Handbookof CharcoalMaking

Community
SolarEnerryR&Din the European

SeriesE:

from Biomass
Energy
Volume 7

SolarEnergyR&D
in the European
Community
SeriesE

Volume7

Energyfrom Biomass

Handbookof
CharcoalMaking
TheTraditional
Methods
and Industrial

by
WALTEREMRICH

D. ReidelPublishingCompany

h.M

A M EMB ER
oFTHE
B LIS HCERRoU
S P
KL U WE R A C A DPEUMIC
WW
Dordrecht/ Boston/ Lancaster

for the Commissionof the EuropeanCommunities

Library of CongressCatalogingin Publication Data

Emrich. Walter.
Handbookof charcoalmaking.
(SolarEnergyR&D in the EuropeanCommunity.SeriesE, Enelgyfrom
v. 7) (EUR;9590)
biomass;
Includesbibliographies.
1. Charcoal. I. Commissionof the EuropeanCommunities.
II. Title. III. Series:SolarenergyR & D in the EuropeanCommunity.
v. 7. IV. Series:
EUR; 9590.
SeriesE, Energyfrom biomass;
84-27630
TP331.E45 1985
662'.74
ISBN90-2?'.|-1934-9

Publicationarrangements
by
Commissionof the EuropeanCommunities
Directorate4eneralInformation Market and Innovation,Luxembourg
EUR9590
and Luxembourg
o 1985 ECSC,EEC,EAEC,Brussels
LEGAL NOTICE
Neither the Commissionof the EuropeanCommunitiesnor any personacting on behalf of the
Commissionis responsiblefor the usewhich might be madeof the following information.

Published by D. Reidel Publishing Company

P.O. Box 17,3300 AA Dordrecht, Holland
Sold and distributed in the U.S.A. and Canada
by Kluwer Academic Publishers,
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Printed in The Netherlands

PREFACE

I,tre are

happy

comprehensive

The

Communities

the

introduce

survey

experience.

In

to

in

written

book

the

by

of

its

Coumrunity

today

a huge resource

is

Actually,

there

scope

in

is

some of

indigenous

and

ample
the

renewable

recycling

of

European

agriculture,

wastes

the

waiting

vital

expert

with

Cormission

the

international

of

European

the

R + D programme on biomass.

developed:

promise

by

Charcoal-Making,

of

competent

hTas prepared

frame

European

Handbook

the

for

for

of

development

of

only

utilisation

creation

the

of

is

as

modern society.

sources,

and improvement

option

little

use.

biomass

sectors

energy

biomass

Third

bears

Development

of

of

nernr employment,

environment,

the

it

restructuring

!,lorld,

they

are

of
all

concerned.

It

is

important

largely

as many of
need

note

to

the

to

the

biomass

European

Pyrolysis
charcoal
relatively

the

exploitation

conversion

of

more

biomass

Communitiest
with

projects

are

into

than

the

biomass

resource

product.

are

not

yet

ever

the

critical

well

is

However,

established
pathlray

or

to

get

conversion

of

utilisation.

R +

priority.
being

of

a marketable

technologies

R + D is

developed

development
industry

its

the benefits

is

that

conversion

improvement,

access

In

to

related

D progra[me,

thermal

Gasification

supported

by

as well

the

Comrission

as
in

pyrolysis
European

and universities.

is

particularly

and pyrolytic
simple

attractive
oi1

are

and projected

very

because
convenient

pay-back

times

the
in

conversion
use,

products

technologies

favourable.

are

Charcoal

is

purpose

the

serve

it

Furthermore,
view

pyrolysis

take

the

in

this

of

as

improvements

this

scarce,

of

book

review

essential

is

technical

of

is

on charcoal

role

an irnportant

most developing

of

pyrolysis.

of

forrn

oldest

and plays

product

structures

As modern literature

and

simplest

the

a market

already

consunption

energy

just

is

naking

Charcoal

and ner^r processes

the

of

all

countries.

first

book will

state-of-the-art.

the

book

reference

in

of

for

R +

future

D in

making

charcoal

and

general.

opportunity

Commission's

1"1r.L.

Crossby

I wish

the

book

to

thank
to

invitation

and Mr.

gxeat

J.F.

llolle

Dr.

for

Emrich

Walter

r^rrite

this

reviewing

for

book.
the

R+D

I,.'Palz

Programme Biomass

Commission of the

European

also

manuscriPt.

success.

Dr.

having

Communities

accepted
thank

CONTENTS

PREFACE
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

XI

FOREWORD
Chapter l
H I S T O R YA N D F U N D A M E N T A O
LS
F T H E C H A R C O APLR O C E S S
1.1
Charcoal-Making from the Beginning until
the Present Day
Theory of the Carbonization process

I.2

11
11
55

1.4

Heating Systems for Charcoal plants

Properties of Carbonization products

11

1.4.1

Charcoal-

I2

I.4.2

Pyrolysis

I.4.7

Process Gas

17

References

1B

I.3

0i1

BB

16

Chapter 2
T R A D I T I O N A LM E T H O D O
S F T H E S M A L L H O L D ECRH A R C O A L MAKER
2.I

Charcoal Pits

2.1.1

The Charcoal Pit

2.r.2

T h e E a r t h m o u n dK i t n

2.I.3

T h e E a r t h m o u n dK i l n

2.r.4
2.2

a n d E a r t h m o u n dK i l n s

with Chimney
T h e E a r t h m o u n dK i I n w i t h T a r R e c o v e r y
Charcoal-Making with portabl_e and
Movable KiIns

19
2020
2424
27
33
35
3B3B

The Tongan 0i1 Drum KiIn

The Phil-ippines Kiln

39
45

2.2.4

The Btack Rock Forest Kiln

Sectional Metal Kilns

2.2.5

The Carborion Kiln

54

2.1

Concrete and Brick Kilns

56

2.t.I

The Missouri Kiln

60

2.3.2

Cinder Block Kilns

66

2.3 .3

74

2.3.4

The Schwartz and 0ttelinska Furnaces

The Brazitian Beehive Brick Kiln

2.t .5

The Argentine Kilns

BB

2.4

KiIn Designs for tfaste Conversion

99

2.4. L

The Carbo-GasRetort

101

R ef e r e n c e s

104

2.2.L
2.2 .2
2.2.t

42
48

77

Chapter l
FO
Y RTHE INDUSTRIAL
C O N C E P TASN D T E C H N O L O G
t07

C H A R CAOL - M A K E R
3.I

Equipment for Charcoal PIants with

1.1.1

By-Product RecoverY
The Forerunners of Modern Charcoal-

ra7

E qu i p m e n t

109

3.L.2

Retort TechnologY

116

3.L.2.I

T h e W a g o nR e t o r t

I17

3.I.2.2

120

3.I.2.t

The Reichert Retort Process

The French SIFIC Process

3.I.3

CharcoaL Technology for

123

The carbonization

r29r29

of Biomass

t?9

3.I.t.2

Generalized Flow Diagram

The Multiple Hearth Furnace

3.I.1.3

The FIuid Bed Carbonizer

136

3.I.J.4

The Vertical

1.I.3.5

The Enerco Mobile Pyrotyser (ModeI 24)

143

References

r47

3.I.3.I

Flow Converter

133
139

Chapter 4
T E C H N I Q U EFSO R R E C O V E R I NCGO M M E R C I APLR O D U C TFSR O M
PYROLYSIS
OIL

148

4.L

Pyrolysis

4.2

150

4.3

Crude Acetic Acid and Acetone Recovery

R e c o v e r y o f M e t h a n o l ( W o o dS p i r i t )

4.4

Processing of Charcoal Tar

154

4.5

0il

Recovery

r49
152

Concluding Remarks

159

References

161

Chapter 5
R A l t 'M
l A T E R I A L SS U P P L Y

762

5.1

Supply from Fuelwood Plantations

165

5.2

Agricul-turaI Resources

166

5.3

Transport and Preparation of RawMaterials

K e y F a c t o r s i n W o o dS u p p l y

168

R ef e r e n c e s

176

5.3.I

169

Chapter 6
E N D . U S EM A R K E T S
F O R C H A R C O AALN D C H A R C O ABLY - P R O D U C T S
17B
6.1

Charcoal as Household Fuel

17B

6.1.1

LumpCharcoal

T7B

6.I.2

Charcoal Eriquettes

179

6.2

Charcoal as Fuel for

Industry
Charcoal in Metal Extraction

180

6.3
6.4

Activated Charcoal

183

5.4.I

Synopsis of Industrial

Active Carbon Markets

185

5.5

Speciality

Charcoal

I87

6.6

Charcoal for Producer Gas

By-Product Utilization
Synopsis of Major Uses of Charcoal and
By-Products

6.7
6.8

Markets for

IBz

I87
189
193

6.9

C h a r c o a L C o s t s a n d F u e . LP r i c e s

195

6. I0

Packing and Shipment for Export/tlarket

Stra tegy

?00

6. lt

World Production

203

R ef e r e n c e s

207

Chapter 7
O F E Q U I P M E N2T0 8
A N DS E L E C T I O N
P L A N N I N GA C H A R C O AVLE N T U R E
zII
Planning of Projects
7.r
7.2
7.7

