l examination you would carry out on a ship in P r y
dock, making special rderence to essential maintenance, that can be carried
out in Dry dock.
i
!
-
- ..
-~-
i
-
- . -- iVooCs decks or sheathing are to be examined - if decay o r rsr is fosnd or ri;e
~~.= f
wood is excessiveiy worn, the wood is be renewed. %'her; a wood deck, ialc . . 2-
%
,= .
- .. stringen and lies, has worn by 15 WXI or more, it is to b e icncwed. Alxen\ion is
~ ~
--:'. ,or ,~;:i:r
to be given 10 the condition of the plating under wood decks, s5eciqir;o
deck covering, i f i t is found that such coverings are broken, or are nct adhefizz
-.
- -.
< ~
closely to the plating, seciicns are to be remmed, as zecessary, to ascertain the
3-: i% condition of the plating.
! Mechanically operated hatch covers zrs to be resed, to confimi sarisfac:oT
* % ..
operation, including stowage, proper 51 of seakng arrangements, operatjo1;al
-I
=$ 1
i tesiing of power components, wire and chaias.
The anchors are to be examine&. W.e%&e chain cab!es are rzngeii, :hey are
i to be examined, if any length of chain caSle is found io be r z h c e d in mean
[ diameter, at its most worn pa?, by i2 F/o or more, from 2s nominal diamerer - i i
i
:
so, it is to be renewed. The Windlass is to be examined.
~~ ~
i The chain cables are to ranged and examined on ail ships over five years
2 ! -
aid. The Surveyor is to be satisfied that there are suitabi- mooring ropes .<,*he,;
these are Rule requirement. !he hand parnps, s-oc?ions,warenight doors, air
\ and sounding pipes are to be examined.
Thickness measurement :
The Surveys may reqliire to measure the thickness of the material in ally
h pxtion of the structure, where s i p s of wastage are evident or was:JSe is
x normally fo~md.Any parts of the structure, which are found defective or ~-
-
~-
-
I
ccrated; in most situations, areas where paint is damaged and rus:ins has started.
the shell p!ate is cleaned dcwn to bare metal and rest of the areas are cleaned and
1 .. .~
...
swfzce prepared for re-coating. Surface preparation is done by m a n u ~ Iwire
brushing and scraping with steel scrape~.s,power driven wire Snlshins, or high
*
i
f
2
coinmencemeni of painting. Any scuppers, discharges or overflows, which may
direc: watiter on to the surface to be painted, should be biocked or diverted, before
paintjag is &+fled.The paint to be used should be compaiible with the previous
paint, un!ess the complete paint is being rcnewed.
i
f Paint sprrcifiiations are to be piovided to the ~ & / dPainting sub-contractor. This
inciudps nu;-.be; o'cnzts, f o r touchup and complete coat, type of paint for each
5 t coal, thiclaess of t a r 5 coai for each section, i.e. bottom plating, boot top area
0 and toasid:s.
= g
1
Advanced Marine Eiigineering Knowhdge Vof. ill
1
% & Q.3. As Chief Engineer briefly discuss the procedures you will follow :- 8
When taking over as Cm of a large vessel.
When taking ow; as C/E of a new vessel from a shipyard.
" 1
Ans. - I
Procedure : . Briefing at ofiice and Tzking-over on vessel j
A)
-
Briefing at Office .<
. I.
practices. -
Superintendent I Tech. Manager will brief, as per ISM Cock
I I T ~ ~ ~ M K ~ D PA
td;th 9
A) Office
Famiharise with vessels contractuai position, viz. :
Specifications and capacity.
Contract penalty clauses.
Delivery date.
0 Speed and fuel consumption.
Status on class certificated.
Guarantee period.
B) Shipyard , .
Obtain working specifications covering changes, interpretations, additions and
anicndments in respect of:
0 Working drawings.
--- - - --
Progress reports.
* Random inspections of installed machinery.
including switch gear.
.. .~ . . ~
..
* . .Plant
. ~balance .hear balai&diagr&s.,
. ~ .-
~
.
... :::,
.
~.-1 :
.~.
Crash stod ~ a l s . . ..
. . ~
. .
Inert gas t&t;&& &&& if applicable.' ' '
. . . .. ~
steering Sals. ~-
. .:
. %~,~
Biack-out test.
. .
Turning circle. ..
Communication and navigation equipment to be demonstrated.
Boiler safety vaive test.
Certain eq6ipment may have to bc opened for inspection, if not satisfied with its
performance,
. . .
~. with respect to safety of the ship and personnel.
. . . . . . . . ~.
... ~ ~
1
J'Q. 4. With rcspzc! to Kegulstions and Pc!lction contrul, expfain Reguiatiens
l discharge of oif from machintry spaces o f at: ships
with respect ti, c o ~ t r o of
Coliform Count:-
Coliform organisms are recognised as the Indicator Organisms c f sewage
pollution. The numbers presenl in sewage are large, each person contributinz
between 125 billion, in winter 10 400 billion, in summer.
9.
Colifonn are present in the human inteGme and their presence in water
taken as an indication of the pathogen count. The pathogen count are disease
causing organisms, responsible for TyFhoid, Dysentery; Poliomyeiiris, Cholera
LM.0. recommend a Coliform count of 250IlOO ml. of effluent after treatmert.
Residua! Disinfectant -
E *
- 3
Afler treatment the residual disinfectant should be as low as poss~ble.
Canadian iestfictior is between 0.5 and !.0 mgflilre. I.M.O. prefers thc use o i
f
1 L Ultra-Violet exposure to the method of Chlorinaiion.
3
. >
>
5 Biochemical digestion
.
of sewage
i^ 5
6
Anaerobic Process :-
-/
Anaerobic bacteria can only multiply in the absence of free oxygt.;~,as tliey
- use chemically bound oxygen to survive: in the anaerobic process, the bacteria
break down the organic matter into, water, carbon dioxid; methane, hydrogen
sulphide and ammonia.
- k . .~. ---
This pro'cess is also called 2utrefaction. Theses-produced are both noxious -
?-
t
s
5
and toxic. The effluent produced is of poor quality and o&er by-producrs are
-highveorrosive.
.-
. ..
~ ~ ..
f '
A circulating pump draws un-treated sewage from this tank and delivers back
l o riw dosagr rank, where :he txeatment is agGn qplied. The sewage remains in '
this sction for about 5 minutes before passing to the senling tank. After senIing,
It162 cleiu liqilid is dram through a filter to the Sanitary Hydrophore, which
proviilcs the water supply to the toilet flushes. As the level in the settling rank
rises,ihe sterile sludge may be removed to a Sewage holding rank or incinerated.
V ~ C I Ysewage
U I ~ system.
This system is based on a vacuum created by an Eductor, which is used to
pull in t!ie sewage into the sewage tank. Calculations are based on a daily fiow oS
say, 10 liircs per person - using 1.2 litres of water per flushing operation. The
%>%%get a n k capacity varies h - o m 2.5 - 10 m3. The holding tank is at atmdsFheric
pressure.
,A pccssure switch maintains vacuum in the line, from the toilets by auto
stnrlislop of centrifugal pumps. The water in the sewage tank is used as driving
walv i'nr tile ediictor. Float switches may be used to control the discharge from the
1ioItli11,r:lank to the sewage treatment plant, while still maintaining the vacuum in
thc sysiero~
...,
J
/~.7. Gnumerate the preventive measures you wot>ld take to avoid po!lution
of the env;ii-,rnent, with respect to Bunkering. What instructions wil! you
issue to the p c r s a n ~ e !under you, in this respect.
Ans.
Preventive measures to avoid pollu!ion, while bunkering
The responsible officer should be famiiiar with ai: aspects of bunkering and the
ship's bunkering system, and shouid personally supervise the operation. He must
be in ciose contact ~ ? t she
h shore 1 barge crew, especially with respect to stopping
of bunkers, in case o f emergencies.
Bunkering Operations :
The vessei shouid be securely moored.
- Ail valves should be checked and those not to be used, must be securely
closed.
. Scuppers should be sealed.
. Oil absorben: materiai (sawdust, sand) should be readily available < S@ IT EP)
- Communication systems should be checked.
- Ali hose connections should be frequently checked.
C _ _ - - - -
. --- -
Pinrpiiig Data
- Q~murtityand typc of stock to bet:msferred
- initial trmsfer iatc
- Maxiinurn transf,=r rare
- bfaximum transfer pressure
. Anticipated stoppages
- I'he method of communication bemeen b x g e a ~ ve~sellteminal
d has been
established
- (! ~%illbe understood that except for emergenci?~, a 15 minute stand-by
i h i : for shutting d c w d transfer is required.
. Arc hoses in good condition?
;be connections between the barge and vessel/terminal properly secured 7
- :ire scupper plugs in place ?
- A continuous deck watch will be kept by barge and vesseU terminal crews
- In the event of an oil spill, a clear mderstanding exists on steps to be
tnken (conaainment, clean up, reports, etc) s o PCP
All unused manifold connections arc blanked O K
Rotii prtics should cany out constant sun-eiilance o f adjacent waters to deted
and pii:v:rtt ariy leakage / spillage of oil.
Advanced Marlne Engineering Knowiedgc Vol. !it
wirkh c a n be convened into metric tons, by using the product's specific gravity
and !lien adjuslins for lcmperature differences.
Tmt liils for checking fuel quality : Bunker quality on board can be checked
wiih a fuel oil test kit. By carrying out a few simple tests on representative
s:~mpi~?s,iiom the ship's bunker flange, and not the bunker barge or shore tank, the
C h k f Engineer can satisfy himself, that the prodact is indeed upto specification
ant! compatible with existing~bunkers.Samples of the loaded product must he
taken jointly.
'Thi: sample must be representative of the total delivery, and ideally taken by
drill feed at the discharge side of thz manifold, during the course of the pumpin!:
process. Samples should not be taken at the start or 3~ h e completion oC
bunkering, because then they will not be a re?resentative of the rota! t3nnage
loaded. ALSOsamples should pot be from just one t a k on the barge.
. . Sainpie bottles should be sealed, datzd andsigned hi - by boik the C h i d
Tingineei- and the local supplier. Two identical samples should be taken. One
silould :.hen be retained by the ship's staff, for about three months or at leas? until
thc burtkeis loaded have been consr~meawithout prohiem.
lit c;n;:: of any quaiiiy problem, a sealed sample must be sent by{ the Chief
Lrigliieci asiinrc, so that a proper analysis can be carried out. In the event of :I
gcrwiiii: &icy problem insins, it k imperative that the supplier is advised as
soot? as posslbi~.The supplier may decline to accept liability, i f this is not done
witflin a specikd period. (The prribd for notification should he cie2ir:y stated I::
ihr: suppliefs terns and eocditions)~
lhm!ccrs are the rernsining products from varying world sources orcrude oil.
and v w y i ~ ~methods
g 3f cracking, thus there is no 'standardised' heavy oil - each
om: is corismng of different hydrocarbons from varying sources. Thc delivcrcd
proiluck may conform to the specifications, but however when mixed in the lank
with a pmdl.ict refined from a different crude oil source, incompatibility can
occur. I hi: lr~ixedproducts will layer and could re;u!t in an ~un-pumpable s i u a g ~
anct wrisequent ?nor combustion in the main engine. Altemaiiveiy, the product
could hecrime completely un-pumpable or unbumable.
.. ... ~~. rhese problems, bunkers should ideally be segregated, in srtparalc
'1.0 ~t</oid
tanks, so iix>t no mixing occurs - although this is not always possible on smali
ships.
Q.9. With respect to regulations, discuss briefly :
--
i
Sea areas Discharge criteria
C
i Wiihin a Special area No Discharge except clean
I
segregated ballast
.-
Within 50 No Discharge except cl&n
nautical miles segregated ballast
from land.
-
No Discharge except either :
clean or segregated b;iliast; or when:
tne tanker is en route; and the
instantaneous m e of discharge of oi!
doesnot exceed 30 litres per nautfcal
Outside a mile. and
Special area More than 50 the total q-aiitity of 4 discharged does
nautical miles sot exceed 1/30.000 ( f ~ new
r -ders)
from lrnd of the total quantity of cargo. which
was camed on the previous voyage:
and
the tanker has in oprrarion :
An oil discharge monitoring and coiiirol
system and slop tank arrangements as
required by Regulation 15 of Annex I
of MARPOL 73/78.
'Clean ballast' is the ballast i~ a tank which has been so cleaned that the
. effluent from &ere does not create a visible sheen or the oil content exceed !5
3pm . Regarding chemical carriers, Amex I1 of MARPOL 73/78 deals with
poliution by noxioils liquid substances.
3-10 With respect to Oily water separators, justify the statenrent :
Separation of oif and water depends upon the density difference behvcen oil
and c*ater. Aiso comment on the use of z cna!escing device and heating coits.
Most designs of Oily water separators in use are of the gravity / coalescer
type, i.e. rhe separation rakes place by gravity, and depends upon the density
difference between oil and water. The coalescing device encourages the formation
of large oil droplets from the dispersed pha$e.
in .eneral. bilge water contzins a mixture of oil in water i.e. a small amount
of oil in a large amount of water. The water is know? as the contini~ousphase
and the oil is the dispersed phase. The oily water enters the separator and is
slowcd down (ideally lo laminar flow). Thus the larger giobules oroil arc :illc.:~:c.d
10 rise due to the density difference.
Advanced Marine Engineering Knowledge Vol. NI
-i '
P!ates cncouragc a laminar flow and act as coalescing suriaccs. Thc ratc or
separa:ion depends upon the difference behveen the viscous drag at the oilfwater
interface and the effect of gravity. As the size of the oil globules increases the
viscou.; drag decreases and the gravity increases.
The fomiarion of larger gkbules is accelerated at the coalescing surfaces. Also
as rhe rate of change in density, with respect to temperature, is geater for oil than
. ----
- - twa!w, lire rale oiseparation will increase -
with ternzerature.
-
BgL2nlp3:
~~~
The equipmen! mxst be suitable for the marine environmeat (Xithough rilierc
are many laborztory me:hods, which.are accurate; not all can be used on hoard
shipj. The equipment must be suitable for reading both high and low levels of
contamination 2nd tc respond quickly to sudden changes iit Lhose levels. There
shoul8 be no appreciable loss of accuracy, due to the presence o f san;, rust and
other debris, and must operate satisfactorily, irrespective of the rypc of oil used.
The equipment must be easy to operate and maintain. Its working should be
unaffected by considerable periods ofidleness. It must be accurate to i !0% .
Principles of Measurement :
i . Infra Red Absorption.
2. Ultra Violct Absorption.
3. Visible Light Absorption.
4. Visible Light Scattering.
5. Ultra Violet Fluorescence
R e first four are al; poor with respect to sensitivity and would usually be used
only to detect an oil-water interfaces (in an ci!y water Separator). Infra Red
.
absorption is a useful method, as_most*bsorb in the 3.3 Prn waveleggth. The
~
vari&ns, in absorption rates, between heavy oils through to the iighc diesels is
approximately 10%.
Advanced Marine Engineering Knowledge Vol 111
However, watcr also has a strong absorption at the same wave length and this
makes detectors complex. It would be useful if the oil was extracted from the
watcr with a suitable sclvent, the solvent having no absorption of tke infra re2
w e d s n g t h . However this would not allow a speedy response.
Utra vioiet absorption does not encounter the water absorption problem as i t
uses a wavelength of 0.25 Fm. but the requirement, for the opto-electronics to
detect sniali c!~anzcs in a high light level, limits the low range capability.
Absorptisn devices using any wavelength, on a system whcie the oil is present in
tihc fonn of particles, suffers from the effects of sand and rust, distoning the
accuracy. This is significant a i d adds geatly to the prsblen of inaccuracies.
. . ..
Devices using v r s ~ b h t ylight are usually cheaper, simpler and are nowspecific
with rzspect to 31: types. However, they also detect, without distinguishing
between, oil and non-oil particles of similar diameter. Of the two visible light
teciiaiques, absorption and scattcikg, the most sensilive is light scattering. tlltra
violet fluorescence suffers from a wide variation in respcnse !o different types of
oil.
Caliasi Monitor :
. -
h icprcsentative sa7iple n u s t be extracted. This is achieved by a strengthened
intrusion pipe in the ballast line and :he sample is ?her?con-eyed to the nlonitoi oy
2 puinp. 'Yo ensure a representative sample is obtained 2nd to encoiiiaze sood
mixing, the sample point is usually ,in the middle of the ballast pipe, near !he
discliarze pump. Care niust be taken to ensure the ballast line is a:ways Cull of sea
water, so that no settling-out occurs. If the response time of the monitoring system
is Ioii:> ~ n s i d e r a b i epollution can occur b e f ~ r ethe large discharge valves can be
closed. Additionaily it is important, that the operation of the valves shouid not be
iniriarcd by a false alarm, caused by a small spike of oil exceeding the alarm level.
Geimaily the response d t h e m c n i t ~ is
r instantaneous and most of the system
respoilsc delay is in the sam.pling pipe-work. To reduce the delay, short length of
samplc pipe with a minimum number of bends, utilizing a fast sample veIocity
are iidopted. This pipe- work ofien becomes clogged during periods of inactivity
and, when restarted, erroneous readings are obtained as oil, deposited during
periods oi'idieness, strips off the pipe-work. Most monitors depend on an optical
teciu~iqi,!i:and this leads to problems with the sealing and cleainp of the optical
witldows. h fast sample flow rate helps in keeping the windows clean.
'Clilgz i\;lonitor :
. . .. ~ . ,
I iru~ailationand operational problems with a biige monitor are less than
tt~os;: hi. the ballast monitor. The bilge monitor must provide an alarm at IS
~ . P . H I .7 ' t ~
alarm, being within the engine room, does not have the installation
probletr~sof the ballast monitor, as very short sample pipes can be used.
Wi!ii the bilge system the type of oil czn vary from fuel oils to lubricating
oils, ilr:m:c the monitor should not be specific to an oil type. Additionally the
wir~dow!)roblen> assumes greater importance ar the system may well have to
operate with llic machinery space unattended.
ige
-
f
a
~..
E
.;j$
:Q Turbid@ Meter (Scatterqd Light Detector) :
:~E
- If an oiliwater mixture with a low oil content is heavily agitated, so that the
oi! droplets become v e y small; the water will turn 'milky' to varyjng degrees,
depending on the amount of oil present; the actual colour of the oil droplets is of
no importance. This method can be used for indicating the oil content, provided
the conditions for homogenizing thz sample are well contro!led. If a light beam 2
projected through a test cell containing sample water with well-homogenized
droplets, pan of rht lighi passing through the czll will be scatiered. f i e intensity
of light picked up by a photocell at the end o f a straight path through the cell will
be reduced, whereas the intensity of scattered light sensed Ey a photuceli mounitd
at an ang!e to the original path will increase. R 7-t c F . ~ [ $ i + - ~ ~ i ~ - +-
I me&w.i&- ceil
J
Mearming reif with
rwo P.E.celis
;Measuringci:.cuil c~,,,,.~:
LX..~. &--
! ..
.,.
r.. : ,,.>~--
.
,
::.. '- -".,
sj > :
. -.- .
.
~
kc&, ..'-
:
.
<.
~
'*'
. ,,' Tub cr ~ ~ c
,,l,-
Laser light nray be used to obtain a well defined Ik*t bean] and a selective
light-scattering effect. This principle is used in the Ci: content meter, in which the
light beam and the s i p p i c k e d up- by the photocelis are transmitted via optical
fibres
-- to the electronic measuring circuit in the engine room, through-ne
- mom bulkhead, where the penetration is quite small. The Indicator, Alarm and
controi panel are in the Engine room. A similar instrument, operating with infra-
light, is also inuse. Another Lnsmtment, based on theturbidity prixip!e, operates
only on the direct transmitted light through the test cell, in which the heavily
agitated water circulates. instrument of this type can measure oils ranging from
heavy cmde oils to gasoline, but some changes in the calioration are required, to
cover the extremes of the range. As the instrument measures the number of
pmicles in the water, it is rather sensitive to other contaminants such as rust or air
bubbles.
Advanced Marine Engineering Knowledge Val. ill
Infra-red absorption :
The absorption o f infra-red !ight by oil can also be m e ~ u r e d .As infra-red
absorption by the background water is aiso high, am oil-kee reference water
of relevant quality must be obtained at all iimes; this is done by purifying a small
part of water in a micro-filter. Tte inka-red absorption by the oily water and by
oil-free water can then Se measured. The difference is caused by absorprioii by
the oi! and, the s i p a l can be calibrated in oil content.
Q.14. Sketch and describe a Sludge Incinerator ? How is the waste disposa:
effected.
Ans
An Incinerator is capable of dealing with waste oil, oil and water mixtures u p
to 25% content, rags, waste and soiid matter from sewage plants, if required. The
figurc below shows a small combined water tube iype boiler cum incinerator plant
which gives a compact unit with good economy.
Si"d~r/,,il
I;*::,$ c,7m-
Spinning cup bu
Incinerator
Wasit: i oily-water mixtures, suitably homogenised, produce a well-dispersed
emulsion. These are supplied to a rotsry cup burner. Solid waste f n m ?Ite galley
and accommodation is collected in bags and placed in a chamber adjacent to thc
main combustron chamber. There is a safety device, which prevents the doors
being opened, if the burner is 'on'. Hydrocarbcn gases are formed, duz to the low
air supply to this compartment, which pass throtigh a series cismall h ~ i e sin the
furnace. Dry ash has to be removed pcriodicaliy through the ash pit door.
Solid matter from sewage systems is also incinerated in this unit by
homogenizing it with the oily-water mixture, befjre supp-;;ring thc rotary cup
bfirner. The incinerator is capable of burning liquid waste or wet g a r b q e .
Combustion o i solid paicles requires a considerable dwell time and this is
usually achieved by angling the burner to give a 'cyclone' effect.
One of the main problems is to dispose-off items like glass and metal
containers, which tend to soften in the flame, but do not readily bum. It is
necessary to prevent these agglomerating into a mass that is difficult to extract.
For this reason many incinerators bum refuse on a grate. The burning process for
liquid waste requires that there are no rapid changes in content. Hence it is
necessary to ensure an efficient homogenising process in the sludge tank.
Cost 05 the incinerating process must be considered. Since incineration is
iniriaied using diesel oil, lo sran with a stable flame, i t is using up fuel. In an effort
io rccovcr t5is cost, combined boiler cum iccinerstor units are used, as shown
abmve, which may not be economical on a cargo ship, with a small crew, but is a
econnmica! unit on passenger ships, which incinerate a large quantity of garbage
daiiy.
~,
Q.15. Discuss hriefly the methods used for the measoremeot of Noise levels
and t h e recommended limits for noise levels.
(i) 111llow and discharge ducts should be arranged, such rhrt !hey are remote
Smru spixes frequented by personnel (such as Fan rooms) and be fitted
witit i:fkc!ive silencers.
(ii) Siicncec; shooid be reg-zlarly inspected and cleaned, to ensure sr~fficientair
iniakc i:; possibie, with theminimum of noise levcl.
Advanced Marine Engineering .Knowledge Vd. 111
Machinei-y Enclosul-es.
. (i) In continuously manned mschinery spaces, which contain machinery
emitting noise above the prescribed leve!s and where i t is not practical to
isolate this, consideration should be given to the fitting o f sound insulation
enclosures (acoustic hoods).
Use of ear protectors
Where noise ievels in any space are above the prescribed limits, signs should
be posted, advisins the use of suitable ear prolective measures. Ear protectors
shauld be provided for personnel entzncg such spaces, viz. duty engineers making
r~urineinspections.
Manufacturers siiould supply i n f o r m a t h on expected noise lzvels and
r e c o ~ m ~ e nappropriate
d ins~allalionmetho&; to reduce theK, as f2r as practicable.
Q.16. Discuss what precautionary practical measures wouid you fo!lo~v oil
baard vessel, as Chief Engineer, with rzference to lke ccatrol ana
m;tnasemznt of the ship's Baffast water. Enumerate the basic safety
precautions to be taken, in your opinion.
Ans.
-
Minimising iniake of harmful axtttiatic
~ - o z n i s m s , =hogens a n d sediments :
When loading ballast, every effort should be made io avoid the intake of
potentially harmful aquatic organisms, patbogens and sediment that may contain
such organisms. Avoid baliasting, ifpossible, in a r e s and situations such as:
- in very shallow water;
ir, dadmess - when bottom-dweiiing or2amsns may rise up:
where propellers may stir up sediment.
&move baflast sediment on a timely basis :
Where practicable, routine cleaning of the baI!asi iank to remove sediments
should be canied out in mid-ocean, or under controlled arrangements in port or
dry dock, in acwrdvlce vv3h the provisions o f the ship's ballast water
management plan.
If it is necessary to ballast or discharge ballast water in the same port to
facilitate safe cargo operations, care should be taken to avoid unnecessary
dischharge ofballast water, that has been taken up in another port.
Ship's engaged in Ballast water exchange a t sea should be provided with
procedures, which account for the following, as applicable:
Avoidance of over and under pressurization of ballast tanks;
Free surface effects on stability and sloshing loads in tanks ihat may be
slack at any one time,
~ d v a n ; e d~ w i n Engineerhg
e Knowledge Vol. I11
Ans.
The muster list shall be pemanentiy positioned and displayed throughout the
vessel and shei! q e c i f y definite signais or, th: whistle or siren, for calling the crews to
their emergency stations. The muster list shall also specify the means of indicating
when !he vessci is bc aSandoned.
. The
~ . . muster !is: shall show the duties assigned to c.ew m e m b e r s i n rcspec: of -
a. :he d o s i n g of watertight dgors, fire cloijrs, side scuttles, valves and other
ope~;in_gsin :he vessels superstructure.
b. The equipping o f the lifeboais and other lire saving s?pliances.
C . The iacnchir.2 o f lifeboats and liferafts.
d. General preparations o f any other boats and life saving a~;.liances.
e. The niuster o f passengers (if any).
f. The sxtinctiun o f fire.
For the extinction of fire, a -5re conlro! plan should be drawn u p and be
p e r m m e n ~ l yon display, showing the following detaiis.
a. Sections o f the vesse! enciosed by Oje resisting bulkheads.
b. Section o f the vessel enclosed by f~e-retardingbulkheads.
C . T h e fire cor.lro1 plans should be annotated, showing the fire alarm call
points. sprinklers, fixed insiaiiations, poriabie extinguishers, equipment,
breathing apparaius and fireman's outfits. At a glance, the complete fire
a r r a n ~ e m e nand
t distribution can be seen.
: @: Means of access to and escape from compartments and decks.
e. ventitition systems, fan controls and dampers erc.
f Location o f the international ship to shore ccnnectidn(s)
g. Locations of all machinery stops, fuel oil remote shut o f f vaIvcs and
e n ~ i n eroom skylight closure points.
Apart from the need to conduct fire drills invo!ving the entire crew.
ik:e is a strong case ibr ifivoiving speciali~edfire parties, hand picked men,
>wiio have a particuiar aptilude, skil: and knowledge for fire fighting so a s to
mgendcr team spirit, confidence and communications as on efficient ream.
Iluring these drills, breathing apparatus should be - worn and
coii~mnnications/!ine signals difigenily practiced, until the B. A. teams can
iiiiiy understand and be understcod.
Fire drills should be varied every time and hypothetical fire situations
weatcd to co.jer every possible contingency. Try to visua!isc a g i - e n fire and
adopt boundary cooling accordingly . All equipment should be brought to a
::\ate o f rcadiness, i.e. fire pumps started, fire mains charged, hoses run out in
position and charged. It is very important for the p-rsonnel to get the feel of
itre equipment during practice, rather ihan in action for the first time.
Before any fire drill is actually starled i t is mosr important that a roll
call is taken and 211 persocnel accounted for. This is especially. significant
when the case of an engine room fire, before the vessels ~SXST-W CO, fixed
instal!ation can b e actuated into the space, the area must be fully evacuated.
Many such fires have, in the past, been allowed to grow in intensity
because of the confusion and delay caused by a lack of positive knowledge
regarding the whereabouts of all the staff.
The plan z!iould he scpervised by the senior cfficers on board. who wiii be
picsent :o co-ordinate and control the proceedings.
Bridge T e a m
%aster - Overz!! in command, regarding the Ere and the vessel's s p e d ,
course manzu~erin!: and radio messages sent.
Third Officer
Assisting Master in the above and responsib:r for shipboard cornmunicalicns
between the control stationand the bridge.
Helmsman, looking out for other ships acd as messenger between stations and in the
event of a communications breakdown.
. Chief ~ n g i n e e r
He is responsible !o the Master for the highly technical details, which should
be fully utilised, especially regarding machinery space fires, Emergency fuel
shut-off, ventilation, fuei oil bunker transfers.
~ ~
Duty Engineer
As instructed by the second engineer, either in the engine controls and o r fire
fighting operations.
Engine ratings
'4s directed by the Second engineer, either in starting the fire pumps, or, i f the
engine room is involved in fire, as part of t h e fire fighting ieams.
Electi-ical Officel-
A l l electrical requirements- to stand-by at the main switchboard, put on-line
additional generators, or emergence lighting circuits. To stand-by and Re
available for instructions from the secon8 engineer.
F i r e Fighting Team
Chief Officer
Officer in Charge o f fire fighting operations for accommodation and cargo
,tiisn
spaces. ?ce,x&~e ~f j,'k b e d -k
Second Enginkeer M ~ i ~ r \ Cl (C ~ \~; < ~
Officer-in-charge of all machinery space fires. rf
Galley persont?el
A s Girected by the Officer in Charge in fite fighting operations, if the galley
arcs is involved. I f no[, then in prouidinz support scrvicci lo lhc fire fiyl~ltng
tezms. Also to prepare the ship's hospital and-render -firs&d, stretcher party
and any other duties as directed.
Second Officer
H c is responsible to the Chief Officers a s regards cargo stowage and transfer.
and also in charge of fire equipment - all hoses, exiinguishers. foam and . a
i a
I
breathing apparatus
/ - i i
JQ.2 Discuss recommendations on Safety Measures f o r periodically
unattended Machinery spaces in addition t o tbose normaily
considered necessary for attended Mlc. spaces.
Base y w r assumptions that qualified personnel a r e available to
a n s w e r alarms.
Ans.
An unattended machinery space is one, where the provision o f automated
alarm, control and instrumentation equipment compensates for the absence o f
the machinery space watch-keeper. Sensors are used to detect the onset o f
potentially hazardous conditions.
.. ~ ..~.
Protection against Fire
(a) The fire detection system should be capable o f detecting the onskt o f z
-- fire, and be self-monitoring for faults. Visual and audio alarms are
relayed to the Accommodation -spaces, Navigation bridge and to the
duty engineer officer's cabin.
(b) It should be possible to restricting !be fire to the space o f origin, by
ensurinz zdequate structursl design, and the elimination o f combustible
materials near doors, casings, skylights and other openings.
(cj The remote starting of fire pumps, quick clitsing arrzngements, the
shutting dfi" of ventilation fans, fire extinguishing system controls, an6
shut-off arrangements for frtel pumps should be czntralised in the fire
control station, together with at least one breathing apparatus a d ' a
supply o f fire-fighting -equipment.
fd) The oossibilitv of the fornlation o f oil mist, can be dc:ected bv , Oil mist
~~~
detectors.
- Fuel oil high p r e s s u r e ~ i p eleakare can b e detected b y using
-
double walled -pipes --and a leak-off tank with alarm.
-----
Toxic
~.
Effcct o f Petroleum vapours and Chemicals
EV& very s m d l quantities of petrolecm qapcrurs, ivher?. i n h i i d , dull
the sense of smell, and cause symptoms of diminished respor;sibi!ity and
dizziness giving the i m p e s s i o n o f drunkenncss, headache and irritation o f the
eyes.
Oxygen Analyzer
Various types of meters may be used for measuring the oxygen content. A
contir,uozs reading type is one in which platinum wire elements are m o ~ n t e din two
chambers, one the rneasuling chamber and the other, the reference chamber.
Oxygen is paramagetic, i.e. ii is attracted to magnetic fields. Thus one
Elamen1 has a magnetic field, while the referewe filament bas no field, an: attracts
only the air. The circuit forms parT o f a Wheatstone's Bridge. The filtered and dried
gas is drawn across the elements and &e difference in thermal conductivity o f the O,,
reiacive to air, causes -.temperature diff~rericein the wires.
This changes the wire resistance, and unbalances the Wheatstone's bridge
circuit, generating a resultant current, which is proportional to the percentage o i
oxygen in the s m p i e . F a k e readings arc likely if tne gas sarn;.,le contains
anorher paramagnetic gas such as NO,.
Zero position check : 'Zero' position setting can be done by using a pre-calibrated
sample, and then setting the span of the instrument. Test with 100 % Nitrozen. [ COZ
may be used in emergency.] Open control valve for 3 minutes, to obtain zero reading.
