Notes For Managing Uncertainty and Anxiety

Managing Uncertainty and Anxiety
Fall under Sociopsychological Tradition (the study of human behaviour or a

tradition that seek to understand how and why individual human beings behave
the way they do)
Managing Uncertainty and Anxiety deals with the ways
We gather information about other

Why do we do so?
What results we obtain when we do?
Or in other words: it focus on the ways individual monitor their social

environment and come to know more about themselves and other through
interaction
2 theory
1. Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT) by Charles Berger (1975)
2. Anxiety-Uncertainty Theory (AUM) by William Gudykunst (extension of
Bergers URT)
Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT) BY Charles Berger.
Professor of communication at
university of California, Davis Usa.
Basic process of how we gain knowledge about other people

The theory asserts the notion that, when interacting, people need
information about the other party in order to reduce their uncertainty. In
gaining this information people are able to predict the other's behaviour
and resulting actions, all of which according to the theory is crucial in the
development of any relationship.
There are 7 assumptions associated with the uncertainty reduction theory
People experience uncertainty in interpersonal settings.
Uncertainty is an aversive (unpleasant) state, generating mental stress.
When strangers meet, their primary concern is to reduce their uncertainty

or to increase predictability.
Interpersonal communication is a developmental process that occurs
through stages.
Interpersonal communication is the primary means of uncertainty
reduction.
The quantity and nature of information that people share change through
time.
It is possible to predict people's behaviour in a law like manner.
According to Berger,
As we communicate, we are making plan to accomplish our mission by
searching for more information about the targeted person.

The more uncertain we are, the more vigilant (keeping careful watch for
possible danger or difficulties) we become, and the more we rely on the
data available to us in the situation.

In uncertain moment, we tend to be less confident, thus we make more
plan to communicate or alternative ways of responding.
What can we do to reduce level of uncertainty? : Attraction or Connection

strategies
Nonverbal expressiveness: seems to reduce uncertainty, and reduction in
uncertainty seems to increase nonverbal expressiveness.

Nonverbal is a communication without words. It includes apparent
behaviours such as facial expressions, eyes, touching, and tone of voice,
as well as less obvious messages such as dress, posture and spatial

distance between two or more people.
There are many different types of non-verbal communication.
1. Body Movements (Kinesics), for example, hand gestures or nodding or
shaking the head;

2. Posture, or how you stand or sit, whether your arms are crossed, and so
on;
3. Eye Contact, where the amount of eye contact often determines the level
of trust and trustworthiness;

4. Para-language, or aspects of the voice apart from speech, such as pitch,
tone, and speed of speaking;

5. Closeness or Personal Space (Proxemics), which determines the level
of intimacy;
6. Facial Expressions, including smiling, frowning and even blinking; and
7. Physiological Changes, for example, sweating or blinking more when
nervous.
Things in common/ similarity: It is believed that a higher level of

uncertainty create distance, but reduced uncertainty brings people
together/ feel attracted to each other. As communicators, when we find
things that have in common, we tend to be attracted to each other, thus
the tendency to seek for other information goes down.
The Plumber:
If you call a plumber to fix your pipe, then you wont ask any further information
about him. Because all that you want him to do is fix your pipe. Once it is over,
you wont meet him anymore. But what if that plumber saw your sign that you
hang on your door room for rent and started to ask about it to you. Your leverl
of anxiety might increase together with your level of uncertainty, because you
dont know who is this guy, where he from? What type of person he is and so on.
To reduce your level on uncertainty, you will feel motivate to ask him, and
proceed with interaction process.
People engage with interaction to reduce or eliminate uncertainty, to get more

information about the other person through questioning.
Berger suggest 3 type of strategies of getting information:

1. Passive strategies
2. Active strategies
3. Interactive strategies
1. Passive strategies:
Is reactivity strategies. Individual choose to observe. Example
observing your crush

Observers generally prefer to see how people reacts when
communicating with another person (with someone else). Example
by observing their conversation.

