Dosimetry: Crister Ceberg Medical Radiation Physics Lund University Sweden

Dosimetry
Crister Ceberg
Medical Radiation Physics
Lund University
Sweden
Part 1 Introduction
After this lecture you will be able to:
Define the scientific field of dosimetry
Describe the scope of dosimetric quantities
Outline the content of the following lectures on dosimetry
The field of dosimetry

Ionizing radiation may produce biological effects in living
matter
Dosimetric quantities are introduced to provide a physical
measure to correlate with biological effects
Dosimetry is concerned with the definition, calculation and
measurement of dosimetric quantities
The scope of dosimetric quantities

Stochastic
biological effect
Dosimetric quantity
Deterministic
biological effect
Dosimetric quantity

Incident ionizing radiation
Charged particles (e.g. electrons or protons) or
uncharged particles (e.g. photons or neutrons)
Produce ionizations in a medium (directly or indirectly)
Practical threshold value Eionizing>Ethreshold10 eV
Uncharged
particle
Charged
particle

Conversion of energy (blue blobs)
Energy is transferred to secondary particles
Uncharged
particle
Charged
particle

Energy is transferred to secondary particles
Deposition of energy (yellow blobs)

Not re-emitted by ionizing particles
Uncharged
particle
Charged
particle
Content of the following lectures

Definitions
Dosimetric quantities
ICRU 85
Calculations
The product of radiometric quantities and interaction coefcients
Radiation equilibrium
Measurements
Detectors and cavity theory
Perturbation factors
Summary
Dosimetry is concerned with the definition, calculation and
measurement of dosimetric quantities
Dosimetric quantities describe how the energy of ionizing

radiation is converted to secondary particles and deposited in
matter
In the following lectures we will define dosimetric quantities
and discuss the fundamentals of radiation equilibrium and
cavity theory.
Part 2 conversion of energy

Define the dosimetric quantities given in ICRU 85, especially
those relating to the conversion of energy
Perform simple calculations of conversion quantities
Dosimetric quantities and units

Kerma
Exposition
Cema
Uncharged
particle
Charged
particle
Energy transfer
Scattered
photon, e1
Incoming
photon, ein
Secondary
electron, e2
Example: Compton scattering
Mean energy transferred:
Energy transfer

All interaction types: =
Energy transfer
V
= =
Energy transfer
V
= =
, = 1
Kerma
The kerma, K, for ionizing uncharged particles, is the quotient
of dEtr by dm, where dEtr is the mean sum of the initial kinetic
energies of all the charged particles liberated in a mass dm of
a material by the uncharged particles incident on dm (ICRU
85, 2011)
Unit: J kg-1
Special name: Gy (gray)
Kerma
=
=
= 1 =
Kerma
=
for a 10 MV beam
From: ESM Ali and DWO Rogers,

Phys. Med. Biol. 57 (2012)
for water
From : www.nist.gov
Kerma
=
in ICRUmuscle tissue
From: MB Chadwick et al.,

Med. Phys. 26 (1999)
Kerma rate
The kerma rate, , is the quotient of dK by dt, where dK is the
increment of kerma in the time interval dt (ICRU 85, 2011)
Unit: J kg-1 s-1

Special name: Gy s-1 (gray per second)
Do you remember?
A water tank is exposed to 1.25 MeV gamma-radiation.
At a certain point, the fluence rate is 3.5109 cm-2s-1.
What is the value of Kcol at this point after one hour?
Please write down your answer before moving on to the next
page.
Were you right?

At a certain point, the fluence rate is 3.5109 cm-2s-1.
What is the value of Kcol at this point after one hour?
Solution:
Known data:
= = 3.5
109 2 1
1.25 1.6
1013
3600 = 2.520 2
From www.nist.gov:
= 2.965 102 2 1 1000

= 29.652 1
Thus:
=
= 2.520 2 29.652 1 = 74.7
Do you remember?
A water tank is exposed to a 14.5 MeV neutron beam.
At a certain point, the kerma is 74.7 Gy.
What is the neutron fluence at this point?
page.
Were you right?