Now test with atmospheric air to obtain 20.8 % reading for which spa11 control can be
adjusted if necessary.
I. ~oaislrtCuerype
t'sed where ihel o r other combusfihle materid pmdur'cs~rnriou$
s combvslion much b t b r t the appearance OF smokc or
~ r n d r ~ e lof
flame*.
A rediaactivz sm~rec.such as radium, ionizes Lhc armasphm i n
lmtk open and closed cchrnbtrs. llnder norma! condilions. the circuil is
elec~ricallyb.~lancrd
W h n c o r n b i ~ s l i mproducts enlet thr: cpca chamber. 15c ion Raw
is T t t a ~ d t d and thc e 1 c ~ t ~ : s l resistarrce i s inzrerscd. lhus cr,alin:
k
34
i~:!salancc, whirl1 t r i g ~ e r sr i a u l o m i
Tcsrinp, i 5 r a r r t d out 5y inject in^ a pre-Elid hydro carlmn gas Inlo
thc d c i c c ~ whcnd, hy mranJ;ni a s+cidl spray czn provided.
Advanced Morine Enginering Knowledge Vol. I l l
. .
. ..- .
RATE OF R I j E TYPE
HEATDETECTOR
Tested by using a heat source.
'i'estiog of F i r e detectors :
A n efficient fire detection system is required, when a vesscl is operaled
.
. w ~ t h an unattended machinery. soace. G r o u ~ sof detectors are 2rranted in
circuits, according to their posiiion in the spaces be!ng protected. The choice
o f which type to use depends on the type of fire expecied, whether high level
o i ambient heat is expected (e.g. Enginc room) and whether flame can be -
easity detected (open spaces, so direct line of sight), and are thus arranged, so
as to detect an outbreak of fire, in any zone, as quickly a s possible. T h e
an'ccted zone will be indicated on the alarm panel.
Small indicator lamps are usually fitted to detector heads to show
which head has operated. Most systems operate on 24V D.C. The emergency
b;!itery must be capable o f operating the sysrem for 6 hrs. in the 'no alarm'
siate, and !& hr. in rhe 'alarm' state. (This is for cargo ships - the
requirements for passenger ships are different). When tke detector is
;ictiva!ed, by the method appropriate to the type o f detector head, the local
irtdicator, as well a s the lamp on the main alarm panel, will indicate the
.ivorking of the detector head, during testing.
B
I::
a) Loop monitormg
b) Line termination monitoring
Both systems rely on detectors being open circuit under normal condition^
L o o p Monitoring
The alarms are activated by closure of rhe contacts i n the heads through (a)
and (b) while continuity is checked rhrough (a) and (d) and (b) to (c)
A
i b ) V
I I
stb Alaz-m panel Detector head
i
Checking Lines
The alarms operate when contacts acioss (a) and (h) close. Continuity is
checked by monitoring the resistance at the ;iiJ o f the line. If the resistance of
the line measurqd across (a) and (b) is less than the and end resistance - the
alarm sounds. If the resistance across (a) and jb) increases ab0x.e a level eqtial
to the resistance shown plus the cable resistance, a system fault alarm is
acluated.
4.6.
(a) State where information can be obtained with regard to the safe
earriagz of hazardous substances as cargo.
(b) F o r the hazardous cargo of y o u r choice, discuss the
... following:
i) Storage, transport and H a z a r d o u s properties.
ii) Fire fighting and suppression techniques.
iii) Medical effeets and treatment after physical contact.
Ans.
(=) International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (I.M.D.G. code) gives
(he requirements for carriage of dangerous s c a d s in small packages,
bales and so on.
(bf A general search for any particular cargo is :-e.g. Nitric Acid.
i) In I.M.D.G. code, locate NITRIC ACID. The U.N. No. identifies rhe
substance on a United Nations list and is tinique :o that substance
avoidin? confusions due to different languages. I.M.D.G. Code lists. its
propcrties a n d t h e inherent hazards. It also lists its packaging group
(e.g. small packages) and stowage requirements - - Category D.
Category D gives details of stowage limitations (on deck cnly).
iii) The Medical First Aid Guide (M.F.A.G. Tables) gives guidance
into recognizing symptoms and their treatment, where someone irray
, have been in cantact wiih ..:he substance.
Calibration procedure
F!ow control
Adaptor
Test gas
Test ki:s for shipboard use are available for-this purpose, which
provide a mixture of a hydrocarbon gas in air, such a s 50 % LFL Butane i n
air.
Leak testins may be achieved by pinching the sample line and
squeezing the Aspirator bulb - the bulb must not expand, as long as the
sampling line is kept pinched (i.e. a partial vacuum is maintained, indicating
that there is no air ingress).
fnstr~imentsused must have flash-back arrestors in the inlet and otrtlcr
o f ti-: Detector filament chamber, so as to reduce the fire hazard.
If the concentration o f gzs is about twice the LFL, there is insufficient
Oxygen i n the mixture to burn the hydrocarbon gas complettly. The response
o f the instrument, to such a concentration, i s that the needle initially deflects
to rhe maximum scale reading, and then falls back to zero.
- Continuous observation is thus required to detect and identify this
condition, and the operator needs to be alert to this. ~ r o i o n ~ operation
sd with
such
~. a gas mixture causes the depositicn o f c a r b o n x e o u s matter gn the sensor
filament, which will affect the response o f the instrument.
For the same reason, the instrument does not give a reliable reading
with a deficiency o f oxygen in the gas sample, such a s what exists in inertpcd
cargo tanks. This meter cannot, therefore. be used for inerted tanks.
Attach flow controller, fit the adaptor and connect the tubing. Opcn the
con:rol valvc for 15 seconds. The meter should indicate between 37% and
55% defection (adjust span control, if necessary?.
Ans.
Bulk Carbon dioxide systeni
Carbon dioxide is stored in b d k , in a single container at -17' C. Two
refrigeration systems are fitted, for keeping it cool. One is a l w q s in use,
whjle the other one is on stand-by. In the cvznt of loss of power, the tanks are
sufficiently well insulated, to maintain this temperature for a minimum of 24
hours, before any danger of "boil off' occurs.
Two sets of relief valves are fitted to the pressure vessel. Set A lifts at
24.5 bzr, to atmosphere. Set B lifts at 27 bar to the C02 room, in case of fire
in this space. Each set has an isolating cock to enable one valve only of the
set to be opened up for surveyfrepair.
There are two means of indicating tank level :-
a, Remote electrical display of contents (capacitance bridge)
b. A stand by indicator, consisting of a vertical, external un-insulated
pipe. This can be filled with C02 to the vessel level, by opening one
valve. Level is determined by frosting on the outside of the pipe (or by
level detector).
The remote operated valves in the system can all be operated manually,
using 8 spanner provided at each valve. When the required amount o f COZ has
been discharged, z signal f r o 2 the electrical contents system, closes the E. R.
distributionvalve. If more C 0 2 is needed this valve can be re-3pened by the-
re-release button.
Alarms are fitted for 5% loss of contents and for over-fill o f vessel
above 98%. A third relief valve C , set at 35 bar, protects the system pipe
lincs. Storage vessel is specially fabricated from sophisticated steel, suitable
for low temperature operation.
The system is emptied and internally inspected every ten years. Pipe
system is o f solid drawn galvanized steel pipe (as in the bottle system pipe
work). Pipe blown through with compressed air periodically. System has
lower filling costs than the bottle system, and result; in a saving in weight
and space. Unlike the boitie system, this allows for re-release.
....
St5 n
ysr
When the operating valve in the hose box is opened, nitrogen flows to
tilad$-ypowder compartment, which :
(I) opens the appropriate direction valve.
(2) activates the rr-in nitrogen release operating cylinder.
Nitrogen flows into the dry powder container via a pressure regulating
valve. When the pressure is about 16 bar, the main discharge valve opens and
powder flows to the hose.bok. The in the container remains fairly
constant, until it is nearly empty.
If more dry powder is required, the stand by system can be operated.
Nitrogen pressurz from this system holds a valve in the main system closed,
preventing powder enterin3 the main container.
Watch for
Re-Ignition fiom hot
surfaces, burning paint
work etc
NOTE : It may not be possible to deal with the fire with the available
powder due to the contained radiated heat.
. . .... Extinguishing the fire night run powder reserves so low. that Re-
Ignition could not be contained. -
Enclosed sbaces :- Use smothering system COz for engine room
and Nitrogen for void spaces & vent pipes.
(2.10 Briefly discuss t h e S t a t u t o r y R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a n I n e r t Gas
System. DISCUSS t h e i m p o r t a n c e of a n y a l a r m s necessary.
Qperariotlai Condition
The system shall satisfy all the following conditions :
1. The need For frxs'n air to enter a tank during hormai operations shall be
eliminated, except when preparing a rank for enlry by personnel.
2 . Empty tanks shall be capable o f being maintair.ed in a n inert atmospheie.
3. 7 he washing o i tanks shall be capable of h e m g carried out in a inert
atmdsphcre.
4 . S u i t a b k means lor purging tanks with fresh air, as we]! a s with inert ?as
shall be provided.
5: T h e system shall be capable of supplying -insert gas at a rate o f at least
125% of the maximum rated capacity of the cargo pwnps.
6 . Under norrna! running conditions, whcii :acks are being filled or have been
fillzd with inert gas, a positive pressure shall be capable o f bein2
maintained.
7. During cargo disrharge, the system shall be such a s to ensure that the
volume o f gas (!25% of pump rated capaciiy) i s available. At other time
sufficient gas to ensure compliance o f this regulation shall be available.
8. Exhaust gas outlets for purging shall be suitably located in t h e o p e n air
a r d shall b e to the same general requirementc. a s prescribed for ventilating
outlets o f t a n k s ~
9. A scrubber shall be provided which will effectively cool the g a s and
remove solids and sulphur combustiun products.
1 0 . ~ 1least two fans (blowers) shall be provided which together shall be
capable of delivering at least the emount o f gas stipulated (125%).
11.The oxygen content in the ineri gas supply shall not normally exceed 5%
by volumc.
12.Means shall be provided to present the return of hydrocarbon gasses or
\,apours from the tanks to the machinery spaces and uptakes and prevent
.. ... the development o f excessive pressure or vaculln1.
];.in addition, an effective water lock shall be installed. Branch piping tbl-
inert gas shall be fitted with stop valves or equivalent means o f control at
every tank.
1 4 . 7 h e system shall b e designed so as 10 rninirnise the risk of ignition from
{he generation of static electricity.
---- ~-
-p
i I
Advanced Marine Engineering Knowledge Vol. J I I
- -3q
-
50
In other autonomous systems the gas may be generated without using a gas
turbine.
Q.12 Discuss Life Saving Appliances as required for Class VI1 ships.
With a simple sketch esplairi the working of
1. H a n d Brake
.. 2. Centrifugal Brake
Ans.
The life-saving eqxipment required on board a ship is governed by its
classificuion. The two ciasses which cover the majority of ocean-going
vessels are Class I and Class VII.
The fol!owing notes refer to the requirements for Class VII ships.
Lifeboats
In an emergency it may be necessary to disembark from one side and
hence life boat accommodation must be provided on each side of the ship for
all the ship's personnel. The boats must be at least 7.3 m long and must carry
sufficient equipment and provisions to ensure a high degree of survival.
including such items as buoyant oars, boat hook, hatchets, lampjs), compass,
distress rockets, smoke signals. fi-?:-aid equipment, fishing lines, suitable
rations and fresh water.
Allvanced Marine Engineering Knowledge i.bL IN
.
. .. .
. .
~
. .
Davits .
There are three baGc rypes of davit :
a) radia!
. b) luffing
c) graviry
For sma!! working boats not rsyuircd to act as lifeboats, radia! d z v i s
:ire acceptable but seldom used on mo3ern vessels. They have advantage of
having few mechanical parts but are awkward to handle. Luffing davits may-
bc uscd for boats under 2.25 :cnne in & cargo ships. Gravity davits are fitted
on most modern ships and have the advanl?oz thet when released move
automatic.al!y into position.
Gravity
The davits must be capable of Lowering the boats when the ship is
heeled to 15" on either side. Should the heel exceed 15" It may be impossible
. ~to
. . launch the high side lifeboats.
52
A \\-ire rope span is fitted to the stop o f the davits and knotted llfeljnes
i d Ci-om i h e span into t h e boat, allowing embarkation to the lbwered boat
from the boat deck.
The wire which allow the boat to be lowered arc termed "falls" and are
controlled by a small winch. The boats are lowered by raising a weighted
lever known as a "dead man's handle" which releases a brake in the winch. A
separa:e centrifugal brake is fitted to restrict the speed o f descent to 56
mlmin. while the power supplied to the winch must be sufficient to raise the
boat at 1S mlmin. minimum.
Hand operated Brake -Lowering
I I Cent-ifugal Brake
$ Brake shoe
To engage brake
Lifebuoys
At least eight life-buoys must be carried on all but the smallest ships to
assist crew members who have fallen overboard. In order to enable personnel
to be more easily sighted a? night, self-igniting lights are fitted ta at least half
of the number provided. These lights must be of the electric type on tankers.
At least two o f the lifebuoys should have self-activating smoke signais
for daylight recognition a d must he carried on the bridge, ready for quick
release. For w e near the ship one lifebuoy is carried on each side and
provided with 1 5 fathoms of buoyant line.
Liferafts
Liferafts are provided on most ships and are required to have ssfficirnt
capacity to carry 50% of the total number s f persans on board. The iiferafl:;
are usually of the inflatable type stored in cylindrical fibre-glass conraiiirrs.
Infiaiion cakes place automaticaliy when the life-raft is launched overboard.
the container bursting open and the life-raft floating clear. The liferafts are
extremely seaworthy, and, being fully enclosed, provide excellent protection
frcm exposure.
Buoyant Apparatus
This is required on sorce passenger vessels. They must have a rigid
s:ructi.m, able to iloat [stable) either way up and not depend upon inflation
fot. buoyancy. Must withsrand drop test. Fittcd with grab lines and painter.
Ans.
A Class
Ihese are divisions formed by bulkheads a-3 decks which are
constrtucted of steel or other. equivalent materials, suitably stiifeaed snd
constructed so as to prevent the passage of smoke and 11ame up to the cnd of
the 60 ininures standard fire test.
T h e y must be insulated with non-combustible material such that the
average temperature of the unexposed side will not rise more than 139"' C
abovi. the original temperature nor will the temperature at any one point rise
m o w ti~anI X O " C above the original temperature within the following times :
Class A - 60 60 minutes
Cliiss A - 30 30 minutes
. ~~. CLass A - 15 15 minutes
Class A - 0 0 minutes
B Class
Thcsz are divisions formed by bulkheads, decks, ceilings or linings
which arc cor~structedso as to prevent the passage of flame to the end of the
fitst SO rniriutes of the standard fire test. They must. be constructed o f non
cornbus~ibii: niaterial and to have a n insulation value such that the average
tcnipcraturi: of the unexposed side will not rise more than 139 "C above the
original temperature nor will the temperature at any one point rise more than
225" C above the original temperature within the following times.
Class B - 15 15 minutes
Class B - 0 0 minutes
C Class
These are divisions zoristructed o f i n c o m b ~ s t i b i ematerials but need
nor meet any of thc requirements of the stzndard fire test in relation :o
passage of smoke or flame or temperature rise.
?assengzr Ships
These notes are based on the requirements for passenger ships carrying
n ~ o r ckhan 35 passcngcrs. For ships carrying nGr more thzn 36 passengers, the
requirements are slightly less stringent.
The hull, qxis:ructures, srructura! bulkheads, decks and deck houses
must be of steel or other equivalent material.
The hull, superstructures and deck houses must be divided into main
vertical zones, the mean length of which must not in general exceed 40 m. the
bulkheads forming zone boundaries should if possible, be vertically in line
with the watertighr sub-division bulkheads situated immediately below the
bulkhead deck. Any steps and recesses must be kept to a minimum.
The boundary balkheads ar,d decks of zones mxst be of A class
standard with fire integrity standards ranging from A-60 to A-O a s laid down
in the Rules depending upon rhe fire risk o f the spaces invoived. Similariy,
bulkheads and decks within vertical zones may have fire integrity standards
--.'. icnging from A-60 to C Class.
Except in spaces having a very l o w fire r i s k , a l l linings, grounds,
ceilings and insulations must be of non combustible materials. Within limits,
facings, mouldings, veneers and decorations may be of combustible materials
but most exposed surfaces in accommodation and service spaces must have
low flame spread characteristics.
A fixed fire detection and fire alarm system must be fitted through-out
each separate zone whether vertical or horizontal, in ail accommodation and
service spaces and also where necessary, control stations except spaces where
there is little fire risk such a s void spaces, sanitary spaces etc.
Alternatively an automatic sprinkler, fire de~ection and fire alarm
system may he fitted i n these spaces and in addition a fixed fire detection and
.ldvuncedMarine Engineering Knowledge Yo!. SII
fire alarm system fitted to provide smoke detection in corridors, stairways and
escape routes withir, accommcdation spaces.
The tire integrity standards of divisions of spaces fitted with a
sprinkler system may be reduced. .-- 3
- .~. -. .. . - , ..~<:~-.,:..?~.
. , . - . . .~.
- .
. . . ~... .~. ~..
~
~
..- -4
P
Protection of Openings .: . . . . . .~- .
~
- . 14
. . .. .~ .. ~ :
>
.;
.
~
-4 Class Divisions
~~ ~ . .. . .....,....
~ .
B Class D i v i s i ~ n s
Doors and door frames must have a resistance to fire a s far as
practicable equivalent to rhe division in which they are fitted except that
ventilation openings of limited area aiid fitted with a grill made of non
combustible material L.:;I be fitted. Doors are to be of non combustible
material.
~.
that in no case musi !he area of any accommodation spacc bounded ;%y
arl K Class or B Class division exceed 50 m2 alrhough this area may be
increased for public spaces. The arrangemects for ceilings pic. is the
same as for method I11 C.
A fixed fire detection and fire alarm system must be inscatled and
arranged to delect the presence of fire in all accommodation spaces and
servicc spaces except where there is no substantial fire risk sdch a s
void spaces and sanirary spaces.
Oil. 'l'artkcrs
Accommodation space must bc positioned aft o f all cargo tanks, slop
tauks, cargo pump rooms and cofferdams which isolate cargo or slop tanks
from i~iaziriricryspaces of category A, although, if necessary, acconimodation
spacrrs inay be fitted forward of such spaces.
Esierior boundaries of superstruclures and deck houses enclosing
accommodation and s e r v i c e spaces must be insulated to A-60 s:andard on all
surfaces facing the carso tanks and for 3 n~ aft of the front boundary.
Entrances, air inlets and openings must not face the cargo area and
their distance from the iront o n the sides o f superstructure must be ai.leasr
L160 b u t not less than i m althollgh t h i s ~ n z e dnot a p p l y to c a r g o control
statidns a:so provisior~and store room5 having no a c c e s s ~ t oacconmoZation
spaces, sprvice s p a c i s and.contro1 stations. The navigating bridge is also
exempt so long 3s rapid gas and vapour. tightening o f doors and windows
can bc o b t a i x d
Tk,e fire i n t e-q r ~. t yslandard of boundary bulkheads separating- adlacen:
.
spaces within the accommodation range from A-60 to C &ss in a similar
manncr ro dry cargo ships.
The protection wi<hm accommodation and service spaces must be in
accordance with Method IC as requited for dry cargo ships.
The recpirernents :elating to combustible veneers, low flame spread
paints, pratection of s r i r w a y s , lifts and ventiletion trunking are similar 10 dry
cargo ships.
If [he inert gas plant breaks d o w ~d&ng discharge and air enters the
tank, no dippins, ullaging, sanpling or other equipment should be
introduced into the tank for 50 minutes afttr the cessation of the
injection of inert gas. After 30 minutes, equipmen; :in be introduced
provided all metallic components are securely earthed.
During the initial inerring of the non-gas free tank, the same
precautions should be taken as when re-inerting after breakdown and
repair of the inert gas system.
. .
d. The earthing o f the introduced metallic conducting equipment a s
recommended above should he maintained until 5 hours have elapsed
from the cessation o f the inert gas injection.
YQ.~s
What is a n Internntionaf s h o r e coupling ? Briefly describe its
purpose, use a n d components t h a t go with it. sketch the coupling
a n d s t a t e t h e materials - ~ couplings,
f bolts a n d nuts.
I n t e r n a t i o n a l s h o r e coupiing
The purpose of the International shore cocnection is, to be zbie no
connect the shore water supply to the ship's Fire line, or to
inteiconnect t w o ship's Fire I ~ n e s for , the purpose o f fighting the fire.
. -.
. ,. .
~
. .
....
~
Q.1 With reference to Centrifugal pumps, juptify & discuss the following :-
a) Impeiler can 'convert shaft input to fluid kinetic energy'.
b) Volute is responsible for 'conversion of kinetic energy to head'
c) Pumps are not se:f priming.
d) Clearances behveen impeller and ear rings are critical.
-41~0, state the materials used.
Ans.
a) Fiuid enters the eye of.the impellei, and changes direction as it flows into the
impeller. The fluid is given kinetic energy by the rapidly spinning impeiier, so
that it exits the impeller at a high velocity. The impel!er, itself, turns due to the
, i:lput poker tc the shafifrom a prime mover, such as an electric mctoi. Thus,
F-l we can say that the Impeller caii 'convert shaft work input to fluid kinetic
energy'.
. ~
~.
i b) The,fluid exiting the iinpeller has a high kinetic enerzy when it enters the
volute casing. The 'volute' casing is bisically a duct having a smoo?hIy
r incrraing cross-sectional arca. Thus, we can say That Volute is responsible for
the 'conversion or' kinetic energy to head', as the liquid ieaving (he volute
casing has decreased in kinetic energy (or velocity), while increasing its
potential energy (or presscre head).
.' ~~~ .
-c) Since the suction effect or 'lift' of the pump depends on flow of liquid though
the-pump,.abm-ce of liquid ji.e. presence of air) will carise the pump to 'lose
suction': Thus, centrifugal pumps are r,ot 'self priming', and need some
externa-assistance, either in the foim of shaft drivm priming p m p s , or 3
-.connectionto a central priming system, in order to ensure that the pumps do
not lose suction, while running.
. . .
d) The conversion of energy, from kinetic to potential (or pressure head) rakes
. place between the suction side and the discharge side. Consequently, if sealing
is not proper, there will be a tendency for high pressure liquid to flow back to
. the low pressure side, through any large clearances, such as the clearance
. . -:ljetweenthe impeller and the wear rings. The impeller rotates, while the wear
.
[~
L
-
rings provide a stationary sealing arrangement. If the clearance should be
excessive, not only will there be a drop in pressure, but also a drop in
F- esciency, besides creating other problems like excessive vibration, due to
increased 'play' between the shaft and the wear rings.
Materials :
The cayin; is usually of gun-metal, the impeller of aluminium bronze, the
shaft of stainless steei so as to prevent corrosion.
Q.2 in case of rs pumping system :
a) Explain, with a simple sketch, the working of a %quid ring' priming
ptimp,
b3 Briefly describe e Central Priming System and state its advantages.
Ans.
iri~pellzris concenmc with the drive shaFt and the impeller is fitted
into an 'eccennric'pump casing. Due to the action of centrihgal force, 'here is
a rotitling 'cing' of water, which must follow the shape o f the casing.
XIUS,due !n the eccentric shape, there is alternate increasing and
&x<i:nsing vnlwne at the sudion and discharge ports. This creates a pumping
action, whkh is used for air extraction from a central priming tank. This tank
is tkiii~erconilected to variocs centrifugal pumps in the engine room, and has
.A,, i ,~. s kof a central priming unit, since it carries out air extraction for ail the
cet!!tifiugd puraps in the Engine room.
'I'hc air suctign is via a float operated valve, which shuts when the
s p i o i r l is primed, preventing system water getting into the pri'rning pump.
h cnntrot valve may be fitted, as showk., which is opened, when the
syskrn is hdly primed, to remove water &om the priming pump casing and
hewx iduce sh& load. Alternatively, a clutch may be fined on the drive
shafi, to allow the drive to be disconnected, when the main system tank is fully
pritrtcrl.
'i'i~critser~ioiris filled with fresh water to reduce corrosion and a
coolirlfi coil may be fitted which is circulated by the main pump discharge.
C e n t r a l p r i m i n g system
This is a central system for air handling, for a group of centrifugal
pumps, and is consideied to be more economical and effkient, than to have
individual shaft-driven priming pumps for each centiifugal pump.
The system usually h ? two
~ priming pumps, o n e in use and the other
stand-by. This pump is usually of the liquid-ring type and operates
automatically between a cut-in pressure of 0.5 bar (absolute) and a cut-out
pressure of 0.3 bar(abso1ute).
The vacuum tank has a valve, which is float operated. When the air is
exhausted (i.e. when the float rises, due to a rise in the- wzler Icvel), the
connection betwsen the vacumn tank in: the pump suction is shut off, thus
preventing the pump from drawing water (from the systza).
Compared with individual priming units, there are certain advantages, a s well
as disadvantages.
k: (i) No priming avzilable to ali centrifugal pumps in Engine room, if both pumps
fail. (Rarely occurs, if proper routing maintenance is done).
(ii) Since one central !a&. is c o ~ e c t e dto many pumps in the Engine room, there
are iong lengths of pipe1ines-fhn the vacuum tank to the individual pumps.
Small pipe linei may be easily broken or blocked, thus rendering the priming
effective.
(iii) Failure of the float valve WGUMallow water to flood the central priming
system.
c) Typical Clearances
For a distance between wheel centre lines of 60 & 190 mm
Clearance on diameter .............................. 0.13 1.m- & 0.5 mm
Axial Clearance.. .................................... -0.13 mm & 0.4 mrq
6. Main engine circulsting pumps shall have a direct suction (with non
return valves), draining the lowest level in the mzchinery space, such
suction pipe bcing at least 2 1 3 ~of
~ the diameter of the main sea inlet.
. Eirect suctions on other suitable pumps o f equivalent capacity is
accepted.
,3/ The bilge piping sysrem is ro be separate f r o n cargo and oil fuel
systems. Spindles to all master valves, bilge injection, .shou!d be led
above the engine rcom pfz-tform. Ail valves, extended spindles, to be
clearly marked and accessible at all times.
d Bilge pipes are to be provided with Mud boxes. Ends of suction pipes
should be enclosed in pasily removable strum boxes, the holes through
which should be approximately 10 mm diameter ~- and their combined
area not Less !>an twice the area of the suction pipe.
M u d boxes
Each bilge suction pipe terminates in a 'mud-box', which is
basically a device to remove large particles, waste or rags, from
enietirig the pump. The ~ u box d has a 'zoarse' strainer, so that it will
remove only larger particles. Too fine a strainer w ~ u l dresult in
frequent chockage and loss of suction. Thus, Mud boxes are fitred to
prcvent dcbriz (which collects ip the bilges) from passizg along the
suc!io;i pipe to the p u z p and causing danage to ihe pump impeller,
pistorx and valves.
1 . In case of heavy leakage of liquids, scch as from a burst water main or any
fuel I lube oil pipe, or even a hole in the ship's side, the heavy ingress into
the bilges may detected. If the bilge pump starts auto~natically,and nms
for too long a time, since it cannot cope up with the heavy ingress of
liquid, a bilge pump '!ong run' alarm is activated, which will alert the
Duty watch-keeper, who will then take necessary action.
2. To take of the problem of pollution of the sea. the automatic bilse pump is
rot dircctiy ccmected over-board, bu: i-mtead, wiil pump the contaminated
bilge water into the Bilge ho1dir.g tank.
Q.5 Explain the salient features of a Central cooling system and discuss its
advantages and disadvantages over a conventional cooling system.
Ans.
- Central cooling system
The Central cooling system uses a 'closed circuit' of fiesh 'chemical!y
treated' water for !he coolant side of dl the primary hcat exchangers. This
fresh water is itself cooled by Ceniml coolers, which are sea water cooled.
The salt water is thus limited to one set of pumps, coolers, valves and
. filters, which considerably reduces the salt water corrosion problem, which is
inherent in marin? systems, zs well as appreciably reduces maintenance costs
and down-time d m to difficuities posed by repair / replacement of corroded
pipes of conventionr?lsea water cooling systems.
Since sea wa:er is limited to a small section of pipes and coolers,
special materials may be used to limit corrosio~ problem there at a
comparatively reduced cost, (as compared to the cost of doing this in a
conventional system). Thus the few salt water pipes may be protected by
rubber-lining, and the cooler plates made of special corrosion resistant metals
like Titanium.
Ccnlnl C.W.
Due to the differing temperature require men:^ of the main systems there
would be various cooling water circuits :-
Sall wa:er for <he Centrat cooiers.
'Nigh lernper&e' fresh water (Jacket xater cooling system).
'Low iemperatu~e'fresh water, used by the central cooling system, to cool the
Iiicker .water coolers, scavenge coolers, lube oil coolers and so on.
Tbe S. W pumps take suction 'om both sides of the Engine room,
through sea chests (High and low) and filters.. After passing through the
Central coolers, the sea water is discharged directly overboard..lvlaterials for
i his part of the system c a l be of high quality, as the actual S. W. system is
small.
Fresh 'rreateci' water for the circuit is circulated by its own Central
coding pumps, with temperature control by means of a three way valve
awangernent, which means that it can either pass through the Cooler or is by-
passed.
In steam ships, the main condenser is having an independent sea water
circuil, while the central cooling system provides the coolant for all the other
coolers in the Engine room.
Advantages
(1) Less corrosion and hence less maintenance, with increased reliability as
systems are not subjected to unscheduled maintznance, due to leaking tubes,
or chockage, silting or marine growth on cooling surfaces.
(2)Reduced initial cost of equipment ( as compared to using the same naterials
for a conventional system) as the quantity of items having sea water is less.
( 3 ) Constant tzmperatur: of ioo!ant to various systems, since no change in the
coolant tempera:urz, as would be the casewith sea water, whose temperature
varies with the geographical location of the vessel. This gives a better and
easier control and thus impoves the operating conditions fcr the running
machinery.
Disadvantages
(1) Two separate heat exchmger systems means a greater overall temperature
difference, which reduces the thermal efficiency and thus increases the
operating costs.
( 2 ) Greater initial first cost, as the design cost would add to tile ccst cf extra
cquipmsnt for the Cmtral ccolers, purnps, valves and associated piping.
(3) Plant is more complex and vulnerable to problems, such as break-do-rn of ihe
Central cooling circuit, which would hanper operation of all other services.
c) Screw punps
S c r w pumps have a good low speed efficiency, which together with the low
v.l,I ii.,b- . of induced fluid velocities, make them ideal for handling viscous fluids.
They aperate with very tow noise levels. They are small and compact.
They is no ~upswcptvolume in their operation hence, there is no problem with
rc-cqiarrsion, which would reduce volumetric efficiency. P4ivery is free from
p i s :A t'Lon.
Alluoneerl Marine Engirze~rirtgKnowledge Vol. I/I
b) (i) Pumps are usual!y electric and not hydraulic,Bs there is some difficulty
in obtaining a hydraulic fluid, that can p d o r m a! ihc very low cargo
temperatures.Als6 the use of hydraulic submerged pumps requires
motor p$es io be triple cased, to avoid possibility of leaks
contaminating the cargo.
(ii) Overheating of pump shaft bearings is avoided, as the liquefird gas
cargo passing over the bearing cools it. There are also thermal cut-outs
to prevent the bearing from damage.
) The risk of fire and explosion is always present, both in loaded and discharged
condition. This needs to be reduced by :
(i) Cables being of special metal insulation.
(ii) External junction boxes being exp!osion proof .and packed to prevent
gas transit along the conduit
(iii) As liquid cargoes are near the Boiling point, the pumps will probably be
fitted with Inducers.
Since the cargo is under pressure, there is a mix of liquid and gas, with
no possibility of air ingress. Thus the fire hazard is minimised, and there is no
need of using inert gas, which could possibly spoil the cargo.
Th-u+put, Q
-
'Chese losses; together with ffiction ‘asses due to fluid contact with the
pilmp casing and inlet and impact losses, result in zhe H/Q curve shown in the .
ligure. The final shape of this c w e wili vary accordiig to the design of che
pwn:), and depend on the WQ curves or, if required, the curve can be steep to
give a relatively large shut-off head.
From the Figure, it can be seen that the minimum power occurs when there is
rro ilovi and when the discharge head is at its highest - in other words, when
lilt: discharge valve is closed. Since throughput decreases E -the discharge
head is increased, there is no P-ecessity to fit a relief v d v e to centrifugal
pumps. It will also be noticed that the efficiency curve for the pump is convex,
which means that maximum efficiency occurs at a point~somewherebetween
rrlaxirr~umand minimum discharge head and throughput conditions.