Selection

of Charcoal EquiPment

Concl-usions
References

2r4
220220
222222

Chapter 8
S N D A C T I V A T E DC H A R C O A L
C H A R C O ABLR I Q U E T T E A
NR
G
M A N U F A C TIU

8.1
8.r.I
8.2

The Briquetting

Process

Simple Briquetting

EquiPment

The Activated Charcoal Process

R ef e r e n c e s

2?3
223223
227227
228
233233

Chapter 9
AO
L N S ] D E R A T I O N S 234
S A F E T YP R E C A U T I O NASN D E N V I R O N M E N TC
234
S a f e t y i n C h a r c o a l -O p e r a t i o n s
9.I
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5

Safety Devices and EquiPment

G e n e r a l -S a f e g u a r d i n g o f C h a r c o a l P l a n t s

236

Precautions for Charcoal Storage

Environmental Considerations for the

238

Charcoal--Maker

239

237

Chapter I0
C H A R C O ALLA B O R A T O RWYO R K

243

10.1

Analysis

244

IO.2

B e n c h - S c a . L eC a r b o n i z a t i o n T e s t s

?57

R ef e r e n c es

253
254

APPENDICES

255

Appendix I

Case Studies

Appendix 2

Energy Distribution

Appendix f

Addresses of Consui.tants, Institutes,

and Equipment Suppliers

268

Conversion TabIes

275

Appendix 4

Diagram

265

LIST OF ILLUSIRATIONS

F i g ur e s
'1 ,

l-a

22

Temperaturediagrams of dry distillation

Temperature distribution
diagram (continuous
p r o c e s s)

-7-7

33

Heating systems

44
5, 5a

Classification
of charcoal processes
Carbon content and higher heating value.
Moisture content and net heating vaLue

?3

55

A charcoat pit

26

77

A small earthmoundkiln

2B

99

88

A large earthmoundkiln

99

An earthmoundkiln

10

An earthmoundkiln

with centre firing

with chimney
with pyrotysis

10

31
34

oil

r e c ov e r y

36

11

The Tonganoil

T2

The Philippines

I3
I4

The BIack Rock Forest kiln

Handling the kiln with a derrick

15

A battery

drum kiln
oil

drum kiln

40
+J
46
46

of four Black Rock Forest kilns

in operation

47

16

A portable metal- kiln

50

L7

Air

I8
I9

inlet

channels at the bottom of a

portable metal kiln with wood grate
The Carborion kiln

2I

The Missouri charcoal kiln

PIan and el-evation of the Missouri kitn
A c i n d e r - b l o c k c h a r c o a l _k i l n

22

Typical masonry units

2J

DetaiI

20

25

5B
59
67

for block-type

charcoal kilns

24

50
55

of the thermocouple assembly on the

lengthwise centreline of a cinder-block kiln
The Schwartz charcoal furnace
The 0ttelinska furnace

70

72
75
75

26
27

Improving the Schwartz sYstem bY installing

t'calorifrestl
beehive brick

The Brazilian

29
30

A charcoal production centre

3I

Half orange kiln

32

Carbo-Gasretort

33

plant

recovery

for

with

80
heating

81
B6

with straight
(twin unit)

Carbo-Gasretort

79

kiln

The slope-type beehive brick kiln

Beehive fire brick kiln with external

28

76

jacket

91
100

charcoal gas
100

commercial use

34

The Carbo furnace

111

35

T h e B o s n i c c h a r c o a . LP l a n t
A smaller Eosnic plant with interchangeable

113

retorts

114

The wagon retort

118

38

PIant
The Reichert retort Process

39

The French SIFIC retort

124

36
37

40
4I

Process
Side view of the CISR Lambiotte plant
Generalized flow diagram of the rapid
pyrolysis

42
43
44
45
46
47

134
of a multiple hearth furnace
The fluid bed carbonizer. Generalized diagram I37
140
The vertical- flow converter
145
T h e E N E R C 0m o d e l 2 4 P y r o l Y s e r

cross-section

A c h a r c o a l _p l a n t w i t h p y r o l y s i s o i l r e f i n e r y
Recovery of commercial products from

153

pyrolytic

155

tar

A wood dryer for

49

The integrated

5l

5t

continuous operation

carbonization

I74

concept with

four carbonizers

?12

Simple charcoal briquetting press

Activated carbon plant for manufacturing

?26

of pellets
52

r27
131

process

48

50

r22r22

or granular active

carbon

Apparatus for bench-scale dry distillation

diagram
The energy distribution

?3I
?52
266

Photos
I

Small earthmoundkiln
after

in Ghanaone hour

tighting.

30

Discharging charcoal from samekiln

two days l_ater.

A Missouri kiln.

Side view of kiln

The shell

cracked as a result

is

of faulty

30

dangerously
operation.

with two smokepipes and

holes at the bottom
Charging the beehive brick kiln.

A Brazilian

air

inlet

beehive brick

kiln

in

The Argentine half-orange kiln. The operator

is closing the gate after charging the kiIn.

Small hatf

CharcoaL trainees

orange kiln

orange kiln

(l

^3)

in Kenya constructing
with straight jacket.

10

Charcoal trainees igniting the kiln

a shovelful of,glowing charcoal.

11

Charcoal traine

12

A Lambiotte reactor.,
Model of a vertical flow converter
charcoal plant.

14
15
15

85
85

13

63

full

operation.

a half

63

90
gz
gz

with

brushes over leaks.

A charcoal- briquetting press.

Pillow-shaped charcoal briquettes .
A rotary kiln for activation of charcoal
in the philippines.

93
93
IZg
L4l
ZZs
ZZs
Z3Z

FOREWORD

Owing to

the

natural- gas in

widespread use of

industry,

cheap fossil-

fuers

and

household charcoal- has been some-

what neglected during recent decades. The development of new

and improved charcoal
techniques has nevertheless
been
a d v a n c i n g d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , u n k n o w nt o o u t s i d e r s .
C o m p r e h e n s i v e c h a r c o a . l -l - i t e r a t u r e

has not appeared since

the Late nineteen-forties;
in particular,
there have been no
publications concerned with industrial- charcoal--making. Some
of

the

literature

cited

special-ized collections.
about

the

or

carbonization

book

exists

companies active

e q u i p m e n t m a n u f a c t u r i n gr

of

in

Directorate-General

of

for

European

the

science,

charcoa.lin

the

long-burning

overall- there has been an

to potential users.

Commission

in

has learned

but

flow of information

onry

prticularly

of biomass and the formulation

charcoal- fuels,
The

this

Occasionally the public

achievements of

production

in

inadequate

Communiti-es,

Research and

Devel-opment

intends to cl-ose the information

gap by publishing
this
handbook. However, a handbook cannot be expected to reach
all
the
i n n u m er a b l -e
sma l- -l--s c a J-e
c h a r c o a l - m a k e r s,
distributors

and usersr specially in developing countries,

who do not normally acquire knowledge of improved techniques
from
books.
At
this
]evel,
information
shoutd
be
disseminated
appropriate,

directly
through

by

government

internationally

agencies

or

where

sponsored development

projects.
The author
engineer in
than

twenty

has

been engaged as consul-tant and design

the charcoal and active carbon industry for more
years.

He has

aLso worked on assignments as

manager of charcoal and active carbon
p l a n t s . D u r i n g t h e s e y e a r s h e b e c a m ea w a r e , t h r o u g h n u m e r o u s
pJ_anning and
contacts
with
Governments, Ministries
of
private
entities
that
two factors
prevent or
frequently
research

obstruct

and plant

the promotion and real-ization of efficient

i n a d e q u a t e k n o w L e d g eo f t h e s t a t e
-xv-

of the art

projects:

lack

the

of

needeo

experience

to

deveLop charcoaL

proj ect s .
The author's
attention
to

the

able

to

major concern in

persons involved

of all

fact

that

convert

residues

into

reserves

the

contribution

draw the

handbook is to
in energy project

this

planning

new and improved charcoal- techniques are

forestal-

energy.

In

and

countries

which abound with

modern charcoal-maker can

and

wastes

agricultural-

make an

these

important

t o t h e h o u s e h o l d f u e l - p r o g r a m m eo f h i s c o u n t r y .