Disinhibition searching: people are observed in informal situation or
self-monitoring and behaving in a more natural way. (alone).
Example at a restaurant, football game or other places.
2. Active strategies:
Involve in asking others about the target person and manipulate the
environment. You wanted to know that person so much that you
begin to ask people who are close to her such as her friends, family
members.
Manipulating environment is where you use certain situation to help
you to know that person better, for example, try to get both of you
assign in the same class project or ask a friend to invite both of you
to a party.
Use Google (famous place to search information about people) or
SNS such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and others.
3. Interactive strategies:
Includes questioning and self-disclosure
Self-disclosure: you disclose something about yourself, and the
other person is likely to disclose in return.

This theory suggest that, we tend to ask many questions when
talking to strangers
Anxiety Uncertainty Management (AUM)
William B. Gudykunst,
professor of human communication
studies at Cal State Fullerton and a
nationally known expert on
multicultural communications, died
Jan. 20 at South Coast Medical Center
after suffering a stroke. He was 57.
By William Gudykunst and his colleagues have extended Bergers work by

looking Uncertainty and Anxiety in Intercultural situation ( Gudykunst
intended his theory to apply not only in intercultural interaction but also in
any situation where differences between people spawn doubts and fears)
They found that members of all cultures/ strangers experience both
anxiety and uncertainty-they don't feel secure, and they aren't sure how to
behave
Thus they seek to reduce uncertainty in the initial stages of relationship,
but people do so in different ways.
High Context Culture

rely overly on the overall
situation to interpret event
implies that a lot of unspoken
Low Context Culture

rely more on the explicit verbal
content of messages
implies that a lot of information
information is indirectly
is exchanged clearly through
transferred during
the message itself and rarely is
communication
anything implicit or hidden
Reading between the line,

imply something rather than
stating it directly
interpreting the language, facial
expression and gesture

Example of country: Japanese,
You say what you mean
Example of country: British,
China, India, Pakistan, most
America Germany,
country in middle east, Asian,
Scandinavian,
Africa and south America.
The concepts of high context and low context refer to how people
communicate in different cultures
Thus to reduce uncertainty in intercultural interaction, you must seek for

information about the person you about to meet as for example:
Find a better understanding about the culture of that person possessed

Learn how to navigate between cultures.
Or even knowing the other person language
This will help you to prepare yourself to meet someone from other group of
culture, you will feel more confident and less anxious while interacting.
The less you know, the more anxious you are, the less effective youll become in
intercultural situation/interaction.
Thresholds for Uncertainty and Anxiety
Upper-thresholds: you will not feel very confident and may avoid
communication. Similarly if you are too anxious, you will be nervous and
less likely to communicate.

Low-end thresholds: which your motivation to communicate will
disappear. If you do not feel any uncertainty, you will not motivated to
communicate because you feel you already know enough. Similarly, if you
are not anxious enough, you will not care enough to try.
Thus the suitable level of uncertainty and anxiety is in between your upper
and low thresholds.

Because it lead to motivation to communicate and the adoption of
uncertainty reduction strategy.
Assumptions:
The basic processes of communication are the same across cultures; only
the methods of interpretation vary

Interpretations are how we gain data to create theories
Strangers will trigger both interpersonal and intergroup anxiety
Uncertainty falls between an individual's minimum and maximum
acceptable levels for effective communication to happen.

The maximum threshold is defined as the amount of uncertainty that we
can possess and still comfortably predict the behaviour of a stranger.

Uncertainty above the minimum threshold keeps us from getting bored
with the stranger and hence constraining communication.
Critics on Strength and Weakness managing uncertainty and anxiety

Strength
Their theory is truly amazing work as it help us to understand
Weakness
The
better about handling uncertainty and anxiety during
weakness are
interaction.
griffin stated
Even many past researcher used these theory to help them
that 47 is not
with their study. These theories is like a bible in uncertainty
enough to
and anxiety management. It conquered vast scope of
explain
uncertainty and anxiety management that happen not only in
uncertainty
intercultural group but also in all type of communication
and anxiety
management
47 axioms as building blocks for the theorems of AUM
in
(self-concepts, motivation, reactions to strangers, social categorization,
communicati
situational processes, connections with strangers, ethical interactions,
on.
anxiety, uncertainty, mindfulness and effective communication)
Axiom: a statement or proposition which is regarded as being