I'hc cinirgency fire pumps is to be positioned, so that it will be able to operate
at the iightest draught to be encountered (also allowing for fall in pump
perfomance).
A means of air extraction, for priming purposes, must be provided,
.,hen piimp is morc than 2 meters above this lightest draught, unless the pump
i s of the positive displacement type (even wi& positive displacement pumps,
suction- is Iimit~dto 4 5 m) the pump&& system should provide 2 jets of
water, with a throw of 12.5 m, through 1215 mdiameter nozzles.
Q.9 Briefly describe the working of a Smash Plate pump. Explain with ;I
block diagram, a Crane circuit using a variable-stroke pump. How is
Braking carried out ? Discuss the importance of Override controls.
Ans.
The arrangement of the cylinders and pistons with their axes parallel to
the shaft makes for a very compact design w?& small outside dimensions. The
small radius of the rotating parts allows higher rot~tionalspeeds than the
equiva!ent radial piston pump.
The usual arrangement, in the "Swash Plate" pump, is to have either a
rotating swash plate and a stationary cylinder block, or a rotating cylinder b!ock
and a stationary swash p!ate. The latter is the mosr commor?, being more
adaptable to aive an accurate i o n u d of thz flow.
A typical example has the piston rod with a small ho!e :bough, 10
provide lubrication of the universa! joint (knuckle) in the plate. n e pistons are
hollow to reduce inertia.
Many models have pressure limitin5 amngements to reduce erTecrive
piston stroke if peak pressures are attained.
Note : Both Radial and Axial piston pumps al-e Gnly suitzble for fluids rha! have
Lubricatiag properties.
C r a n e circuit
Thc block. diagram illustrates the use of a variable stroke pump and a fixed
. .~ . .~ smke hydrdulic- motor arrangemerit. The'completesy$em has three such
. .
circuits, one each for the hoisting, luffing and slewing operations., .
~. .. . . ..
."
i h e rzquirernent is to hold a !oad securely end allow a smooth
changeow from the static position to mcvemect and still be 'fail-erc'.
I.iomally, rill: brake is spring loaded, defaulting to the 'On' position, a
hydmulic cylinder being used to rotate it. The signal to operate the brake comes
fri>rc~ a micro-switch on the 'Swash Plate' control lever, openkg the salenoid.
Override controls :-
These are needed to prevent damage or operation in unsafe areas e.g.
'sle~w'anglr, maximum and minimum 'luff'' angle and 'sf&ck r ~ p e protection.
'
System presslire will 3epend on the position of the "Swash Plate" and the size
oL ii~eload.
Q.10 What are the various systems for Cargo Stripping systems, approved under
MARPOL ?
Ans.
There are three systems approved under MARPOL.
a. Pressurising the tank and stripping from the bottom of the tank well, by
means of a smail diameter pipe. This process is very s!ow and requires a large
quantity of Nitrogen (or inen gas), which is used to pressurise the tank. Also, a
caiehl set&g cf tank relief valves is required.
b. Using a s:ripping box in the tank, the box being connected to the
strippi~lgline. Thir, box is alternately put under vacuum and pressure, in such a
way that it fills with up with the liqvid (cargo) and thus tlie cargo is displaced
up the stripping line.
Back flaw is prevented by non-return valves. This system is simple and
does pot rely oil rotating machines. However the non-return valves can give
rruuble if ?he cargo can crjstallise.
5. Erosion :- abrasive solids and high water velocitits can cause erosive
,- ,.
Mdstage.
Corrosion
Corrosion by :=a-water may occasionally cause perforation of heat transfir
surfaces.
'fliis will cause ieakqe of one fluid iiito the other but this is not always easy to
iktect i f ihe leakage is small, although substantial leaks may become evident
thro:igh iapid loss of lubricating oi!; jacket vieter an< so on.
Location oFa perforation is a streightforwai2 matter in the case of a tubular heat
exchanger, whether this is of the shell-and-tube type or of other tubular
- constriic!ion. Having drained the heat exchanger oisea-water snd removed ;he
. ~
covers or headers to exposethe tube ends, some flow of the liqaid on the other
side of the surface will be apparent, in the case of clil and water coolers, from
m y tabes which zre perforated.
0 Th tesi i'or leaks i n air coolers or drains coolers, c q out the following: each
- . rube in turn can be plugged at one end x.d pressuriszd with air; inability to hold
- -prewge indicates a leak. . .
. l'o.aid rllc detection of leaks in a large cooler, in which it is difficult to get the
. rirhrs dry enough to witness any seepage, it is usual to add a special fluorescent
- dye to tile shell side of the cooler. When an ultra-violet light is shone on to the
tt.~besand tube plates, any seepage is seen, since the dye glows with a vivid
green li.ghi.
* Ln plate heat exchangers, the only way to locate leaks is by visual inspection of
tire $ale surfaces.
0 On docking for any protracted period, such as for dry-dock, refitting or lay-up:
i! is advisahie to drain the sea-water side of heat exchangers, clean and flush
ti~rw~gii wit11 fresh water, after which the heat exchanger should be left drained,
ifpossikble, until the ship re-enters service.
V e r ~ t i r and
l ~ Draining
I t is importantthat, in any heat exchanger, the coolant should run full.
u k t vi:rtically-mounted, single-pass heat exchangers o f the shell-and-tube or plate
types, venting will be automatic, if the sea-water flow is upwards.
. This is also the case with heat exchangers mounted in the horizontal condition.
with single or mclti-pass tube errangements, provided that the sea-water inlet
tranch faces downwards and the omlet branch upwards.
. With these arrangements, the water will drain substantially completely out of
the heat exchanger, when the remainder of the system is drained.
i With other arrangements, a vent cock fined at the highest point in the heat
exchanger should be opened, when first introducing seawater into the heat
exchanger and thereafter periodically to ensure full running.
A drain plug a1 the lowest point should be provided.
Maintenance
To preyent gross wastage due to galvanic a c t i ~ nof the cast iron, o i s:eei, and
do-zinciiication of aluminium brass rubes where fit!ed, zinc or ~ n i l dsteel
sacrificial anodes are fitted to the tube plates. Altenatively impressed current
cathodic protection may be used.
r The simplcst method of degreasing the steam side of tubes is as f o l l o ~ s: A
-
vessel containing tri-chloro-ethylene is secured to a bottsin manhole and is
wax-med eently. The trichloroethylene vaporises, rises among the rubes,
condenses and falls into the vessel, bringing with it the grease and oil from
E
higher reniperature gradient across the tube wall. Thus, the steep te~nperature
gradicnr leads to stresses, which contribute towards eventual tube failure.
A m
Sheil and tube :ype heat excknnger :
Wlslerials :
Shell - generally of cas! iron or fabricated steel.
Tubes - These are of aluminiam-brass (76% Copper, 22% Zinc and 2%
A!urniniumj, or cupro-nickel or even stainless steel may be used. The tubes are
often ex!~anded in to the tube plate but can be soldered, brazed or welded. The
nurnber of tribes always has a fouling allowance. After final assembly, the tube
stack is machined to Et in the shell bore (the shel! is also machined) to a.llow
easy wididrawal.
7i'iihe-Plntes- The tube piate material should suit the tube material and the
method of fixing. Naval brass tube plates are use6 with alnminiuni-brass tubes.
Usually assembled, so that the water boxes can be removed, without disturbin:
r k rube stack.
Wtliei- DOXCS- Cast iron or fabricated steel, always designed to keep
riii-bi.tIetice and coated for corrosion protecricn.
T u b e P ~ o t e e t i o n:
Thtxe is n protective film of iron ions, formed along the rube length, by
corl-osion of iron in the system. Unprotected iron in water boxes and in parts of
the pipe system, while itself corroding, docs assist in prolonging tube life.
In non-ferrous systems, the supply of iron ions is from other sources. Thus, soft
ii- or^ sacriticiai anodes have been fitted in water boxes, iron sections have been
inszl-tecl ill pipe systems and iron has been introduced into the sea water, in the
!ititit of fi:r~oussulphate. The latter treatment consists of dosing the sea water
!o a :;ti-ei12th of 1 ppin for an hour, per day for a few weeks and snbsequenr':-
dosin:: again before enrering and after l e a v i n ~port for a short period.
Electrical contiruity in the sea-water circuiating pipe-work is imponant where
sacrificial anodes are installed. Metal connectors are fitted across flanges and
Cooler sections (where there are rubber joints and '0' rings, which would
otherwise insulale the various parts of the systern).
Premature tube failure can be the result of pollution in coastal waters or extreme
turbulence due to excessive sea-water flow rates.
To avoid the impin~einentattack, czre must be taken with the water velociry
thro~ghtrbes. Fcr alu~niniu~n-brass, the upper limit is about 2.5 m/s.
Although il is advisable to design to a lower velocity thm this - to allow for
poor flow con?roI - it is equally bad practice to save sea-water speeds of less
than 1 d s . A more than minimum flow is vital to produce moderate tur5ulei~ce
which is essential to the beat exchange process and to rzduce silting and
settiemen1 in the tubes.
The tube stacks are made up to have one fixed tube plate at one en2 and the tube
plate at the ~ t h e end,
r which is free to move when the tubes expand or contract.
The fixed end :ube plare is sardwiched between the she!! and water box. with
jointing material. Synthetic :ubber 'O' rings fgr the s!iding tzbe plate p-rmi~
free expansion
The practice of removing the tube stack and replacing it afier rotation radially
thro~gh180 degrees, is facilitated by the lype of cooler described. This may
prolong cooler life by reversing the flow so that-tube entran~es,which are prone
to impingemen! dunage; become ~utlets.
Cooler end covers and water boxes are commonly of cast iron or fabricated
from mild steel.
Unprotected cast iron in contact with sea water, suffers from graphitization. a
form of corrosion in which the iror, is removed and only the soft black graphite
remains.
The shell is in contact with the liquid being cooled which may be oil, distilled <,I.
fresh water with corrosion inhibiting chemicals. It may be of cast iron or
fabricated from steel.
Manufacturers recommend 1nat coolers be arranged vertically. Wl~err
horizonral insrailation is necessary, the sea water should enter a1 the bottom aild
leave at the top. Air in the cooler system will encourage corrosion and air locks
will reduce the cooling area and cause overheating. Vent cocks shonld be fitted
for purging air and cocks or a plug are required st the bottom, for draining.
Clearance is required at the cooler fixed end for removal-of the mbe stack.
Give reasons, whether the following statements relating to Plate type Heat
exchangers, are true o r false.
a) Plate corrugation patterns are designed to create turbulence.
b) Scantlings of carrying bars and clamping bolts are designed to
accommodate enlargement of pack.
c) Titanium and stainless steel are used to reduced plate failure. State
the other materials used.
d) T ~ a p e r a t u r c and pressure of fluids handled a r e con~pletely
unrestricted.
Advunced Marine En,oineering Kno>:I~dge VoL 111 -
Ans.
a) True
Corrugations, created by 'troughs' pressed into. the plates, produce
sufficiently high turbulence. The plate form can produce turbulent flow
with Reynolds number as low as Ten. This type of flow produces a very
low fouling rate.
b) True
The capacity of a heat exchanger is determined by the number of plates,
ar?d this can be increased or decreased within limits, to accommodate
different requirements. Thgs, the scantlings should, be able to take care
of the maximum number of plates which could be used, with a sufficient
nargin of safety.
cj True
Titaniun and stainless steel are extremely resistant to corrosion, (and
also expmsive) and thus reduce the rate of plate failures.
hkteriais used in Plate type heat exchangers :
Plates Titanium - Stainless steel
. ~
Frame Coated Mild stecl.
loink Nitile nlbber
Working pressure : 8 -- 15 5x
Temperature : 90 - 110°C
d) False
. .. Plate heat exchanger cannot deal with e&essively high pressures or
temperaiures, due to limitations of plate gasket matelia: Also, they
cannot deal with large vohme flows associated with law pressure
vapours and gases.
Ans. a) True
To reduce scale formation in evaporators and to prevent the break-
. ~
up of the dissolvedsolids, into harmful constituents, it is essential to
operate evaporators at sub-atmospheric pressures. This process makes
possible the use of low-grade heat (such as that from the main engine
..<.
jacket water) in the process.
. . .
Brine concentration should not be allowed to exceed :-
80
1.5 x 1132 for Single effecr submerged - coil evaporators
1. I x 1/52 for Flash type evaporators.
Q,16 A cornpnny circular draws attention to the fact that bacteria harmful to
imcnarts cwn exist in drinking and washing water.
a) 1ie:Scr'ibc a system to improve potz3ility of fresh water.
$1 S!ir% constrainrs piaced on installation and xse of systems for
shipboard production of fresh water.
c) Stale maintenance and treatment rccomrnended for fresh water tanks.
Anr.
Ciiernical treatment f o r potabie w a t e r
Manually adding silver salts or solutions, allows for ~recis'edosing of
srr~niiatnolints of water produced on board, while larger volume flows are
controtled by a metering pump.
. .
rhs etectrolytic p y s s is the one currently employed by many ships, as
it fbrms 1 GO-reatrnent, which is cheap and meets the requirements. 1o
t ! ::li:chu:yi1c
~ process, positive siiver ions are released from a silver anode.
?hi* alrlourit of metal released is controlled by the current setting of rhe
electrical supply. This current value is influenced by the conductivity of thc
water, which in the case of water produced on b a r d , is low.
The operating costs of such a system are relatively low. One electrode
has the capacity to treat 4000 m3 of water during its life spa% Such a system is
-
the 'Electro-Katadyn' system. When fiow rates are small, all the water passes
~
through :he .s-tli With larger volumes, only some o f the water passes
through the unit, because the concentration of silver sdded is at a higher le-~ei.
The required dosage for the full 30w is achieved by mixing the :wo flows. This
aIlu;us a wide range of flow rates to be handled, without the significant pressure
loss in case of c o ~ p l e t eflow through the system.
Special propertiss of sil-qer are claimed to offer some advantages over thc
.. chlorine method.
Silver is Non-comxive
11 no health hazard (less quantity of silver is take" ir., while drinking water
in a day, than when using silver cutiery)
p.esidual silver in the water ?revens rz-irxection, and does nor have m y
evaporation problem.
The cleaning of the various elements of the domestic water system (such
as calorifiers. filters, pumps) must be carried out regularly and a special log of
such maintenance be maintained.
..
At every refit or dry-docking period, the complete storage delivery and
distribution system, from machinery space to the M e s t outlets should be
charged with "super-chlorinated" water at 50 p.p.m. free chlorine and left for 12
hours, to disinfect the system. Shower heads and Air Conditioning s p a y
nozzles should be cleaned with 50 p.p.m. @orine so!ution, every Pkee months.
. .
Q.17 State why fresh water ~ r o d u c e 6by using a low grade Sea$ source can be
unfit for haman consumption. Explain bow system should be operated to
avoid this problem. Explain how distillate must be treated lo render it Elf
for drinking.
Ans.
Fresh water trends to Le acidic, due to its reddy absorption of carbon
dioxide. It can tlherrfore be aamagins to the human digestive tract. F3r Chis
reasoc, un-treated fresh water is not 6 t for humm consumption.
Overall design, of the fresh hot and cold water distribiition systems,
should be dcsigxed 19provide maximum circul~ionof the systems and to avoid
dead-legs, especially where temperatures could rise lo levels, which mighi
provide tke optimum wfiditions fer bacterial growth (viz. 15-C to S O T ) .
This psssibility increases as the size of rhe system increases, wlieir
sections of the system are no: kepi in continuous use.
The freshwater tanks arrangement in every ship should enable tanks to be
used in regular rotatim, in order to avoid the associated with
stagnation.
...
Calorifiers or pressure tanks should be designed where possible, to avoid.
stagnant zones forming and should be fitted with efficient connections at the
lowest poin: of the unit, to ensure that ail loose scale or sludge can be
; . completely drained off, after cleaning and maintenance. Calorifiers shouid be
provided with adequate access, to enable scale deposits or products of corrosion
' . to be removed and cleaning to be facilitated.
Distribution system
The various elements of the freshwater production, treatment and
deliver:, system, - filters, evaporators, reverse osmosis plant, auto-chlorinator,
neutraliser lmineraliser, softeners, pumps, pressure tanks, calorifrer, carbon
filter, ultra-violet sterilizer (where fitted) should be inspected, cleancd, flushed
out, back washed, re-charged or items replaced where appropriate, i i i
accordance with the makers' instructions.
During water treatment - all filters, mineralisers, softeners - should have
all sea water drawn through suitable sand filters before being introduced to !he
water making apparatus and all water produced by such plants in new ships
must he disinfected by an auto chlorinating unit, before it is pumped to ihe
storage ranks.
-
3
- i
E
c g
l
&.IS W g h respect to Deck machinery, discuss :
\.a)' Anchor wiiuduass r a k e test, to veriEy efficiency of windlass.
-
- i b) Steering gepr tests, to demonstrate proper functioning.
c) Air Receiver tests.
anchor
_-.- .
from a -depth of 82.5 m to a depth of 22.5m12 cable lengths) at a mean
speed of not less than 9 m/min. If the depth of water is inadeqliate, a simulated
condition can be con&-
Although the test does not require both anchors to be lifted
simultaneously, on a windlass fitted with 2 cable lifters, this is usually carried
cut and the time recorded. A visual check is a h made to enaiye that the anchors
stow corre::ly and that chain washing facilities are adequate.
--
b) Stee:i.nggyr
/ - S e E i
test
--
i c t i i e presence of the Classification Society Surveyor to
~. ~~ ~ ~
demonstrate the mechanical hncticning of the sear and its ability to satisfy
~-. - - ~.~
Rule requirements.
~ ~
!:
-~.
W h ~ r e=air. steering gear power units z e fitted in duplicare (to avoid
fitting auxiliary gear), eachpcweiucit muzt be able to be brouiht spe&iiy into
operation and must be ab!e to steer the ship at navigable speed In dddiriun. :he
units opcrzring together
both -.-- -, ~ ..-.. must be able to put the rudder hardover from j j"
~ .- ~ -
on one side to 3"oil ..- the o'her side, with tile ship at thk maximum
~
~~. service
~ - -
speed. The_!iie~takn from 3 3 on m e sideto;OO on hr-other side is not . ~ to.~
. ~
exceed -~28 seconds. In practice, both units are tesred separately and togeiher.
n e automatic steering gear and course recorder may also bc tested at this time.
?
cc) Air Receiver tests
Where the Main engines are manged for direct air starting, the total Air
Receiver capacity is to be sufficient, to provide not less t h a n i s consecutive
starts, Ahead and Astern, of the Main engine, without replenisbmencif of the
%
reversible type and not less than 6 consecutive starts, if o f the non-reversible
~6.
type. The above requiren-ent is to be checked in the presence of the Surveyor.
b Q.19 Describe how 3 boiler sxfety ~ a l v eis set to the working presscre. How is
over-pressure prevented ? How is the correct functioning of this safety
valve ensured ?
Ans.
Boiler safety valves are set to 3 %above the required working pressure,
using a standard pressure gtiuge, the gauge having been tested and certified as to
its accuracy. A Surveyor is present to see the test and to issue the cei-tificate
stating that it has been duly carried out. The test is ca-ied out-- with the stop
valve and feed check valves shut and the boiler under full firing conditions
. -- ~ -.- 2.
The compression screw is adjusted to let boiler blcw off only at ihc
required pressure:The _ _.
.- .~compression ring
. is then machjned and is f!ttedi!nr;Iace
malting certain the compression screw abuts fairly and squarely on the rin!:..f
~. -~.
~-
~ ~
lmporranf :
To ensure that the loading of th: safety valves cannot be interfered with, aAcr
they have been set, cotters are fined through the spindle and spindle caps %xi
then ?adlocked, so that the spindle caps which enc!~se thc compression screws
rnak? them coxpierely inaccessible. ?he padlock key is left in charge of the
ckiei'enginezr, who thus assumes res?onsi3'ility ior it. .
Q.20 Referring to a spring-loadsd Bciler safety valve, explain what is meant by
-- the 'Awumulation of pressure' test ?
Ail,s.-' ~ ~
The pressure in the boiie; is liab!e te rke, even after the safety valves
have lifted, due to the increased spring load, caused by the increased
c~q:?:;ssion. 'Ilk rise is known as "Accumda$ion of pressur?".
it is the one objec;ionabl.z feahre of the spiing-loaded type o f valve, bur
~wiihthe improvement in valve design. its disadvantage has been overcome. It is
a well !sown fac! that the more a spring is compressed, ihe greatzr musi be ;hc
---~
appiictl load.:The maximum accumulation of pressure allowed i,s ?.O'&&~G..
~~
>woc!tjnu
:.- pressure. At the time-... of the Safety
... vafGFtest; the test for accurntilation
~~.
~.. ..
~
Thc following tests may be canied out to asceflain boiler water condition :
a) Chloride : This is s measure of the chlorides which are present, usually
ac! inrliciiiion of sea water contamination. 89% of the salts present in sea
,water are Sodium chloride and Calcium/ Magnesium chlorides. High
chlorides will cause increased scale, acidity, and boiler priming. The
isst is a titration of Silver Nitrate (alkali) with a sample of boiler water
(acidic), which has Potassium Chromate added as an indicator.
The rrlaxirnurn acceptable level of chlorides in the boiler water varies,
ilepenclin.u,on the size, the firing rate and its type of construction. Should
the chloride level rise, then contamination of boiler water is the most
li!dy explanation.
Alkalinity : There are generally two measurements of alkalinity, which
are taken, 'P'alkalinity (phenolphthalein), and 'Total' alkalinity.
'P'ajkslinity measures the alkalinity due to hydroxides, and phosphates.
This test is a more accurate method of determining alkalinity, than
simple pH testing. If alkalinity is too low then corrosion could Qccur,
while if it should be too high, then foaming can take piace. The test is
carcied out using Phenolphthalein, neutralised by a quantity of Sulphuric
acid.
Total a l k a l i ~ l ym e a r e s the alkalinity of dl the boiler salts, including
bicarbonates. Note that bicarbonates carmot exist under normal boiler
conditions, and their presence in t h e boiler water saxple is d j e to
exposure of the sample to air, and the transformation o f half the
carbonates to bicarbonates, in the phenolphthalein test. Total alkalinity
snouid be less than 2 x 'P' alkalinity, and this may occur when Jsrgr
qumtities of untreated feed is admitted to the boiler.
This test is carrieci out using Methyl-Orange indicator, wher. the boiler
sampi-, is neutzalised by Sulphuric acid of a known strength.
+
z x:
temperature is desirable.
.
Various valves and fittings are required for the safe and proper working of a
boile!.. 'i'i~ose,attached dirccily to the pressure parts of the boiler, are referred to
- ..
as b o i l c ~ o u n t i n e s . i
.
1 Salinoineter cock or valve.
I Blow down/scum vsive. c-
L~--
'
1 independent Low boiler water ievel fuel shut-off device and alarm.
-.
L____
.i\
?/.. ~
A'
Safe@ Values :These are to protect the boiler from overpressure. There should
- be a! least two safety valves on the steam drum and one on the Superheater
oat!cr header. The Superheater safety valve must be set to lie before the srealii
d c i m sah!;. valve so as to ensure a flow of steam through the superheater under
blow-ofi'conditions.
Main Stop Valves : These are momted on the Superheater outlet header and
ennbli: rhr: boiler to be isolated from the steam line. If there is more than one
boiici-, they must be screlv-down non-return type (to prevent 10% of steam from
othm boilers in the event of loss of pressure due to burnt tube) may be fitted
w i t h emergency automatic closing device.
Auxiliary Stop Valves : As the main stop valves are not connected to auxiliary
stearn line, these are needed to control reduced steam flow.
Fccd Check Valves : These are Screw down non-return valves. They are non-
rctutn, so ihat in case of loss of feed pressure, the boiler water cannot blow back
into tile feed line. Main Feed check valves are often fitted to the economiser
ir11i:i header. They are C:!ted with extendeb spindles, with positive indication of
thc rrpi:i~ arid closed positions.
6- >-.
Adva?iced !Mnrine Engineering K~o,ulerige Yo/.JJJ
--
I>
!
1:'
~~ .
!
-
Water Gauges
-~ : There are usually two gauge glasses on the Main stzam drum
and a remote level indicator mounted at a convenient position i;l the control
---
roomi'
~~ ~~
-. .
~~~
1
1: Pressure Gauges : These are fitted, as required, to the Main steam drum or t'he
F
superheater outlet header.
f l
I.?
9--- --.-I
Salinometer Valves : I hese are fined to the water drum to enable samples to be
~p~
ecolirig coil, which reduces the lemperature of the sample to a value below
10o0c.
J' Blo:v down vaives : These ar? fit:ed to the water h m s , to enzble the boiler
1 --
t .
The Safety valve lifting pressure (for Main drum and Silperheater) is to be set
2" at a pressure not exceeding 3 % above the approved working pressure of the
-
-
t
.x; ::i
?<
.
'~
Boiicr. I t is important that under all rates of evaporation, sufftcient stenm is
passing through the superheater, to prevent overheating. On this account, Safity
valves are normally fitted to the Superhezfer outlet headcr. Wlicn. 2s is
sometimes the case, additional saturated steam safety valves are fitted on the
<; &
:-Jg
L...
" steam drums, i r i s usual for these to he loaded in excess of the Superheater
safety valves lifting prsssure, so that the Superheater_~afetyvalve will iift first.
, .-
r.
ihus ensuring a steam flow through the ~u~ethealefilemeni.
The pressure drop, which normally takes place after an over-presswc
;J;i. has been relieved, is known as the 'Blowdown'. This Blow-down is limited (by
x ..
s <.,:. classification societies) to 5%, though, in practice, a more usual figure would be
9 :$
3%, as this represents a loss of usable steam. It will be obvious that, for
2;~
- -
3 Superheater protection, not only is it important that ths Superheater safety valve
lifts before the Main drum safety valve but that the Blow-down factor must be
considered, as it is just as important that the Superheater safety valve must also
shut last, to ensure protection of the superheater elements.
91 _
. . ~..
Q35. Describe holy the following conditions can be avoided, in an auxiliary
Boiler :
a) Furnace distortion.
b) Uptake fires.
c) Difficulty in maintaining water le-/el.
d) Feed water contamination by oil.
e) 'Blow-back' in the furnace.
Ans.
a) Furnace distortion : Distortion, of the furnace surfaces, cccurs due to
overheating, and subsequent reduction in furnace-wali strength. This
overheating is caused by the furnace wall being insulated from the water
by either scale, mud, or oil. Faulty cm:bustion will increase the
problem.
Thus the boiler water must be kept in good cocdition, with a good
quality of feed water to avoid hardness I scale formation. Also regular
blow-downs s h d d be carried out.
bj Uprake fires : This is the burning of the ;oot / ilnburnt fuel which
accumulates on the heal transfer surfaces of &.e Econoniiser. This mot
is rich in carbon, and is caused by poor cornbustim, usua!ly in the
mgine, during low load mming. However these fires often have a
zreater intensity than 'normal' fires, and can meit the tubes themselves
(Meral tires). source of this additional 'fuel? is the i
@which
-
dis$o_ciaterinto hydrogen and oxygen at these ele&ed Temperatures. To
,*>;4.m
dissoc~atksteam requires temperature of 2500°c, but at 700'~ the
Colio~wingreaction occurs :
Heat
3 Fe + 12 H20 -- . 3 FeO, i12 Hz
a'
Orice the fig is start~d,two types of reaction a e occurring
a) Iron burnicg in the steam, and
h) kiydrogen burning in the air,
ilnd this type of fire will be self supporting, until the steam supply is
cxiiausted.
Fee6 weter cmtamination by oil : If oil enters the boiler, it will coat
the heating surfaces, and significantly raise the metal temperatures. The
i~dicctic:lof oil in the boiler water, can be seen in the gauge glass, or as
an incrcase in the fuel cnnsumption, for the same steam delivery. The
msin sotircz of ccntarr.ination could be the fue!lll:be oi: heating coils. To
. occurrin" a Weir systeln-----_-~
prevrnt this is used in thz Observation tank of
TGK6iwell. Severe contamination~-affects
L,- ~ ~ ~~
~
- - the Boiler
-
--operarion..,
Furnace blorv-back : This occurs due to insufficient purging of the
Furnace, during bumer firing. The biow-backs occur due to an
accumiilation of oil an6 its vapour w i t h the furnace, which is ignited
, sudden application of heai. The effect c m also
by a re-lit b - ~ r e r i.e.
occur when a sudden admission of air occurs into a fuel-rich flame.
Give the reasons for failure of Bciler tubes. fi& will you detect tube
failure ? Discuss a temporary repair you could carry out, on a leaky
Boiler tube, at sea.
Ans.
Boiler tubes can fail I leak in the following conditions :
I. Excessive corrosion of the tube, which reduces wall thickness to a value
below that, which can safely withstand working pressures and stresses.
This can be caused by oxygen pining or under-deposit pitting.
2. Overheating of the tube due to insufficient water flow, oil depn~itsor
heavy scale formation, which insulates the tube, reducing heat transfer.
Advarrced Marine Engineering &owledge Vol. III
Q.27. Sketch and describe the combustion control system of an auxiliary Boiler.
What are the safety devices ic above system.
Ans.
In ihe control system shown diagrammatically, the final signal,
controlling the fuel sbpplied to the burners, takes account of the Boiler pressure,
steam flow rate md also regulates the air - he1 ratio.
1 1
Ir i
Steam
il
- .4ns.
. This type of boiler is generally used for auxiliary duties and, as such, i~
isunlikely that severe changes in demand will be inflicted upon it.
Also, being of the smoke tube construction, the critically of feed rate is
somewhat dimin.ished, considering the relative mass of water in the boiler and
the stetming rate cf the boi1r.r.
The water levd control would be less sophisticated - (pcbably 2-iem -
': Proportional ilnregral) - wiih High and Low level cut-outs and alaxns. In the
system shown, the b d e r pressure controls :he HighLow flame, by operating
the Oil-Fnel spiil tu suction.
. . If a h i ~ hfiring rate is required thm no spill would occur. if a low tiring
rate were required, then SOIL: of the fuel would be zllowed io spiii back to
suction.
Ti?e Oil fuel supply is shut-off completely by an Odoff solenoid
activated by signals frcm the Water l e d , Steam pressure, Forced-dra~!gh: air
acd Fiane failure sensors.
~.
Tk so!enoid would sl~ur-offthefi\el supply t s the burner under any of the
following condirions :
' Low wste; level - (a Low-low \vater !eve1 wvcold Iock-out the system.
requirfn~a manual reset.)
* . Kish x+ater level '.
Flame failur?
These alarms and trips should be tested regular!^, by actually altering the
controlled condition manually, under close supervision, to initiate alann nnd
trip conditions.
Naval Architecture and Ship Construction
Q.f. With reference to the Ship's anchor and cable arrangements, describe how . .
q c b o i t h e following a r e attached to the ship, using simple sketches :
' '
a) ,Cable stopper. . .
b) Anchor.
c) The 'chain locker' end of the anchor cable.
a) The cable stapper is used to lock the chain, to take weight of the anchor off the
Windlass. It is in the form of a bar, as shown iri the sketch below. Anchor is pulled
tightly into the hawse pipe by means of a bottle screw, called 'Devil's claw',
having a book at one end that fits isto the chain link, znd is s a z r d into an eye
plate at the other.
., . ~ .
. . .
: ,.:..' .. . .,. . . . . .
b) The connection of ihe'anclior t'o tiis cabie should be such, as to permit the rolarion
of the anchoi, witlioi~tallowin: tile cable to get twisted. This is done by means o f
two shackles, whic!i art. connected by a Swivel joint. ..
@ -rhaiil
: ca!i he iicliro,cil, an z n ; e ~ ~ ~ e nby
i-11- 'c11;tiii iockrp~e i ~ ol f tiizanci13i- cabie is connect?d in s~icha way, tiiat the
iii c y ,simply rorning the Hand wheel (ken:
above.), w h x h rc-si~ir.;i : ~:lie scrr\s being !ifred, aroi~ndwhicli t!ie cable is slid. As
r!;e screw iifis. 111,.lice ciitl c i the c&e ivili slip 0111. This is an arrangemenl to
pem~iremerswcy elease of the cab!<, wilhont havinx to physically reilch the
'bitter end'.
Q. 2. A) Describe, with a sketch, how an aluminium superstructure is attached
to the s l e d deck. Indicate all materials used.
(B) Discuss the use of a l u m i n i u n ~ f o r s h i p construction, explaining i t
advantages a n d disadvantages.
Ans.