For more than a thousand years,

charcoal- has been made

from whol-e trees I it is time for everyone to accept recent

advances in a very oId industry and to adopt new ways. We
should always bear in mind:
T H E R EI S N O W A S T EI N T H E W O R L D
W A S T EI S A N E N E R G Y
RESERVE
Therefore, Iet Is use it.
The author

would like

numerous organizations

to

express his

gratitude

which have contributed

to

the

valuabl-e data.

Development
Among these are: the
0rganization (UnfD0), the Food and Agricul-ture 0rganization
United

Nations Industrial

in Rome, and the Barbeque Industry Association in the U.S.A.

Last but not least, the author would like to thank the
many charcoal- producers

and equipment suppliers

vol-unteered updated proprietary

WALTER
EMRICH
Neu-fsenbUrg, September1984

information.

who have

Chapter l
S T H E C H A R C O APLR O C E S S
H I S T O R YA N D F U N D A M E N T AOL F

1. I Charcoal-Making from the BeginninQ until

back

Prehistoric

finds,

dating

shown that

aIIow-heads were

the Present Dav

t h o u s a n d y e a I S'

six

attached

to

have

shafts

their

only

by

by the

a material then obtainable

wood. Although we may never know when man first
has proved that in
made charcoal, extensive investigation
become an important
Europe charcoal-making had already
employing wood tar,
charring

of

for

industry

the

and other

iron

of

recovery

metal-s from

ores around 1100 BC.

their

famous
describes in his
Plinius
Roman historian
p
r
e
p
aring
Historia Naturalis (I) the method of embalming and
bodies for burial in Egypt, in which the watery condensate
The

of

the

charring

plocess waS used as

the

pleserving
tar

agent.

and pitch

The more viscous parts of the condensates like

found applications as house paints, in the then flourishing
industry,
and for caulking and sealing wooden
shipbuilding
barrels.
We may assumethat
at

that

but

time,

charcoal was made mainly in open pits

some
yields.
Later
low
very
with

improvements were made by introducing

which is

stitl-

earthmound kiln'

many developing countries today.

not at aIl satisfactory in so far

commonin
technique is

Although this

the

the charcoal process is concerned,

step, because by
as an industrial

as the energy balance of

it

can

simple

be

considered
one

alterations

is

able

to

collect

some liquid

by-products.
In

1635,

discovered
condensate

acetic
of

renowned chemist

the

essential
charcoal- plocess.

acid
the

as

(2)

component in

the

Immediately

his

of the chemical industry to the

process as an available soUrce of raw materials.

discovery drew the attention

charcoal

an

Glauber

R u d o lf

However, the
production of

earthmound kiln
the

method did

quantities

desired

permit

the
(
n
ow
condensates
not

of

termed "pyrolysis oil-,'). Almost a hundred years rvere to pass

before the Swedish engineer Nordenschoeld (3) and the German
technician

Reichenbach (4)

which the

e n e r g y b a . L a n c eo f

considerabLy

and

designed commercial retorts

the

the

process could
yield

by-product

by

be improved
was

raised

sufficiently.

The new "charcoal furnacesrt spread throughout

most European countries and from there they were introduced
t o t h e U . S . A . a n d C a n a d a . T h e S w e d i s h - G e r m a nt e c h n o t o g y w a s
very

s u c c e s sf u . l - a n d

was

only

replaced

by

large-scale

equipment and improved techniques in 1850.

The growing demandfor steel by industry in general, and
the enlarging capacities of the chemical industry,
brought
about an unprecedented upsurge of charcoal and the
by-products.
Smal1
and
large-scaIe
charcoal

liquid
plants

m u s h r o o m e dn o t o n r y i n E u r o p e b u t a l - s o i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . N o t
onry the number of production sites murtiplied, but also the
capacity of the plants. This again emphasized the need for
better and more efficient
technology.
Technical
development
was
focused
on
continuous
processes and techniques to utilize
the total
accessible
energy
contained
in
the
rav/ material.
Sophisticated
combustion

systems were invented

generate heat
to
or
p o w e r f r o m t h e n o n - c o n d e n s a b l - eg a s e s o f t h e p r o c e s s .

electric

Despite
charcoalgradually
refined
with

quality ) ,
turned to

later

the

were

fossil

steel

resulted

industry

new resources for

bituminous coal,

charcoal.

sources

achievements (which

these

The chemical industry

and

their

coke and lignite

also

oil

charcoal- industry
Atthough a great

becamevisible
number of

more advanced and well

plants

after

of

compete

found that

the

coal

other
and

once-blossoming

the First

had to

manaqedplants

furnaces:

began to

namely bituminous
and natural_ gas.

foreshadowed decline

better

metallurgy

blast

more rewarding,

The already

in

Viorld War.

be shut down, the

survived

the

crisis.

Then,

countries,

the

in

Countries lacking

kinds of

all

own

their

exploit

their

forests

lifespan.

exciting

chalcoal

a somewhat tactical
The products provided

many countries

v.raI machinery.

the

to

Second World War began, the

When the

plants

their

goods, curtailed

Naturally , under these conditions ,

Consequently the charcoal-makers
important role.

an

experienced a new peak within

had in

heavily

their

Ieserves.
played

revived.

resources and therefore

culr.ency and tried

foreign

products

charcoal

natural

dependent on imports for

spending of

for

demand

industrialized

the

of

economic recovery

the

with

w e r e m a n if o l d

exceeded the

and far

sustain

to

task
by

industry

carbonization

expectations

of

a n d b u s i n e s s m e na c e n t u r y a g o .
not only in metallurgy but
c
a
me to be utilized
Charcoal
also in chemical processes and the fabrication of plastics,
it was the essential raw material for activated carbon with
industrialists

its

outlets

numerous

industry,

filter

the

1n

etc.
conttol,
catalysts r
Pollution
Pyrolysis oiI provided a basis for the production of organic
acids, methanol-,ldehydes, acetone, creosostes, tars, etc.

pharmaceuticals,

In

1945,

the

industry

charcoal-

concentration

the

and

w a r'

the

was

capacities,

enlarged

many

economy of

a complete standstill.
Survival
hit.
hard

had come to

European countries
the

end of

in

other

Again
meant
words

automatization.
post-war
years'
the
commercially proved, the so-caIIed

During

new

technology

was

which
"rapid pyrolysis",
was first
operated in the U.S.A. It had two major advantages
cycle
pIoceSseS: first,
p
l
e
v
i
ous
the carbonization
ovel
( residence time of the feed) was shortened dramatically '
use of the invested capital;
making mole profitabte
secondly, the conversion of smal-l raw material particles was
madepossible.
thus

Rapid

pyrolysis

achievements of
the only
oI

feed for

wood logs cut

is

charcoal

one

of

technology.

the charcoal plant

to

size,

the
- J

the

most

important

then'
Whereas, until
p
i
l
e
wood
consisted of

new techniques permitted

the

utilization

of

diameter.
material

material

opened the

resources until

agriculturaL
0ne is

raw

This

up

door

say that

could

conservation
highly

make

of

other

mirlimetres

new category

wastes and

an

forestaL

these reserves,

developing countries,
are almost
provide household fuel, industrial
materials

few

a
a

of

in
raw

then untapped and neglected, namely

and industrial

tempted to

to
to

residues.

which abound in

unlimited.

Their

use

to

charcoal and chemical raw

important

contribution

natura-L resources,

to

the

especially

the

endangered forests.

when early
reductant

to

applications

man invented charcoal,

obtain

metals

its

from

their

have been added since

then,

only use was as a

Numerous

ores.

and new markets

have opened their

soon af ter
countries
for

doors to the effective

charcoal-maker.
Second viorld lvar, people in industrialized
rediscovered the excellent properties of charcoal
the

barbequeing.

This

specialized

sector of the charcoal

has now become a major economic factor, comprising
also thousands of manufacturers of grirls and utensils.
industry

sufficientry
accurate
production
data
on
the
and
consumption of charcoal and the by-products are difficult
to
obtain.
Besides charcoal,
fuerwood is
the
main energy
carrier
with
which people
cook their
daily
food
in
developing countries.
capita,

including

r978 ( 5) .

The worrd consumption of

charcoal- was

However, in

usage reached only

0.ll

the

estimated

developed worrd

^3,

compared with

fuelwoodr per

at

o.j7

^3

the

per

capita

o.46 ^3

in

in

the

1 9 8 1,
people

are

developing world.
The

United

concluded

Nations

that

Conference in

approximately

2,000

Nairobi,
mirlion

(e)

utilizing
firewood and charcoar for cooking and heating. For
several hundred million of them, it is al-ready impossible to
find a sufficient
supply of firewood because of the ruinous
exploitation
with
By

of

forests.