A water tank is exposed to a 14.5 MeV neutron beam.
At a certain point, the kerma is 74.7 Gy.
What is the neutron fluence at this point?
Solution:
Known data:
= 74.7
From Caswell et al., Rad. Res. 83:217, 1980:

= 0.709 1010 2
Thus:
=
74.7
12 2
=
=
1.05
10
0.709 1010 2
Exposure
The exposure, X, is the quotient of dq by dm, where dq is the
absolute value of the mean total charge of the ions of one
sign produced when all the electrons and positrons liberated
or created by photons incident on a mass dm of dry air are
completely stopped in dry air (ICRU 85, 2011)
Unit: C kg-1
Exposure vs. kerma

Mean energy per ion pair:

1
=
=
1
=
1
1
1
X=
= ,
= 33.97
1
=
33.97
J
Exposure rate
The exposure rate, , is the quotient of dX by dt, where dX is
the increment of exposure in the time interval dt (ICRU 85,
2011)
Unit: C kg-1 s-1
Cema
The cema, C, for ionizing charged particles, is the quotient of
dEel by dm, where dEel is the mean energy lost in electronic
interactions in a mass dm of a material by the charged
particles, except secondary electrons, incident on dm (ICRU
85, 2011)
Unit: J kg-1
Cema
Scattered
electron, e1
Incoming
electron, ein
Secondary
electron, e2
Example: coulomb interaction
C=
=
Cema
=
for linac electron beams
From: S Righi et al.,

JACMP 14 (2013)
for water
From : www.nist.gov
Restricted cema
Scattered
electron, e1
Incoming
electron, ein
Secondary
electron, e2
Example: coulomb interaction
e2>D: included in FE
e2<D: included in LD
Cema rate
The cema rate, , is the quotient of dC by dt, where dC is the
increment of cema in the time interval dt (ICRU 85, 2011)
Unit: J kg-1 s-1

Summary
Conversion of energy takes place when energy of primary
particles is transferred to secondary particles
Three important dosimetric quantities defined in the ICRU

report 85 for conversion of energy
Kerma
Exposure
Cema
The restricted cema is applicable when the energy transport

with high-energy delta particles cannot be disregarded
Part 3 deposition of energy

Define the dosimetric quantities given in ICRU 85, especially
those relating to the deposition of energy
Perform simple calculations of deposition quantities
Dosimetric quantities and units

Deposition of energy (yellow blobs)
Energy deposit
Energy imparted
Absorbed dose
Uncharged
particle
Charged
particle
Energy deposit
The energy deposit, , is the energy deposited in a single
interaction, i,
= +
where is the energy of the incident ionizing particle
(excluding rest energy), is the sum of the energies of all
charged and uncharged ionizing particles leaving the
interaction (excluding rest energy), and Q is the change in rest
energies of the nucleus and of all elementary particles
involved in the interaction (ICRU 85, 2011)
Unit: J
Energy deposit
Scattered
electron, e1
Incoming
electron, ein
Secondary
electron, e2
= +
Example: coulomb interaction, Q=0
Energy deposit
hn
Scattered
electron, e1
Incoming
electron, ein
Secondary
electron, e2
EA
= +
= 1 + 2 + +
Example: coulomb interaction, Q=0
Energy deposit
Energy deposit may appear as
Visible light
Chemical bindning energy
Heat
Stochastic quantity
Subject to random fluctuations
Associated with a probability distribution
Energy imparted
The energy imparted, , to the matter in a given volume is the
sum of all energy deposits in the volume
where the summation is performed over all energy deposits,

, in that volume (ICRU 85, 2011)
Unit: J
Energy imparted
Energy imparted
f(e)
e
e
Energy imparted
Rin
Rout
= +
Energy imparted
= +
=
=
+
+
Energy imparted
= +
=
=
+
+
1
1 ()
= +
Do you remember?
A 6 MeV photon interacts by compton scattering in a given volume.
The secondary electron spend half its kinetic energy in electronic
collisions and one fourth in radiation losses. The scattered photon
carries 4 MeV when it escapes the volume. What are the values of
energy transfer, net energy transfer, and energy imparted?
Please write down your answer before moving on to the next page.
Were you right?

,1 = 4
Solution:
= 6
= 2
Were you right?

,1 = 4
Solution:
= 6
= 2
, = 1.5
0.5
Were you right?