Aiuniinii!m is frequently used in ship-bidding to construct d e c k h o x e or even rile
entire superstructure (Passenger ships), as the weight saving is considerab!?.
this reduction in weight (on top) reduces the need for having permanan ballas1
(in Passenger ships). thus thcre 1s a two-fold beneiit. This benefit, hoxever. may
not be significant in other types of vessels, such as bulk carriers or cil tankrrs.
which have a comparatively smaller superstructuie.
. . .
The direct connection. of a i alun!inium plate io a steel deck. can give rise lo
.ga]vanic9 corrosion When two dizsimi!ar metals ( here : stze! and aiuminiun2:
a r e connected directly, they form a -galvanic' cell and there is a resuitant
potential difference between them, as they differ in their positions in the
Galvanic table. The relative pszltion of metals, in the Galvznic series. also
depends on whether they are active or passive. Passive means that there is some
coating, like a tilm ofoxide, which prevents further corrosion.
The common probleni Faced lie:e. in ship construction, is the galvanic cori-ojiol,
berwzen the mild &el platin? oi'rhe ship's hull with the bronze or nickel ailo?s
of the ~ropeiler.Anoti!e~- comnio!? problem is faced in the attach;neni oj' :rn
Aiuininiunl supersti-i~cri~te
to ;i stssl deck, as comnioniy fotind in passcngzl-
vessels and cruise ships.
COMPOUND
S T E E L RIVET
'
1 S ? E EDECK
~
99
Q. 3. Where and why are Deep tanks fitted on merchant ships Y Describe with
the help of suitable sketches, the important aspects of Deep tank construction,
including the scantlings and the method of testing.
Ans.
Most modem vessels are of the 'Aft accommodation' type. with the
Machinery spaccs also aft. Thus, there is a need to have a 'Deep' tank loward, so a s
ro achieve the reqxired trim easily. Also, it" only Double bottom tanks were used for
ballast, the vessel may become 'too stiff ', i.e. the Centre of Gravity is unduly
lowered. For :his reason, a forward Lower Hold is so arranged, as 20 permit the iilling
of ballast water, when required; and is'calle8 a s ri Deep tank.' Besides-sea water
ballast, the Deep tank may be used for any other liquid, such as fuel oil, i.e. it can b e
used ior Bunkers.
If the Lower Hold is to be used for caniage of liquids, it obviously needs to be
strengthened, in order to resist the maximum possible head due to the liquid carried. A
!Vast, plate iz fiired in a longitudinal direction, so as to reduce the Free surface effect.
;IS well as the suige of liquid, when roiling. The Haichway must elso be made water
a ~ l doil rig!it, so as to prevent the escape of any liquid. Frames are riomally made at
!cast I5 % stron~er.
3ulkheaa stiffeners are spaced nor more than 600 m m apart and have Srackris
at tho head and the foot. The deck plating &us[ be at least I mni thicker than that of
ihe boundary bulklieads Beams are nonnsi size, provided they are not smafler than
the bulkhead stiffenxi. The beams imust be additionally supported by intercosial
!;irders on either side o i t h e cenrre lice.
Hns.
Freeboard is the distance from the water-line to the e d s e of the ~ ~ p u e r n i o s t
continuous deck ai the ship's side, which is usually the nmin deck. A cenain
mlnin,i~mfreeboard is assigned to provide adequate reserve buoyancy, so a s to cepe
with adverse weather conditions, as well as a possible limited loss of buoyancy in the
event of ship runnins aground or colliding, leading to floodiny.
T o help i n differentiating the anlouni of freeboard to be assigned lo different
type5 of vessels, ships are sub-divided as Class A, which includes all vesgels carrying
.bulk liquid cargo ie.y. rankers) and Class B, which includes aii the remaining types.
no1 fallins ii: Class .4 (e.2. con!ainer vessels).
& 5 ~ Sketch and describe an arrangement of funnel uptakes, for a motor vessel,
giving details of the $&hod of attach'meni of'the Funnel a n d horq suppork is
provided, W h a t are the materials used in construction and their scantlings 7
Ans.
The funnel is composed of an outer casing of steel p1a:es 6 m n to 8 miit in
thickness, which are stiffened internally by angles or flat bers running
verticzlly.
The funnel is connecred lo the deck by a boundary an&, while the free end on
rap is sliffenzd by a moulding, which is half round in section.
The support is givsn by means of wire stays, attached by lugs to the funnel and
rlie deck. and capable of being tightened by means of rizging screws. Access is
by rnezns of a water-righ; door, capable of being opened from both sides.
Therz is a p l a t f ~ mabout i m high inside the funnel, throtrgh which the upiakes
pass without any connection, in order to take care of the expansion, v!hich is
doir~: by tileans c f bellows. The upiakes pass through hales cut in the p1a:fornx.
niid have a slidisg riirg sr;angemei!i ro p e n ~ i expansicii.
t
Tk,e iop of the u?t&es ead a: the lop oftlie fmmel, and are con:iectzd hy ~ncijri-:
of :an arigle iron or ring to thc uppet- platfo~m
A silciiczr is fitted to e n-~ i n ei:pte:-es,.and is supported on its own seat. Ladders
m r ! xiaiiiigs prgvide access for mainrmance and inspection
Ans.
Hatchways are cut aut of the deck, which rewks in reduction i n strength a f the
Siruclure. In order to restore the slrtn$, z3"liiional stifiening meassres need l o bc
taken, ai shown in the s!:eich below. D
/
' n
#? 43 mm - AFT
LY
s
The strength of the deck plating is reduced by the o?eningi ciit into it. which i;
madp up by Comings, which are vcnical stiffe~ers,welded to the sides of the
hatchways. The height of the coaming cl?ould be such, a s to pseveqt the enIIy 3f sea
water - on freeboard decks, it is 600 mrn, where they are exposed to the weather. On
superstructure decks, aft of 'Aof the length ofthe ship, the height is A 5 0 mm.
The loss of resistance due to beams being cut in way o i the hatches is made
good by adquate stiffening. Half beams are attached to the deck girder. The deck
girder is fitted in line with the side coarnings. Horizontal plates, called Gussets, are
fitted under the harch corners to sxengthen the connection &ween the coamingr and
the hatch end beams.
Stress concentrarions could occw.at [he square edges o f the coa~viiigs.which
are reduced by having the deck extending inside the hatchway, as shown. The corners
are rounded off, and the radius nlust be at least 1124 of the breadth of the openin:: or
al least 300 mm,whichever is more. Full penetration fillel welds are used for seitins ;i
good join. If coamings are 600 mm or more in height, they we to be stiffened iurrhcr
by bulb bars, at least 180 m m deep, fined horizontally near the upper edge of the
coaming. Vertical brackets, called stays, are htted to connect thc above stiffene~sto
tlie deck, and these must be not more than 3 11) apart.
Q.7. \\'hat is Pounding ? \\'hat ar-e the effects of pounding, on the s t r u c t u r e of
the vessel, a n d whet precnutions ueed to be taken during design, to reduce the
effects o f t h i s ?
4.115.
T[
T h e ship experiences severe srress dul-ing pitching, when !he fcre end emerges
from the water and slams down with tremendous iorce, which is called as Pounding.
9.np*.e"i,,:
~ ;3$
orc'oukllr bb~t,=m
9'&tp
- .. . I
5%L
15-3081.
Pounding region
The forward section, fi-om %;h o f the length or 5 %, till 25 - 50 % abaft the
siem. is to be strenghened by increasing the rhickness of iiie outer bottoln piatin?~
Also, str-ei~:thcniil: :he coiinections Corn ?he ;ide sheil to rlie inlie: b d ~ o n lor rank-
side !jrdi:!-.
!it !I-ansveisel;. fi~ameddouble borionis. fix pounditis !region hzs solid plate
floors at c,,ei y frmi: space, and m i ~ s t ' b econnzcred !o the outer bottom plariny by
coniiiiiio:i; ~.velds.In longitudinaily fwmed double bot~onis.plate noors are fitted a i
every a!tc7wIe frame sphce.
0 . 8 . a) Sketch a water-tight door and frame.
b) Explain how water-tightness of the door is ~ n s u r e d .
Ans.
Water-tight doors are provided to maintain the watei-tightness o f a
bulkhead, while pernitting access. In ships having shafl tunnels, the access to
the tunnel iiom the engjne room is through a wa!er-tight door. Similarly,
passenger ships reqvire water-tight doors to ailow passage, from one part of
tne accomrnodatio& to another water-tight pan.
When c u n i ~ gopenings in water-tight bulkheads, care is taken to
maintain the stiffness, by framing and reinforcing it, if vertical stiffeners are to
he cut in way of tile opening. If the stiffener spacing is t o be increased to
accommodate the opening, the scantlings of the stiffeners on either side o f the
opening are increased, t o give an eyivalznt strength to that of an un-pierced
bulkhzsd. The opening should be as sn;all as practicable, being 1000 t o 1250
mm high .and 700 mm wide, this however k i n g made bixger in passengzr
ships. They are normal:y ofthe siidiilg type - either horizontal or vertical. The
closing may be by hand (vertical screw thread f r ~ mremote) or by hydraulic
rams. In case of hinged water-tight doors a t higher levels, the pins in the
hinges ,nust be of 5urr-metal.
The water-right doors must be capable of being closed upto a list of 15'
and opening / shutting must be possible both lccally as well as from a remote
location above the bulkhead. At this remote location, an indicator is to be
provided, showing the status of the door i.e open or closed. These are of mild
steel or cast steel, depending on the requirements.
Water-tight doors, in cargo vessels (rarely found in modem cargo vessels), are
to be tested by a hose test, while those in passerzer ships are tested by
submerging under a head ofwater extending to the deck above the water-tizht
bulkhead. This is done before the door is fitted in the ship.
--
Metallurgy
YQ.~.
Write short notes on : a) Strength, b) Hardness and Elasticity,
c) Eior~;niion a n d Ductility, d) Malleability and Toughness, e) Plasticity,
0 Stiffness, g) Brittleness, h) Fatigue Failure 1 f3tigue limit and i) Creep.
Ans
1.
- -.
artlount of stretch. jusr bcfore fracr~kre- usually expressed as a psireiiray
scia~eiro ductility.
i?. Fatigue Limit: This is the greaiest sties8 or range of stresses. whicll can
be applied to 3 rnemb-r, for an onlimited number o f cycles. wirhoul
caiisini: failure.
Ij Creep: When a component is loadcd, over a long period o f time, ti:e 111e;aL
may exhibit extension and ultimately fail, at a stress well b e l u x the
Ultimat: Teqsile Stress (UTS). The effictj: s f creep are serious
deformation at high temperatur?.
J
YQ.2Explain
. t h e effects of the following elements o n steels : a)Mangane:e.
b)Nickel, c)Chrome, d)Molybdenum, e)Vanadium, f)Tungs!er., g)Cobait,
h)Silicon, i)Sulphur a n d Phosphorous.
Ans.
V I a n p n e s e : Manganese increases hardenability in steel, but also incl-cases
brittieness. It is used with a low carbon steci: to increase tensile stren:th.
Vanadium: This i s a De-oxidising agent, i.e. it reduces the iron oxide conten;. i t
-
also increases resistance to fatigue. Used in boiler rube material.
--
Tungsten: This refines the grain size, to i:nprove hear resistance and c o r ~ o s i o n
resistance. Used in machine tool-bits and cutters in the form ofTungsten Carbidr.
.-?
J Q .W~
J r i t.e s h o r t n o t e s on : a ) Case hardening.
- - 5 ) Nitriding.
c) Flame H-rdening
Ans. c
Case hardening -
q0o cL.s&nJ
This is a process by which the outer surface of a mild steel component can
be hardened, ail around or on selective Lieas (you c2n paint the pan of the
burface, \vhich is not required to be hardened).This process is done by enrichin:
cnrbon content of the surface and applying t h ~ treatment.
,y$i-;
Thr skin is carbon-enriche: by 'soa iqg the component in some carbon-
rich material (e.8. charcoal) at a .-temperature
- 3bove 900 ". The depill of rhe
rarjon-enriched skin will depend upon the mate& used for enrichment and on
the length oT soak. The depth of the "c2:se" may vary from 0.8 mm. (2 hours) LO
h r n (12 hours).
Nitrid!ng,
#
(~ 0 - 5 5bc q - l - 3 PLQCm 1
The component is placed in gas-tight container, circulated by Ammoniz gas and
heated to 5=. Skin depth - 0.125mm (5 hours) to 0.05mm (24 hours). The
change from 'nmreated' to 'hardened' skin is more gradual - this reduct- the risk
of exfoliation.
Flame - Hardening.
Used oli surfaces of Cast steel, Cast Iron and alloy steels. E.g. Gear teeth. The
coinponent is heated locally to about 800 '
ipray.
-....-(e.g Hardening of gear teeth).
- C and quickly quenched by water - ~.
',$I\= What are the alloys of Copper? Discuss briefly the properties and basic
//composftion of various alloys of Copper, such as Brass, Muntz metal,
Alum~ntumBrass, Admiralty brass, Manganese Bronze, Admiralty bronze,
- ,
Cunrnetal and Monel metal.
Ans.
C o w : I t is a soft and ductile material but ages / work-hardens very quickly.
becoming hard and fairly brittle. Good heat and electrical conductor,
~~~ --
Advanced Marine Engineering Knowledge Vof. Ill
. ~ >-:
~, * . ~ /
- 3j.
.
/7
.-R ~ ~ r :s sI t 18 a~l,?!loy o f Copper and Zinc, containing up to 45 % Zilic. h;~:~,~!
.-~~~..
brasses are available, proponions depending upon the plirposc anticipaled.
Brasses contaiiiing up ro 5 9 % Zinc are known as u Brasses. Brasses c o ~ i i n i r , i ~ ~
between >9 % and 43 % Zinc are known as B-Brasses. They are g e n e i ~ l klio,vl, l~
by their respective percen:ages of Copper and Zinc. bul more c o m n ~ o nalio>s
have i p t - c i k nnmes.
70130 Brass is 70 Copper, 50% Zinc - it has model-are strenqri,. 601-10
Brass (knon.n as M u n t z Metal) is stronger, bur is less d11c:ile - it i q a goad ail-
purpose Brass. If Aluminium [Al) is added, it intpro\-ts the erosion and corl~osioll
p ~ o p e r ~ i e sE.2.
. (76 Copper, 22% Zinc) Aluminium,Brass is iised f c i ~
coiidenser tubes and rube-plates. Mi--- . ~'.',-.
L ~'hi C T . ,
A\ yd 5- L ~ ! >h9-,.yJ . L * ~;w>w - I-*.-.+:
-':*
.~..--
L i l
Adding Tin (51,) fiirther iniiibirs corrosion. g. .4dinir.rity 31-i!;s (70U.; C u
and 29 % Zii with 0 l%Sn). A trace of HI-senic (0.01 16 0.05 %) ~-:si~i.; ilc-
zincificatioii. ?'his Brass is aidel!. used for co~idensertube piates. Adding L.C;I(I
(l'b). i n h he order of 2%. iiicrea\ts machiiie~biiitya;id also resists ' i ~ n p i n ~ c ~ : : ~ i ; <
attack:. Corrosion I-esisrance can be funher improved by addins Nickel (Ni).
a p p r ~ s i n a t e i y1 %. . ! 2' ,, . i5.2
L!
.. ... . ,.
.i ,
ii?anganese Bronze is a high-tensile Brass (58% CLI. 55% Zc. 7% c ~ i i r i ~
eleriieiirs). I t is hot-v.orking alloy for heavyduly bearings and fur p!~opellers. TIie
7% ,n;y include ZC/b Al, 2% I:bn(Fe), 2% Manganese(Mn) and 1%Sn. ~ d r n i l - a i h
t h o n z r is 80% Cu, 19% Al, j?: Fe, 5% Mn. it is stion: and corrosion rssisiont.
2nd is used for pump casings, impellers, tubes and tube-plates.
Bronze is an alloy of Copper and Tin (about 10% Sn). E.g. Gunmetni.
which is 88% Cu, 10% Sn, 2% Zn. This has good casting qualities fni- pump
casings. bearins housings and valves. D r a w n Phosphor Br~onze,94 CII. 5 . 5 %
Sn, 0 1 % P5osphorous, is used in the work-hardened condition. and is suitable t b r
heavy duty bearings and for steam turbine blades.
Moncl Metal, 29% Cu, 68% Ni; 125% Fe. 1.25% Mn. is ducrile. can be
hot or cold-~vorkedand forged. I t is highly corrosion resisiant. and is iised ia,-
imp?lIers and in chemical applications.
b) Strength
c) Corrosion Resisrance
Titanium has the highest strength-to-weight ratio of acy struc~c:ml
metal(about 30% better than either Aluminium or steel). This esceptionrti si~-rngtll
to \\-eight ratio is maintained over a wide temperature ranyc (from - 200 "C to 5%)
"Cj.
The prcsence of a thin but tough and tenacio~ts oxide surface tilni.
provides escelient corrosien resistznce to borh aimospheric, as weli as rhs sza
wat::r environme~t.Being near the cathodic end of the galvanic series. titaniun?
peribrms as a 'Ysble' metal.
Other properties are:-
ii) High melting point (compared wit!> steel)
(ii) Low thermal canductivity
(iii) High electrical resistivity
(iv) Low coefficient of expansion.
Due to the difficulty of obtaining the metal from its ores, i t is very
expmsive, and thus not for general use. Th9 pure metal has a low :ensile strength
r i 1 6 i\/l~l/m') and a high ductility (50%) Due to traces impurities in its
com~nercialform, it's tensile strength is upto 700 M N I ~and ' the ductility is 20%.'
Titanium is one of the few allotropic metals (like steel), and it can exist in
two crystallographic forms : At room temperature it has a Hexagonal close-
packed s:ructure. At about 900°c, it transforms to a Body Centel-ed Cubic
(BCC) structure. Like steel, titanium can be heat treated. Also alloying elements
can retain or stabilise a s ecific crystal fxni. Titanium alloys, \vitl; tensile
P
s r m ~ t h supto 1500 MNlrn-, have been used. The mechanical properties of the
mctal are related to the crystai form. In the BCC form, it is niuch stronger. but
more brirtle than the HCP form.
Fabrication o f titanium is difficult, due to its affinity for Hydrogen.
Oxygcr~ c?c Nitrogen - all these impurities can cause embrittlement. Hence.
eie\/atcd-ternl)erat~~re plocesses, such as welding, require care and experlisz.
Usually casting is carried out under vacuum conditions to avoid oxidation.
Advanced Marine Engineering Knowledge VoL 111
Q. 6. What -~~
is Metal-locking
~-.-
? What repairs a r e czrried out by hletal-
locking?
Ans.
k M e t t a l o c k 01 Metal-lnckiug. js.~a 'cold'
- repair of brokenhacked
~~.~
.. ~- castings, in lieti
of repizcernent .-
of the casting. It has proved popular, due to its cost benefits (as
iompz&f to replacement of the casting). It provides sufficient strength, and
enables the casting to be repaired 'in-silu', i.e. without having to disnianrle and
remove the componenr to shole workshops.
The affected surfaces have to be carefil!ly prepared, by chiseilng or
grindine. Broken pieces arc accurately re-alig~edand held in fixtures or clamps.
jigs are used co Fosition the 'F3ttern' ~f holes across the crack, at right anglps.
Holes are drilled and then 'joined' by accurate cliiseling, to create 'slots- of a
specified shape. These will accept pre-made 'Keys'.
'Keys' are thin 'peened' into the slots, in lcyers, by pneumatic hammers.
Holes are then drilled and tapped, alpn:, the line of fracture. These are careftil!y
spaced - alternate h d e s leaving d gap which is less than the hole diamzter. Studs
arc thex tightly fined and 'snapped' off, caulked and 'dressed-off. Gaps are then
drilled, tapped, plugged and 'dressed' :o complete the seal along the original
crack. The studs seal against pressure and exert a tensile stress along t h t 'keys'.
The 'keys' restore the rigidity to the casting.
Key material is Invar (56% Ni, 0.21%C, 63.79% Fe). I t has a low coefficient of
expansion, is soft but work-hardens to zn Ul?imate Tensile Strength (U.T.S.) of
780 MN/ m', afier 'peening'.
Advantages :
Dampens cornpressior, stresses.
No new stiesses or strains.
.
Disadvantages :
Keys are subject to 'creep'
Advanced Marine Engineering Knowledge Vol. Ill
i lOOi<ES LAW
i
I T the
I I
A'
SUDDEN EXTENSION
-
spccimen is unloaded, at any point on the curve, there is an
imrwdizte recovery of strain (according to Hooke's I-dw) but negligible
TIME
Brittle Fracture :
Some nxtals, norinally considered quite ductile, can fracrure in a brittle
manner. E.g. Mild steel, used extet~sivelyin ships can behave in this manner.
Normally ductile materials undergo 'slop' within the structure, so that substan;ial
plastic deformation takes place, before fracture. However, in some cases, slop
can be suppressed, such that the fracture occurs suddenly, with very little prior
plastic deformation.
: Brittle fracture is characterised by very high speed propagation. T i e
bright, coarse, crystalline surface often exhibits 'chevrons' ('Vee' markings)
which point back to the source of fractuie. The tendency of brittle fracture to
occur increases with:-
i
Advanced Marine Engineering Knowledge Vol. Ill
. The presence of tri-axial stresses. Hence thicker plate are more prone than
thin plates.
High swain rates, usually associated with the presence of notches or stress
. concentrations.
Low temperatures.
The effect o f low tenqxrature can br: simulated by a notched bar impact
test, i: g. Charpy or Izod. I f the energy ro fracture is plorted against tcmperatttrc -
tl1ei.i: may b: a sudden change from ductile to brittlc bekaviors. This is known as
the 'ductile-brittle' transiti~n.
It wm!d be impractical to remove every possible notch or stress
coriccntration. Also, the working temperature cannot be altered. Thicker plates
may be wed, of hisher strength, e.3. high tensile steel.
Arresting techniques can be used to prevent the spread of cracks. in o!der
ships, rivettd seams would arrest the crack, since the crack could not propzgate
GCriiSS cj;%reiil p ! 6 3 rivetzd toge;her. On fully welded s h o p . -notch-ductile'
std is i r ~ciitiial posirioils. E.g. shear strake, bilge strake, kezl, comers of
open; rigs.
b< NGN-FERROUS
The S-N diagram indicates that the fatigue strength, or endwance strength,
decreases with increasing number of cycles. me S-N curve is sometimes divided
into two regions.
Below N = lo4 cycles, the effect is known as high stress, or low cycle, fatigue
Above N = 10' cycles, it is known as low stress, or high cycie, fatigue.
For ferrous metals and a v e v few others, the S-N curve approaches a
finite stress aptitude, called the fatigue limit. Below tkis;-'a fraciwe will not
develop, however great the number of cycles.
The appearance of a fatigue fracrure has several characteristic features(at
least i n ductile materials such as Mild steel). In materials with less ductility, such
as alumin~mallays, recognition of a fatigue fracture is not so easy. Unlike the
tensile fracture, there is no apparent plastic deformarion, adjacent to the fracture.
Advanced Marine Engineering Knowiedge Vol. Ill
@ this ? Why does a component, subject to fatigue, have a limited working Life ?
Ans.
Fatigue.
The decrease in usable strength under cyclic leading iz directly attributed
to the fact that the material is not an idcal homogenous d i d . In each half cycle,
mini~sculeitrains thar are no; completely recoverab!e are pi-oduced. Due to this
thcre is a gradoal reduction i l i ducti!iry in the incremenrally strhin hardened areas.
This in turn leads ro thz formation of sub-niicroscopic cracks, the effect of these
crack is to concentrate stresses, until failure occurs.
The minute strains tend to be at grain boundaries and around surface
in.egi:arities. Tine surface finish has a tremcndous sfiec: on fatigue strength :-
Type of finish Surface rougkness Endurance
Micro inches Pounds per sq. inch.
Ground 16-25 9 1 .OOO
Lapped 12-20 100.00
Super-finish 5.6 i 16,000
Designiltg against failure by fztigue, is very much itlore cornp!ex and
dific~iltriian designing for static st!-ength.There are a number of reasons for this,
which include the high sensitivity :o local stress concentrations and rhe larse
dr:)cndence on the corrosive environment. Small specimens of represenrative
111al.wiai give 6ifferent results in laboratory fatigue tests, than do larger specimens
or the actual structures. The larger the specimen, the lower the fatigue strength,
p;!rticularly when there are stress concentrators. This explains the minute attention
that is required to be given to the cross-section, coaxeness of the:surface,
.?ciatciies, too-small fillet radii, poor distribution of load between bolts and weld
flashes. These are only a few of the frequent causes of fatigue failure.
The influence o f cherniczl~actionis complex and difficult to reduce to
quarililativc terms. Fatigue cracks usually start from some point of stress
concenlralion. such as a key-way, s h a v fillet, micro-structural defect or even a
bad tool mark.
Any "locked-in" stress from bad welding cool out or thermal stress can
rnakr: a signiiicant contribution. Fatigue cracks are not necessarily the result of
tiulry niateriai. Sometimes, bad design vill limit the working cross-section of a
coinpollcnt subjected to alternating stresses. A knowledge of the behaviour of the
Advanced Marine Engineering Knowledge Vol. 111
material in fatigue will allow an assessment of the useful life of the component to
be made, so that i t can be replaced, after an appropriate working period, such as a
bot1om end bolt of a four stroke engine. For plain steels. the fatigue strength in air
is nluch higher than in water, even fiesh water Col~osionresistance of a material
is more impcrtant then its static tensile strength, in determining the corrosion
fatigue strength. For example, plain carbon steels show a marked reduction of
fatigue strength in fresh water ; while chromium steels are only slightly affected
by water and the corrosion fatigue strength is unaffected.
A similar phenomenon is frrtting cormsicn, when two components at-e
pressed against each other. Thus slight but repeated relative motion occrrs, as for
kxample, in holding-down bolts, when the fretting corrosion destroys the joint
faces, when running. The corrosion products formed, like a reddish brown dust
Ferric oxide. in the case of steel, can help to detect this condition.
a) Sreel m d
b) Cast Iron.
Steel has less :han 1.8% carbon, while Cast Iron has between 2% and 4% carbon.
Upto 1.8% carbon can exist in steel as a chemical compound called iron
Carbide. This enables the steel properties to be modified by heat treatment. The
carbon, in 'grey' Cast Iron, exists in the form of flakes of pure graphite. This
makes the material weak in tension, but easily machinabl;.
There are two factors of importance to the marine engineer :
Hardness : This increases with increase in carbon content, i.e., steel with 1.2%
'
carbon is much harder :hen steel with 0.2 % carbon. Both the low and high
carbon sti-el are capable of being machined in the normal state, although the
speeds of machining must be low, in case of the high carbon steel, to prevent
'scrface hardening'.
Strength . She effect of carbon, on the strength is that up to 0.83 %, the strength
increiszs, and dfter 0.83%, the streugth reduces, due to brittleness.
,? chari of properties and carbon content is listed below for comparison.
MNI~'
Carbun Content - Ductility( %)
Hardness No.
, !ensile Srreng!
-20% 1 125 !
i
I
Compared with steel, the value of the strength of Cast iron is very low.
altl~o~.i~;ti the value given is from the tensile test only. The comprcssivr strength of
Cast iron is mush higher 690 MN/n12, which indicates that this material is best
siiii.i:il to compressive loads. I t is also very brittle, so it should not be subjected ro
shwk loails. Cast Ilon has a lower meiring point than steel and is much easier to
cast.
Advanced Marine Engineering Knowledge Val. ill
C H U T TREATMENT CHART
1
AND HARDENING
% CARBON
-- - ---
Note that the temperature is 900 OC for pure iron, falling to 7 0 0 ' ~ lor
0.83% carbon, after which temperature is constant for increase in carbon content.
These temperatures where changes take place are called Critical
temperatures, above which change occurs and below which any change cannot
occur. To ensure thut the desired changes !lave occurred, the component must be
heated to 20 - 50 OC above the critical temperature, before cooling the steel, in
th:: rnarmer necessay to give the required properties. It is thus possible in
determine the correct temperatures, for treatment of plain carbon s!eels.
,$ Q.13. Explain 'Notch toughness' in mzteria!~. 0nt:ine the test carried-out fi,
determine iocghness - the Izod Impact Tcst. Discxss how rviil ycu repair a
high pressure steam pipe by welding, and ensure that it's properties a r e nut
lost?
Ans. - .~
,
2.--.s
'Notch toughness' is a measure of a material's strength, in rhe presence '** .
.-.
.;$+
of any stress concentration, such as a notch or a crack. Brittle materials, such as :,!
tp
$lass or ceramic, will fracture readily at a notch or surface xratch, but have qu!R
..- ..
iiigir strengths, in the absence of any -stress raiser'. Similarly, low 'notch
m!ghr!ess' may occur in metals, the chiet' p1-obIen1being in high strength alioys.
. -3 1
Brittle materials, i.e. those that fracture wid? little plastic deformation, in a - .a $:..
straigh!. tension test, will have very i o ~ ynotch toughness. However, the opposite is GQ
~mfr,r.t~.ir~ately nor ti~!e.Evec thou$ a material is diictile in a tensile test. with i ~ i $ l ~--~
1
.+a, .?
:
i
eloi~gatiofiand reduction of area, i r may fractrtre in the presencs o f a notch or ,& . .x
.--;c
crack, without appreciable plastic flow and at low average stress.
This was found first observed in heat-treated al!oy steels. Various notched-
$~;
bar. impact tests, s u c , ~as the lzod and Charpy tests, were developed, to measure a .c_.-.l
$&--
marcrial's ability to withstand stress concentrations. It was observed, thzt the. & :
riotch toughness of mild steel, which was a highly ductile and standard E.4
construciional material, was questionable, following fractures in many of the early $9
ail-welded ships, due t o i h e absence of any form of heat treatmefit tiler. A crsck
can propagate through mild steel, and other similar metals, with little plastic
deformation and at low applied stress (75 MN/rn2). The Izod and C h a q y tests are
srill [hi. standard tests of notch toughness.
lr: the Izod tea, the specimen is a square bar (10 x 10 mnl), in which a
45' ilotch, with u root radius 0.25 mm, iz cut across one face, :o a depth of 12 mni.
I: is held verlically in a vice; the top of which is level with the notcli, and the fi-ee
end s!si~c!<,on the notched side, by a 27.2 kg pendulum, moving at 3.5 mls. The
c n e y y (ir~Joule) absorbed in fracturing the spccinlen or bending i t to a!low fiee .irrur
:&:
pasxi!!:; of' thc pendulum. is obtained fioiii the decrease in amplitude of the .=.g.2
.-*-i
l l ~ I . Ctmpy test uses a similar size of specimen, witli a notch cut in
e
:- I
-
;
-
Y & ?
SZ
Advanced Marine Engineering Knowledge Vol. Ill
the middle. 11 is simply supporrd 21 botli ends and st[-itck with a 27.2 kp
pendulum in the middle, on the opposite side to the notcli.
Tllr energy absorbed 11: a test (at room temperature) was iegarded as a
Sllffi~ieiltcriterion of a material's resistance to ii-acture. Nowadays, the energy
?bsorbed is measured as a function of the temperatilie. Over a transition
iempera!iire range, the energy value c h a ~ g e sfairly a p i a l y from a high vrtiuc to a
low one. i t is considered that a material is satisfactory in service. if used above the
transition telmpereture range and unsafe below i t .
Am.
Corrosion Cells
If one part of z metal surface is esposed to a higher concentration of
oxygen than another part, the higher osyoenated area tends to become positive
and r1:e lower area negative (anodic), w i ~ hcorrosion of the latter (anode) taking
place. This is refe-red to as Electro-chemical corrosion. Any variation in Ion
ccncentration against a mrtaliic suriace will give rise to similar corrosion.
Cavitatioa Attack
Cavitatian attack is due to t!x hammering effect of streams of vapour
buihles, caused by turbulence. wliich b m and collapse, over a sniall aiea of
metal surface. This airack not only removes any protective films, but physically
removes n~etal,until a hole appears and the component fails. A common example
is a partially throtiied sea-waler value.
The rate of corroxive attack depends on how much curien~,per unii ar-e;~.
acts on the anodic area. (current density). The current is less, if the two nletais are
close on the galvanic table. A Iaqe copper sheer nailed down with steel ins
- - .. -
would result in a large cathode area (copper sheet) and a small anode area. Thrse
would be an intense attack on the steel pins.
liowever. if a large sheet of steel were fastened with copper pins. the
attack on the sreel sheet would be negligible, as the anodic area would be very
large, as compared with the small cathodic area of the copper pins.
Dc-zincification Of Brass : This is the removal cf the zinc from tlie brass a!iciy,
leaving behind a porous weak spongy copper. Certain brasses can be inhibited
from this attack by the additior of zrna!l amount of arsenic. (Single 1)hast:
brassesj, The more complex brasses can not be ~nhlbi?edby this method. File
addition of small amounts of tin (1%) helps to retard this corrosion.