Here the modern charcoal technology

high-grade energy recovery systems can find a new task.
tapping the vast waste reserves of
the world,
the

charcoal-

industry

can

make

one

of

its

most

important

energy needs of

especially

future,

the

the
Provide for
in a1l develoPing

to

helping

mankind by

to

contributions
countries.

I.2

Theory of the Carbonization Process

Carbonization

organic matter

is

raised

takes place when any

above
temperature (i.e.

distillation
to

a high

oxygen or under controlled

the process of carbonization

excl-usion of

l-80o C) under strict

minimal air

dry

oI

Essentially

intake.

foll-ows a general temperature scheme:

between

100o
from

evaporated

between

and

l70o

ITOj

the

loosely

all-

water

bound

1S

raw material.

and

27Oo C

gases

develop

(off-gas),

c a r b o n m o n o x i d e ( C 0) I c r b o n d i o x i d e ( C O r ) ,
and condensable vapoulS, which form pyrolysis oi1 after

containing

scrubbing and chilling.

between 27Ao and 280o C an exothermic reaction starts,
which can be detected by the spontaneous generation of
heat and the

rising

development of

temperature. At

same time,

the

C0 and COZ ceases but

the

quantity

the
of

condensable vapours rises.

the
entered
process
has
carbonization
the
exothermic phase, ho more outside heating is required. The
will
climb slowly until- it comes
temperature in the retort
0nce

to a standstill
Naturally,

between 4000 and 45OoC.

this

scheme can

be

applied

only

if

the

is conducted batch-wise.
carbonization or dry distillation
To achieve a higher terminal- temperatUre, the pIoceSS must
be supported with extra heat from outside.

oo
r!r!

2525

500

20

600

C1
t5
o ott)tt)

3oo ()
aa

ctr

200

t0
55

o
100 :

00

ob

.q
slsl

oo

a.a.

s0
1414
rErE

oo

.!.!

EE

oo

r00
150
0t23456789

Time ( hours)
FigUre

Diagramof dry distiilation ( Z )

For Softwood
iraphs-solid curve: temperature outsideretort
dottedcurve: temperatureat retort centre
Bar diagrams-solidarea: combustibtegas
white area: CO2
shaded area: condensafe

oo

1414
Q-,
O Orv.rv.
E-'

cs

EE
v,v,
o,o,

25

I roo

20

400

l5

300 o
aa

II

t0

200

II

55

t00

00

0b

a.a.
ss

50
1414

aa
(5(5

oo
f,
r!r!

oo
100
150

00

Figure I a

123a5678

f ime (hours)
Temperature Diagram of dry distittation(7)
For Hardwood

( After

M. Klar,

Technologt'e d. Holzverkohlung )
-6-

Raw Feed

--+

\\\f-___\\\f-___
Off-gas

2700 C

4500 C

6000 c

Charcoal
discharge

Fisure
2'r;r,:':'iiz,i::::::"012,",,
t. (s)

(From: W. Emrich, Recycling in

Developing Countries )

-'7 -

Figures
distillation
show the

and

la

are

representative
of
the
dry
European softwood and hardwood. They also
amount of pyrotysis
oil
which can be recovered
of

during the entire

During

carbonization process.

continuous carbonization

vertically,

normalry

converter.

The

phases as

stated

Whereas the

the

raw material

moves

from

top to bottom of the retort

or
passes through various
temperature

feed

above,

charcoal

one

leaves

at

the

time

reaction

(see

Figure

container

at

Z).
the

bottom, the vapour-containing gases are drawn off at the top.

The mixture
gas
of
and vapours expelled
from a
continuous carbonization process remains uniform during the
desired

period

advantage of
relation

to

relatively

of

e. g.

time,

continuous
the

for

weeks or

operation

residence time of

is

its

months. Another
fl-exibitity

the raw material

in

and the

short

time it remains within the hot zone. Both

these characteristics
have a great influence on the process
yield and the composition of pyrolysis oil or gas.
Many tests have shown that the pyrolysis oil containing
vapours undergo certain
of

retorts

prolonged

and

residence

depositions will

1.f

cracking

tubes.

processes on the hot wall_s

These processes

times,

thus

enhanced by
crusts

and

occur.

Heatinq Svstems for Charcoal plants

To start

up the carbonization and to

temperaturesr eXternal- heating is required.
history

of

industrial

have been tried.

fuel

are

undesired

costs.

charcoal-making, many heating

All- were intended

0n1y the

maintain

three

basic

to

long

systems

reduce expenses and

shown in Figure j

types

have survived and are in oeneraL use.

higher

During the

AA
Off - gas
Raw material

CC

Pyrolysis oil

C/,ar I"-]

lnternal heating by
controlled combustion
of raw materials.

tl

Air
\,/

\,/

BB
Off - gas
Raw material

CC

Pyrolysis oil
Char

E xternal heati ng by
combustion of f irewood, fuel oil or
natural gas

LL
)) \\

Raw material

Pyrolysis oil

Combustion chamber

Figure 3

Heating systems (9)

Heating with recirc ulated gas ( retort or

converter gas). Hot
gases pass through
raw material charge.

tt

lrJlrJ

(4(4

t\t\

qq
lrJlrJ

\\
oo

\\
aa
oo

EE
oo
aa

oo

oo

JJ

l\l\

\\

tt
oo

t\t\
KJKJ

\\
\\
oo
(,(,

tt

(4(4

l\l\

qq
oo
tt

{{
t\t\

oo
qq

t11t11

II

l-ltrltrl
qq

o
q
(*l (*l

lrJlrJ
t\t\

ii
OU
i.3

o'l

tr(
b*

-et{

!!

qq

!I !I>,>,
.:L

s:

g)g)

!. !. ,!,!

(JA

EP

cc
.9

es
s
oul

t4t4

>s

::

{{
==

(/)(/)
\\

{{
??
l{l{

aa

()()
==

vlvl

qq

oo

cfi
TI
Lf

6s-

PT

ri

':<

,;

llll

qq
lUlU

xx

tUtU

TT
!!
oo

tI
\\

nn
oo

UU

\\
aa

(,(,
\\

oo

\l
ol

\\

9E
(*

=>
F- F-t\t\

tl
GG

,!,!
oo

-J
|IrO

v {

|cq

vlvl

u,u,
|,|,
uu
oo
\\
a.a.

cc
oo
oo
(,(,
tt
utut

\\
ic

x=

s)s)
oo

oo

qq

l{l{

s.I
n1

oo
S-r

is

dtdt

{{ cc

l\l\

5l

t(t(

.\-

|!\

<|!
(rkl

\l

{{
qq
l\l\

UJUJ

TT

rtrt

tf

uu
cc

U)U)
oo

aa

Tpye A:

Most common system.

burnt

under

heat

provides

Part

controlled
the

The combustion

inlet.

air

p r o c e s s . R e c o m m e n d a b l eo n l y

where raw

in locations
(
w
a
s
t
e material).
materiaJ- prices are low

Type B:

Retort

or

strict

excl-usion of

converter

the

maintenance of

for

energy

is

raw material

the

of

heated from the

under

outside

can be provided

oxygen. Fuel

from the off-gases.

Type C:

Very expensive heating

in

direct

contact

by-product yields
large plant
All

the

t h e h o t g a s e s . C h a r c o a J -a n d

with
are

high.

capacities

only.

systems

R e c o m m e n d a b l ef o r

described

proved.

commercially

system. Raw material- comes

There

be

disadvantages which must be considered in

Not only

the costs for

and

technically

are

wilI

very

advantages

and

making decisions.
play a rol-e, but

the investment will

also the concept which the charcoal planner has in mind.

For the classification
of charcoal equipment, the scheme
shown in

Figure 4 is

suggested for

practical

use. Presently,

more than one hundred concepts and methods to make charcoalare

known, al-l- of

within

this

which can

and tabuLated

be categorized

frame.

1.4 Properties of Carbonization Products

Ithether the
regarded

as

charcoal- or
quality

The

l-atter

techniques
fractionation
residual

the

to
solid

by

three

and

distillation

to

rah,

and after-treatment.

char r

or

be
the

physical

and

factors

agglomeration

methods applied

process gas.

on

Chemical-

process characterj.stics,
refers

of

depend first

will

results
of
ana.l-ytical
tests.
properties are greatly
influenced
material- typer

can

charcoal- derivative

product

to

the

briquetting

pyrolysis

oil

and
and

In any event, it
is
absol-utely necessary during the
planning stage of a nev/ charcoal- venture to take a close
Look at the applications and end-use markets of the expected
products (see Chapter 6).
Specifications
may be set by
individual

consumersand can be obtained from them.

The terms and properties

acquaint

the

reader

with

shoul-d be read carefully

described below are intended to

the

charcoal

They

terminology.

before proceeding to

the

following

chapters.