established, accepted, or self-evidently true.
Theorem: general proposition not self-evident but proved by a
chain of reasoning; a truth established by means of accepted
truths.
Self-concepts
Axioms one through five all relate to our views of ourselves, or self-concepts. Gudykunst includes
personal identities, social identities, and collective self-esteem in this category. Social identities
are employed when we try to predict intergroup behavior and personal identities are naturally
employed for interpersonal behavior. They both act in such a way as to help us manage
uncertainty and anxiety by sufficiently predicting behavior. If either of these identities feels
threatened, Gudykunst believes that we will attempt to raise collective self-esteem and hence
fostering a more positive outcome. The greater our self-esteem, the better we are able to
manage our anxiety.
Axiom
Description
An increase in the degree to which our

social identities guide our interactions
1
with strangers will produce a decrease in

our anxiety and an increase in our
confidence in predicting their behavior.
Boundary Conditions
This axiom holds only when we are

secure in our social identities, we are not
mindful, if strangers are perceived to by
typical outgroup members, and when our
anxiety and uncertainty are between our
minimum and maximum thresholds
An increase in the degree to which our
This axiom holds only in individualistic
personal identities guide our interactions
cultures, when we are not mindful, we are
with strangers will produce a decrease in
secure in our personal identities, and our
our anxiety and an increase in our ability
anxiety and uncertainty are between our
to predict their behavior accurately.
minimum and maximum thresholds.
An increase in our self-esteem when

interacting with strangers will produce a
3
decrease in our anxiety and an increase

in our ability to predict their behavior
accurately.
This axiom holds only when our anxiety

and uncertainty are between our
minimum and maximum thresholds, and
we are not mindful.
An increase in our ingroup-specific
collective self-esteem when interacting
This axiom holds only for the ingroups on
with strangers from outgroups based on
which the collective self-esteem is based,
the specific ingroup will produce a
when our anxiety and uncertainty are
decrease in our anxiety and an increase
between our minimum and maximum
thresholds, and when we are not mindful.
accurately.
An increase in perceived threats to our

social identities when interacting with
5
strangers will produce an increase in our

anxiety and a decrease in our confidence
This axiom holds only when we are not

mindful.
in predicting their behavior.
Motivation
Gudykunst's next set of axioms suggest that our motivation to interact with strangers is directly
related to the fulfillment of needs. First, we have a need to trust others to behave favorably or at
least in an expected manner. Second, and only in the context of intergroup relations, we need to
feel inclusion with the group or anxiety will surely develop. Paradoxically, the third need that
Gudykunst points out is our need for self-concept confirmation. We want to be included in the
group, but not to the extent that our identity is lost in the crowd.
Axiom
Description
Boundary Conditions
An increase in our need for group inclusion when

6
interacting with strangers will produce an

increase in our anxiety.
An increase in our need to sustain our self7
conceptions when interacting with strangers will

produce an increase in our anxiety.
This axiom holds only when we

are not mindful.
This axiom holds only when we

are not mindful.
This axiom holds only when our

8
An increase in the degree to which strangers
anxiety and uncertainty are
confirm our self-conceptions will produce a
between our minimum and
decrease in our anxiety.
maximum thresholds, and when

we are not mindful.
An increase in our confidence in our ability to
predict strangers' behavior will produce a
decrease in our anxiety; a decrease in our
anxiety will produce an increase in our
maximum thresholds, and when
confidence in predicting strangers' behavior.
we are not mindful.
Reactions to strangers
We tend to act more favorably toward strangers whose mannerisms and beliefs converge with
our own. In this case, we have a greater propensity to exhibit empathy, tolerate more ambiguity,
and have a less rigid social posture when seeking closure. A rigid attitude, or close-minded
thinking, leads us to seek closure to an interaction in the most direct way possible. If we were to
exhibit empathy and attempt to think more objectively about the perspective of the stranger, we
should in turn be postured to accept more ambiguity and seek the most appropriate solution
instead of the most direct.
Axiom
10
Description
Boundary Conditions
An increase in our ability to process
This axiom holds only when our anxiety and
information complexly about
uncertainty are between our minimum and
strangers will produce a decrease in
maximum thresholds, and we are not mindful.
ability to predict their behavior

accurately.
An increase in the rigidity of our

11
attitudes toward strangers will
produce an increase in our anxiety
and a decrease in our ability to
predict their behavior accurately.
An increase in our uncertainty