Graphitisation
In sea w a t q the imn matrix of cast iron can be selectively corroded away.
Ie'iving behind a Fragile sile!l, consisting !argely of graphite. This attaCK is aiicn
vverlooked, as there is little chaage in outward appearance. Tne galvanic effect
of qaphitisarion can be serious on adjacent "no!i-ferrous" compontnts. ?he laypi
vi' yiC~phiteremainin2 is more noble than any of t k copper-alloy compoiii-m;.
hence their corrosion can follow the graphitisation of cast iron.
Stress Corrosion.
If a brass component is "cold worked" by being bent and shaped, the mctal
Is uoequally stressed. This stress can be enough to set up a galvanic coupit:
ibi.Lweeii adjacent areas. The subsequent corrosion is caused by ammonia, whicl:
sets u p a concentrated attack at the grain bouxdaries in the areas of unequal stress.
lmpinpernent Attack
This is the result of the devdopment of high speed turbulenr flow in the
waccr; the flow carrying entrained air bi~bbies.This effect can occur even if the
tiow velocity is loi.~;however, the faster the flow velocity, the greater the rate of
corrosion. The attack on the metal follows the lccal renloval of the (nom~al)
protective film. Thesites, where thc impingement takes place, become the anodic
amls, b~tiichare surrounded by the large (unaffected) cathodic areas, where the
filins al-c undamaged. The continuo~rsimpingement of sea water prevsnts any
pissivaiing film from re-forming.
Typical factors contributing to impingement attack are badly designed or
as:jeinbicd systems, where flanges are out-of-line and there are sharp bends.
Partial fouling, by debris and lack of ail- release pipes, can also assist the attack.
Even with sniooth flow, in a well designed system, ~. each material lias an
optiil;unl w a k r speed, !o avoid inipingernent attackf-
Aluminium Brass (76% Cu, 22"/oZn, 2%AI) .......... .:. 3 .nl/sec
Cu-Ni (9011 0 with 2%Fe a n d l %Mn) ......r ....... ~3.7rn/sec
Cu-Ni (70130 with I0/3Fe and I%Mn) ......... .r... 4.5 misec
Titanitlm cart. sustain.upto- 10-12 inls and is iniperviou$ to any rapid
changes in velocity. The natural cxide films can be ieinforced by iron compounds
i n the water. A layer or film of hydrate ferric oxide deposits, assist inresisting
inrpii?gen~entattack. ~-
Hence sacrificial anodes of soft iron not only provide protection, bclr also
pro-,ide iron compounds. lion addition can be ferrous sulphate dosing into the
sea-yarer stream. Slight overdosing- is not harmful, but excessive amounts can
- build iip the themal resiztancp to hear transfer.
Protection can also be achieved by impressed current. This method
controls the rate of coil-osion. by impressing an equal, but opposite current,
ihrough the anode. This prrve:lts ciirrosion pf t h t anose material, as well as
protects the systenr. Using the impressed current technique has the advaiitaze of
avoiding the handling of 1ar;e aruounis of dosing chemicals, which could he a
lhazard.
Sand Erosion.
This occurs in ~ h a l i o w waiers. T h e abras~vzeffect o i sand can ca.:sc a
- "enera1 thinning or canassist corrosion by removing protective films.
='
.~. . ~~~.~ . ~~. . ~.
.~
Bacteria ~ t i a c k . . . ...
. This can result. frcm ley-up or prolonged period .in pol1u;ed. watei-s. The
~
. .
Q.13 Describe each of the follorving Non-destructive tests (NDT)
a) Radiqgrapky.
bj X-rays, Gamma Rays.
c) Ultra Sonic.
d) Magnetic psrticle test.
Ans.
Radioirxplty
This reveals rhe presence and nature of discontinuities, in the interioi of
welds and castings. Short wave radiation s ~ t c h a sx-rays or gamma rays ai-e passed
through the object being examined, and the shadow formed is studied. eithci- on
Advanced Marine Engineering Knowledge Vol. 111
G a m m a Rays
This radiation is used for outdoor work and in confined spaces, since
neither electrical power nor water supp!y is required, X-rays are produced by
d~wornposXonof radioactive substances - but due to decay, the strength of the
sour%: decreases with time (Half life).
-
Iriditur, 192 is roughly equivalent to a 500,000 V x-ray set, a s regards
per~ct~xting power and has a useful life of 40 days. Cobalt 60 has a half-life of 5.3
yean arid is useful, where a greater pcnefrating power is required. c.g. 60 mm or
grre3.m thickness of steel plste. Typical faults revezled by radiography incixdc
rim-rnztollicl inclusions (e.g. slag), porosity, cracks and other weld defects, such
as i!~adeqitatejoint penetration, incornplere fusicn, casting faults such a s
sl~i-in!cagea r ~cavities.
i
i'his method uses the reflection of sound waves. Being safer for the
o!)eriitor, tllan x-rays or other radio-active means, this method is be coin in^ mot-e
popl.ilar, tilie to its environmentally friendly nature. However. its limitation is t!ae
ext;:iil ul' area covered. Pulses of high frequency sound waves are applied to :he
cornpolleiit under test, by a peizo.electrical crystal.
Advaiiced frlarine Engineering Knowledge Vol. 111
Fluorescent :
Highly fluorescent liquid with good penetrating qualities is applied ro the
surface, and is drawn inrr, small surface openings, like cracks, by capillary action.
When penetration is complete, the excess penetrant must be removed, to avoid
interference with actual defect observation. A developer, which draws penetrant
from a defect and produces fluorescent indications under U~ V. l i ~ h t ,is the:,
applied. A dry powder method is commo:ily used, but a colloidal water
suspension may be used, applied by dipping or spraying, followed by hot air
d~ying.
that minute poles are established at these discontinuities. These poles have a
sirongel- attraction for fine-n~agne!icparticles, than the surrounding 'sound' parent
niatei-ial. Thus. the positions of defecti are ~cvealzdby observation of magnetic
jmr?icle distribution or lines of force. which out-line the irregularity.
Defects which may be detected are surface cracks of all kinds, sub-surface
cracks, weld faults such as incomplete fusion. The magnetic particlr methods has
the advantage, that it will reveal defec~sunder thin paint films or plating; it will
also I-weal those defects that are not open cracks and therefore not detectable by
dye pew:[-ant, e.g. :!lose filled with slag, i t rvill reveal subsurface f l a w . and is
h e r and more ecor.omica1 than penetrant inspection, and requires less clean in^.
Sowever, this rnelhod can only be used with Fel-ro-magnetic materials - i t
cannot be used for non-ferrous alloys or austriitic sreels. Also, any differences in
i?!agiictic characterisrics of ma:erials. in dissinilar metal joints, may cleate
discontin~iities,whici~elroneously indicate fauits. The outlines of s~b-surface
fli~wsmay not be acctirate. since tli; sensitivity drops rapidly, bz>oi:d zbout j mt:~
hclow the surhce Typical processes use DC, AC or rectified cuirent, usual!).
hi:h amperage a d low vc!tage, fiequenrly applied thorough two probes. \\;it11
liiizly divided Ferro-magnetic povider particles ( e . ~ .iron i i i i n ~ s )bein2 applied
.
.
;i-.
r&
w : g
=@- &3$
Ep%
;,k%ee
,
dry or froin a suspension. ~m;.
*$
-‘I.
1-
.,
.~*Q..d
I'.:lciy Ctirrent (Electromagnetic) Testing
Eddy current tests are those, requiiin~the area under test ro be s~~bjecteci
to \he influence of an alternating elecrroinagnetic field, and can be used to deteci
swhcc cr sub-surface discontinuities, that may occur in the form of cracks.
scnirvs, voids and s o on. The effect of an Electro-magnetic fiei.i, on the !est area.
may be two-fold : eddy currexts are induced and. if the material is magnetic.
ina:pt:tic fields are set up These two effects. in i m g e t i c materials. may not he
rcatliiy tlistiiigiiished. but with experience, caxfiil sekction of the mngne~izing
ficqucncy, some discrirninatioii may be ctbtained.
Muii-mapetic materials
111Eddy ccrrent tesis; the magnitude and direction of the eddy cul-rents are
aircierl by ciiscs:itinuities in the metal, and any such change is picked op by a
ciekctor coil, that acts upon appropriate electronic circuitry, ro ie:isrrr the
tliscut~liruti~y Since eddy citrrcnts may he induced in any conductor. magnetic as
wcll as rrowmagiietic marerials can be invesdga~cd.For the laner. an alrernatii~g
eli:i;ti.or~~agneric:i: iidd is usually produced Sy an inductor of suitable shape. in
close proximity lo thc tezt area.
Advanced Marine Engineering Knowledge Vol. 111
Wlngnetic materi;tls
The distribwion of magnetic flus is affected by discontinuities i n the
inateria;. changes in the eddy current or the magnetic flux may be interpreted bv
means of several different variables - voltage, current, impedance, ph2se or seine
combination thereof, a d these variables are analyzed electronicaily, to provide
the desired informstion in a usehl form - by comparing faulty and sound material
respoilses. The involves sxrounding a coniponent with coil(s) and moving [he
two, relative to each other. The frequency of the e.m.f. fieid depends on t l ~ e3,-ptll
oipenctr;.tiun, but is usually in the ranze of 500 to 20,000 Hz.
Q.14. Give the analysis of a cast-iron considxed sui:able for cylinder liners.
State the mechanical properties of the cast-iron. What impurity n;ust he
kept to a minimum ? Ho!v can the tensile srr-ength be incl-exsed incf tile
:-esistnnce to wenr bc i n ~ p r o w d ?
f\lii.
Q.16. Give the analysis of white-metal, suitable for diesel engine Main and
Rotlo~~i-end bearings What are the special requirements of the xvhite-metal
ustd in cr?ss:tcad hearin23 ?
>\?s.
,Anal-/!;is Tm
~ntinlony
Xi -
?-lo%
38 ?A
Copper 4-5 YO
The white metal used for diesel engine bearings, is produced by metal
refiners and sold u d e r various brand names. L
i s~
:. W
-
'flir: loads placed L i the crosshead bearings of modern engines are
extt-cmely heavy. The requirements OF the white-metal depend on the design of
+$:d
.*,+A
.k:-
+
$:
.
y<
thc b::ar.ing. For example, very stiff crosshead asseniblies, with a thin white- .$&
i!l?tk!l layer, require a different netal, from a more flexible cssembly with a
thick layei. Thc requirements, for each bearing, nwst be formulated initially
h r ? previous experience, and then modified following service experience, to
g i w the desired characteristics.
For modern, slow speed, highly rated crosshead engines, a white-metal is
analysci! as follows :
111mIysis Tin 38 %
Antimony 8%
Copper 4%
Cadmium traces
126
.* -.
Advanced Marine Engineering Knowledge Val. / / I
Nylon This iliareid is iised for small bushes and ~earwlieels it1
i~isliulnents.I t is to:!fh: lins n lo\\, coi.fZzli.ni o f li-iclion. and can be machined
from rod 0'- piale sections. it is also inilde into fihres.
I'oly-mriiryl-nierha-zcry!ete (Pel-;pix). This is a clear vlasric, c o n ~ n > o n ! ~
me6 for instrument glasses, ieve! gauge tubes (not for boiler or high presscr-
steam service). arid Gear case si$i glasses.
Poly-tetra-flirro-etliylene (PTFE or- 'I'eilon). This rnatei-iai has a very
low coefficient of friction and rezistslieat; i t also has soud chemical rcsisrancr
in the presence of oil. I t is used for glanii packing or for coalina coriveniional
soft packins. Due to its low fric~ionairesistance. it may be used as a packins
hi- pump shafis with !ligh rubbing speeds PTFE is supplied in moulded 0-
rings, or in shtet or shredded fom:. I t gives se~wicein pump and valve g l a n d s 11
1x1s also been used as an additive in m i l e l~ibeoils. to reduce the fi-iction at
start-up
Phenolic resins. These resins are ilornially bonded with linen or othm
fibrotis materials. They a:-e used hi- bearinss in pumps and on screw si~afts.
They swell i i i warei, an acrion to be considei-ed, when calcularin~ bearing
i.!easances. One material, which gave ~ o o dservice in old water-iubricared
bearings is Tufnol.
A wide range of plastic matel-ials are ~iscdlo make marine paints and
surface coatings, t!ierrnal ir~sulation,sound absorbcnls andhohding cements.
\ZZGnd fuels -7
Q.1. I n the case of marine fuel oils, justify the need to have proper
~~erifications.State typical fuel specifications data for a two-stroke
main propulsion engine..
Ans.
H e a ~ yfuel oil (marine)
n s IS0 8217, L3S
Standards have formulated by various o r g ~ ~ i z a t i o e.g.
6843, and CIMAC, which give limi~ingspecifications for each grade of fiiel
oil. Engine nanufacturers usually specify the required fnd parameters, for
use with their e~gines.Specification for fue!s would indicate:
Viscosity - handling prehelting and centrifuging
Density - usually measured at 15 OC
Flash point - fire risk factor.
- Pour point - solidification in tanks and pipelines.
JCarbofi resiche- fouling of gas ways and piston rings.
Ash abrasion.
Water sods!m content of salt water.
Sulphur - corrosive effect
'/anadium - undesirable by itself, but when present
with sodium, leads to exhaust valve
corrosion, cylinder m d turbocharger
deposits, which can cause overhcating
&nd failure. A mass ratio o f 1:3 o f Na:Va
can be iroublesome, especially with high
vanadium content.
Cetaue surnber- for distillate fnets: a measure of igcition
quality
Cataiytic fines- abrasicn
A typical fuel specification for a main propulsion marine engine :
ij ,j F. LA 5 :&'/! .&v 5 ncnsiq 991 Kg/m3 (maximum).
7iscosity 700 Cst at 50 OC (maximum).
Flash Point 60 OC (minimum).
~ o n r a c i s o ncarbon 22% by weight [maximum).
Asphalt 14% by weight (maximum).
sulphur . 5 % b y weight (maximum).
Water - 1 % by weight (maximum).
Ash - 0.2 % by weight (maximum).
A!urnZitium 30 m g K g (maximum).
'/madium 600 mgKg (maximum).
Sodium . 30% ofthe Vanadium content
Advnrrced ,Marine Engineering Knowledge YoL 111
Cylinder oil : Cylinder oii should have gcod. detergent, dispersant propefijes.
Also, there niusl be adequate film strength, boundary lubncaiion and oxidation
qualities. Iis neutralising qlialitj is given by in TBN Wzmbcr, which depends
on the Sulphur coqent oithe fuel, among cther things.
Q.3. Write a brief note on the adverse effect, that a fuel containin%high
values of each of the fotlowing, may cause:- ,/--
a) Vauadiurn.
b) Sulphur.
c) Sodium;
d) Ash particles.
JVanadium Coo
2 '=?
A hard, white metallic element, densty - 5500 kgim3.
Melting point (of the pure metal) - 1710°C.
In marine fuel, it is tied up in the covalent bond structure of the hydro-carbon.
which means,that it can not be removed easily. In thkcombusti& process, ii
'can readily combines to form a variety of 'low melting point' compounds,
typical of which are : Sodium Metavandate, Sodium Vandate and Vanadium
Pentoxide.
These compounds, when in the liquid state, can do a considerable
amount of damage by liquid metal anack, the main effect being from the
Vanadium. This corrosion is rapid with steels but no metals is immune. The
process is commonly referred to, as 'high temperature corrosion'. In the solid
state, the Vanadium compounds adhere to the metal surfaces;forming needie-
like deposits. The build-up can be very rapid.
p-eh+ sodium l l e d ~ ku U/V COI-S:OQ
-~ ~-
--
132
guide lo the Tale of fouling. Piston ring sticking and slagging in boilers is
attribstable to high va!ues.
Aris. 3 :
.--7
Emulsion : When two or more liqrids are non-miscible, then L.ey rend to
- form an emulsion. Lube oil which is conlaminared, or has deteriorated to jgch
a d e g e e that it will not separate &om water, can form an emulsion.
Q.7. What a r e the different types of wear found in marine diesel engines ?
Explain the ways in which they can be minimised. W h a t is boundar y
lubrication ? Explain the term 'hydro-dynamic lubrication'.
Ans.
Wear is basically of two types :
a) Abrasive wear, and
b) Corrosive wear
Abrasive wear depends on several factors, such as the quality of
lubrication, the size of impurities and the surface finish of rubbing surfaces.
Advonced Marille Engineering ~ t m k e d g e Vol. IrI
Corrosive Wear : This is wear that take2 place as a result qf the col-iosive
action of acids, usually formed during the combustion pfocess, by the
combination of oxides wirh the cordensed water. This resplts in surface
ii::rerioration, by chemical attack, the debris of which is responsible for
furthe! wear.
Condensing acid vapours 'etch' the -surface, giving loca: area
reduction, a d accelerating mechmical wear. Acid can be formed from the
r:omhustion products, or from the oxidation of M e oil. Tbe Formation of
acidic vapour is assisted by heat &om 'friction welding' of adhesive type wear.
hs.
The input datz for a computer-based monitoring system is From
sensors. Typical sensors measure parameters like Eequency, amplit&e,
velocity and so on. These would be continuous measuring devices. The r e s ~ l t s
fiom The sensors ran be mdtched against stored data, for most of the engine
room mzchiner].
Ferrography :
This involves the separation of wear debris of fermus t p e
magneticaliy, and arranging in the order of pariic!e size i^ol examination. A
sample of oil, for example, is diluted with a solvent, which b r e k s down any
gel, which may be around the wear particles. The sample is fed to a
transparer,: precipita:~~ tube, cn either side of which are the polss of a ma.met.
The magnetic force attracting the paticles is pro?oitional to the size
and magnetic susceptibility. Thz larger particks are depozited at the entry
rzgion of the tube, and the smaller particles and the oxides of iron gci
deposited later on in the tube. The amount of material deposited is measured
by the attenuation of light from a !i$ht source placed below the tube. The light
passing is tietected by photo-electric transducers. Wear severity is indicated by
difference between optical density at two points, distant 5 mm from each
other, along the tube length. In normal rubbing wear, the majority of the
particles are small.
As the severity of the wear increases, so does the number of bigger
panicles. In a Ferrc-graphic analyser, the oii containing the wear debris is
sorted by size along an inclined glass slide. The magnetic field gradient
increases as the particles move downwards. The larger particles get deposired
first. The slide is analysed by a n optical microscope. Red light is directed
through the objective of the microscope. Opaque objects appear red. Green
light is transmitted through trensparent objects, which appear green. Other
&jCcts appear in various shades of ye!low- green.
This helps in distingcishing metallic objects from oxides. Further, the
slide is heated to 330" C, when low carbon and alloy steel particles appear to
be bluish, Cast Iron appears Ii&t brown in colour, bronze appears d z k brown,
and chromium and aluminium are bright white colours. Thus particle
identification is possible.
Spectrometric Analysers
This technique is called SOAP ( Spectrometric Oil Analyses P r c g a m m e ). Oil
samples containing wear debris are taken from the sump and analysed, by any
of the following methods : -
i'article counters
The si e of vxious particles of the wear debris can be determined by
rncans of particle counters, which work on the light blockage principle. The oii
sarr~pieis passed thou* a sensor, consisting of a light source and a photo
diode. A particle paszing through the window blocks light according to its
size, since light travels only in straight lines.
Accordingly an electrical signal is sent from the photo diode,
accortling to the amount of light re~eived,which is proportionai to the size of
tiii: j)a.c?icie.The turbulent flow in the tube results in rotation of the particles,
thw the probability of getting the largest particle sizeisvery high.
Corrosion Monitoring
Ttit: pzrarneters to be measured are :-
X!i: m e of coirosion, the total depth of corrosion, or the thickness of good
marerial remaining.
Direc: observation is the oldest method, based on visual inspection. It
im its limitations, since deep corrosion may not be accurately analysed.
Chcmical and electro- chemical methods include analytical, potential or
galvanic methods. These methods are used to monitor water quality in boiler
feed water. The ratio of metallic ions in a sample, may indicate the extcnt of
corrosion.
Non-destructive Testing methods (NDT) include radiogaphy,
ultrasonics, eddy current, thennography and acoustic emissicn methods.
Ultrasonic methods are being increasingly used for flaw detection and
thickness measurements in pressure vessek, piping and well a s ship's side
plates and other surfaces, wherc it is not possibie to drill holes or cut samples
for visual inspection. The disadvantage of this methcd is that only a small
surface may be tested at a time, thcs large area coverage is not possible.
Radiography is ussful as permanent records can b e kept, howtver it is
slow, and hazardous. Eddy current technique is p r i m s l y a surface technique,
~enetrationbelow depths o f 5 to 6 rnm are hard to obtain, hence it is not much
,used for ship's work. Thermogaphy is used to locate increased surface
tempera%ies due to carnosion damage in furnaces.
Elecrncal resistance technique is based on the principle that, as
colrosion decreases ;Es crass- seciion, so its electrical resistance increases.
I; it is possible to record the readings on a continuous basis, it is
possible to find ~ u the t corrosion rates, thus simplifying the maintenance, by
, d i n g preventive actions, before corrosion can develcp to extreme limirs.
A?*
..:..
P&formance Tre@ monitorjng ,
~ o n i i o r i n gthe perfoimance of a system involves the measwtment and
recording of relevant parameters, an6 detecting any change in pnformmce.
Parameters like 6x1 consumption, lube oil consumption, exhaust gas analysis,
var;ous :emperatmes 2nd pressures are con:i~;uously monitored.
Deterioration in fuel c.onsumption figures could be duuc I:, vaiious
parameters changing, which can then be investigated and put right. Similarly,
change in the exhaust gas analysis readings could point to faults in the
combustion of fuel.
Excessive consumption of lube oil could also be detected, by an
ificrease in the wear rates of piston rings, if an on-line detecting system like
S P W A is fitte5.
(Rsfer the text-book 'Marine Engineering Practice' - NC: series, for
more details on thi- working of piston ring wear detecting systems).
Viscosity Index Improvers : These are high moiecular mass, long chain
polymers. These are zd6ed to lubricating oil stocks, to iapede fiow at higher
temperatures. (typical examples of these are Isobutylene polymers ind
Acrylate co-polymers.)
-
Secure the screwed cap to the reaction flask and shakc vigorously for
one minute. Shake the flask every 5 minutes and read tqf gauge aEer 25
mini~ies.The gauge will give a direct reading of thq percentage, by
volume, of water content, up 101.2%.
(c) ~ i r o n gAcid Test : This aetermines the presence of strong acids in the
eripine lube. oil. as a result of the depletion o f nsrmal alkalinity reserve
1evc;s. Shake the oil sample vigoi-ously and add 6 ml of the s m p l c t9 the
test tube.
ThzS add 24 mi of 'Bromwresal Green' Indicator and 2 ml OF
Kerosene. Replace the stogper and sh&t the test tube wgorously for e l
leasi two minutcs. Aliow contents to settle and observe colour of the liquid
it! the tloltom of the test !ub%
A bice cdour ictiicatts the absewe of strong a i d s in ;he cil and, in
terms of alkalinity reserve, the oil is fit for further service. An initial green
coJour indicates strong acids in the oil and is rzgarded as a 'border line'
case. An initial yellow/g~eencclour indicates the presexe of stroi?g ;ci&
in the oil and the oil is uusstisfactory.
(e) Swoluble content test : This test is to determine the amount of insoluble
[iatlicles in the 'used' oil sample, of the engine lubricating oil. Shake the
oil :;ample vigorously and then place 3 ml in the test tube.
r\dd 3 1111 of 'dilute' oil (or 3 ml of 'fresh' oil of the-same type).
?'hosr)il!ghly mi:i, by shaking the test tubc. Drop a spot onto the test blotter
pry::% ?rid allow the spot to develop for at least 2 hours. Compare the spot
swiih stewJan1 'spots' of known carbon content in the oil ofbetween 0.4 to
0.3 #x,.
(0 Salt water determination test : This is lo determine of presence o f salt
water (e.g. sea water from leaking coolers) in lubricating oil. Add 20 mi
of Xylene solvent to the test tube. Shake the oil sample vigorously and
then add to the test tube upto 25 ml. Add 10 ml of distilled water, fit the
stopper and shake the test tube vigorously, for one minute.
Remove stopper and stand the test tube in hot water for 15 to 30
minutes, to enable separation of oil and water. Remove a reasonable
sample oiwater from the bottom of the test tube and filter into a smali
test lube.
Add 3 drops o f Potassium chramate to the sample and shale the test
tube. Add Silver nitrate solution, one drop at a t h e (shake sP,er each
drop), until the sample o f water just turns a permanent 'reddisn-brown'
colour.
If only o n t or two drops of Silver nitraie produces a reddish-brown
colour, salt water is absent or negligible. If the water remains a
yeiiow/greeo cnlour, even after the addition o i Silver nitraie, salt water
co~taminationis confirmed.
2) Sea / Frcsh water determination : The sea water conteni is found by the
Silver niiratc test described eariier.
4) TBN Tpt : The TBN test involves a pressure reaction flask and propel
chart interpolation. Each brand of oil requires its own chart.
6) Flash point : The flash pcint of oil can be checked with the Pensky-
Martens apparatus. Contamination by fuel oil can significantly affect this. The
open flash point is normally taken as the guideline for the suitability for
further use.
Advoneed Morirre Engineering Knowledge Yol. 111
Pour point : This is the lowest temperature that the oil can flow a(
before solidificction takes place. Measured by test kits. using some form
of refrigeration sprays, to lest at different temperarures.(E.g. 30 OC for a
heavy fuel).
rise above 1 %.
2. The prifier intake must be from near the bottom o f t h e sump.
3. The pu~ifierheat exchanger should be run at 70 + 'C and the oil
&ntained at this temperature.
4. The entire sump oil should be purifier: ewxy 8-10 hours.
5. Coolant inhibitor concentrations should be maintained as
recommended.
6. Regular testing should be canied out.
With respect to lubricating oils, justify the usage cf heavy duty oils and
the precautions to be taken in respect to their usage. Briefly compare the
r q o i r e m e n t s of Cragkcase oil and Cylinder lube oils in Marine two-
stroke inain propulsion engines.
Ans.
Heavy duty oils are generally suitable for use in marine engines, which
are working under adverse service conditions. Besides the normal properties,
t h a e oils wiii have:.
Oxidation stability.
Alkaline properties to protect against ccrrocicn.
Detergcct - dispcrs;nt, characteristics.
:leavy duty operatian is encoun1:red under sustained high speed
rur~riir:~ or heavy / fluctuating :oads in adverse weather conditions.
These oils arc of napthznic origin, natur?l!y detergent (in compariscn
wit;! p i l r d f i n base), i.e. they can 'wash z;:ay' their own oxida:ion products.
Ttrcse 'r1D oils have additives which act by increasing the fluid film thickness
to take care of heavy loads. Also, deposits between pis tot^ rings m d grooves
arc prevented, which reduces the wear rate considerably. However, the high
cost has to be taken into con side ratio^^, as compared to their benefits.
Floc test :
To determine the tendency of lube oils towards flocculation, a floc test
needs to be performed. It is a Low temperature test, performed by giadually
chilling a mixture of 10 % oil and 90%Freon 12 until haze and precipitation
of wax crystals, as 'floc', are observed. The respective temperatures are noted
and recorded a s the 'haze' and 'floc' temperatures.
i3 8
Shafting, Propellers, Steering G e a r a n d Controls 2 3
Q . 1 Stare the principle cavses ofvibration and over heating in main shafting @
and iis hearines. How can such vibration and over heatino he mininrised 7
~ ~
0
irT
Explain why the aft position of the Engisie roan1 reduces these problems.
Ans.
A lone - .propeller
. shaft is equivalentto a long beam with intermediate
suppor!~, by v.-ay of shaft bearings, t s take up the weight and sag of ti]: shalt
Each bearing takes up a certain portion of ihz load, which varies, depending upon
:hc luading partern and the stiffne;~of the hull.
Any one of th: bearings can get excessively worn, increasing the deflection
.*
.?
J
and a-iEkcting the alignment. This exerts more load on the adjacent bearings, i:.
causing them to over-heat.
Rough seas often bring the propeller out of the wacer, which causes
5
+&
j I
excessive load to be taken up by the stem tube bearing. Intermediate shafi
bearinzs are so placed and aligned, that they help to reduce any tendency to sag. && ,
: ; .'", C
Mc:wevr:r, there still exists a slight whirl i n any ro!a?i?g shaft. Loose foundation +$-*
boii:; a i loose chacks can increase this effect and over-load adjacent shaCt 'Xe
beasi~igs,causing iheni to over-hezt. -?$.
.."
I-s
Modem shafts are more ilexible, of improved material and reduced :;i&
scanrlings. Long lengths and fabricated structlures are more prone to hog and sag
wi!n %tying seas The shaft, beizg a much stiffer cornpcnent, does no: conform to
ihc flexing of the hti!l, resulting in over-heating and vibrations. By siting the
Engine room RR, thc length of the shaft is drastically reduced, which reduces the
yr-oblrm considerably, even under such drastic conditions.
Also, the ship's structure being much stiffer at !he after end. it has a
ix+dlucsd ilcx, which produces little or no ill-effect on the shaft. Alignment is based
on t i % fair curve method. Ailowances are made, in the a l i g ~ ~ e ntot , ensure-that
all irrierrrlediate bearings are proportionally loaded, to a definite pre-calculated
load, i ~ ihc
i ship's loaded and ballast conditions.
'l'k tail shaft is like a large, overhung mass on the stem wbe hearing. The
etid support, i.e. the stern tube, is given a definite slope, to match the permanent
sn.: o f rile tail-end shafi, and ensure a larger and continuous support :br the shaft.
i'itrvs, rtkr effect of any . .possible flexing- of the shaft is isolated, fi-om the Main
engine's crankshaft.
2 .
R)
I
O i x i s s , with reference to shaft coupling designs,
'She advantages of a Muff coupling.
I
3 "/itti a simple sketch, describe a muff coupling.
r:) Llow.is it ensured, that the entire surface will transmit torque ?
Ails.
A Muff coupling is a shrink fit, and may be used for connection of the
[xopcli;:r. shafi, allowing the shaft to be easily withdrawn out- board^
l i consisis of iwo sleeves. a thit~.inner and a relaiively thicker outer. rhe
n?atiiy surface between the t w having a slight taper (l.jO).:The bore. o f t h e innsl-
sleeve, is slig!ltly larzer than theshaft dianietei..
The c o u p l i n ~is made, when thc outer sleeve is driven up the taper of the
hydra~iicunit at oce end, which compresses the inner sleeve, so
that it grips both shafts.
To makc the drive-up easier, the fric.tion, between the mating surfaces of
the sleeves, is reduced by injecting oil at high pressure. This oil forms a load-
carrying film, xhich actuallji separates the two components. Whtn the outer
sleeve has reached its correct position, the oi! pressme is rzleased and the oil
drains cff, allowing normal friction between the sleeves.
To check that the correct amomt of 'pull-up' has been achieved. the final
ou~sidediameter s f the mrer sleeve is meas-red. An increase, cser the unfitted
diameter, of atatit 1.02 rnm is required. This value gives a surface interiace
pressure cif at least 1200 bar. For this diameter, rhe nean torque tr;nsmi!ted is
about 2 N-m, ar a factor of sefety of between iwo and three. With the flange type,
rr push up of 6.5 mm would br required. The twelve bolt holes would be pre-bored
to 70 nim and reamed to final dimer~sionsafter mounting.
Propclls %hail
e-?
h r c a to Gc U I I I C ~delccird
.< .'
'1- -t-
/
~ s i i 0 , ofsealing
i no:
I v i ~ ~ i l l is1rcs
~lii
-
Bate : Besides rectification of the damage, the cause must also be detem~ilied.
Preventative action nceds to be taken, to avoid a recurrence. The usual source of
leakage.is from a badly jointed and sealed fairing cone, on the back of the
propeller or leakage past the sealing ring andior gasket on the forward face -
ensure the " 0 ring is the correct size, so that compression and sealin9 is
achieved.
Q.3. Draw a cross-section of a keyless propeller with sleeve. What material
weuld you suggest for the sieeve, of a tapered, forged, mild steel propeller
shaft and why? Explain, in brief, 'the procedure for rernwal of key-less
prupellers and the reasons for filting key-less propellers.
Ans.
A key-less propeller transmits torque by friction and this requires a contact
area of around 80 %, between taper and boss. An expensive (afid critical)
machining process i n the bore would thus Se nezezsar;. A rough-bored propeller
wirh a fitted sleeve elimina~esthis requirement. The keyless propeller, fit:ed by
thc hydraulic expansion of the boss, was designed t i kave vcry high boss stresses.
in the final 'as fitted' condition. dus to the low coefficient of Friction at the
interface. Also temperature differentials can still cause problems. Both these
problems can be reduced, by using a cast iron sleeve (which has similar expansion
rates to steel ) and the increase in coefficient of friction is considerable.