. 1. 4 . 1 C h a r c o a l
A precise

and authoritative

becoming increasingly
other

imminent

definitions
1.

inportant

legislation.

definition

of

for

regulation

label

Two

charcoal

is
and

published

typical

are:

Encyclopedia Britannica

(10):

"Charcoal is the residue

when carbonaceous materials,
of either animal
vegetable origin,
p
a
r
t
i
a
l
l
y
are
burned or heated so

obtained
or
that

tarry

and vol-atile

matter is

removedl in

most cases

the residues may be roughly described as impure carbon.tl

( Coal,
coke and petro.l-eum coke certainly
are
not
charcoall but according to this definition
they qualify).
2.

Encyclopedia Americana (11):

non-lustrous

residue,

vegetable

animal

or

or

frCharcoal, a bIack,
amorphous

s u b s t a n c e sI

or

solid,

carbon,

from

coal_ made by

charring

which air

excluded.r'

charcoa.l. but

wood in a kiln
or retort
from
(Dulr bituminous coal- is
not
according to this definition
it qualifies.)

is

To resolve this

dilemma we propose:

C H A R C O A LI S

THE RESIDUE OF

SOLID NON-AGGLOMERATING

O R G A N I CM A T T E R , O F V E G E T A B L EO R A N I M A L O R I G I N , T H A T
R E S U L T SF R O MC A R B O N I Z A T I OBNY H E A T I N T H E A B S E N C E
OF AIR
AT A TEMPERATUR
E O V E] O O D E G R E E C
AB
SELSIUS.
T h i s d ef i n i t i o n
d i s t i n g u i s h e s c h a r c o a l f r o m c o k e, w h i c h
formed by carbonization of fluid organic matter such as
plastic coal or petrol_eum(when heated, coking coal becomes
plastic
before
it
carbonizes).
It
distinguishes
also
bituminous coal-s and lignite
from charcoal, because they
is

have not
their

been subject

to

carbonizing

The charcoal-maker differentiates

charcoaL f ines,
extrudates,
YieId:
dry

during

temperatures

metamorphoses.
charcoal- dust,

and activated

material,

of

per

charcoal

percentage.

in

Note

always applied to the dry material

weight.

Specific

density

Weight:

which varies
The density
range

by

Refers

to

according to
of

charcoal

the

course

the

the

density

unit

of

the

Hardness:

charcoal.

Standard

important
scal-es

of

the

charcoal,

the

of

countries;

been

for

hardness

has

the

weight.

In

charcoal

Ieft

some continuous operations,

industrial
in

Moisture:

absorbs water from the air

in

imposed
with

vigorously

a narrow

temperature,

identical

the

raw material.

within

these are normally

degrees of bituminous coal.
After

is

yietd

coefficient
have

of

the

process

by the terminal temperature.

weight

that

can be inftuenced

particular

very

pBllets,

charcoa.Lbriquettes,

charcoal_.

Expressed as weight

raw

between lump charcoal,

up to
the

the

converter,
6 % of
hot

its

some

it
dry

charcoal- is

or

in

stored

the

If

water spray.

cooled by a controlled

way

this

much

may be

content

moisture

the

open,

in

treated

hioher than 5 to 6 %.
If

Volatiles:

Content of

it

conditions,

confined

to

extremely important

defining

the

industrialploperties.

utilization

out.

driven

aIe

900o under

heated to

because

weight

l-ose

will

hydrocarbons and nitrogen

is

is

charcoal

This

weight l-oss

charcoal consumers when

In general, the weight

loss should not exceed tO %.

Half-burnt

Itbrandstt:

or

charcoal

Product with more than 30%

volatiles.
charcoal- or rrbrandstr

R e d C o a I : S a m ea s h a l f - b u r n t
Fixed
content

of

and

vol-atiles

determines its

Dead-burnt charcoal:

Ash content:
contained
The

material
bark wilI
are

in

The ash is

mix,
give

is
e.g.

related

to

the

their

natura.l- mineral-s

composition

wood branches with

by

carbon

fixed

of

is
al-so

and contaminations.

matter

the

high ash containing

distinguished

which

of the charcoal-.

composed of

almost any organic

quantity

content

ignition

which resul-ts in difficult

carbon,

fixed

has

This

the

charcoaL weight minus

(ashes)
incombustibles

the content of
f ueL val-ue (Cfix )

to

equivaLent

The dry

content:

carbon

a high

charcoal.

sol-ubility

in

of

raw

the

proportion

of

Charcoal-ashes
water

and

by

chemical analysis.
Sulphur

and

phosphorus

content:

The

l-ow sum of

these

substances normally found in charcoal-s make them especially

for
and
furnaces
iron
for
use
in
blast
attractive
pulposes. The desired val-ue for sulphur is
metallurgical
u s u a l l y b e l - o w0 . 0 5 % a n d f o r p h o s p h o r u s u n d e r O . O t % .

This depends on the fixed

content
genetal,
kcal/kg

carbon

and will

be lowered only by high ash content. rn

heating
varues range between d,500 and 7,zoo
(10,100 KJ/kg), comparable to bituminous coaI.

Active
surface:
The surface of
well
burnt
charcoal is
porous. The porosity makes charcoar easy to ignite,
reactive
in chemical processes, and abre to absorb substances and
remove them

from

measured, and is

riquids

or

gases.

The

porosity

can

be

expressed in ^2/g.

Active

or activated charcoa.l-: The porosity or surface area

can be enlarged by special activation processes. fndustries
use gs, steam or chemical activation.
The rargest surface
area which can be achieved in commercial ptants measures
approximately

1,500 ^2/g,

which is

cLose to

the

area of

soccer field.
Aqqlomerated

and

briquetted

charcoal-:

some

industrial

applications

and major barbeque markets demand char pieces

a particurar shape. Knownshapes and forms are spheres,
cylinders,
hexagonars,
diamonds,
bricks,
obrong
and
with

pillow-shaped

conglomerates and petrets.

parts are: charcoal, binder, additives.
Enerqv extender.

The

constituent

cooking-time extender:

These are inorganic

substances which are added to barbeque briquettes to prolong
cooking time. They slow down combustion time and retard the
heat release of the fuel_.
Gas qenerator or producer gas charcoal: Mainly used 1n gas
engines
for
the
generation
of
electricity
or
AS
an
alternative fuel for gas-fired cars.

l. 4. 2 Pvrolysis
The oil
It

0iI

contains

more than

which once made it

industry.

growing

Its

stems from the

raw material.

very mucfrrvith the type of

varies

fact

one

feedstock
for

importance

that

it

di fferent

hundred

valuable
is

industrial

fuel

Viscositv:

This can be controlled

for

developing

feasible

substances,
the

chemical
countries
for

substitute

oi1.
by the addition

of water,

and is measuredaccording to normal standards.

Measurement is

Aciditv:

the acidity

relating

Orqanic fattv
pyrolysis
oil.

value to particular

acids:

These are

acids.

regular
acids

The most important

fvithout

titration,

analytical

constituents
are

acetic

of

acid '

acid and propionic acid.

butyric

Pvrolvtic

alcohols:

of pyrolysis

Conifers yield
point:

essential

Mainly methanol as a regular

ingredient

raw

materials.

oil.

value:

Calorific

Flash

by

oils

This

the

with high heating values.

Determines the

criterion

to

related

is

for aIl

ignition

boiler

properties

Flame temperature: Measured under stoichiometric

(in an environment of balanced oxygen).
Corrosivity:
Stainless
resistant.

Pyrolysis

steel ,

an

conditions

aggressive to mild steel.

and wood are
ceramics, plastics

oi1

copper,

and is

fueIs.

is

Ashes: These are

into

incombustible particl-es which have entered

pyrolysis

the

oil.

poor

Reasons:

distillation

equipment, contamination during storage.

point: The temperature at which the residues of
p y r o l y s i s o i l - l - os e t h e i r f l - o w c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

Solidifying

Pour

point:

pyrolysis

The

temperature

oil- start

at

which

the

residues

of

flowing.

I .4 .3 Process Gas
the gas which l-eaves the retort

This is
is

therefore

frequently

A distinction
have different
(a)

is

or converter;

it

or converter gas.

c a . l - 1 e dr e t o r t

made between two types of off-gas

which

c o m m e r c i a l -v a l u e s :

n o t p a s s e d t h r o u g h a s c r u b b e r/ c h i l l e r
system. It contains the pyrolysis oil vapours and is usually
referred to as I'high Btu converter gast'r Deaning that it has
0ff-gas

that

a high calorif ic
(b)

The

is

val-ue.

residual-

gas

s c r u b b e r/ c h i l - 1 e r
system
pyrolysis oil vapours. It

which
and
is

has

cal-orific

vaLue.