12
orientation will produce an increase

in our ability to predict strangers'
behavior accurately.
An increase in our tolerance for

13
An increase in our ability to

empathize with strangers will
produce a decrease in our anxiety
and an increase in our ability to
predict their behavior accurately.
An increase in the degree to which

strangers converge toward us will
15
between our minimum and maximum

thresholds, and we are not mindful.
ambiguity will produce a decrease in uncertainty are between our minimum and
our anxiety.
14
This axiom holds only when our uncertainty is

and an increase in our confidence in
predicting their behavior.
This axiom holds only when we respect

strangers and when our anxiety and
This axiom holds only in individualistic cultures

when we are secure in our social identities and
we do not perceive threats from strangers,
when our anxiety and uncertainty are between
our minimum and maximum thresholds, and
we are not mindful.
Social categorization of strangers

The next seven axioms of this theory focus on how people order their social environments into
categories. When people categorize themselves, they become aware of being members
of ingroups and outgroups, which generates anxiety and uncertainty. People tend to have more
categories for their ingroup than they do for an outgroup, but the more familiar they are with an
outgroup, the more categories they see. The categories that people create for outgroups will lead
to expectations about the behavior of a member of that group, which can be either positive or
negative. Expectations then help people predict, accurately or inaccurately, a stranger's behavior.
Axiom
Description
An increase in our understanding of

similarities and differences between our
16
groups and strangers' groups will produce

a decrease in our anxiety and an increase
in our ability to accurately predict their
behavior.
An increase in the personal similarities we

perceive between ourselves and strangers
17
will produce a decrease in our anxiety and

an increase in our ability to predict their
An increase in our ability to categorize

strangers in the same categories they
18
categorize themselves will produce an

increase in our ability to predict their
An increase in the variability we perceive

in strangers' groups will produce a
19
decrease in our anxiety and an increase in

our ability to predict their behavior
accurately.
Boundary Conditions

minimum and maximum thresholds, we
are not mindful, and only for strangers
who strongly identify with their groups.

we are not mindful.

we are not mindful.

we are not mindful.
An increase in perceiving that we share

superordinate ingroup identities with
20
strangers will produce a decrease in our

anxiety and an increase in our ability to
predict their behavior accurately
21

we are not mindful.
An increase in our positive expectations
for strangers' behavior will produce a
minimum and a maximum thresholds,
our confidence in predicting their behavior
and we are not mindful.
An increase in our ability to suspend our

negative expectations for strangers'
22
his axiom holds only when our anxiety
behavior when they are activated will

produce a decrease in our anxiety and an

mindful of the process of
communication, and our anxiety and
uncertainty are between our minimum
and maximum thresholds
Situational processes
The next four axioms are based on the situations in which communication occurs. People have
different scripts they expect to follow for a given situation, much like actors may follow a movie
script. Miscommunication occurs when people follow a script they assume the stranger with
whom they are communicating to be familiar. People also react to strangers differently based on
the conditions in which they interact. For example, cooperation was found to lead to positive
feelings towards those one is working with (Argyle, 1991). People also tend to have less anxiety
when there are other members of their ingroups present. Power also affects communication, and
a person who feels they have less power than the stranger in an interaction will feel more anxiety
towards that interaction.
Axiom
Description
Boundary Conditions
23
24
An increase in the cooperative structure of the
tasks on which we work with strangers will
increase in our confidence in predicting their
maximum thresholds, and we are
behavior.
not mindful.
An increase in the normative and institutional
support for communicating with strangers will
increase in our confidence in predicting their
behavior.
not mindful.

25
An increase in the percentage of our ingroup
members present in a situation will produce a
decrease in our anxiety.

not mindful.
An increase in the power we perceive that we

26
have over strangers will produce a decrease in

our anxiety and an increase in the accuracy of
our predictions of their behavior.

not mindful.
Connections with strangers

The next five axioms are based on connections between people. What the axioms come to is the
more connected people feel to strangers, the less anxiety and uncertainty they feel in
communicating with them. These connections come from attraction, interdependence, levels
of intimacy, and number of the same people both communicators know.
Axiom
27
Description
Boundary Conditions
An increase in our attraction to
strangers will produce a decrease in
maximum thresholds, and we are not
confidence in predicting their behavior
mindful.
An increase in the quantity and quality
28
of our contact with strangers and
members of their groups will produce a
decrease in our anxiety and an
mindful.
An increase in our interdependence

with strangers will produce a decrease
29
in our anxiety and an increase in our

accurately.