Cast Iron = 0.24 ;Mild Steel = 0.12 : Bronze = 0.08.
/
?iigilm
out ,., I \
.- Epor-Y .-
r
Oil injectlo" --Z
siccVc
( P ~ ~Caci
~ Ilion]
~ ~
'.
I
~ !Boss
Key-less Propeller
The sleeve is then passed to the propeller manufacturer and is fitted into lhr
propeller boss and secured by a high strength epoxy c o m p o u ~ dby a pressure
injection process. The propeller is fitted to the shaft by a dry push-on force, from
a 'Pilgrim nit'. The material for the sleeve, of a tapered mild steel propeller sh
is Pearlitic Cast iron. This has minimal fretting qualities. It is machined, hand-
bedded lo the Tail shaft and pressed-on. Removal of the pro.
injection, between sleeve and shaft.
1Ie;asons f o r titting keyless propeliers : . ,. ~.
. .
-K
Push up
V
n k 1 1 11~ ri 111 1 0
Mounting at shipyard
Q.S. With respect to the improvements in shaft sealing systems, to ensure no
oil pollution occurs, what is the main feature of the 'Pollution-free'
sealing system ? What are the materials used for t h e seai ring
,a
4.
asse.mbly ?
Ans.
Comparison of the conventional and the 'Pollution-free' oil seal.
3
In the conventional s ~ a l i n gsystem, all zeal chambers are filled with oi!.
The sez water and oil arz directly in contact, through tke sliding sllrface of the
seai ring. 7here is thus a possibility of intermixing of sea water ar.d 011 orcurring
3
at l l ~ cseaiing surface.
The leakage of oi! and subsequen: I-isk of poll~~tion
!G
o f the s r , \taler is not . -
9
t h ~ nc;\
s avoidable, to a ce~zaindegrze. The situation becomes still wcrse by shaft
vibration. w!iich can damaze the seal. Also, iiseal rings izil, there a x m adequate ,g
measures to contain [he oil contamination, and the result of a lea'i?g seal is the ~+
loss of the complete stem tube oil into !he sea, doe to the greatex p!:sstiri. c~eaied
;&
by ihe head of the sitrn tube oil 9ravitp talks.
Even wt1e11the ship's draught changes (ballast or loaded cor2ltion),~iiierr =
is lin~ited~?lanualadjustment of the oil prexure in the stem tube. t . 5 ~ changing
ovci. iron1 low to h i ~ hstern tube gravity tanks), necesswy to xaintain rn adequate 1':.g$
- prcssuie :.-
~
i)u[ no! excessive pressure to ensures a good seal, without having s Ysil
diiycre~~ce, which increases the'chance of a leakage.
Advantages :
1. Asiti Poilution :
- The air is ejected f?gm air bamer into Ei-5 ~ o n ~ ~ l e i e ! ~
sepaiates sea water and oil.
- The leakage oil andfor sea water to after most zharnber is
T?
discharged autonlatically into the bilge i v i i h z spillin2 0of -2
the oil into the sea.
r e free:
No adjustrncnts required, once system is set us.
iiutomatic pressure control of oil and air follon%g
irl dmli is achieved on every after seal I-ing.
3. Extension of seal ring sewice life : . .
- Low and constant pressure is loaded on a h sea! rings.
- Air film is formed under after most seal ring
- Forced oil circulation acts on cooling the afi seal ring.
-. The fishing net protector, guards h e aft se'al.
Others :
No additiunal air source is necessary for sys'cni
Aft seal ring conditicn can be rnonitcred in Engine room.
Load on af: seai rings can be adjusted from E n ~ i n eroom
One seal ring of aft seal is reserved for emeriency oil
leakage.
Simple piping s y s t m c3n be a x n g e d , withcst having to fir
the usual Stem tube header tanks.
Q.5 The survey period for oil hhricated stern tubes, of tapered shapes, is
Others :
No addiriunal air source is necessary for sys!cm
Aft seal ring conditicn can be monitcred in Engme room.
Load on afi s e d rings can be adjusted from Engine room.
One seal ring of afi seal is reserved for emergency oil
leakage.
Simple piping s y s t m c m be a x n g e d , withczt having to f i r
the usual Stem rube header raAs.
Materials :
Seal Ring Rubber Body
Garter Spring Provides radial I o ~ dmadeof
, haste
alloy (Nickel alloy) which has the
Strongest corrosion resistance.
Q.5 The survey period for oil lnhricated stern tubes, of tapered shnpes, 1s
. .
a) 1 year, h) 2 years, c) 5 years, d) 10 years.
Explain v h y the fitting of stern tubes, with a small downward angle,
may be considered necessary.
Ans.
T h e Survey period is 5 years. The survey consists o f removing rhe
propeller, withdrawing and examining the entireshaft. i h r i n g ezch survey.
the forward end of the taper is examined, by performing a non-destructive
test.
The examimtion i.; usually by surface crack der~ctignmethods.
which should include the end of key-ways (if fitted). The wear-down of
*-~.
-, \ the stern-tube beasng is reccrded and the condition of inboard and
outboard seal assemblies assessed and repaired, if required,.-
-
'* Where arrangements are such, as to permit effective examination
u
.. of the forward end of the taper and key-way, to the complete satisfaction
of the surveyor, the tail shaft need not be withdrawn for examination, in irs
fla entirety. The downward angle is maintained to avoid 'Age loading' of
shafting, in stem tubes.
0.6, drescrihe the method used for the installation a n d alignm6nt of a
coaapkte traismission shaft system, from the propeller shaft to the main
propaalrinn unit.
Arrs.
Good alignment is to ensure that the bearings are conectly loaded and the
shaft is not severely stressed. Alignment can be checked by conventional methods
bu! the results are uncenain, unless the vessel is in the same condition, with
regard to loading, as and when the shaft was installed. 'Jne.en bearing wear, hull
d&rrmtion and other factors can affect tile results, giving rise to error.
Shaft alignment : The first operation comprises of sighting the centre line
of rhe shaft, so that the correctly positioned stem boss is accurately bored o x .
This is done before the vessel is taunched, a i d the stern-tube is fitted complete
wi?h propeiler and tail end shah.
The stem boss should be so positioned, that the engine, on installation,
wottid have sufficient chock thickr,ess, when aligned to ihe tail end shaft. The
boring of the stern boss is carrieci otit by a boi-ing b2r. Sighting is acciiiateiy
;leterntined by various means, such as an optical telescope.
Afier the boring opention is complzie, 5 e bxiiig bar is removed a d :he
mt.-ma1 diameter of the stem-t~beis mhchined to accurhtely suit the in iluier
diatnelcr of the Sm : boss. The stem-tube is p s h e Z in with the strong-back and
fiilallj. secured on stem boss t y tappzd bolt5 having wire lashing.
The taii eild s h d i is lowered from inside the Engine room, prior laucching
of vessel and insened into the stern-tube (from inside the Engine room). Oil seal
rings and propeller are then fitted.
Assuming that there is a reduction Gear box, t\e same is Lowered in
::ngine room and .nis is radially and axially aligned, to the outer flange of the tail
r:nd shaft. To facilitate the fitting of the chocks, the girder top plate of thr Gear
box seating and engine seating is machined slightly, with an outboard facing taper,
prior :o lowering gear box /engine. The gear box is inirially installed with jacking
bolts, wilich are adjusted to establish its correc: relation with the propel!er shaft.
'She holes in both the flanges (gearbox and propeller shaft) arc findly
rmnred arid fit bolts located. The gear box can then be checked. As the holding
down bolts and chocks are installed, the jacking bolts on the gearbox can be
rcrnawxl.
lri a similar manner, the Main engine is lowered and the fly-wheel flange
is radially and axially aligl~ed,io the outboard flange of the gear box and the
it~stdlationsimilarly completed.
I r may be noted, that <he engine alignment is of utmost impohance, so that
ti~crc i s no distortion of the bed plate, which could lead to crankshaft
nlisaligr~rnent.Traditional chocks are of Cast iron are individually fitted and must
bcas. a load over at least 85 % of their area.
Q.7. How is the propeller matched to the main propulsion engine of a vccsel ?
What a r e the advantages of using controllable pitch propellers ? 'What is
meant by the operating profile of an engine?
Ans.
The matching of the main propulsion engine and the propeller is essential
if maximum efficiency is to he achieved. Power produced by :he engine s h o ~ ~ be ld
more than sufficient to take care of the power absorbcd by the propeller. Here the
mechanicai efficiency, the transmission losses and propeller efficiency ha\ie to be
taken into consideration.
Mztchisg involves findin: h e intersection where the torque, power and
rpm of the engine are at their mDst desirable values, and then adjusling the engine
{ opeiatin: poiili j acd the popeller { pitch, diemeter 2nd so on) rill they arc at the
desired pari of the curv;.
Where special purpose vessels are requiring more flexibility, ~ o n t r o l l a b i ~
pi:ch propellers are being uszd, so that the required alteratior. of pitch can
improve the inaneuverahility of the vessel; however ;his is echieved at tile
expense of more complicated controls (for CPPi. as well as the canside,-able extra
costs involved, which may not be justified for conventional cargo vesseis.
Once tht. required engine rating has been es!ahlished, other factors that aflec! the
selection of engine? for a particular applicqion musl be considered. Among these
are ihe ship's type, the plant weight, the machl~eryspace volun~e,file! ciuaiity and
consumption, acquisition cost, reliability, maintenance requirements, and present
and future spare pans cost and availability. A requirement for. low weight or
minimum machinery volume may be achieved at the expense of high fie)
consumption or high maintenance requirements.
Selection of proptilsion engines of light weight or low specific fuel
con;umption, for example may not result in the lightest or mosi cost-effective
power plam The operating profile of zn engine asseses the time spent in various
operating modes. All important modes must be considered, and periods of
sustained idle or low load operation must be included as well as those at hip11
loads.
For propulsion engines, operating modes may include conditions of deep
aild ligllt draft, clean and fouled hu!l, cairn and heavy weather, cruising and high
ship speed, towing or icebreaking and running free, and operation with and
without attached auxiliaries. The plant design and engine Selection will be
affected if the profile includes frequent or extended periods of maneuvering or
astern running.
In selecting propulsion engines, consideration must be given -to whether a
single engine of the low-speed, direct coupled type is most suitable, or if
requirements are better met by one or more medium or high speed engines driving
thc propeller through geakins or electric drive. .~.
Changes in hull resistance, due to fouling of hull, roughness and weather
conditions, as well a s limitations on draught (leading to limitations on propeller
ciiarnzter) will Further complicate the issue. Consequently, adequate allowance has
to be kepr, i t . 'margins' are maintained, so as to reach a suitable matching of
propeller and engine.
Ans.
Vibration is the periodic movement of molecules in a zubstance, in
vertical, horizontal or twisting (torsional) pla~es. ivla-hii~es, such as diesel
engines, frequently suffer from vibration problems, due to out-of-balance forces.
Further, these vibrations are transmitted to the ship's structure.
'She magnituj? of osci:lation varies, and the maximum or pzak value is the
'An~plitude'.Since the vibration is of a 'wave' farm, there will be points at which
hi: vibration is zero ( viz. the points where positi;.e half cycle crosses io the
nsgarive half cycie). These poiiirs are referred r.o as the 'Nodes'.
Tile ininher of nudes, logether with the plane of -iibiation is referred to as the
'Mode' of vibrati~n- viz. 2 - node veirtical mode. The time betcveen successive
cycles is termed as the 'Period' of vibration. The reciprocal of the Perioi will give
the 'Frcqueilcy', i.e. the number of vibrations per unit time.
All structures vibrate at a certain frequency, which is termed its Nat81ral
freqwncy. The value of this Natural frequency is calculated Sy the expression :
1
4XE3
wherc, I is the second moment of area about its neutral axis,
WI is a function of the mass and its distribution, and
L is ihe length.
The structure is normally vibrating at iis Natural frequency. It can,
hoivwer, bc forced to vibrate ai olher frequencies, due to external sources. The
final ariiplitude will depend on the external or 'forced' frequencies.
'I'he point at which this amplirude is maximum, is termed as 'Resonance'.
At Ilesonance, the frequency of applied forces will match the natural frequtncy,
Icatiing to i~nacceptablyhigh amplitude of vibration, which can serioiisly weaken
a srructilse and lead to damage. Though the ship may vibrate in a number of
modes. h r practical purposes, i t is often considered sufficient to take care of two
and ti~rcenode, vertical and horizontal modes.
+
'i'llc normal amplitude of ship's vibration is limited to 20 mm, whereas
deflections tluo to hogging or sagging may be upto 50 rnm per 100 m of length.
Tillus, vihalior~is not, by itself, of great danger.
However, the cumulative effect of vibration and corrosion, on components
already subject to heavy strzss may prove disastrous. Also, high :frequency
vibration may cause interference with electronic equipment, . a d -is thus
undesirable. . .
: ... ~. ~.,.~-
' i
I. Controlled condition :
The variable, that is being controlled, is called the controlled condition. E.g.
speed in an engine governor, temperature in the engine cooling system.
2.Monitoring element :
The element which measures the cnntrolled condirion ( variable ), and
2ioducer a signal conespon6ing to it, which can be used by the control system.
Also called zs Sensor, lransdurer.
3. Measured value :
Actual value of rhz controlled conditicn, as mea.wred by the sensor.
4. Deviatioc :
the difference benveen the desired value and the measured value. This signai is
sent to the Cornpazitor, in orde; to ini:iate some corrective action.
5. Offset :
This is sustained deviation, which occurs, when the measured value stabilises
(reaches equilibriur,) at some poin: other than the Set vaiue. Tbis could change,
with change in load conditions. Offset occurs in simple proportional control:
6. Control point :
In a simple proportional control system, the controlled condition will stabilise
at some point of equilibrium, other than the Set point, which is termed as the
conrrol point.
7. Enor signs1:
The signal produced by the Comparator, after comparing the measured value
with the set value.
8. Feedback :
The transmission of the measured value to the Cemparator is termed as the
feedback.
Q.lO. What is Open and Closed loop control ? Give some of their advantages
anddisadvantages, with m a r h e examples.
hs.
Open loop control :
This is the simplest type of control, where the input to the process is
independent of the output. Sincc the output is not scnsed, ths input is usually
dependant on some other variable. e.g. time. A marine e x m p l e is the oil purifier
or centrifuge. Thc puriiler desludg:~ after a fixed time interva!, irrespective of the
amount of sludse that may or ;nay no; have built up. The purifier does not check
whether or not the siudze has been removcd, or even if there is any sludge at all.
Shaft Alignment
. ..~
The are two accepted methods of carrying out a check on the alignment, when the
ship is in service, these are :
.~ ~
Pilgrim Wire (alignment) : The pilgrini wire method of obtaining the shaft line
is popular and easily understood. A wire is stretched over rhe shafts as a d ~ t u m ,
pre-tensioned by weights. The height o t t h e shaii to the wire, at each bearing, is
then taken, using a seaiiive micrometer arrangemcct. R e micrometer is used to
complzre a small electric circuit. The alignment over all the shafiing, inclcding
- the crankshaft czn be determined, although ii is often racpssery :o swing
connecting rods to allow this. This method only gkes the shaf! line, for the
exisiing ship conditicn. It does not give the shaft bearing loads.
C) Shaft Loading : The shaft system operates with different loading patterns.
The dominant load is the overhung mass of the propeller, causing
considerable bending moments, at the aft end of the shafting. This bending
moment can be aggravated, by the propeller thrust being offset from the
centre line. Whether it is below or above this line, depends on the ship's
condition - !oaded or ballast.
Additional to the main bending moments, both misalig,hent &xd changes
to the line, resulting from machinery expansion, can contribute to funher
bending moment. There are four possible modes of vibration in the shah
system and all are encountdied 10 some degree. There is also a variation in
the engine torque (direct drive diesels] and the resisting torq!le frcm the
propeller will vary, due io i t working in a con-uniform wake pattern.
The attitude of the ship, between jight and loadrd condition. has a
marked effect on the shaft line. The align men^ is always a cornpromice, 13
meet these ex?reme conditions, and skill main:ain satisfactory bearing loads.
hvariably, the shafting aiid machinery are aligned, when the ship is in an
extrexe ligfii condition. This has to be allowed for, in the set up.
Tilting pad type bearings are chosen, for particularly heavy duty, such as
the extreme aft end, adjacent to the tail shaft. In this location the pads
would be in both halves of the bearing. For other bearings there would
usually be pads in the lower half. The after bearing usually has a reduced
clearance, so that pcak amplitudes are not attained in the rail shafi bearing.
Roller bearings offer a very low starting torque and are free from wear,
during turniag gear operation. They can be of :he sclid form (requiring a
muff coupling) or of the split type to allow easy assembly. Rol!:r bearings
are of zero clearance, so they can carry loa6 rzversals. without having to
absorb diametric clearance. This is an asset, when transverse vibration may
occur and tends to zompensate for t l ~ every low damping qualities of these
bearings. They have a specific life (related to load and revolutions per
minute) and usually have to be replaced, at the end of their operational life.
Q.14. M'itni reference to propeller shafting, how are fitted 3o:ts insfali
What r a c t c n govern the design of silch bolts ? Gorv can failur
sucb bolts) take place ? Sketch a typical hydraulicdy tightened
Haw are "interference fit' bolts installed and rzmoved ?
Ans.
a) When fined bolts are used, each hole is ~ x h i n e dand h m e 2 in
The hole is slightly tapered, and each bolt is rhen machined to su
hc!c. 77:s bolts -re tightened
- to R specific value of pre-detem~i
so a;: tu achieve coaCderable fric?ion at the c,ol;pi;ng faces.
b) Tli~ nunber of bolts should be such a? ro carry the torque withsut shear
'!'$I-:!ii::iion at the coupling'faces doescontribute, but the value of its
coniribuiion is debatable. .especially when going astern. Overstressing
thc boliz, reducss the degree oiinterference fit.
C) Bolts ?.re never over-;ighiened, till they reach thcir clastjc limit.
thiii:;! rcwrsa1s Lake place - chances of failure (of bolts) arc greater.
HYDIWULICT1CI:TENINC Oil
L
d) Interference fit - aiding attachment.
The radial fit bolt consists of a tapered bolt, matching taper bored s1ee.x
and two round nuts. The sleeve is assembled loosely on to the bolt and
together ,hey are inserted into the coupling hole in the clearance
condition. A hydraulic bolt tensioner locates and restrains the sleeve,
while pulling the bolt into the taper bore, so expanding the sleeve to
develop a radial fit in the bole. Nuts are fitred at each end of the holt,
which is then tensioned to induce accuraie tixial loading. The
simultaneous high axial and radial loading maintains vital shaft
alignment. The radial fii bolt is removed by relzasing the clamping
eifect of the nuts, and cil is :hen injected thruugh an oil-way and
distribution groove to the tapered interface to bring about separation.
The nuts are removed, and the bolt assembly withdrawn from the flange
hole.
Q.15. Describe split roller bearings for msin and auxiliary Shafting. How
zre they overh-ukd ?
Ans~
A Split roller bean'ng (for main and auxiiiary shafting) is designed as a
conventiunal roller bearing wi'h the main components halved. Bearing races
and rollers are of hardened chrome sreei. Races hav: ang!ed joints to provide
continuity of rolling contact. High tensile screws in c!amping rings provide an
'interfereace fit' between inner race and maft. Roller cage me made from liglri
alloy or bronze joined by steel clamps. These can be used for shaft d:'ameters
upto i250 mm.
Advanced Marine Engineering Knowled~e V d . 111
Overhaul : To dismantle the bearing, lifi the top half squarely, taking care the
top half outer race does not faii. Carefully ease out the cagz jcining clip. The
prrservative need not be removed, unless contaminated. Outer races need not
be removed from the cartridges, but, if doing so, ease back the side screws and
remove the radial screws (if provided) for fitting outer race. Maintain the
bearing silrfaces clean. Damaged parts should not be interchmged. Complete
roller bearings are interchangeable between similar cartridges Ligkly oil
threads and mating surfaces. Check shaft diameter fcr roundness and
parallelism. For some applications (especially at slow spped and moderate
loads) wider :olerznccs, as on stmdard shafting, can be accepted.
:().117. Where does corrosion occur on the tail shaft ? How is the shaft
protected from this ? What are the methods used to reduce this ?
Ans.
The tail shaft being in contact with sea ,water, is subject to electro-
chernicsl corrosion. To reduce the contact with sea water and to provide a good
bearing surface, a brass liner is fitted. However, i4 brass and iron are in contact
with each 0 t h and salt water gets at the point of contact, the ifon corrodes
vapidly, therefore, corrosion can take place on the shaft at the ends of the liner.
.i>ns
I :
1s due to galvanic action taking place, caused,by the action of the sea water
at these points. To minimise the corrosion, the following methods are used :
I. Fit a rubber ring between the propeller boss and the end of the liner, so
that sea water is kept out.
2.. Cover the unprotected part of the shaft with red lead putty and marline
wound tightly round shaft, the whole being then covered with canvas.
3. 'Lb protect the shaft completely from corrosion, the shaft has a
continuous liner shrunk on to it.
~ n hollow
y pans between liner and shaft are filled up with red lead puny by
means of a force pump.
Q.18.' If t h e propeller were to start getting loose, with a little 'play' on the
shaft, how would this he known ?
Ans.
:f the propeller were to work loose on the shaft, with side 'play', i t
causes z ' h o c k ' to be hzard in 3 c engine-rsorn, whea the shafi is turning,
especially when the engines are reversed, from Ahead to Astern. A propeller
working l o ~ s on
e the shaft is dangerous, since the ship's propulsion depends on
this and it is difficult to access this at sea, for m y kind o f repair. Great care
needs to be taken in fitting the propeller on the taper, s d emuring that
sufficient contact surface exists, to develop adequate friction to hold the
propeller tight. It should also be ensured that the tail end nut is adequrtely
secured.
Q.19. In large vessels hollow shafts a r e fitfed ir! place of solid shafts, Whz!
is the object of this practice 7 How do hollow shafts compare for s t r z ~ g t h ,
with solid ones ? If a hollow shaft is fitted in place of 2 solidone, whi,-h
;vonld he the heax-ier of the two ?
Ans.
The object of fining E, hollow shaft, in peference to a s d i d one, is to
reduce the weight of rnateiia!. it rmst b e noted that for the same strength, the
h$llow shafi is iighler It must also be noted that rhe diameter (extsmal) ~f the
solid shafi makes it the stronger.
Briefly, the advantage gained (in :olfow shafts) 1s in removing the molecules of
metal from the centre core and placing them at the extreme radius, where they
will be better able re rerist torslon. The strength of a solid shaft va-ies as it's
(diarnete~)~, while the strength of a
Hollow shaft varies as = (Laree diameterj4- [SrndI diameter)'
Large diameter
For stiffness, the shafts may he compared as D~ for solid and (D4-d" for hollow.
FOI weight, the shafts may be compared as D' for solid, m d as (D2-d2) for
hollow, where D = external diameter, and d = internal diameter.
n
Q.20. What are the stresses on the crank shzft, thrust shaft, and propelfer
shaft ?Compare tbe diameters of each.
Ans.
The stresses, in the crank shaft, are - torsion, a te dency to shearing and
a bending stress adjacent to the webs. The webs are stressed in bending, and the
crank pin is in shear stress.
The after end of the crankshaft transmits the torque of the whole- engine, but
going towards forward end, the torque becomes gradually less, until at the
foremost journal the torque is nil. For this reason, the diameter of the various
con;ponents of the crank shaft need not be the same. They are, however, usun!ly
m a d !he same (in diameter) for the purpme of being interchangeable, in the
everit OF breakdown and replacement.
Ln tke thrust shaft, the stresses are torsion and compression while goiny
Ahead; torsion and tension while going Astern; with bending. and shearing at
collars~
he propeller shaft is subjected to the most severe stresses of all. In
addit.ion to torsion, and compression while running Ahead; or torsion and
tension going Asrem; it is subject tc~an alternate bentiing stress, due to ihe
overhmging u-eight of the heavy prope:ler and this latter stress is greatly
an!$ilied by the movement of the stem of the ship, especially when in a 'heavy'
sea. Due to pre-tensioning by the tightening of the tail end nut, the after end of
rhc propeller shaft is in 2 contii..ual statt: oftension.
The diameters of the various shaft may be compared as follows : Taking
a diameter of 600 mrn intermediate shafiing, the thrust shaft could bs 613 mm,
the c r o c k shzft 636 mm, and propeller shaft 679 mm respectively.
Ans.
The tips of the propeller blade and the 'trailing' edges are particularly
siix:;p!ibie lo erosion. They may be completely eroded and tom away by [he
...
c k c r s of cavitation. in some instances, the continual pitting causes the entire
bIxJi: to be eaten away, leading to cracks and possible failure.
lei-osion, due to cavitation, may occur at any part of the propeller blade.
\\,heit: l i ! ~s!iclion is high, but is common over three significant regions - at h e
tips (where the rotational speed is highest), a1 0.7 of the radius (where the load
is usually at a maximum) and at the 'root' of the blade (where the sections very
thick and the pressure distribution is adversely affected by the small gap
between the blades). The collapsing cavities give rise to noise effects,
accampanied by nigh frequency vibrations, which are undesirable, especislly in
the modem 'aft end' accomodation ships.
Since cavitation is affected by pressure and temperamre, it is more likely
to occur in propellers operating near the surface and will occur more readily in
wanner waters, than in cold regions.
If this sea water pzsses across the back of the blade znd meets I high
suction region, the nett pressure of this water rnky fall be!ow the vapour
pressure of the water (at that temperature), catising 3 cavity or 'bubble' to fomj,
filled with a mixture of water vapollr and sorrx air, since air is always present in
sea water.
The creation of these czvities, adjacent to th- p r c p 3 e r biade, is L-gc.m
as "cavitation. Cavitation is essentially a boiling phenomena and the action of
the propeller blades causes the surrounding water to 'boil' at ordinary sea
temperatures.
As spceds and power increase, it becomes tiifficuit to avoid cavitation.
At extremely high speeds, complete 'back' cavitacim occurs, ilr which the back
of the Bkde is completely covered with a sheet of vapour.
-
5) g,"dg&@,, to achieve as uniform a wake field, as possible.
Avoid the incidence of locat suction peaks near the leading edge, by
6)
using suitable amounts of camber and a suitable shape of entrance.
7) Reduce the thickness of blades, by using materials which are stronger
and more resistant to the effects of cavitation.
8) Provide the maximum immezio; ~mdhle
9) Since the thrust of a propeller varies as the square of the revolurions,
rhen reducing the revolutions~wil~ reducecviratm, but will also result
in a loss of speed.
Q.23. Describe cach of the following :
a) Ducted propeller (Kort nozzle).
b) Frce rotating vane wheel (Voith - Schneider type).
Sratc their advantages and disadvantages.
Ans.
Ducted frooeller (Kort nozzle) :
a j These are prcpe!!ers ~pcratingin a duct or no7zle. The duct has an aerofoil
type cross-section, thus water flowing through the duct gains in veiocity,
ai:owing a greater mass of water to be accelerated by the propel!er, resdting
in increased thiust. Ttere is also a thrust from the A c t itse!f, due to a low
pressure region generated at the duct entrance. Kort nozzles *ere inrroduced
on vessels operating at low speed, high t h s t conditions e.g. tugboats and
ice breakers, where thrust increasesof upto 40% have been achieved. They
have also been fitted to VLCCs, where gains in propulsive efficieccy, of up
to 6%. have been achieved, resulting in reduced fuel consumption or an
irlcrease i n speed.
O i i w advactages inc!ude reduced vibration, dcc to a more unicnnn wake
cwiidirion ifi way of the propeller; improved stesring efiiciency, due to
ir~cicaii-dwa!er velocity over the mbber; reduced prope!!er diameter: ard
psopelli;~proiection, far vessels such as ice breakzrs.
b) In ihe event of hilure, due to loss offlnid, the level in the operrting taiik
falls and an alan:; is set-off: Anotlier, Icwer, float switch activates the
controi unit, whicii :-
I . Energizes rile solenoid, which operates its automatic 1sola:in~ and
Bypass v a i x , hence splitting the system into two independent
circuits.
2. The system operates on any one pair of rams, the bypass-on the other
pair having Seen cpened.
d) The Vanes are manufactured from spheroidal Cast iron and secured to the
(Cast steel) motor and stator, by high tensile Steel bolts and dowels.
e) Vertical clearance, of Vane unit, allows for wear down (if a carrier bearing is
fitted) and for a ji~mpingclearance. This is 38 mm.
Q.25. Briefly discuss the Steering gear Regulntions with respect to Main
ant1 auxiliary steering gear.
What are the special requirements of Steering Zear for Tankers ?
Wilai iests a n d drills are carried out on the Steering gear, prior to
the Vessel's departure from a Port ?
Am.
Stcering G e a r Regulations :
(1) Ships must be provided with an efficient main and auxiliary steering
gear, but the auxiliary gear is not required, if the main steering gezr is
iirreci with dcpliczte power units and dllplicate connections uplo the
Kudder stock.
(4; Ccrrifizd hydraclic p i p and electric power cables to bz used for rhe
steering gear exclusively, with power cables capablr of withstmdin:
i 00% over-load.
(5) ?he main steering gear must be capable of purring the Xuddei over, fioin
an angle of 35' on one side, to 354 on the other side, with the ship
moving Ahead at maximum sewice speed and with the vessel a: ii's
deepest draught. It must also be capable ~i putting the Rudder over from
35' on one side, to 30' on the other side, in not more than 28 seconds,
tirider the same conditions (Passenger ship5 with only one of the power
units, other vessels with both power units operating).
- -j-(6) The exact position of the Rudder must be kdicated at the main steering
position, the method s f indication being independent from the steering
control system.
Tankers of 10,000 GRT and above. (Building commenced after Is' Jan 1980)
Power supplics :
(a) In case of power failure, the Power units to start automatically, after
powcr is restored.
) Normally the glands on these va:ves are %riy long to give good sealing
with minimum friction. Tlie type o f giand and p x k i n g will depend oil the
contl-ol valve application. Asbestos is necessary for stram and other hig11
teinperatui-e and high pressure niediums, above 15 bar, 260°C. The asbestos
s t ~ m i d ssan be spun with brass wire !or strength artd can also be inteivovtn wi:h
anti-friction rna:erial.
Oil packings are iisually rubber-proofed cGt!on 2nd for loit, pressures, yreasy
ipacking of heinp is used. With hazardous'fluids a co~?iplctrlytight, belloivs seal
can be used Lubricated packing can be used (P.T.F.E. materials r-equiie no
lubiization upto 230 OC). 'Chevrcn' packing, with the 'Vee' expanded rtgai~,st
the land. is used. Where the temperature is very hi$, a iubricanr may b2
requit-ed, as thc temperature may quickly destroy any buill-in Iobricanc. Tlis
yiand liousing may have cooling fins around it, to dissipaie heat, rlius p r e v e n t i i ~ ~
expansion, an2 imposing increased resistance to valve movement.
(i) Strergth.
(ii) Bending.
(iii) Surface fatigue resistance.
(iv) Wear resistance.
(v) Compatibility with a manufacturing process
Ridging :
A form of scratching under heavy load, due to plastic flow, caused by
a high spot (usually on the pinion) ploughing through the surface of the
mating tooth
Rippling :
Plastic yielding under heavy sliding action. This is characterised by a
fish scale pattern. This is casstd by surface shearing swesses.
Q.28. If you were instructed t o carry out an examination of a set of gearing, how
would you go about it ?
Ans.
Prior to making an examination of a set of propulsion reduction gearing,
the inspection hole covers 2nd nuts lnust be opened. Clean off so that dir;, paint
chips, and Foreign matter will not fall into the geartng, when he covtrs are
opened up.
The lumiiig gear is put in, the usual precautions having beer. takcn at the
engine ccntrol station, prior to tulrizg the propeiler with the turning gear. The
first part of the examination wi!l be tr, check gear oil sprayers and oil flow f;-om
bearing ends; if they are nn: firted witn drain pockets, either before shuttins the
oil pump or by mming the p m p at the ei~do i the examin-tion.
If a grid or perforated plate is fined in the run-down connection betwecn
the gear casing and the drain tank, it should be inspected for any debris, white
metal flakes and so on.
The profiles of the pinion teeth should be examined, noting' particularly
the wear pattern markings and the cortact surfaces, both ahead and astern
sides should be examined. If the contacts surfaces are normal, the alignment
wiil be i:, order.
Main wheel gear teeth are examined in the same way. If the pinion teeth
are hardened, defects in alignment will most likely show up in the gear wheel
teeth first, especially if the gearwheel teeth have a softer surface than the
pinion teeth.