It

is

it

is

composed of

nitrogen and water vapour.

through

of
the
to as t'l-ow

stripped

been

frequently

Btu converter gas"r ileaning that

passed

has

referred

a heating gas of
C0,

poor

COZ hydrocarbons,

References

(2)

Historia Natural-is, Lib. ff , de pice (Zl

(
GLauber I604
1 6 7 0 ) , M i r a c u l - u mM u n d i , I 6 5 t

(t)

C .F .

(4)

S c h w e d i s c h e nA k a d e m i e d e r W i s s e n s c h a f t e n , J a h r g a n g 1 7 6 6
KarI Freiherr von Reichenbach (fzee
1869)

(5)

FAOForestry paper No. 4l-, Rome1983

(1)

(6)

Nordenschoeld,

Abhandl-ungen der

Koenigl-ichen

U . N . C o n f e r e n c e o n N e w a n d R e n e w a b l eS o u r c e s o f E n e r g y
Preparatory

Committee, 1981. Report of

P a n e L o n F u e l - l V o o da n d C h a r c o a L o n i t s
0)
(8)

79)

Plinius,

the

Technical

Second Session.

M . K l - a r , T e c h n o l - o g i e d e r H o . l - z v e r k o h l u n g ,1 9 1 0
t r | . E m r i c h,

(zto

Recycling

in

Developing

Countries,

L982

2r4)

(9)

C A R B 0 NI N T E R N A T I 0 N A LL, T D . , N e u - I s e n b u r g , F R G , c o m p a n y

(10)

E n c y c l - o p e d i aB r i t a n n i c a ,

(11)

Encyclopedia Americana, International- Edition,

publication,

1982
Vol. 5, I951
1964.

Chapter 2
T R A D I T I O N AM
L E T H O DO
S F T H E S M A L L H O L D ECRH A R C O A L - M A K E R

Traditional

carcoal-making,

which

characterized by the following

has

long

history r

is

main features:

Zero or l-owinvestment costl

Use of
site

construction

or available

materials

which are at

nearby, e.g. clayr

hand on the

soft-burnt

bricks;

Zero or low maintenance costs achieved by avoiding metalparts in the kiln construction as far as possible;
M a n p o w e ri s

not a major concern;

The normaL raw material

consists

logs

other

and coconut shells;

essentialty

types of

of

wood

biomass may be

carbonized also I
By-product recovery is
sophisticated
It

is

limited

equipment is

typically

a family

owing to the fact

that

no

employed;

or cooperative business.

Much of

the charcoal in the world has been made by famil-ies

smal-l-businesses run on the above 1ines, using simple
technology
and
low
capital
investment.
Although
the
or

technology
skirful,
industrial

is

as wilr

simple,

it

is

nevertheless

precise

and

be seen in the folrowing sections. Modern

processes are discussed separately in Chapter 7.

2.1 Charcoal Pits

To

save

transportation
produces

charcoal-maker
collects

a n d E a r t h m o u n dK i I n s

from site

to site,

Both

pit

the

appropriate
readiness

to

method and
Both

weathers.

down from father

aIl

An important part
the

insulation

will

of

cause the

the result
carbonizing
study

working methods at

times
of

charcoal-making experience concerns

pit

charcoal

If

charcoal- to

earthmound and the

or

not properly

excess air

controlled,

burn away to

ashes and destroy

to keep out oxygen and to

earth

wood against

excessive

the dawn of history.

its

advantages

is,

It

and

grow, earth

loss

therforer

goes

surely

worth-while to
this

0bviously

low cost.

its

insu.l.ate the

ltlherever trees
turned

and mankind naturally

must be available

cheap, readily

heat

disadvantages.

method has survived because of

to this

aIl

business

the

Therefore,

and

of severaL days' work in a few hours.

The use of
back to

patience

skilI,

its

of

the

flow.

air

offer

earthmound kiln

the

"secrets " is usually handed

to son and is well guarded by the family.

charcoal-making with

controL of

frequent movements

his

require

observe correct

all

at

char

Because of

he cannot employ heavy equipment.

solutions.

in

and

his

the raw material.

smaII-scale
the
the place where he

costs,

non-combustible material

available

as

a sealant to encl-osethe carbonizing wood.

There are two different
the

charring

firewood

process:

and cover

and insulate
wood on the

the

the

one

earth,

forms the necessary gas-tight

can take

excavated earth

whole with

chamber. The other

ground with

place.

ways to use an earth barrier

put
is
to dig out a pit,
is

to

cover

sand and leaves.

layer

Both techniques,

can produce good charcoal- within

to

a pile

in
in
sealof

This cover

behind which charcoaling

properly carried out,
if
certain

limitations.

But

these methods are wasteful of resources.

The pit and the earthmound methods have been studied by
many researchers in the last century (1). According to their
results

the

fixed

carbon
20-

content

(Cfir)

of

the

produced in those kilns

varies between 65 % and
yields rarely exceeding 15 % based on the weight

charcoal
80 %, the

of the dry fuelwood charge.

Statements that the recovery rate of a charcoal pit or
an earthmound operation is I'well over 20 %u must be regarded
as unfounded. Because of
the
fact
that
a significant
depletion
of wood resources all
over the worLd can be
observed as
and the

consequence of

rigid

appropriate

arguing

to

of

wasteful- charcoal

their

it

defenders,

shed some light

on

the

conversion
seems quite

complexity

of

the

whole problem.
charcoal- conversion
either

efficiency

can be defined

in

terms of

weight:
charcoal output (t g)

t*=

(kg)

wood input
or energy:

c h a r c o a l - o u t p u t ( M J)

%=

(MJ)

wood input
lrrlhile
content

rle

of

weight-based
j ust

can
wood

easily
and

efficiency

how one defines

universally

be

its

cal-cul-ated if
char

criterion

yield
tw

is

varies

the

energy

known,

the

depending on

c h a r c o a . l - . U n fo r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e i s n o
of charcoal-. However, most

accepted definition

of the literature

on carbonization agrees that

measured on
a dry weight basis - charcoal- should exhibit a fixed carbon
content of at l_east 75 % (tne other principal componentsare
hydrogen: 4.I %; oxygen:
15.Z %; nitrogen:
0.8 %; and
m i n e r a l - s : 3 . 4 % ).
0n the
of

input

cel-l-u1ose,

mineral-s.

rn

side,
lignin,

the biomass source wood is

composed

hemicel_1ul_ose, extractives

and

terms
of
chemical- composition,
one can
between hardwood and softwood: on the average,
hardwood contains about 4J % cel-1u1ose, zi % lignin
and

distinguish

35 % hemicellulose,
cellulose,

29 %

differences

in

the

heat content;

composition affect

is

the higher

content,

and extractives

the tignin

higher

the gross

value of wood.

calorific

the

In

whereas softwood usually contains 43 %

These
28 % hemicellulose.
and
Iignin

formation

process

and

pyrolysis,

of

(ceIlul-ose

holocellulose

promotes

lignin

char

hemicellulose)

and

promotes the'release of volatiLes. The heating value of the

primary end prodct - i.e.
the charcoaL - is determined by
the
The general equation describing
its
carbon content.
between carbon content (C) and higher heating
relationship
can be
fuels
(nHV, dry
combustible
of
basis)
value
(
2
)
.
approximated by the following equation

wich is

in Figure 5.

illustrated

age-dependent moisture
affects
the

the

efficiency

moisture

heating

net

value,

of

wood,
ignition

fuel- utilization.

of

of

content

as

high

Iimit

contains

30.2 %

foltowing

formula (fiflmann,

of

as

combustibility.

moisture,

heating value of

and

species- and

the

is

the

content

practicat

the net

here

factor

relevant

Another

0.306 (MJlkg)

xC

HHV=O.4j7

which

and

Fresh wood may have a

67 %,

which

0n the
softwood

is

also

the

average, hardwood
about 46 %. The

1982) can be used to calcuLate

wood as a function of its moisture

content:
NHV(MJ/kg) = HHV
where

HHV

net heating val-ue (vJ/kg )

higher heating vaLue (vJlkg)

MC

moisture content.