mindful.
This axiom applies only to broad trends
30
An increase in the intimacy of our
across stages of relationship development.
relationships will produce a decrease
Within any stage of relationship
development or within specific
conversations, anxiety and uncertainty
accurately.
fluctuate (i.e. act as dialectics). The axiom

holds only when we are not mindful.
An increase in the networks we share

with strangers will produce a decrease
31

ability to accurately predict their
behavior.

mindful.
Ethical interactions
The next three axioms are based on dignity and respect. Both dignity and respect are assumed
to be returned when given to a stranger. This leads to moral inclusiveness, which is good for
interactions with strangers because both sides expect the rules of fair play to apply to them.
When strangers are considered morally excluded, they are treated almost as nonexistent, or as
not deserving of respect or dignity (Optow, 1990). Moral inclusiveness applies not only to
communication, but also to bystanders not actively involved in communication with strangers. For
example, if a person makes an anti-prejudice statement, the people he or she is with are less
likely to make a prejudiced statement towards a stranger.
Axiom
Description
An increase in our ability to maintain our own

32
and strangers' dignity in our interactions with

them will produce a decrease in our anxiety.
Boundary Conditions

anxiety is between our minimum and
mindful.

33
An increase in our respect for strangers will

mindful.
An increase in our moral inclusiveness

34
toward strangers will produce a decrease in

our anxiety.

mindful.
Anxiety, uncertainty, mindfulness, and effective

communication
Langer (1989) states that mindfulness involves creating new categories, an openness to new
information, and being aware of strangers' perspectives. Mindfulness is essential for effective
communication and one needs to develop mindful ways of learning about strangers. Langer
(1997) concludes that this should involve: openness to "novelty", awareness of distinctions, being
sensitive to different contexts, an awareness of multiple perspectives, and an orientation to the
present. For example, strangers are usually more mindful and able to "negotiate potentially
problematic social interactions more effectively" than ingroup members (Devine et al. 1996).
Therefore, ingroup members should be mindful of the process of communicating as opposed to
being mindful of the outcome of the interaction (Gudykunst, 2005, p. 305).
The following five axioms are essential for effective communication because they focus on the
basic causes and processes of effective communication whereas the previous 34 axioms
focused on managing our anxiety and uncertainty when communicating with strangers
Axiom
Description
Boundary Conditions
35
An increase in our ability to describe
strangers' behavior will produce an increase
communication, we are not overly
vigilant, and our anxiety and
accurately.

and maximum thresholds.
36
An increase in our knowledge of strangers
languages and/or dialects will produce a
anxiety and uncertainty are between
our minimum and maximum
our ability to predict their behavior
thresholds, and when we are not
accurately.
mindful.
An increase in our mindfulness of the

process of our communication with the
37
strangers will produce an increase in our
ability to manage our anxiety and an
not overly vigilant.
increase in our ability to manage our

uncertainty.
38
39
An increase in mindfully recognizing and
correcting pragmatic errors that occur in our
conversations with strangers facilitates
communication and we are not overly
negotiating with strangers which will produce
an increase in the effectiveness of our
communication.
An increase in our ability to manage our
anxiety about interacting with strangers and
an increase in the accuracy of our
communication and we are not overly
predictions and explanations regarding their
behavior will produce an increase in the
effectiveness of our communication.
Cross-cultural variability in AUM processes

Gudykunst believes that for the theory to be complete there must be a cultural level of analysis
included and that the axioms regarding cultural variability should only be tested on the cultural
level. It is necessary to address cross-cultural variability in the major components of the theory
because different types of anxiety are emphasized more in some cultures than in others. This is
because there are differences in the dynamics of stranger-ingroup relationships across cultures.
For example, Triandis (1995) offers[14][page needed]that collectivist cultures tend to make a stronger
distinction between ingroup and outgroup members whereas members of individualistic cultures
usually only draw as sharp of distinctions among differing ethnic groups. (Gudykunst, 2005,
p. 307)
Axiom
Description
Boundary Conditions
This axiom does not

40
An increase in cultural collectivism will produce an
apply to stranger-ingroup
increase in the sharpness with which the stranger-ingroup
relationships based on
distinction is drawn.
ethnicity, and when we

are mindful.
An increase in cultural uncertainty avoidance will produce

41
an increase in ingroup members' xenophobia about

interacting with strangers.
An increase in cultural masculinity will produce an

42
increase in the sharpness of the stranger-ingroup

distinction drawn for opposite-sex relationships
This axiom does not hold

when we are mindful.