The root fillets in all teeth must be examined for the stw. of any fatigue
cracks, even though they are more usual in pinion teeth. If any bearings are
fitted within with any wiring (connected to temperature sensors), these are to
be examined. The fastenings, clips and connections on lubricating oil pipes to
bearings and oil sprayers must also be checked out.
Prior to replacing covers, the gear teeth, where cleaned during the
examination, should be coated with oil. Make a note of the findings, so that
they can be written up in the log-book or work reports, without omissions or
inaccuracies.
Air conlpressor
Q.1. In ROAir compressor:
;I, Whai is 'Bun~ping'clearance ? Flow is it checked ?
b, ~ t a t ~ t reasons
he for an increase in clearances.
c. W h a t are the causes 1eadi;lg to reduced v o h m e t r i c efficiency ?
What could be the efCect of k a k y valves ?
Ans.
a. . Bumping clerracce
This is t h z t e m given to tile ciearence between the piston and the
cylinder cover, at the tap end of the stroke. This is necessary to prevent
. ,.mc~;iianicai contact between the moving piston and the-valves and g e a r - *
I r c m be ye?/ eteiiy checked, by inserting lead gauge wire of known
p.,,lckness, above the -,iston top. Now siowly ?urii the compressor over by
hand. The thickness of the !-ad wire is now measured and should
nimnaliy be around 1% of the cylinder bore (check the manual For the
exaci figire) :f the bumping clearance is rrrorc, then rhe volvmetric
er6ciwc; dxreases. This is because rhe volume of tile space above the
piston tap dzsicies rhe compressio~ratio and hence the final yressure
Having insuificient burnpip: clearance can lead to nechanica; dainayr
-
/b
-
b- :-
,.
This is uslialiy adjusted by mean? of shims.
c. C ~ u s e of'
s reduced volumetric efficiency :
Excessive ' ~ u n i ~ i nc!eirance~
g'
Di:Fcctive (leaky) valves.
lle!jtrictior~sin the discharge lints. ..
Resirictinns in Inrercooler i AfttrcooIer or reduced heat transftr.
Clio!,ed irttake filter.
Vlorri piston rings. . ~.
~~~.
:'orsibie effects of leaky valves include : reduction in eFEciency,
incretlrc in tire first stage pressure (due to leak in second stase a~cticr?),
drop i r i first or second stage pressures ( due to leak in respective suction
valvw)~
b) Regulations :
1) There should be at least tv..o receivers, of equal capacity.
2) For reversible engines, they must have the capcity t o give 12 or
more starts, without any fimher rep!erishing.
3) For non-reversible :ngines, six or more Zans are required.
C) Relief valve should be provided, to prevent an accumulation of
pressure, to a value no greater than 10% of the working pressur:,
witk thz Compressors running and the Air receivers' outlet valves
closed^
5) Fusible plug to be fitted if rhe relief wive czn be isolated. (this is
fitted to take care of the presstire rise associated du: to ari
abnormal ris2 in the temperature e.2. fire in the Ensine room )
6 j Outlet valves shculd he of a siow opening type, to prevent a
pressure 'surse' in the air pipins
Capacity Calculations:-
1) 1.5 to 2 times the Engine's total displacement volume, to give the
minimum mass of air per sta.1.
2) h ~ l t i p l ythis by 12, to give the total mass of starting air required.
3) This should now equal the total mass of air in both bottles at the
maximum stipulated pressure, taking into account the mass of eir
which -aovld be remaining in the bottles at the minimum starting air
pressure (unusable mass of air).
Q.3. a. What are the areas to inspect during a survey of Air receivew ?
b. What ore the possible reasons for Starting airiine expiosions ?
c. List the safety devices on S t a r t k g air systems.
d. How will you prevent a reoccurrence of a Starting a i r line
explosion ?
Ans.
n Inspection :First confirm that the pressure is properly vented off.
1 . Top inner surface to be checked
2. Bottom inner surface (sludge deposits can be acidic).
3. Circumferential welds.
4. Longitudinal welds.
5. Welds in way of compensation rings.
6. Particular anention to drain connections.
7. Condition of the coating.
b. Startinp air line explosion : For an explosion to take place, three things
-a(required
: :
1. Fuel : Lube oil carryoverfrom air compressors. Leaky air starting
vdves causes fuel and sparks getting blown back, Excessive
lubrication of system components. . ~. ~
. . c. Safety d e v i c s :
Flame. traps.
Bursting caps.
Ftisible plugs.
RelieFvalves
Non-r~turnvalves.
Q.4. W o w does the stress vary, in the shell material of a compressed a i r receiver,
both in the longitudinal 2nd the circumferential directions ?
Ail.;
'!'ha si~cllrliickness, of a compressed air receiver, is i e s (thin), in relation to the
tlianreti:r. it can therefore be considered as a thin-walled vessel, where the stress
i s uc\iibrnt across the thickness ofthe materia!.
Let . ,
D = . intei-nal d;ameter :rf the air receiver^
[ = shell thickness.
1' =. working pressurq. . . .
~
To reduce fnsrning in the oil sump, the following measures can be taken :
I) After starting the compressor, the oil level drops, it is therefore,
necessary to allow su%cienr h e for the oil level to re-stabilize. Shon
cycling periods, reqcires immediare attention.
2) While starting, take precautions to prevent an oveitlow
a) in plants with forced air circulation over the eva?orators, the fans
should always be started beiore the compressor.
bj At the slightest sign of liquid 'knock', the compressor should be
stopped immediately.
Reduce the compressor capacity before restarting, until possible
knocking sounds have ceased. TIYthrottling the suction side stop. valve.
3) Expansion valves should be correctly adjusted.
4) During standstill periods, isolate the Compressor by closing suction and
discharge stop valves.
5) Avoid rapid pressure drops in the crankcase, while the oil sump is cold.
If necessary, stan the compressor with reduced capacity.
6) A 'cold' return line from the oil separator indicates the presence of
refrigerant in the oil separdroi i ~ stope valve in the return line, before
the crankcase, should be kept closed, until the oil separator rises to
operating temperaiur?
7) If?he compressor has a heating elenent, this should be used for 4 to 8
hours, before starting the compressor. If the oil is heated to about SODC 3
before starting, this reduces the concentration of refrigerant in'oil by
about 80%, in relation to the saturation point at 20°C.
"- J
-- 1
Q.S. In a Refrigeration system, state the effects of following :
a) Under charge, b) Over charge, c) 4 i r in the system, d ) Moisture in
the system, e) Oil in tht: xystem, and I) Flooding.
-.;
Ans.
a) Uatder-charge : Low compressor suction and discharge pressiire.
1 . Xigh superheat at the comprEssor suc:ion. (Possibility of overhearing and riii
iI
-,
i
!:os.sibility of small air bubbles in liquid sight glass. This may cause the reefer
compressor to overheat, with a high discharge pressure (with normal
contln~singtemperzrure). If there is excessive air, ir may reduce the cooling . --
cd p'a kr y or' the system givins long running periods. Air can be removed by
~ ~
~s~
+.,
ccllrclina the system gas (into the condenser), leaving the condenser cooling
water on and venting out the air 6om the top ofthe Condenser.
d) I'iioistuw in thesystem :
This ~~ormally comes in with the i q r e s s o f air in the system. Moisture may ,
:*.,t ~ i
..~~e
-. ~-
Tirecr: are normally always a small quantity of lube oil in the system, but the
fluid speeds are fast enough to force the oil to travel around and back to the S@Zy
cornprmsor suction. This can happen if the Oil separator is not wol-king -.-
~
Z
~
c o i - r d y . (Coil collects in the condenser and evaporator, their heat transfer rates
will impaired. ...
::Z
s 3
I) i ' l o o r l h l ~:
.This is %:an as liquid gettins back to the compressor suction. It may be due to
fault*/ oc ii~correctlvadjusted expansion valve. Also due to the Solenoid valve
>
186
Emissions
1 . With respect to emissions from marine engines to atmosphere, discuss :
a) Need to limit emissions of Nos, SOX,.CO, C a .
b) What is 'acid rain', 'smog', 'global warming' a n d bow is it
d a t e d to the exhaust emissions ?
c) Formation o: SO-, Carbon monoxide, and Sulphuric acid.
Ans.
[ a) Emissions :
The mides of Nitrogen (NO,) and Sulphur (SOX) are the "Primary
\
i
polluiants" of the atmosphere. They -an pollute in two ways :
i 1. NOs and SSs dissolve in watm to form NitroudNitric acids. and
i Sulphur~udSulphurica c i A
2.
i
~
\
+NOx can combine wkh 01, by isiug ultra-violet radiation (from the
sunj, to form 0 3 , i.e. Ozone.
b) The acids are absorbed in the clouds and then become 'Secondary
poilutanrs', because they cause the formation of 'zcid rain'. This 'cont3minated'
rain water has a pH of about 4, and disscives heavily 'toxic' materials, present
i n the ground. These toxic materials, being water soluble, will enter the 'water
table' This 'contaminated' ground whter is nsed by boih plants and animals,
which is increaxingly darnazing their ~ : c w i j iand ia suspected to be one of the
reasons for :he increasing incidence of fatal diseases, like cancer.
Additionally, Ozone, at low levels, is dangerous, for both animal and
plant life, since a combinarion of ozone with hydrocarbons forms a familiar city
~roblem: a photo-chemical 'smog'. This is carcinogenic (cancer forming) and
thus t ~ x i cto human and plant life. Hence, thzre is an urzent need to limit the
emissions, before the levels get out-of-control and destroy / damage the health
of ~ u ecosystem.
r Both NO3 and SGs are emitted from marine engines, and the
new Emission control regulations have brought about a drastic reduction.~ .
in the
allowable levels, which are increasingly getting more stringent.
Fuel is a hydrocarbon and after complete combustion forms H20 and
COz. These are known as "Sekctive absorbers" and they allow ultra-violet
radiation to pass through, but absorb infra-red radiation. Hence any infra-red
radiation, i.e. heat, that is generated at sea level, is prevented from escaping
through the atmosphere, and this can result in 'global -.varming'.
Q.2. With respect to the control of emissions from engines, discuss various
design changes to the engine, which haveled to reduction in NOI levels.
Ans.
Primary methods :
These can be summarized under various headings :
I. Reduce mass o f scavenge air. (Air contains 79 OA Ni).
2. Reduce the combustion temperaiures. (e-hich reduces NOs formation).
C~llssderingpoint no. I :
This seems the most obvious soiution (although not practical).
Consider the reactions :
8Nz + 202 -> 4 N 0 + 6N2
4N2 + 0 2 3 2 N 0 i- 3Nz
Points $3 note :
1. The practical minimum air requirement is the ctoichiometric figure plus
the required excess to ensure complete combustion. The quantity of air
available varies as a function of the time available for con~bustioll(two
stroke has less time, as compared to four stroke, which is the reason for
the increased level of emissions in two strokes).
2. Scavenge air is used (on both two and four stroke ensines) to reduce the
thermal load. Thus any reduction will increase the load on the coolins
systems.
3. No sca-densesystem is 100% efilcient. So any reduction of air will affect
the combustion efficiency. Also, there will be an increase in the specific
fue! combustion.
Secondary methods :
Primary methods try to reduce N o s levels, to existing legislation levels,
but when more intensive N o r reductions are demanded, by h t u r e legislation,
then secondary methods could be used. Another alternative is to 80 in f ~ r
electronic fuel injection with microprocessor contrcl, which can control the
combustion proass to reduce the emission levels significantly. Secondary
methods involve the use ofthe Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCX)S y s t e n ~ ~
Briefly the SCR system involves :
1. Mixing the exhaust s a s with Ammonia.
2. Passing the resultant mixture through a catalytic reactor at a
tempeiature between 300 - 400 OC.
ZNH, + Heal + Catalyst -> ?Hz + NZ+ Catalyst.
Ifwe mix with exhaust %ascontaining NO + 0 2
2 W r + H + C + ~ N & + ' / ~ O Z - > +~3NH~2 0 + 0 2 + C .
Ifwe mix with exhaust gas containing N20 + 0 2
2NH3 + H t C + N1O + 02 -> 2 h + 3HzO + C~
K,rorvlcilg
Adurisced iWor;,te E,rgilteerirr,-; !'or. [I1
--
The effect of changing the ignition qua1i:y : As all fuels are differen
1hey diiier in rheir ignition quality. Some fuels have a reduced 'igaitio
dslzy' period, and are considered lo have a better igniti~nquality.
Reducing ignition qualily increases the delay period. A hi
igiitiori quaLily fuel will hzve 13w arotnaticaily and hish p r a
cori!enr. The large and rapid'heat release, associated with para
iiicls, usually counteracts theeffeci of reduced h e 1 mass at igiirio;
to i-educed iynitica delay period. T i e residt is an increased pe-k pr-sii~
and better thennal efficiency.
The Fuel quality setring (FQS), on the engine, rakes care of t
diffknces in ipition quality, by ad-gancing Gr retarding [he fuel timing.
For more details, on the working of the FQS system and a ske
showing ihr; varioils components, refer to 'Advanced Marine -
Esi~ineoringKnowledze - Vol.1'.
L i g l ~spring
i cards : This is a special spring, used in an !ndicstor, to ger
a picture cf the pressure variations during scavenge and exhaust
processes The normal (heavy) spring is used to indicate the complete
.-r?!nze of pressure variations, in the cylinder during the complete c;r-Ie-
~ h i s ,however, is not able to amplify the slight changes in pressure
during the process 3f scavenge or exhaiisr. The light spring is used to
indicate the pressure variations existing in the cytindtr only during the
g?ls exchange process, i.e. scavenging and exhaust processes. Since the
spring h;is a light tension, the higher pressures make it compress
completely and do not show up on the 'Light spring' card.
Light spring cards are used to indicate fouling of the scave
ports and the exhaust system. From this diagram, the pressure at exhaust
vallfi: opening and BDC can be obtained. By superimposing [he
scavengi: mariiii~ltl pressure on the diagram the fouling of the S F
can be seen.
190
Q.2, Discuss, in detail, the limitatioxls in the recording and assessment of
Indicator cards taken by a conventional indicator.
Ans Conventional Indicator cards have the following limitations :-
I. The pressure sensing spring of the Indicator relies on pressure
waves being transmilted down a narrow passage. This brings in an error.
Also, the actual site of i ~ i t i o ncan occur randomly in the unit, which
affects the magnitude o f transmitted pressure waves. This means that the
cylinder pressures (from the same unit) can be registered as slightly
different pressures, by the Indicator unit. Thus recorded powel
variations may be due to errors in the readings by the Indicatcr unit.
Modem Indicators, using piezo-electric transducers, have over-come
these limitations !o a large extent.
2. The Indicator card is the basis used to adjust engine parameters.
We assume that the same diagram is represtntativc of all cycles of that
unit. For an engine running at I00 rpm, in one month, 4.2 million cyclrs
would occur. It is extremely unlikely that ail cycles will exhibit the same
charactefistics.
3. The calculation of the Indicated powcr [of a cylindel-j relied so the
accuracy o f a hand-traced P!animeter. The accuracy of the Planimeter, as
well as the assumptions taken in pswer calculation, will be poor.
Electlonic indicators have an advantqe, in this respect. These take a
voltage inpr;t from cylinder pressure transducers, and also accurately
measure exact position of TDC, Ikom a sensor mowred near the
flywheel. in addition, microprocessors can calculate !he flex in the
crankshaft at different speeds, and use this for re-adjustin8 the timing,
sincc TDC positions would vary with the flex. The pressure transducers
can measure and store a large number of readings. This rneans that
'rogue' readings wilt not be used, but a corrected 'mean' wiil be used to
adjust the engine power se!tings. The hand-held unit will down-load to
a PC. Readings can be superimposed, to enable faults !o be easily
identified. In addition, softwares can be nsed to help in trouble-shooting,
which also display standard power calculations and other relevant
information, such as ignition-delay, compression pressure, power and
other parameters, which are measured by the data-logger at the time of
taking the readings.
For a detailed description and sketch of the Indicator, refer to
'Advanced Marine Engineering Kncwledge - V01.1'.
102
a) Viscosity increases, thus fuel droplets become larger, resulting in
inadequate surface area for combustion and slower burning. The
droplet forms a hard layer around it, which reduces evaporation and
hence afiects the burning.
b) Fuel spray become more compact, which reduces mixing, and hence
increases combustion time and increases exhaust smoke levels.
C. Fuel pump internal wear. This will reduce the maximum pressure
delivered by the pump, as weil a s produce 'late ir~jection'thus :
a) Fuel econnniy will be affected.
b) Penetration will reduce, as fuel supply is injected later, againsi
nigher gas presstires in the cylinder.
The basic cam profile is extremely complex, :akin2 care of the rate of
injection, which varies dliring the injection process. Thus, in case of a
cam, any mo6ifica:ions can te'easily cmied out, to produce [he best
proftle, which ;iiill be a compromise of the various factors invglved.
Considering the above, it is extremely difficuit for a syrnmeriica;
harmonic motion unir, such as a crank or an eccentric to achieve this.
The cam surface should be :mooth and bright. Any light cracks to be
removed. Any flaking indicates over!oad - change cam, and check the
fuel oil viscosity. Damage :a cams is usually due to fatiguzd spring and
result of extensive shock loading. This is when the cam will- fised
replacement.
4.8. The roller chains used to drive engine camshafts eventually increase in
length, while in service. How is this increase in length accommodated and
how is the increased transveise vibration catered for, when the chain
stretches ?
Ans.
At regular intervals, the 'stretdh', or increase in length, of roller chains is
taken up, by adjustment of the chain tensioning device. This usually consists of
an idler sprocket wheel mounted at one end of a lever.
At the other end of lhe lever is a nut fitted in a yoke. A screw passes
through the nut. Turning the screw causes the lever to move about a fulcrum, so
that the idltr sprocket wheel moves towards o r away from the chain -
increasing or reducing the tension.
in some marine engines, chain adjustment is controlled by measuring the
transverse displacement of the free length of the chair.. '
e
Q.9. a) With reference to fuei injectors, discuss the criteria a n d the imporlance
of the hoie sizes of nozzles.
b) Whal is the effect on an ezgine, if operared for long periods on i o , ~ ~
speed a n d power 1eve:s 7
c) What effect will fuei, emulsifli-d with water, have gn engines ?
Ans.
a) Nozz!e hole size
Thc two main parameters are diameter and lengh. Usually the iniio Lld
= 3, and the diameter depends lipon the quantity of fuel injectio~:required znt!
the nombe1.s oof holes.
The quantity of fu-1 s fixed by the power requiremeni of tlir engine.
The diameter of the holegjs fixed by the need to penetrate the cylinder to a
certain extent (60%) and achieve good atomisation. Tne nombet- o i holes is set
by the need to achieve a uniform spray pattern, without iutermixing o f the
individual sprays.
The shapdsize of the nozzle holes are fixed at:he de9.ign stage, and any
wear will increase the nozzle hole shape, an5 burr the entry/cxit profile.
Atonlisation is mainiy achieved at the needle seat passage, entry profile to the
nozzle hoie, s d change of flow into nozzle hole.
Note that many manufacturers smooth the hole entry, which stabilises
nozzle characteristics. Thus changes to the diameter and entry profile will
reduce the amount of atomisation which occurs.
A change to oval from round shape wi:l influence the fuel droplet size
spread. Slow stzaming nozzles can be used when regnlar and prolonged engine
operation is required between 50 - 80 % power.
The nozzle hole diameter is reduced to :
1. Reduce the penetration, which occu~sinto the less dense cylinder gases.
2. Keep the atomisation level and injection pressure sufficient, as mass
now rate is reduced.
197
. .
b) Low spfzd and power operation
If the engine is operated for long periods at low speeds and power levels,
with 'normal' size injector nozzles, then - engine noise, mechanical loadins,
extiaust miolte, exhausttemperatures and fuel consumption will in&ease.
c) Emnlsilied fuels
Waier can be introduced into th: cylinder either by a separate injector,
or csiiuisiried with the parent fuel. Stable emulsions are more easily formed with
FiTO and ihe level o f water in the file1 can rise upto 30% (more thzn this creates
prohisms with the fuel pump), but 10% is found to give the best resrlts. When
thc iuriihm emulsion is injected into the cylinder, the water droplets cause a fali
ii: ihi: ri:suliarit gas temperatures. This leads to a lower level of NOx formztion.
0.1 i . With reference to Cueis, discuss the problems associated with storage of fuel
oil and the problems due to inorganic sludge (contaminants).
.. .. Ans.
-
Storage problems with marine fuel.
With the dimillishing reserves of oil, and the consequent rise in prices, i t
h;ts Lecome important to extrxt the riaximum out of the crude oil, to make i t
!- economically viab!e.
The ability of Kefinenes to extract more and more high giade fuels I
i distillates from crude oi!, has resulted in a coxentratior. c f contaminants and
<-
the deterioration of the quality of the residues.
These residues farm the base of marine fuels, which have incre-aed the
;
.- storage problems.
i~
Sludge : This separates out from marine fuel oil in storage.-It may consist of
carbonaceous material from the fuel, wax from the fuel, water, organic and
i-
inorganic substances, such as tank scale.
! Wax is contained in most fuel oils, the greater amount being in :he
!~- residual component. If a fuel oil is kept suitably heated, the wax remains
. . ~. . dissolved.
.: ...
?
. . ~Water
.. ::water contamination often occurs during loading, due to rain, or
:., .. cdntamination kith sea water (more dangerous). It may occur during storage,
due to condensation, or during tank heating, due to leaks in coils.
-
Crosshead, Bearings and bolts
Q.1. W h y are there astern faces, on the Cross-heads of unidirectional
engines? What are the reasons for limiting the Cross-head guide
clearances ? What a r e the reasons, that may necessitate Cross-head
replacement ?
Ans.
The cross-head guide, which cames the load during the expansion or
working stroke, is called the 'ahead' guide. The Ahead cross-head p i d e canies
the cross-head side thrust, during the wcrking s!rok=, when the engine is
~ n n i n gin the 'ahead' direction The other guide is termed the 'astern' guide,
even if the engine does not run in the astern directim (uni-directionail. The
guide is provided to maintain the baiance ofthe working parts.
As the Piston passes TDC or BDC, there is a reversal of load on the
cross-head ,ouides and slipper. Excessive ciearances would rcsdt in shock
loading, when this reversal occurs, with the possibility of mechanical damage to
both the top end bearing and the slipper. The oil film would be squeezed from
between the surfaces. Misalipnent of the piston rod ill iis $and and of the
piston in the !iner could occur.
In two-stroke engines, the Cross-head beinng is iini-directionally
Isaded, and there is no pericd when the bottom half is 'relieved' of load, un!ike
Tour strokes. Thus, the lubrication of this bott3m halfis extremely critical, and
special care needs to be taken, to ensure h a t wear is within the ! h i t s stipulated.
tiowe-~er,if the 'lcaded' surfaces of bearing or journals are hezvily worn, i.e.
more than one third of the contact area is 'scored', or, if roughness has caused a
large area of the bearing surface to be 'wiped', then the Cross-head may nerd
over-haul. Since it is not possible to rotate journals through 180 " , t o use the
unworn surface, the bearing may need renewal.
Polishing with hemp rope and mild abrasive may take care of minor
scratches, but will not remedy damage due to roughness. Excessive ovality or
cracks will also necessitate replacement.
Q.2. State the factors, which govern bearing clearances, in the following
components of marine engines :
a) Crosshead guide.
b) Top end.
c) Bpttom end.
d) Thrust Bearing.
Ans.
Factors governing clearances
a) Crosshead guide :
Loiver limit - To avoid 'edge loading' of the bearing, when the pi11
'flexure' occurs, and the need lo retain clearances, ivllen
bearing rsaches the propsr opera8ng temperature.
d) ,Thrust hearing
Uppei limit - Prevent Iarse inertia ibrces on bearings, during chansec
from anead ! astern. Prwent ensine cranks1i;li
mixalignmen:, or running-gear misalignment, wit11
excessive axial movement.
Lower limit - Allow rhe thmst pads to tilt and thus generate The
required oil pressure.
Q.3. With the Cross head bearing operating under high load a n d a non-
continuous rotation, discuss the importance of :
a) A high surface finish.
b) Bearing strength.
c) Proper lube oil supply.
d) Flexing of the bearing.
Ans.
a) Surface Finish :
The crossheed of a two-srroke marine engine is unidirectionaily ioadcd.
This is because the bottom surface is atways under load, whether on rhe
compression stroke, or the power stroke. Added to this is the fact that the
conversion of vertical movement (of piston) to rotational movement (or
crankshaft) mkes place here, so that the resulting oscillatory motion is 1101
sufficient, to generate proper hydrodynamic lubrication.
Thns there is no time for an oil film to form, since the lube oil does nor
have a chance to enter the bearing easily. The surface finis.': of a hearing is vital.
when the oil rthn thickness is so small, that metal-to-metal contact may take
place. In this bearing, the rotational motion ceases twice every revolution, and
at this time, boundary lubrication occurs. By improving the surface fini;h, we
can delay the onser of boundary lubrication, and reduce its effect occurriny.
Also, by increasing the contact area of the bearing, we can reduce tlle specific
1oadir.g. thus spreading the load gradually over a larger area.
b) Bearing strength :
The strength or fatigue limit o f the bzaring material has a major
influence on the operational life of the bearing. If the metal is unable to
withs:and the high pressurs imposed on ir, the metal will either yield, or
fatigue wiil occur after a 'number' of cycles. To improve the bearing strengh,
we can either change the material (to !ln-aluminum), or reduce its ihickness
l b y bonding it to a lining material).
Q.4. Bearing damages in journal bearing and tilting pad thrust has
occurred. Discuss :
a) Scoring, due to foreign matter or dirt.
b) Wiping of bearing.
c) Corrosion.
d) Cavitation erosion.
e) Black scab or wire wool damage.
fl Pitting, d u e to electrical discharge.
g) Damage d u e to faultyassembly.
Ans.
a) Scoring due to foreign matter or dirt.
This can occur due to contamination of the lubricant :
I. Deformation on crankshaft, oil gallerks or cylinder bore, present at the
time of assembly^
2. Entertained dirt entering through breathers or air filters, ad panicIes
derived from combustion of the fuel.
3. Metallic wear particles resu!!ixg from abrasive wear o f moving pans.
'Din' may cause polisking of the surfaces of whit? metal !in& bearings,
burnishing of bronze bearings, abrasive wear of ovei!ays, or 3f other b ~ a r i n g
linings, and scoring of both bearing a d mating surfaces, with degrees of
severity depending upon the nature a i d size of the dirt particle, or oil fiIn
tliichess and type ofbexing material.
%.
I
in case of cavitation, investieate the practicality of increasing the oil
pressure or modifying the groove by tiending the zdges or contours to promote
a more stream-!ined flow, or by changing to a h a r k b e ~ . n gmaterial.
9) Black scab or wire wool damage : 'Black scab' or 'wire wool' damage is
caused by large die partisles $robably'not less than i m across) czrried into
the c!earance space by the lubricating oil, and becoming embedded in !he
bearing, which ma.y form a hard scab of material, by contact with thz sieei
jcumal or thrust col!ar. This scab will ther. c a d e very severe damage to the
mating steel surfacewhich is literally 'machin& away', with the formation of
so-called 'wire-wool'. .
i
The action is self-propagating, once it is started and susceptibility ro
scab formation depends upon the nature of the lubricant and the composition of
the stee! oft& shaR or collar. Steels c o n e g chromium or manganese, in
excess of I%, appear to be particulmly suscep$ble lo scab formation, especially
in high speedmachines with bearing rubbing speecis over 20 meters per second.
Q.5. A Main bearing, of a main engine unit, has beec 'opened-up' for
survey. Discuss in detail holy you will access the condition of hearing
shells and the actions you propose to rectify the dcfects tintifed.
Ans.
The criteria below apply to tri-metal bearing, which consist of a steel shell with
lead bronze lming and a galvanic white mctal piating, about 0.03 :c 6.06 mm
thick.
Heavy pressure below the relief area (on one or both sides). These areas
are something characterized by gloss, and sometimes they show cracks
and scaling of the plating. Glossy areas should be touched up with tine
steel wool, scaling should be treated with a scraper. All loose panicles
must be removed.-The bronze may be exposed in the relieving zone.
Advanced Morine Engineering K,rowledge Yol.111
Check the lateral beafing clearance and the bearing cap for
misalignment. i
Diagonal glossy areas. Make sure the bearing shells and caps are fined
accurately. Measure the :rank web deflections. If the plated overlay
contains cracks and scaling, remove the loose panicles immediately.
Wear of the plated overlay over a fairly large area (bronze exposed),
but on one side only. Heavy pressure on one edge as a result of
inaccurate construction. If the engine has tie-rods, do not align the bed
plate by tightening or slackening the tie-rods (frame distortion). If this
pattern already occurs after a short running period, it is essential to trace
the cause and to replace the bearing fconsult'the engine manufacturer).
-
Pit*. This phenomenon is caused by vibra$ion. Check the bearing for
good seating. Check the fix1 injection pump. Check the to~siontil
vibration damper. Thc bearing csn remzin.
The piated overlay is vely smeary, the iead bronze is partly exposed
(mainly along the transversz centre line). This is due to tube oil
shortage. Very oitm the outer surface of the bearing is q:ii~eblack with
carbon deposits. The she!ls have become convex on the inner surface, as
a rcsult of nrnning hot. The bearing shc!!s ;nxst Se rcplacerl and i t is
essentia! !o determine the cause.
Heavy working traces on the outer surface o i thc bearing awl some
areis of fretting corrosion. The bearing must be replaced, paying
particui2r attenticln to the assembly instructions, es;lec.ia;;y as regards
tightening the b a i n g bolts. If several bearings should exhibit this
phenomenon, thz pre-stress of the bearing sheik in the housings must be
checked.
Pitting on thc joint surfaces (dividing line) of the bearing shells.
.
Check the pre-strrss of thq bearing shells in the housins. Follow the
engine manufacturer's instniitioni ?bout tightening the bearing bolt>. ;f
pitting occurs on several bearings, notify the engine manufactiirer.
The plated overiay has much better 'running-ic' and emergency iunninz
properties than the lead bronze. Apart from that, journal wear on the crankshafr
is much reduced by the plated overlay. If refinishing is necessary, as littie
material as possibleshould be removed from tkis over!ay. Since every bearing
has to settle in again afler refitting, it is zdvisable not tl open properly running
hearings unnecessarily.
Ans.
The bottom end hearing. bolts o f 4 strokes .are more susceptible to
failure, due to the variance of forces imposed on it. In the induction stroke,
where the journal pulls the piston down, alternating forces are imposed on the
bearing bolts. Hence the fatigue strength of the bearing bolts becomes a factor,
as metal fatigue will cause failure below the UTS of a matm-al.
Sh, in addition to the pretension load of the bolt due to tightening, an
alternative load will be imposed due to the stresses involved. Great care must be
Governors
Q.l With respects to governors, explain the foilowing terms :
a) Droop.
b) Isochronous.
e) Governor effort.
d) Dead Band.
e ) Stability.
f ) Sensitivity.
Ans
p ) Droop'
The drop in speed from no h a d to stable full load speed, is called as the Droop
h$ Isochronous :
-/V ?so' mms cmstm?; thus an Isochronous governor is one which tries to
mkntain a zonzta~i:stable speed, regardless of load.
c) Gwernor Effcrt :
The resdr~ntfcrce, due to the imbalance between the centrifugal force on the
bails and the spring force, w ~ c is
h available to move the fitel contro!.
d) D e a d Band :
The minimun change in speed (increase or jecrzase) required, befare the
governor can take any action. This ccuid change, due to the friction in the
actuating mechanism.
e) S t ~ s i l i t y :
The opposite of sensitivity - i.e. the ability to reach equilibrium (stable speed)
,.
for different loads, with a minimum of hunting.
f) Seusitivity :
This is a measure of the accuracy, with which the Governor vies to maintain a
desired speed. Any deviation in speed produces a corrective action. A sensitive
or 'fine' governor requires only a small change in speed, to produce a small
output movement. This will lead to hunting, which is undesirable. Thus, rhe
iiilal output is a compromise between Sensitivity and Stability.
0.2 Friction developing between the moving parts of a Governor, linkages and
control valves will cause the Governor to :
a) React with insufficient speed droop.
b) Fail to react to small speed charges.
c) Have excessive sensitivity to small speed charges.
d) Remain in neutral position.
Give the correct answer, and explain what is in built ihto the governor
system to overcomesuch friction.
Ans.
h) Fail to react to small speed changes, is thp colrect answer.
If ws take a pizcticai case into consideration, then we must consider the
effeci of fi~ictionwithin the Governor and it's linkages. The engin: speed must
now rise, by an amount that will generate zn increase in the centrifirgal force,
suEcient to overcome the friction in the mechanism, before any corrective
governor action can occur.