,1 = 4
Solution:
= 6
1
0.5
= 2
, = 1.5
= 1.0
,2 = 0.5
Absorbed dose
The absorbed dose, D, is the quotient of by dm, where
is the mean energy imparted by ionizing radiation to matter of
mass dm (ICRU 85, 2011)
Unit: J kg-1
Absorbed dose rate

The absorbed dose rate, , is the quotient of dD by dt, where
dD is the increment of absorbed dose in the time interval dt
(ICRU 85, 2011)
Unit: J kg-1 s-1

Summary
Deposition of energy takes place when energy is locally
absorbed
Three important dosimetric quantities defined in the ICRU

report 85 for deposition of energy
Energy deposit
Energy imparted
Absorbed dose
There is a close relation between radiation transport and

dosimetry
Part 4 radiation equilibrium

Define different types of radiation equilibrium and discuss its
consequences for absorbed dose calculations
Perform simple calculations of absorbed dose under different
types of radiation equilibrium
Rin
Rout
( = 0)
Rin
Rout
= 0
= +
1 ()
=
=

Rin
Distance greater than

range of particle
Rout
( = 0)
Rin
Rout
, = ,

range of particle i
( = 0)
= 0
Partial radiation equilibrium

Charged particle equilibrium (CPE): , = ,
= 0
d-particle equilibrium:
, = ,
Partial d-particle equilibrium:
,, = ,, (, = 0)
( = 0)
Charged particle equilibrium (CPE)
Incoming beam of
uncharged particles
Incoming beam of
uncharged particles
,
,
,

range of charged particles
Incoming beam of
uncharged particles
,,
,
,

range of charged particles
,
,,
,
= ,,

= , + , , , +
, = ,
= , , +
= , ,, ,, +
= ,,
= (1 )
=
=
1 = 1

Without attenuation
Range of
charged particle
With attenuation
Depth
Range of
charged particle
Collision kerma, Kcol

Absorbed dose, D
Depth

With attenuation
=
=
= (1 + )
d
Collision kerma, Kcol
Absorbed dose, D
Depth
Charged particle interactions
1
=
=
=
=
=
Delta-particle equilibrium
Charged particle
fluence
,
,
,

range of delta particles
=1
k=1
=
=
Partial delta-particle equilibrium
Charged particle
fluence
,,
,
range of slow delta particles
<1
,,

k<1
=
=
Do you remember?
At a certain point, the fluence is 2.11011 cm-2.
Assuming CPE, what is the absorbed dose at this point?
page.
Were you right?

At a certain point, the fluence is 2.11011 cm-2.
Assuming CPE, what is the absorbed dose at this point?
Solution:
Known data:
= = 2.1
1011 2 1
1.25 1.6
1013
= 4.20 102 2
From www.nist.gov:
= 2.965 102 2 1 1000

= 29.652 1
Given that CPE exists, we get:

= =
= 4.20 102 2 29.652 1 = 1.25
Do you remember?
A thin disc of lithium fluoride (LiF) is irradiated by an electron
fluence of 4.1109 cm-2 with energy 6 MeV. Assuming deltaparticle equilibrium, what is the absorbed dose in the disc?
page.
Were you right?

A thin disc of lithium fluoride (LiF) is irradiated by an electron
fluence of 4.1109 cm-2 with energy 6 MeV. Assuming deltaparticle equilibrium, what is the absorbed dose in the disc?
Solution:
Known data:
= 4.1 109 2
From www.nist.gov:
= 1.547 2 1 1000
1.6 1013
= 2.48 1010 2 1
Given that delta-particle equilibrium exists, we get:

D=C=
= 4.1 109 2 2.48 1010 2 1 = 1.02
Summary
Radiation equilibrium can only be approximate in a medium
exposed to external irradiation
Different types of partial radiation equilibrium have important

consequences for absorbed dose calculations
Charged particle equilbrium (CPE)
Unless CPE exists, absorbed dose calculations need to account

for charged particle interactions
Part 5 Cavity theory

Discuss absorbed dose measurements in the context of cavity
theory
Describe ideal cases of large and small cavities, and discuss
the case of mid-size cavities in terms of charged particle
fluence
Perform simple calculations based on the Bragg-Gray theory
Describe the particular case of a gas-filled ion chamber, and
explain the concept of perturbation factor
Cavity theory
Incoming beam of
ionizing particles
Cavity theory
Incoming beam of
ionizing particles
Cavity theory
Incoming beam of
ionizing particles
Ideal case large detector

