CALCULATIONS AND OPTICS

CORNEAL TOPOGRAPHY
Uses
CL fitting
Orthokeratology
Surgical modification of cornea
Triple zone
Based on keratometry measurements and monocurve lens fitting
Central, regular and positively curved zones
Outside this, a less curved zone of greater curvature

EVOLUTE
Description

Diagram

Cornea has constantly varying radius of curvature

Centre of curvature constantly changing along locus of points which
extends from centre of curvature of central point to an off-axis position
Locus of points = evolute
Module 4 Slide 1 General appearance of a corneal evolute

CONIC SECTIONS
Description

Conic
sections
Diagrams

The curves exposed when sections are taken through a cone produce a
suitable model for corneal shape
Circles (sphere)
Ellipses (ellipsoid)
Parabolas (parabaloid)
Hyperbolas (hyperbaloloid)
Module 4 Conic sections
Module 4 Slide 2 Mathematical
representation and notation for conic
sections

Discuss corneal contour

- Important for contact lens fitting, orthokeratology and surgery to have knowledge of
the shape of the cornea
- The cornea can be seen as triple-zoned
o Central
o Regular
o Positively curved zone
- Outside this a less curved zone of greater curvature
- Modern methods of assessing corneal contour shows that the cornea has constantly
varying radius of curvature
- Centre of curvature is constantly changing along the locus of points which extends from
the centre of curvature of a central point to an off-axis position
- Locus of points = evolute
- Conic sections, curves are exposed when sections are taken through the cone, and
produce a suitable model for the corneal shape
- Included are: circles, ellipses, parabolas and hyperbolas
Ellipse: A locus of all points such that the sum of the distances from 2 foci to any point on the
ellipse is a constant.
Formula for an ellipse:
Where a and b is semi-major and semi-minor axes respectively and x is a saggital depth at
chord length of y.
The cornea as an ellipse
Ellipse = a locus of all points such that the sum of the distances from 2 foci to any point
on an ellipse is a constant
An ellipse has an oblate and prolate apex. Curvature decrease away from the apex of
the prolate section and increase away from the apex of the oblate section
Ellipse = e is smaller than 1
Differentiate between an oblate and a prolate ellipse and discuss the importance of
eccentricity in optometry
Definition of an ellipse: The locus of all points such that the sum of the distances from 2
foci to any point on an ellipse is a constant.
The shape of the ellipse is determined by its eccentricity, e.
For an ellipse = e is smaller than 1
Eccentricity is a deviation from the aspheric curve of a circle
Used to
1. describe the shape of the cornea
2. curvature of the cornea
An ellipse has an oblate and prolate apex.
Curvature decreases continuously as one moves away from the apex of the prolate
section and increases continuously as one moves away from the apex of the oblate
section.
Parabolas and hyperbolas only have prolate apices
Approximately 95% of patients have eccentricity between 0.3 and 0.7.
Over 90% of eyes exhibit prolate apices
Using e to describe the corneal shape has its limitations
e is common for prolate and oblate apices of an ellipse and these 2 apices cannot be
considered to be the same.

ELLIPSE
Definition

Diagram

Locus of all points such that the sum of distances from the 2 foci of any
point on the ellipse is a constant
Line joining 2 foci F and F intersects locus (or ellipse) at points A and A
(vertices of ellipse)
Distance a = half AA (semi-major axis of ellipse)
Distance b = semi-minor axis of ellipse
Shape of ellipse determine by eccentricity e such that distance from each
focus to centre of ellipse is ae

Eccentricity

e=
e=

cF
a

a2b 2
a

b2=a2 (1e2 )
e=0
e=1
e<1
e>1

Apex

Limitations
of e

circle
parabola
ellipse
hyperbola

95% of pxs have eccentricity between 0.3 and 0.7

Ellipse has prolate apex and oblate apex
Curvature decreases continuously as one moves away from apex of
prolate section
Curvature increases continuously as one moves away from apex of oblate
section
Parabolas and hyperbolas only have prolate apices
90% of eyes exhibit prolate corneas
e is common for prolate and oblate apices of ellipse, but the two apices
cant be considered to be the same
2 other descriptors added in the use of optometry: shape factor (p) and
asphericity (Q)
Q can describe oblate (negative value) and prolate (positive value)
ellipses

p=( 1e 2)

Q=e 2

p<0
p=0
p=1
0<p<1
p>1

Hyperbola
Parabola
Sphere
Oblate
Prolate

Ellipse
formula

x2 y2
+ 2 =1
2
a b

Where a and b are the semi-major and semi-minor axes respectively and
x is the sagittal depth at a chord length of y

Taylor series
One of the infinite series that have been developed by mathematicians
Usually a list (or ordered collection) of things, but in this case it is numbers
Topographical data fitted into Taylor series found a model more accurately representing
the cornea
Tear maps
Profile of tear thickness under CL
Impression of apical clearance and other aspects of tear layer under CL
Enables us to calculate the area between the
2 functions (CL and cornea)
Few steps further determines volume of tears
between CL and cornea:
Shape of cornea
Apical radius along both principal
meridians
Radii and principal meridians at any
point on cornea (reverse geometry
lens: changes at point some distance

from apex)
What
-

is a tear map?
A profile of the tear thickness under a contact lens
Generated by software
Able to get impression of apical clearance and other aspects of the tear layer under a
contact lens

CIRCLE
CL
application
Circle
properties
Formula

Often, BC of lens to be fit is a circle (spherical base

curve)
How would a circle fit on a parabola?
A circle is not aspheric, and has no eccentricity (e=0)

For a circle centred on origin of a set of axes:

For a circle centred on any point away from the origin:

(x-h)2 + (y-k)2 = r2
THE SAG
Eccentricity

Fitting

Sag

Gives indication of how quickly peripheral cornea flattens

If large (0.7), cornea flattens quicker than cornea that has eccentricity
of 0.3
Based on determining a BC as a function of its relationship to the flat
K reading
Works well for lens diameters less than 9mm
As diameter increases, or as eccentricity approaches low/high values,
accuracy of lens fit decreases
Cornea highly curved centrally with high eccentricity (gets flatter
quicker) > lens based on K readings will be excessively curved
Cornea flat centrally with low eccentricity (gets flatter slower/steeper)
> fitted with lens based on K readings will result in lens too flat
Solution: use sag philosophy of fitting contact lenses
Optimal relationship with cornea common to all designs:
Lens sag = corneal sag over the common chord at the point of
contact between the lens and cornea
Allowance for tear layer thickness
Therefore must determine sag of lens and cornea
Applies most to fitting RGP

How would you determine the sag of a monocurve rigid lens?

Sag
formulae

Sag of a sphere
Derivation:

Sag of a prolate apex of an elliptical

surface:

ra-p = apical radius

h = half chord
e = eccentricity
Sag of cornea hence
dependent on apical radius,
eccentricity values and the
chord
Sag of a parabola:

Tear map

Sag of an oblate apex of an elliptical

surface:

ra-0 = apical radius

Sag of a hyperbola:

Possible to calculate sags of lens and cornea over small chord

increments and subtract the one from the other
Values represented on set of axes (sag and chord) that show the tear
layer profile of the lens on the eye