NHV

directly

properties

O.2 33 x MC

HHV ( MJ/kg)

Eigure 5.
Carbon Content and
Higher Heating Value
of Fuels

(o/")

NHV ( MJ/ks)

gure Sa
Moisture Contentand
rVef Heating Value of
Average TropicalWood

MC

( o/o)

average
vaLue of
heating
higher
the
Assuming that
p
r
e
s
e
nted in
(
3
)
,
c
u
r
v
e
t
h
e
(
d
r
y
)
wood is 20 MJ/kg
tropical
Figure 5a can be derived from the above formula.
the cfi,
Thus, if
(which is
equivalent

dry

to

applox.

of

chemicaL composition

is

charcoal

of

defined

Ul/kg) ,
wood biomass as

the

as

75 %

if

the

as

the

and

30

well

conversion technology are known,

moisture
t n or. t t can be regarded as a function of the
content of the wood. The relationship between efficiency and
moisture content can be expressed aS a curve which has the
of

characteristics

the

same shape aS the curve in Figure 5a; howeVer' for a given

biomass input, the precise position of the efficiency curve
is a function

of the carbonization

The Charcoal Pit

2.I.1

there

Virtually,
pit

and all

principle

chamber to

before
are
wilI

the
the

charging

laid

numerous wayS to

ale

forming

other

a charcoal

build

skill.

need very little

The basic
the

technology employed.

flowing

charcoaJ pit

some kind

from one end of

lead the air

to

is

of

on the

Therefore,

bottom.

fuelwood bedlogs

with

the

crib

on which the

charge

be placed.

cut to the width of the Pit'

and they are laid evenly spaced along the entire length.
be
first
layer a number of Iogs will
0n top of this
The crib

is

made from Iogs,

placed each equal to the length of the charcoal pit.

Later when the charge has been lighted the incoming air,
mixed with the hot gases, will trave.L beneath the charge and
heat

it

up to

carbonization

temperature,

they

until

the chamber through the flue on the opposite side.

After loading the pit is covered with a Iayer
normally 20 cm thick
same thickness.

and on top with

a layer

of

of

soil

l-eave
leaves
of

the

In a typical

pit

operation burning takes place progressively

from one end to the other.

The produced charcoal

of

pits

larger

is

not

u n i - fo r m , b e c a u s e t h e b u r n i s d i f f i c u l t
to control.
pits are more efficient,
because they have a better
(4).

very

Small-er
airflow

The large charcoal- pit

normally takes 25 to 30 *3 of
fuel-woodper burn and the wood is cut in length of 2r40 m.
Miniature pits with a capacity of 4 to 5 ^3 are frequently
in

Their

use.

conversion

charcoal- produced
cross-section
crib

of

efficiency

Iarger

is

very

poor

In

Figure

quality.

inferior

pit

charcoal

is

and the
6

the

shown with

the

structure.
Because it

pit

of

and

charge is
burnt.

the

is

very difficul-t

internal

burnt

to

Eecause of

the airfl-ow in

to control

temperatures a

lot

of

ashes. Another portion

f al-se circul-ation

of

the

fuel-wood

remains only half

qases it
was

the

never dried out and properly heated.

problem is connected with falling
A further
rain.
pyroligneous gases tend to condense in the foliage layer
in

the earth

used as outer

Therefore when rain

cover.

The
and

falls

those condensates are washed back and down to be reabsorbed

(5).
by the charcoal
They will
cause l-ater damage to
jutebags by rotting
them and the charcoaL when used in
housholds rel-eases unpleasant smoke.
Pit sites shoul-d be sel-ected where a
soil- can be expected. Where the
the pit must be timbered.
In
for

many cases and for

cover

before

contamination of
is

the

soil-

large
is

soiL is
pits

put

steel

on top,

the charcoal by falling

deep stratum

l-oose the

of

vents of

sheets are used

thus preventing

soil

when the kiln

uncovered at the end of the carbonization.

According to

the

FA0 Forestry

paper No. 4I

(4)

a team of
men can produce from a pit
size of 6 m x 2.7O m x
I.20 m (depth at the igniting
point) and 2.40 m depth at

five

opposite side 760 tons of charcoal- per year.

anan
JJ
C'C'

EE
oo
+,+,

+,+,
anan
cc

(u(u

!t!t
oo
oo

==

PP

cc
oo
PP
{J{J

(u(u

oo
aa
cc

tntn

.2,.2,

tt

oo

gg

:o:o

..
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55

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cc
oo

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'

EE
oo
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t-tG'G'
,E,E

(,(,

-l. l

EIEI
=l
('rl

iIl

This

woul-d have resulted

The indicated
for

cost

is

for

in

USD 70.00 per ton in

charcoal

transportation.

The cal-culation,
f or l-abour overhead and profits.

2.I.2

at

the

kiln

site

1983.
ready

however, does not a.l-1ow

T h e E a r t h m o u n dK i l n

The typical
abouL 2n in
high

as

smallholder

diameter

shown in

at

charcoal maker builds

the

Figure

7.

a kiln

base and approximately

Approximately six

to

of

I.5

ten

air

inlets

are instal-l-ed at the base. The smoke and the gases

d e v e J - o p i n gd u r i n g t h e c a r b o n j . z a t i o n a r e d r a w n - o f f a t t h e t o p
through an opening of 20 cm in diameter.
This describes roughly a round earthmoundkiln.
one

can find

other

shaped kilns

Iike

rectangular

However,
mounds in

use as wel-l-.

For

the

preparation

of the kiln
site sufficient
space
has to be cl-eared, l-evelred and ir necessary compacted also.
In the case of rectangular
or
square shaped mounds it
becomes necessary to erect posts r sveral on each side,
which give stability
to the wood pile and provide a support
for the operator when he is covering the kiln with leaves,
soil

or metal sheets.

Again, as with the charcoal Fit, it is most important to

a good air
and gas flow within
the mound after
lighting.
This will be achieved by forming a grid of crossed
s m a l l - l o g s ( m a x i m u md i a m e t e r 1 0 c m ) w h i c h a r e f i r s t
laid out

provide

and arranged on the

will

ground. 0n this

platform

the

fuel-wood

be stacked.
For the

stacking

the piles

are

say

in

that

arranges it

set

of

the

up very

spheric
vertically

wood exist
differently.

earthmound kilns

no strict
In
the

rul-es and

general

one can

charcoal- maker

a n d i n o t h e r m o u n d sh o r i z o n t a l l y .

.u0.u0
t'o

EE
C'C'
at1at1
LL

oo

\,'o
ut9ut9

oo
V,V,

EE

vv
'E'E
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55

oo
ee

+,+,
LL
tOtO

(u(u

==
.tt.tt
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LL
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II
ol

Ll
=l
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rl

in with
gaps between the logs or branches are filled
s m a l - l - e rw o o d l o g s , o f f - c u t s , e t c . t o m a k e t h e p i l e a s c o m p a c t
AIl

as possible

which facilitates

the carbonization

has started.
be taken to the surface of the
and makes a good support

Al-so special- care has to

pile

that

when

heat transfer

the direct

shows an even profile

it

f or the cover of l-eaves and soil.

The lower layer
grass.

or

0n

of

top

made with

the cover is

sandy

l-oam are

or

soil-

Ieaves,

straw

applied

approximately 20 to 25 cm thick.
improvement can be achieved by putting

An important

metal sheets before the outer

reduce defil-ement of
during

the

the carbonization,

and when it

made. This will

cover is

soil

in

charcoal- by dropping of
when the mound is

slowly

down

soil

sinkingt

is uncovered at the end.

These metal sheets can be gathered from scrap or cut out

of

spent

oil

drums.

however, corrode in

Depending on

a more or l-ess short

operation may become quite

scrap prices are high.

of

The igniting
top.

hol-es on the

kiln

base or

through the

put into
After

carefully
white

are used or

a shovelful

air

hol-e at

the

centre

kindJ-ing wood, oil

of

glowing charcoal

the centre hol-e on the kiln top.

has I'caught fireil the operator

the

col-our of

indicating

that

the

where

through the

the kiln

smoke wiII

type

this

countries

is' done either

In every case, to enhance the firing

soaked fabrics
is

of

in

costly

will,

time and have to be

Recent cal-culations have shown that

replaced then.

inl-et

usage they

the

smoke exiting

observes

the mound. Dense

day

or

be

issued

for

the

first

the

water

of

the

fuel-wood is

days
being

evaporated.
After
depends on

this
the

initial
size

charge, thickness of
b l - u e a n d b e c o m e sc l e a r

period,

the

length

of

the

time

of the kiln r froisture content of the

the woodlogs, etc., the smoke will turn
eventually.

!!
oo
oo

II

oo
q,q,

!!
oo

EE
oo
cc
aa
UU
oo

oo
LL

cc
oo

1.,1.,

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LL

cc
(u(u
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.=.=
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cc
tt
EE
cc
55
oo

EE
oo

q,q,

oo
olol
oo

{{

tl
ol
\l
JI

.al

trl

The skilled
for

kiln

feeLs

operator

col-d or

hot

probing the conditions

frequently

of

walls

the

and uses a

spots

the
for

wooden stick

the wood charge and searching for

of

uncarbonized parts.
Based on his
the kiln

findings

vents at

opens the

or

base.