An increase in cultural power distance will produce an

43
increase in the sharpness of the stranger-ingroup
distinction drawn for relationships involving unequal
statuses.

44
An increase in cultural uncertainty avoidance will produce
for intergenerational
an increase in the sharpness of the stranger-ingroup
communication within
distinction drawn based on age.
families or when we are

mindful.
An increase in cultural individualism will produce an

increase in ingroup members' use of person-based
45
information to manage uncertainty with strangers; an
increase in cultural collectivism will produce an increase in
ingroup members' use of group-based and situation-based

information to manage uncertainty with strangers.
When there are clear rules for stranger-ingroup

interactions, an increase in cultural uncertainty avoidance
will produce a decrease in the anxiety and uncertainty
46
experienced communicating with strangers. When there
are not clear rules for stranger-ingroup interactions, an
increase in cultural uncertainty avoidance will produce an

increase in the anxiety and uncertainty experienced
interacting with strangers.
An increase in cultural individualism will produce an

increase in the focus on cognitive understanding to
47
communicate effectively with strangers. An increase in
cultural collectivism will produce an increase in the focus
when we are mindful
on maintaining good relations between communicators to

communicate effectively.
Critique[edit]
There are many ways AUM theory can be applied. It can be effective in studying the behavior of
a stranger adjusting to a new culture, as well as in examining how individuals communicate with
strangers and often accurately predict their behavior; this is done when we are mindful.
Gudykunst explains that some axioms can be combined to form theorems. These theorems that
are generated might be consistent with previous research, while others might be useful for future
study. He notes that not all axioms can be combined to form a new theorem. Huber and
Sorrentino[15][page needed] differentiate between certaintyoriented individuals and uncertainty-oriented
individuals and argue that theories of interpersonal and intergroup relations have an "uncertainty
orientation" bias. Gudykunst gives three reasons why AUM theory is not limited to uncertaintyoriented individuals. First, uncertainty-orientation is incorporated into the theory. Second, the
superficial causes or factors that influence our uncertainty in a situation influence the amount of
uncertainty we feel. Lastly, our personality characteristics influence our behavior only when we
are not mindful. Gudykunst also defends the number of axioms in the theory because when the
goal of a theory is to improve communication, one cannot afford to be vague. Gudykunst
acknowledges that there are certain areas where additional research is needed. For instance,
one cannot always be mindful when communicating. Potential problems then refer to the
recognition of instances in which mindfulness is needed and defining the optimal levels of anxiety
or uncertainty. Future research needs to develop ways to measure an individual's minimum and
maximum thresholds of uncertainty and anxiety in the same way that anxiety and uncertainty are
measured. AUM theory is in a constant state of revision and even the current version of the
theory is not complete.
Critiques by Griffin and Ting-Toomey[edit]

Griffin identifies the complexity of the AUM theory as a weakness arguing, "hypothetically, the 47
axioms could spawn over a thousand theorems."[16]
Potential expansion of the axioms as a result of incorporation of more cultural variability indicates
the possibility of causing greater confusion and complication.
Ting-Toomey explores the content of AUM theory as a potential weakness demanding further
revision of the theories. She points out five conceptual issues in relation to URT and the social
penetration theory.[16]
Conceptual issues of URT and Social Penetration Theory:[16]
1.
1. the need for motivational factors and other variables of the host side that
influence the uncertainty reduction process;
2. the lack of attention to relational changes;
3. the necessity of actual research on dyadic effect of reciprocity;
4. the inevitability of integration of more contextual dimensions into the theories and
research;
Limited Focus: Effective Communication[edit]
Visual representation of Yoshitake's critique of AUM theory.
The AUM theory regards effective communication as a primary construct, defining effective
communication as the attribution of the closest meaning to incoming messages as intended by
the sender which would minimise misunderstanding. This view leads to two potential problems as
the definition of effective communication and effective communication as the goal of ICC. [16]
Problem of the definition of effective communication[edit]