Charged particle equilibrium (CPE): = =

Incoming beam of
ionizing particles


Incoming beam of
ionizing particles

Same
fluence
=
=

Incoming beam of
ionizing particles
Ideal case small detector

Delta-particle equilibrium: = =

Incoming beam of
ionizing particles
Ideal case small detector

Delta-particle equilibrium:
Same
fluence
=
=

Incoming beam of
ionizing particles
==
Electron fluence large detector

Medium
Ftotal
Fmed
Fdet
Detector
Medium
Depth
Attenuation of primary beam is neglected
Electron fluence small detector

Medium
Ftotal
Fmed
Fdet
Detector
Medium
Depth
Electron fluence mid-size detector

Medium
Ftotal
Fmed
Fdet
Detector
Medium
Depth
Practical application ion chamber

Incoming beam of
ionizing particles
Practical application ion chamber

Incoming beam of
ionizing particles
Do you remember?
An air-filled ion chamber is exposed to 1.25 MeV gamma radiation and
the collected charge is 11.55 nC. The gas volume is 0.1 cm3, and the
polystyrene wall is thicker than the range of the secondary charged
particles. Assuming the Bragg-Gray condition is fulfilled, what is the
absorbed dose in the adjacent polystyrene wall?
Please write down your answer before moving on to the next page.
Were you right?

Solution
Known data:
= 11.55 109
= 0.1 3
= 1.293 106 3
1
=
33.97
J

=
=3.03
Were you right?

Solution
From www.nist.gov:
= 0.467
1
1
= = 1.25 0.467 = 292
2
2
= 2.11 2 1

= 2.34 2 1

Were you right?

Solution
Given that the BraggGray condition is fulfilled:
= 3.03
2.34
2.11
= 3.36
Ion chamber dosimetry

= =
, ()
+ , ()
+ , ()

, =
+ , ()
+ , ()

, ()

+ , ()

= ,
, =
, ()

+ , ()

+ , ()
+ , ()

= ,

=
,
Summary
A radiation detector forms a cavity in the medium
Cavity theory deals with the conversion of absorbed dose in
the detector to absorbed dose in the medium
While ideal cases are illustrative, the effect on the particle
fluence of a real detector needs to be taken inte account
This can be accounted for through the concept of

perturbation factors

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Dosimetry

The field of dosimetry

The scope of dosimetric quantities

The scope of dosimetric quantities

The scope of dosimetric quantities

The scope of dosimetric quantities

Deposition of energy (yellow blobs)

Content of the following lectures

Dosimetric quantities describe how the energy of ionizing

Part 2 conversion of energy

Dosimetric quantities and units

Example: Compton scattering

Mean energy transferred:

Mean energy transferred:

From: ESM Ali and DWO Rogers,

From: MB Chadwick et al.,

Unit: J kg-1 s-1

Were you right?

= 2.965 102 2 1 1000

= 2.520 2 29.652 1 = 74.7

Were you right?

From Caswell et al., Rad. Res. 83:217, 1980:

Exposure vs. kerma

Unit: C kg-1 s-1

Example: coulomb interaction

for linac electron beams

From: S Righi et al.,

Example: coulomb interaction

Unit: J kg-1 s-1

Three important dosimetric quantities defined in the ICRU

The restricted cema is applicable when the energy transport

Part 3 deposition of energy

Dosimetric quantities and units

Example: coulomb interaction, Q=0

where the summation is performed over all energy deposits,

Were you right?

Were you right?

Were you right?

Absorbed dose rate

Unit: J kg-1 s-1

Three important dosimetric quantities defined in the ICRU

There is a close relation between radiation transport and

Part 4 radiation equilibrium

Distance greater than

Distance greater than

Partial radiation equilibrium

Partial d-particle equilibrium:

Charged particle equilibrium (CPE)

Charged particle equilibrium (CPE)

Distance greater than

Charged particle equilibrium (CPE)

Distance greater than

Charged particle equilibrium (CPE)

Charged particle equilibrium (CPE)

Charged particle equilibrium (CPE)

Collision kerma, Kcol

Charged particle equilibrium (CPE)

Charged particle interactions