Similarly a small fal! in engine speed will not be sensed, until the
decieasc in c ~ m i h g a lfcrce q c a l s the frictional force present, before any
movenxnt ~f tne &el linkage car. occur. TNS range of speeds, withotit response
fro% the Governor, is termed the 'Dead band' and is inherent in a Governor.
Before equilibrium at any speed is reached, there will be a certain
amount of speed fluctuation, or 'huntlng', -bout h e desired speed. The period
a d magnitude of these fluctuations will depend on the sensitivity a f the
Governor, which is turn deperrds on tile masses d the flyxcights, in a
mechanical Governor. The greater the mass, the warserrhe reguiarion and this
results in a short period but a large temporary deviation. Conversely small
r~lassesgive a long period with small temporary deviations. .<:....
.~*
., ~
~**,.
:.':;.A
4,3 Explain the working of a hydraulic Governor. :
i
Ans.
With the hydraulic servo governor, the 'ball-head' (fly weight) no longer
acts on the file1 linkage directiy, but controls a pilot valve. This, in turn, controls
the flow of oil t o the servo or power piston. This arrangement greatly amplifies
the governor eKo& while allowing the bail head to be kept small, for 'fine'
governing. The flow is directed :o the servo or power piston, connected to the
fuel racks.
If we consider the engine running at a stable speed, no oil flow occurs. If
now the engine ioad is increased, the speed will fall reducing tne centrifugal
force. This will cause the pilot valve to move down, under the now greate:
spring force, allowing the oil to flow to the servo piston.
This, in turn, will cause the fuel rank to move in the 'increase fuel'
direction and, after a delay, the engine speed will recover and overshoot. The
pilot valve will close off the flow and open the servo space to drain, due to
increased centrifugal force. This action will be repeated, until stability at
original speed is eventually reached. This arrangement gives a movement (of
the pilot vaive) in proportion to the change in the speed. It also gives v W
sensitive control, which is inherently unstable, due to the time lag.
209
i *...
..::. .
..... .'.. . . ~.
.>
...
It is quite common to find a conical or mwrnper-shape0 spring, used as
thq 'Speeder' spring, as this follows a 'square' law, rather than the linear law of
parallel springs. This give a better relationship, wiih the change in centrifugal
force, since this increases as the 'square' of the speed.
achieved by the introduciion of 'speed droop'. This is a form of 'resei' action: .-.
AdvancedMarine Engineering Knm&dge VoL I11
Q.6 What maintenance practices will you f6:low. to keep a governor ia good
condition ?
Explain the following with reference to Governors :
a) Compensation.
b j Local speed setting knob.
c) Load Limiter h o b .
d) Speed Droop h o b .
Ans.
Hydraulic governors are not nolmally serviced on board, since they
contain very complex and delicately balanced parts. They are returned, for over-
haul, to the ,makers, in the evem of woin parts or mechanical damage. The only
important aspect, of routine maintenance cn board, is the need for extreme
cleanliness, especia!!y with respect to the C v e m o r 02 condition.
Regular 03 changes, usmlly every 1OGO h-5, is specified as the routine
maintenance. Poor oil conditioll, due to w n t d n a t i o n , leads to^ increased
Eriction and .. . . This is the usual cause ofgovernor malfunction.
wear.
. ~
Adjustments :-
C~m~ensationffkedle vaive) : This is only to be adjusted if there is excessive
hunting or excessive- sluggishness in normal operation. The adjusrment
procedure is normally specified in the manual, but is usually adjusted &em 'full
operf, then gradually closed until engine just s t m s to hunt, an2 then opened
another '/r turn. There should be no hunting, during normalrunning.
LoadLimiter knob :
T h i s is used to limit the 'stroke' of the power piston Thus, it limits the
. .~~
rn&&ximiiGl, and Consequently the maximum load, which can be safely
&&Tied.This 'may be required, if engine problems donot g o w load above a
certaih'poinf;onthe engine of the prime mover.
.,
., .
. . . .~ ~
. .
212
Speed droop knob :
This knob controls the Droop setting, for fine adjustments, when load sharing is
required to be altered, between different Alternators. This is no: generally
adjusted.
Main engine speeds are much lower than the normal rpeed of an auxiliary
engine. Aiso, the prcpeller acts as a speed regulator, since i! has a lot of inenia.
The top left diagram shows the situation afier synchronizing, with all the
ioad taken by machine number i
As the speed control of n ~ m b e 2
r is increased, it takes ?art of the load
and at the .same time the frequency is increased. The bottom centre diagram
shows the situation after the speed control on number one machine is reduced,
giving more load to number 2 macnine, and returning frequency back to normal.
From this it should be obvious, that load sharing is achieved by
alteration of the fuel settiilg of the machines. If the governor characteristics are
isochronous, then there will be no crossing points along the characteristics and
the load sharing will be unstable. If speed droop is incorporated on a: least one
machine, then there will always be a crossing point at any given load, and stable
operationwill be achieved. This is shown on the following characteristics, for
the case of isochronous governors and also for both having speed droop.
Starting Air Systems
Q.l With reference to Air starting systems :
a ) Why is the timing of air start affected by the exhaust opening ?
b) w h i t is meant by overlap and why is it required ?
c) Describe the relevant safety devices a n d interlocks.
Exhaust valve I port opening puts a limit to the period of the 'air kick',
since any more supply of starting air (after the exhaust opens) would
re;ult in the iompressed air passing directly out of the unit, witliout
doing any effective work, of turning the engine. This imposes a limit on
the effective stroke of air start, and !hus limi!s the period of startinz air
supply ro a unit.
Overlap is the period, when two or more cylinder air starting valves are
simultaneously open. This ensures tt.at another cylinder air sizrtiiig
valve is opened, before the earlier unit valve closes. Since the tolque is
varying during the starting period, h e to the angularity of the
conneciing rod, when one unit >tarts getring air, iis ro:que is insofficknr
in magnitude. Due to the overlap, the earlier unit is still getring stariin:
air, at a higher torque. This makes it easier to srart the engine.
Ans.
Starting air line explosions occur due to a combination of three factors :
Fuel - which may be lube oil carry-over from air compressors. or unburnc fuel
blowing back i n from leaking cylinder air starring valves.
Heat - which could be from the same leaking cylinder air starting valves 01
from anorher heat source near-by.
Oxygen - which is abundantly available in the starting (compressed) ail- line.
.. . Precautions : Keep rhe air starring system lines clean and drained. when ilot in
im. Regulal-ly over-haul cylinder air starting v:dves. Maintain air compiesso~-r
in good condition, to avoid excess carry-over of tube oil into iiir lines.
Safety devices : All safety devices in the air stariing system should be al\vays in
good working condition.
Q.3 What normal maintenance of a i r starting valves is required and what are
the consequences, if this is neglected ?
Ans.
i. Reguiar checking of valve tightness (condition) shou;d be done, by feelins rhe
air stanins p i p s by hand, while rile engine is running.
2. Every 6,0C9 to 8000 hrs. dismantle, clean and regrind, where necessary, each
cyiinder air stwting valve.
3. Excessive grinding ca< reduce the clearance between the operating piston iuid
the valve cover Aiways check that !his clearance is scfficient (this shoilid
normal!y be abou: I mm) .
4. The copper joint ring to be renewed at evc:y werhaul.
Consequences of neglect :
1. Leak from a air starting valvc a n gc! worsc a! an iccreasing rare - irrepiirable
and costly damage may occur.
2. Hot gases ;unbunt fuel may pass into the sir sta:ting system - fire haznrd.
3. Lcss of compression, during running, will affect h e combustion efficiency.
-
The Air Bottle is linked to the Air starting manifold through l l i t
Autornaric air starting valve, which has a non-return valve to pi-event ihc
possibility uf a blow-back, from a starting air line explosion. to the Air bottles.
The Automatic air starting valve is operated by means of [he pilot v;llw
shown, ~b~hict! in t u n is operated by the starting lever through the starting valve-
Tile tturnirig geai- interlock prevents the enginz from being sterted, with [he
turning gear engaged. The starting air, from the starting valve. also acts 10
engag: the Distributor. This is a safety feature, which prevents the engine fro111
accidmihly bcilig stasted, in the event of air leakage from the Automatic ail-
sta-ting valve. The cylinder air starting valves are operated by the Distribt~tol-.ill
the cwreci sequence for starting (the Firing order).
- 1
BLSCXWC
VNVE
FOR
.
NR
CONTROL SYSTEM - INTERLOCKS
REID
Advanced Marine Engirzeedcg Kmwledge Voi N I
~XZL-
-: 1
. .....
i
-
Q.6. .Wit%-refererice.
., ., t ~ a i ~ s ~ r t i n g ; s y s t e m s , oboardn shipigiv@reasons:for. i
.- .<-.'*~...,&':P.-~Ax.<- .+
, -.<,-. .,.~..~,?- ....
f a .i. ~~. , u . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ F l m g 2 ~ ~ ~ Y s t efiiliiie:to'reverse,
. -propulsiok d i & I - & g i n ~ ~.%I : Im- ~3n:ir:;Jr
.-
&'o s t r o k e mazn
~ ~ s ~ ~ s ~ froer aa ::s o n ~ f ~PT
Ans.
Failure of a i r starting system : Starting air supply blocked. due to Receiver
stop valve being shut, Automatic ail- srarting valve not openin2 or loss of
control air to pilot valve operating the Automatic air strrting valve.
- viz. Low lube oil presure, iow fuel ?ressuie, low pistoi: coolin: pressure.
Air starting valve defect : Cljeck for seized valvr (by turning it).
Remote control sj.z!em failure : Firs: check the control air supply. If c o n m i
ir
air pressure is satisfactory, siart checking tiiz complete system, from the staning
lever to [he autv Air starting valve, to the cylinder air srarring valves - go
!hrough the whole siicuir.
Cherk that Fuel Limiter has not operated (low Scavenge air pressul-e). z!
Cl:cck for a Gc.;erncr fault. whether the Booster Is operatin:- to move !he iuel
racks. whether the boosrer air signal is being supplied. at the Lime o f rtarting k
Chtck the Fuel supply^
Clicck the linkages in the system.
Ciieck the Interlocks, if any haveoperated.
Chcck for an Air-lock, due to '2bsing' of the Fuel system
Regulai Maintenance :
Partial crackillg can o h he repaired by grinding out and then, afrer suitahic
build-up with multi-pass welding. checking with NC1T. This rnetl7od minimiies
distortion, as annealing 1s carried our or; i h e previous runs of weld. before tlic
x x t stage is~carr~ed
our.
Stellite Co Cr Mo C W(;'ttiigsten)
50% 20?4 IS% 2% 10%
V:aive seats are often Kirnonic, with stellite facing. This $ves good corrosion
d i d w x i o n resistance, 13 prolong the service life.
V ~ l v ecages arc usually Cast iron, with the stem guide being a separale item
tisudly pearlitic Casi iron. This is cheap, easy to manufacture and the guide
ma;oriai has good computability.
d) V:rlve spi.ings :
Springs Eire required to support the mass of the valve in the cylinder head.
Tiitre are sevei-a1 spring arrangements in common use. some employillg si11+
slxings whilr: others employ multiple springs~
5in::le spr.iog : This is the simplest solution and it vibrates at a lower natural
freqwiicy, lrowever there is [he risk of valve bounce, buckling risk for loll5
sp~ii!.jsarid Iwgc diameter springs have higher stress and bending moments.
Springs in Series : This rcduces bending stresses. Reduces buckling bur is more
compler.
* Smoky exhaust. . .
Surging of Turbocharger.'
Reduced compression and cylinder power.
. .
b; Importance of Valve coojing :~ . -
-
-
S= -
-
;
;;:
-
c) Operation of the Mechanical Rotator :
e Further incr-cse in pressure causes the balk to move along :he ramp, thus
causing rotation of the vaive stern.
As the valve closes, the washer bears agaixt the rotato; body, thus relic-ving
the pressure on the balls. n e ramp springs return ihe bails to their origical
positions, and the process continues.
ArI~wncedMarine Engineering Knowledge Vol. 111
Q.5 Describe common failure of piston crowns, of hvo stroke marine diesel
cnginer. Give reasons Tor these failures.
Ans.
The above sketch shows the faiiuie areas of the pistan crown. This is of
the inrernally webbed type. Cracks occuning on the underside are due to
henna1 loading. Cracks on top could be due to stress raisers.
The upper right sketch show a method of gauging piston crown burn
down using a profile gauge. When grinding to profile, depths cf the c r x k s
should be gauged (cheekqd by dye peneriant tezt).
Q.6. I n the case of Cylinder h e r wear, what do you understand by the term
'bore polishing'. Describe types of cylinder liner wear.
Ans.
There should be a gooti surface finish, to produce an effective of seal between
piston rings and the liner wall. This profile is produced initially by using coarse
honing tools to remove machining irregularities and to provide good oil
retention packets.
Then a fine honing process is employed to remove the asperity peaks
and provide a bearing surface or plateau. The total roughness is around 8 - 15
pm, with a bearing of around 40-70% contact patch, the roughness should be 2
pm.
When thc liner becomes too polished, after a prolonged running, the
volume of the oil retained on the liner surface is reduced to near zero. This
polishing of the liner is removed, when the pisrodliner is de-glazed using
rarborundum stones.
'-) -
-
Arlvmced Mnrine En@nzering Knowledge Yo/. III --
I
1
The rate at which the liner wall becomes polished in service depends upon :
a) Oil iced rates : If the liner lubrication is sufficient, the increase in boundary
i lubrication between lincr and ring will cause the liner wear rate to increase.
I
. d> Reduction of combustion prodrkts of the liner / ring interface : The hard
. ~ p r o h c ~ sof combustion, if allowed to make contact with the liner wail, will
increase iiner/ring :vzar, and h e r xvall polishing. To prtvent ;?is, a stepped
-.!
- pistor., having 3 rcdxed diametci at the top cf the piston, has been intxoduced.
!
A sepamte firing ring is provided at the iop of the liner, which the top of the
.. pision enters. This step has proved effective in reducing the amount of coke
deposits, which c= mb against the k e r wdl, dwing rhe upward movement and
thus preveilt the bre&-down the lube oi! film
By redacing the rate of liner polishing, the !iner and pistan ring wcar
rates are reduced. When the liner becomes too polished the oil is not retained on
the liner wall and passcs through the ring pack a n d thus is burnt. If the liner
profile is to^ rough, ringllinzr wear is high, and rhe iubriczting oil consumpiion
increaszs due ro evaporation from the rhickcr oil fill.
Q.7 Explain the influence of the iolloviing f3ct*t-s on the cylinder liner / piston
ring wear rates, in two stroke main propulsion engines :
8) Matching of lube oil to the sulphur content of fuel.
b) Correct cylinder oil feed rate.
, . c) Timing of injedon.
d) Wall temperature of running surface.
- ej Material of piston ring.
-. Ans.
a) Matching of lube oil to the sulphur content of fuel : The TBN value of the
~- -
cylinder lube oil should be correctly matched to the sulphur content in the fuel
to be used. Too high a TBN value wi!l result in excessive alkalinity, which itself
is eo&sive. It produces calcium deposits (soft). Too little a TBN value results
in failure to neutmiise the acids, resulting in a rapid rise in the conosive wear
rate. Crosshead engines use 70 - 80 TBN cylinder oil with a standard value of
Sulphur content, which could change with a change in the Sulphur content.
r
i_ b) Correct cylinder oil feed rate : The feed rates are important, and depend on
- several factors, such as the viscosity of the oil, the number of points where feed
is appiied (single or multi level) and the bore of the engine. Even a slight
change in the viscosity (e.g. due to temperature) can cause a fall in the
.- effectiveness of neutralising the acid, since insufficient viscosity would. not
allow the oil to spread sufficiently.
Arivirnced Mnrine Engineering Kno~oledge Yo!. III
~,,lvr:thinning
EZ~,....: would reduce the film thickness. It is difficult to give a firm
figiiie - it is easier tojudge this in practice - the rate is correct when the piston
r i n q arc slightly damp, the piston rings are free to move and liner wear rates
are IOLY ttie quantity of oil feed can be adjusted on eacb cylinder, and each quill
position. Cylinder lubricator feed rates can be dependant upon engine speed, or
load dependant. Load dependant lubricators have been introduced to ensixre the
appropriate lubrication under a11 conditions, as the feed rate should be
dependant upon the quantity of fuel injected rather than engine speed.
7 ) 'I'imin~: It is vital to inject the lubr oil at the correct part of the cycle, to ensure
thai t h e lube oil enters the liner when pressures are least, and can spread
zrifticieniiy to adequatsly cover the e,~tiresurface to be protected, without loss
of Huid iilm thickness.'Ihe'normal ?eri;d of injection w d d bz when the piston
Is inovirrg upwards, m d the lubricators are bdwecn the top and seccnd piston
i s . Unlike four stroke engines, where copious quantities of lube oil is
s(~k!ihi.de n rtle liner wall, the two stroke engine cylinder lubrication is critical.
Oil cnrtirol rings, and the clearances of the compression rings wii! dictar tbe
awial q~.i?"ti!y of !ube oil, which finally penetrates the top (filing) rino,.
d) 0 ~ 1 c i ~ x i iiernper;.ture
ri~ / L i n e r wall temperature : For the cylinder lubricant
tc opciare satisfactory, th? temperature should not be too high, otherwise :
2: 7'lie oxidation level will incresse, which reduces the TBN values.
el Ria$ i'/(;rieriirl : Basic material is Castiron. A steel matrix with free graphite at
p i 1 1 bo!~ndaries: This give the piston ring its self lubricating property. The
follow in^ alloying materials are commonly used :
(I) Silicon, which maintains the carbon in a graphite form.
(2) Phospiiorus, vanadium and titanium, which give increased hardness to the
ring. Wear resistance of ring is usually attained by chrome plating or plasma
c o a i i n ~ .Running-in coatings could be copper, laid on top of chromed or non
chrorncd soifaces.
Q.8. Give values for axial and butt clearances of piston rings, as fitted or,
Marine diesel engines.
Ans.
Importance ofaxizl clearance : The piston ring must be free in it's groovs, from
the time tile engine is started, and w e n from 'cold' to 'ii~l!~load'cocdi:io;~s.
. .
'
Values : For fcur stroKe engines, the axial ring height should be from 1.6 -
2.2% of the cylinder diameter. For two stroke engines, the axial ring height
' - should be from 1.9 - 2.6% of cylinder diameter.
Butt clearances : Normally 0.5% of cylinder Bore, when fitted in the unworn
- portion of the cylinder linzr. This value is required for ensuring the correct ring
expansioq.
b The major forces, which are transrnieed into tkc trmsverse ~il-deis.are
the I-unning gear foicei (tra~ismitiedinto the niain bearins) aui' the
combustion reaction forces (transmitted viii the tie ho!ts). The !eve1 of
[!we forces are dep-ndant upcn !b.e combtis:ion loads, of adjacen:
cylinders, and can be increased by crarksiiaft mlsa1i:nrncnt ioadiny on
the main bearing itself Thus a crack could occur from :
Overload situation, arising from -
1. Cylinder overloaded, by excess power or high cylinder pressures.
2. Crankshaft alignment is incorrect
I . Tie bolts are inccrrectiy tensioned (i.e. overlunder)
Brr^Se
d ;i,
A,. Ans.
Electrical systems
e operation of an electrical engine Telegraph system. E C K
~ e s c r i b the L O C A L E"":
,y,,4*)d"dER!'-;c-
SIATIO,~'
The telexraph
- . . yrovides a means of tran'sn~ittinr: - ordeis from the bridpe
~~~~
a~
control station to the Steering flat. The electric telegraph employs the synchro-
step system. The transmitter consists of fixed face plate contacts . . ..
and a brush
carrier with 3 contacts revolving coaxially. The receiver ccnsrsts of a 3 phase
i:ator winding with a permanent ~ m g f i e rG0r t (wound rotor for A.C. operation)
which canies the pointer. By energking each receiver coil separlrrely and
progressively, and allowing thefreely rotating magnet 1s find its o.wn equilibrium,
i t is possible to achieve subsequent step transmission in three positions. If tv;o or
more coils are eiergised, then there is better coritrol of the magnet.
The actual instrument incorporates resistors to give partial magne:ization
0. ~'
-
Q.2. Describe She sarious types of Torsion meters used on vesseis, f o r measllritig
the shaft torque.
Ans.
Where the measurement of shafr torque is necessary, a torsion meter is used.
Various types of torsion meters can be used. Most types measure the angular
distortion of a :haft. The following are the different types : , ~
Light beam : A beam is directed through the teeth towards a phoro cell.
At zero torque, a tooth on one wheel coincides wi!h a slot cn the othel-
wheel, so that 'zero' light falls on the photocell. This increases as [he shnft
torque increases, due to twisting of the shnft.
shaft are required. A bad contact (of a sliding contact) can produce gleat
problems. This is so, especially at the low voltages and low currents
involved with measuring equipment.The disadvantage is, that cluiie a
long axial length of shaft is required, so that, a measurable angular
. .. ,
distortion of the shaft occurs: ...
. ... . ..
~
.~.
.... .
~
.
~
..
2. Strain Gauge Type :
Two ?esisrance strain gauges are cem~ntzd:&<beshaft at 45'. Slip rings and
brushes.connect thc resistors into a resistancebridge; At zero torque, both strain
pug.- elements have the same resistance and the bridge is balanced. When the
scar: is stibjected to torsio~,one elemeni is reduced in resistzncr and other
increased, so the hridee is unbalanced.The zivanometer indicate ihz torquz.
With this type, the axial lcngth ofshaft required is quiteshort. Slip rings
a i d briishez are shown but these can be eliminated by fitting a radio transmitter on
the shaft and & receiver nearby.
The transrnittcd signal is modolated by the changing resista& of the
slralr, eauge elements. Slip rings are necessary to stipply power to the radio
!~.alisrnit!erbut the slip rings are riot incl~de3in the measurins circuit.
4 . Torductor type :
Tliis type uses the principle thrt the magneticpemeability'of steel is changed by
stress, so !hat the output voltage V,, varies accol-ding to shaft torque. There are no
slip r i p ~ por brushes, the unit has a v e r y short axial lengih, is robust and is
intended For use with t,eavy shafts.
Q.3. 'Enumerate the safety precautions that you would observe, when working on
lrieii vortage equipn~ent,on board vessels.
Ans.
The foliowing procedure is recommended, before any work is commenced :
.:dvtmced Morine Engineering Ki~owledge Voi. 111
Precautions :
To comply with the firs: part of [he psrmit-to-work, befox work car, caniii~ence
on 'Live' equipment, the part upon which work is to be carried on1 inns: be in&
'Ctad' i.z. electrically isolated by the means available. In case of l ~ i g !volt;lze
~
appratus, the conduciors rendered 'Dead' mtlst be efficiently earthed mci sIiol-t-
circuired. The points, where these operations are to be cari-ied out, shooitl be
specified in rhe permit-to-work.
PI-eferlbly, some form of voltage indicating device should be used, to
ensure that the csnductors are 'Dead' before earthing is applied. ~ n switching
y
appa&us, o l the compoiient to be examined, which could make !he circuit 'Liv??
;nl;s! be lcckcd, acd 'Caution' notices affixed. The keys must berctained by the
person-in-charge. Even the 'Caurian' notices must b e iixed and removed by the
person-in-charse.
When it is necessary to work on 'Live' Low 01-medium-voltage switches,
p.ecautions azainsr shocks should be taken, such as using insulating stands,
screens, boots, gloves and tools. 'Danser' and 'Caution' notices near 'Live'
conductors must be constructed of non-metallic materiai. If the work, to be cni-ried
OLI:, entai!s the use of hand-lamps, they must be of im aaproved insulated type.
Satisfactory earthing must be maintained thioughout the opel-ational
period and any at~tomaticfire prorective system must be temporarily made
inoperative.
where oil-filled apparatus has to be examined acd possibly I-epienished,
smoking or the use of nsked flames must be strict!y p~ohibited.
Any auxiliary circuits, which might constitute the means of +I feedback, to the
work, must be disconnected. acd if there is any equipment of the bartery-opei-ated
type, or the solenoid operated type, the fusz controlling [hi solenoid musi be
withdrawn, or, if of the spring type, the spring must be dischar~ed.
Although it should be a permanent fixture. and i s statutory, where such
work is to be carried out, it should be ensured, that n placard for the treatment of
electric shock is affixed in a prominent position.
Advarrced Marine '.~gi:~eeiing Knowlerlgc. Voi. III
Lead Acid Batteries : Always 2dd acid to water, and not water to acid, which
could cause acid to fume. Dilute sulphuric x i d is- not necessarily haniiful io :i
healihy skin, provided it is washed off, as soon as poss;ble. A splash in the eye
however, requires immediate first aid.
It should be swilled with water or a diluted saline soiutisn
immediately. (Saline solution :one level teaspoonful of household salt to '/2 a pint
of water).
Alkaline Batteries : As the steel cr!l containers are 'live', d o not allow metal
objects to rest or fall between them. The electrolyte (caustic potash) is corrosive
and should be handlzd with care. It should not be allowed to come into cmti-act
with the skin or clothing.
In the case of bums, immediately cover them with boiacic powd--1- 01-n
sntul-ated solution of boracic powder. First aid FOI the eyes - wash out with clew
water followed by a solution of boracic powder - one teaspoonful to a pint of
water.
When mixing electrolyte from solid material, it is advisable to wear
protective goggles, mbber gloves and apron. Never put the acids, from lead acid
batteries, into an alkaline battery, as this will completely destroy it..
Gas-tight type lighting fittings should be used for illuminating the battery l~oom.
-
Q.6. In a n electrical circuit, what is the meaning of a short circuit ? Why does it
occur? IIow can it beprevented ?
Ans.
The meaning of 'shdrt circuit' is, that the current has f o ~ n d ~ iparh e r back
(from the 'live' wire to the n e u s This means, that current is not passing
properiy through the appliance in question. This can lead to excessive ~ I I C of ~ ~ S
currenr,
-- which causes the fuses to 'blow'. Current always follows the pa;h of leas,
resisance, so always ensure ihat your body does not form that path !
Q.7 How would you trace 3 short circuit ? How do you trace a n 'earth fault' ?
. What is aMegger ?
Ans.
To trace where a short circuit has occurred, each sectional fuse box should be
examined, to findthe circuit in which the short has occurred. This will be detected
by the fuse of the affected circuit, which would have blown.
--
To locate which part of the circuit has 'shorted!, i.e. a short circuit has
taken piace, the whole circuit should be examined. A n appearance of burning
accompanies a 'short', as there is a surgeof current during the short circuit, which
will cause burning. By checking each section of the 'dead' circuit..by means o f
a &Tultimeter, the faulty section can be detected.
T o trace an 'earth' fault, each sectional switch should be put 'On', in turn.
and the eanh lamps watched. T h e earth will be in the circuit in which a difference
in the intensity of the earth lamps rakes place.
2. A portion of the shank has a tight clearance in the hole, so that the nut is
tightened 'square' onto spot faced bearing housing This prevents the
possibility of yield of threads.
2. Check the f?ee length of bottom end bolts in service, against a new one.
If they are longer, it is possible that yield has taken place.
3 Check for kactures by NDT or: by 'sins&', i.e. sttiking with a hammer
to check if the bolt is 'sound'. A defective bolt sounds diffecent.
Discard the bolts, when either designed kfe is over, over-speed occurs or
piston seizure has occurred
l~rndlex
Page Nos. Page Nos.
Cable stopper
CaICrifier
%last water 27 - 28. Camshaft
Control measures 27. Carbon filter
Evaluation 28. COT. Bulk system
Hazards 28. Narms
Loading instrument 28. Boil-off
Safety precautions 27. Relief valve setting
Ballast syxtem isoiaiion 67. Central Cooling .system
Barium Chromate 99. Advantap
Bearings 128, 165- 165. Chain Locker
Roller . 165, 1 6 7 Combustion
Thrust, tilt pad 165,168. r e t i o n quality
White metal 128. Poor combustion
Bilge alarm 34,64,66. Communication
Bilge pumping system 64. Conditions of Assignment
Boilers 86 - 96. Corrosion
Aux. Packaged 96. Bacterial attack
Classreprements 90. Cavitation attack
Combustion control 95. Dczincitication
Defects 89.92 Evaporates.
Page Nos. Page Nos.
.
Cranecircuit, braking . . 74. E n ~ n rcomponents~
.
Crosshead- 200 - 205. Beddate. Lra&
Bearings .200.. cylihder cover
Damage 202 - 234. Euhar?si d v e
Guides 201. . Liner wear
Valve defects
Valve springf 221.
Piston a w n 225.
Dz<ts 52. Rotators 228.
Gravlry type 52. Ring clzarances 228.
Lutiing type 52. Explosimeter 42 - 44.
Rhdiai type 52. Calibration procedure 43.
Dnk ~Vachincry 85. Elashb& -xestoi 43.
Deep t a n k 100. Peak t&g~ 43.
Constru~ion,test$ 100. E L 42.
Detectors 38 -41. Measurement 43.
Alarms 41. Operation 42.
Checking lines $1.
Fauk deection 40.
Hest sensor 40.
M a red sensor 39. and Safety 29 - 60.
Ionisatien sensor 38. Flooding proteaion 33.
Monjtorjng 41. Fire wnml plan 29.
Smoke detectors 39. Fire drills 30.
Testingof deteciors 40. Fie p'h, supervision 31.
Dry powder 46 - 47. Fire protection 33. ~ - .
Eulk system for LPGLNG Safety measures, W S 30.
I;ieeboard,requirements 101.
Fresh water Generator 80.
Fresh water Storage tanks 83.
Electrical systems 230 - 237. ~ u e injecton
l 197 -199.
Battery inspection 233. Fuel oil 130- 144.199.
Cable testing 236. Auto ignition 133, 134.
Eanhing 235. Ash particles 130,133.
Safeties 231. Calorific value 132: . '
Short circuit 234. Cxbon residue 132. .
Telegraph 230. Catalytic fines 130.
Torsion meter 230." Cetane number 130.
Emissions 187- 189. C M C 130. ,.
Acid rain . - . 187. IS0 8217 . ~ 130.
Global warming 187. Sodnrrn 132." .~
NOx ievels 188. Specifications . . , 130.
Smog ;.187: Sto&.&z , .
~ .
, 199.
Enclosed spaces 34-36. Sulphur 132.
Hazards 34. m N ~. ~. 3 1 .
...
239
Iindlew
Page Nos. Page Nos.
Tess 144
Vanadium 131
Fuel Pumps 194 - 195. &WG Code 41, 42.
Cam profile 194. Indicator cards 190- 193.
Faults 154. Draw cards 193.
Indicator 191.
LigFt spring &ds 190.
Inec Gas 48- 51.
Gearing 176 -177. Mars 50.
Defects 156. Generator 51.
Examination 177. Stahl?ory requirements 49.
Governors 208 - 214. International Shore couplifig 50.
compensation 210.
Droop 208, 21 1.
Deai band 208.
Electronic 213. LNG 47-48.
Wydraulic 209. ).dim in case of fire 38.
Isochronous 208. Chaiactzristics 47.
Load Liniter 212. LSA 51 - 54.
Load seiting 212. Cenrrihgal brake 53.
Stability 208. Falls 52.
Sensit&iry 298. Eland brake 53.
Overspeed trip 213. Lifeboats 51.
Parallel mnning 214. Life buoys 51.
&ease 134. L i e jackets 53
Life rafts 54.
Lube oils 130,134 - 143, 145 - 147.
Alkalinity, h s t 143.
Hatchways, construnion 103. Abrasive wear 135, 136.
Stresses 103. Cloud pint 141.
Hazardous cargoes 41 - 4 2 ~ Corn?mor, Viscosiry 142.
Fire fighting 42. Comparison of oils 146.
Medical aid 42. Compound type 134.
Storage 41. Condition monitoring 137.
Properties 41. Corrosion in bearings 135.
Heat Exchangers 75 - 82. Cornsion monitoring 138.
Chemical cieanin: 82. Corrosive wear 136, 138.
Corrosion 75. Cracking point 141:
Defects 76. Crackle test 141.
Erosion 75. Cylinder oil 131.
Failure 75. Detergent oils 141.
Impingement 75. Elastohydrodynamic 136.
Maintenance 77. Emulsion 135.
Materials 78. Fenography 137.
Plate type 78. Flashpoint test 143.
Shell t y p 81. FIoc test 147.
Tube protection 78. Foaming 141.
Venting 76. Insoluble conlent 142.
Lacquering 135.
Page Nos. Paze Nos.
V4a:?r-tisht doors
A!taciinient
Testing
,%#
. v atcr irsaimeqi
E1zctiokitadyn
Potable
Ppm value
violet
r_~i*ra
Untreated water
Windlass brake tea