There are various reasons for human communication which lead to questioning the possibility
and the necessity of attributing the closest meaning to such great variety of communication
situations. The AUM theory regards effective communication as attribution of the closest meaning
to the intended meaning diminishes communication mechanical and linear activity "where
messages are transferred from sender to receiver". [16]
Problem of effective communication as a goal of ICC[edit]

AUM theory defines the goal of effective communication as the decrease of miscommunication.
Such perspective on communication is mechanical with little emotional attachment, regarding
pure communication without misattribution as ideal. As great importance is given to efficiency,
culture is referred to as noise that obstructs the smooth transition of communication. [16]
Excessive Reliance on Consciousness[edit]

Anxiety/uncertainty management theory has been criticised for its heavy focus on the person
being mindful during communications, with there being an assumption that a person should have
to adopt a high level of consciousness throughout communication.However the theory is difficult
to apply to instances where a person is compelled by emotion or irrationality, which overrides
conscious thought to reach an end goal during communication. [16]
Meta-Theoretical Critique[edit]
The meta-theoretical assumptions specific to Anxiety/Uncertainty Management theory have been

critiqued by Masaki Yoshitake of the University of Oklahoma, who suggests that
anxiety/uncertainty management theory is inherently inefficient when attempting to describe a
universal experience shared between strangers and members of different cultures. Yoshitake
states that it is questionable whether interpersonal communication is really a pure form of
communication and suggests a difficulty to determine what is in the mind of a person from
another culture altogether. Yoshitake asserts that pure communication never exists in the first
place, as every attempt to share a direct experience is mitigated by the limitations of a person's
own perceptions. This results in an ever-present "otherness" in communication. Such
commentary is a product of Cartesian thought.[16]

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Managing Uncertainty and Anxiety

Fall under Sociopsychological Tradition (the study of human behaviour or a

We gather information about other

Or in other words: it focus on the ways individual monitor their social

Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT) BY Charles Berger.

Basic process of how we gain knowledge about other people

There are 7 assumptions associated with the uncertainty reduction theory

People experience uncertainty in interpersonal settings.

Uncertainty is an aversive (unpleasant) state, generating mental stress.

When strangers meet, their primary concern is to reduce their uncertainty

As we communicate, we are making plan to accomplish our mission by

searching for more information about the targeted person.

data available to us in the situation.

What can we do to reduce level of uncertainty? : Attraction or Connection

Nonverbal expressiveness: seems to reduce uncertainty, and reduction in

uncertainty seems to increase nonverbal expressiveness.

as well as less obvious messages such as dress, posture and spatial

shaking the head;

of trust and trustworthiness;

tone, and speed of speaking;

Things in common/ similarity: It is believed that a higher level of

People engage with interaction to reduce or eliminate uncertainty, to get more

Berger suggest 3 type of strategies of getting information:

observing your crush

by observing their conversation.

other person is likely to disclose in return.

Anxiety Uncertainty Management (AUM)

By William Gudykunst and his colleagues have extended Bergers work by

High Context Culture

situation to interpret event

implies that a lot of unspoken

Low Context Culture

implies that a lot of information

is exchanged clearly through

the message itself and rarely is

anything implicit or hidden

Reading between the line,

expression and gesture

You say what you mean

Example of country: British,

China, India, Pakistan, most

country in middle east, Asian,

Africa and south America.

Thus to reduce uncertainty in intercultural interaction, you must seek for

Find a better understanding about the culture of that person possessed

Thresholds for Uncertainty and Anxiety

less likely to communicate.

and low thresholds.

the methods of interpretation vary

acceptable levels for effective communication to happen.

can possess and still comfortably predict the behaviour of a stranger.

Critics on Strength and Weakness managing uncertainty and anxiety

better about handling uncertainty and anxiety during

Even many past researcher used these theory to help them

with their study. These theories is like a bible in uncertainty

and anxiety management. It conquered vast scope of

uncertainty and anxiety management that happen not only in

intercultural group but also in all type of communication