Besides these
the

he closes

kiln

carbonisation

he must l-ook for

observations

cover

which

cycle,

do

due to

during

appear

cracks
of

the continuous shrinking

the same grade as charcoal is

sealed immediately to prevent the

in

entire

the

the

charge and in

formed. Cracks

must be

influx

of

air

w h i c h w o u l - d c a u s e b u r n i n g o f t h e f u e l - w o o dt o a s h e s .
When charring is judged complete, alI
vents

and

the

be cl-osed and seal-ed with

centre hol-e at the top will

For the sealing of larger
The cooling
its

capacity

time of

or

the

size.

depends a.l-sovery much on

kiln

It

earth.

clay and stones are used.

kilns

may take

days or

few

up

to

several weeks.
During

the

cooling

phase

the

kiln

under

remains

permanent supervision,
the

0therwise
and must be kept airtight.
and starts glowing which
catches fire

charcoal- inside

prolongs the cooling time considerably.

I t ' J h e nt h e e a r t h m o u n d k i l n
and the

charcoal

crop

is uncovered
and rfbrandsff by

has cool-ed out it

separated from fines

screening or other simple meansand madeready for

Photo I

and 2

show the

earthmound charring

cycle

of

out.

They al-so reveal

display

great

ski11.

of poor quality

large

whith

the

kiln,

as

operator

usually
does not

with soil-.

can be

enlarged

space capacities

scale earthmound kilns

construction

smaLt

an

0bviousLy the obtained charcoal- crop is

and defiled

Earthmound kilns
15 m and over,

that

end of

and the

beginning

carried

sale.

have to

needs very much ski11.

up
of

to

diameter of

l-50 ^3.

be modified

However,
and their

They require
of

Some details
Figure 8.

such
h,hich

also,

2 . 1 . 1 T h e E a r t h m o u n dK i l n
These modified

to

refers

the followinq

described in

of

canals as shown in Figure 7.

can be seen in
canal structure

firing

centre

type

kiln

special

section.

with Chimney

kilns

the

Iepresent

most advanced group

T h e y h a v e b e e n d e v e l - o p e di n E u r o p e
t h e l a s t c e n t U I Y , n a m e . l - yi n S w e d e n a n d

the earthmound family.

the middte of
in the western parts of Russia.

during

Very large
these kilns
The

for

charcoal- had been produced with

amounts of

the growing iron

for

el-ements used

smeLting industry.
the

the same as described in

basically

construction
kiln
the plevious section;

aIe
the

grate formed with woodlogs on the bottom, the fuelwood pile

firing.
( stacked vertically )
for
hole
centre
and the
(
normally only
However, in addition a chimney is attached
one) which is
(6, 7).
The

connected to

the

pile

by an underground flue

improvements rest

significant

Since the diameter of

oxygen demandthe kiln

it

chimney.

this

with

can be determined according to

can be precisely controll-ed with

the
the

draft of the chimney, which depends also on the height of

it, resulting in a higher yield of better charcoal.
l,tlhereas,the traditional- earthmound kiln takes the air
in

which will
to

nurnerous inl-ets

through
the

change during

shrinking

with

the

movementof

secures an uniform air

u n d e fi n e d

carbonization
the

kiln

cross-sections,
cycle also (due

shell),

the

chimney

infl-ux throughout the whol-eoperation

time.
The investment costs of
and, therefore,
construction.

these kilns

normally metal- sclap is

Frequently

oil

drums are

are naturally
used for

higher

the chimney

welded together

make a good chimney. Howeverr one has to

bear in

and

mind that

pillar

F i ri n g
st'icks
Firi ng
sti cks

Ch i m neym adeof oil d ru m s

Cover:soil rsand,

i++RNi++RN

titi
F lu e

Fi gUf g 9 . An earthmound
ki I n with chimney.

the

opening of

be reduced and

smoke stack may have to

the

adapted to the size of the wood pile.

thus

eliminating

preferred

in

shows a

medium size

shown in

as

wood pile

from

carbonization
almost

as

top

drums. The centre

equally

to

and within

the

the

the

height

and probings

of

the

edges

the

kiIn.

During the
neceSsary

are

regular

with

dealing

section

The

time.

to

a torch.

with

the

of

firing

same

centre

entire

the

lighted

same observations

mentioned in

already

bottom

ar'e usually

the

at

an

with

earthmound kiln

guarantees the

pr.ogless from

wilI

Chimney kilns
opelation

Figure

and

sites

to.

attached chimney assembled from spent oil

pillar

plant

Iarge

charcoal operations with

employed

probl-ems. These chimneys are

corrosion

where the fuelwood is permanently carried

Figure

is

made from firebricks

many cases a stack

In

earthmoundkilns.
temperatures which can be achieved

0wing to

the

charcoal

produced in

the

matter

vol-atile

higher

has a.Low

these kilns

val-ue as

heating

and consequently a higher

of

content

comparedto normal earthmoundcharcoal.

One disadvantage
having a l-oose shell
of

danger

is

which

be seen in

has to

showing

connected

cracks

the

aIl

kilns

always present

carbonization

the

during

with

and

cooling phase.
This
contributed
producers turned to
represented by

to

fact

the

kilns

with

fixed

that

hangar and round griIl

the

many

shells,

charcoal

which

are

types and which

be described Later.

will

2.I.4
It

T h e E a r t h m o u n dK i l n
is

charcoal

only

small

opelation

modifications

within

with

with Tar Recovery

step
tar

from

the

recovery.

chimney-ki1n to
A few but

the

important

in the chimney section are necessary.

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In

first

the

designed to
carbonization process

chimney is

the

circumstance

gases generated during

the
case the chimney
I
n
t
h
e latter
into the ambient atmosphere.
the gases and
of
serVeS two pUlpoSeS: condensing part

expel

aIl

guiding the uncondensableportions

Since

investment

the

instal-l-ation of

chiller

operator has to limit

of

to the outside.
woul-d

cost

the

al-low

not

and scrubber systems the earthmound

himself to the col-lection of only part
case it

In this

the charcoal- by-products.

be mainly

will

wood tar.
From 100 steres of wood normally 25 tons of condensate
can be recovered (8). It consists of water, acids and tar.
In practice about 2 tons of tar can be lecovered from it (9).
Since all wood tars contain a high ploportion of heavy
higher melting and boiling points the
condensation of them by aircoolers is quite efficient.
For this reason, the way the hot gases trave.l through
the stack, has to be extended to al-1ow them to dispose of
organic chemical-s with

part

heat

tangible

their

of

area'

chimney

the

within

in partial

condensation.
This can be accomplished by putting in the chimney some
metal- sheets which force the gases to fl-ow around them and
resulting

way.

do not permit them to escape on a direct

Figure

I0

sectional- kiln
In

displays

the

stack made from oil

many cases

higher

provide an adequate travel

The condensed tar

design

simple

three

drums.

route for

required

be

chimney wiIl

and oils

for

lo

the gases.
the

col-l-ected at

be

will

bottom of the stack and l-ead through a pipe into

the storage

drum.
The structure

of

beneath and the shell

the

wood pile

are built

in

with

grate

supporting

the same mannel as with

regular kil-ns.
0f

courSe, some special

more or
author

l-ess signif icant

has

achieved

were

have been in

structures
ef f ects.
with

The

fixed

hangar type and with a modified Brazilian

best

shell

USe with

resul-ts

the

of

the

kilns

Beehive kiln.

The economics which can be achieved by the

recovery of

charcoal by-products will depend very much on the use-market

prices
for
them. In 1983, according to a market survey
performed by the author in African and some Asian markets
the production

cost

for

earthmound kilns

charcoal in

between USD 48.00 and 62.OO per

ton

ranged

lump charcoal.

of

Tar

sales would have reduced the production cost by USDL5.00 to

22.OOper ton.

2 . 2 C h a r c o a l - M a k i n q w i t h P o r t a b l e a n d M o v a b l - eK i l n s
These kilns
containers

or

are
are

sheets. The latter

made by

modifying

oil

drums or

specially

designed and built

consist

few sections.

of

other

from metal

They are rapidly

assembled or dismantled by the charcoal burner,

using simple

tooLs.
Kilns
the

of

century

means than
charcoal

this
(the
the

kind have been made since the beginning of

D e l h e m m e a uK i 1 n , 1 9 0 7 ) ( 7 ) , a s a n e a s i e r
traditional

from

bulky

sawmill

brushwood left

after

felling.

waste

use

charcoal- gas-producers

But

the

use

of

these

kilns

Western European countries

petrol supplies were short

the

and

production

of

branches

and

the

them quickened

in

Interest

was found practically

when it

for

stack,

and economically
for

propell ing

reached its
during

motor

and charcoal

to

vehicles.

maximum in

1919

the

feasible

some

45 war when

became by

far

the

most commonlyused fuel for combustion engines. The vogue of

portable
passed with
kilns
the
return
normal fuel
of
supplies

to

these countries.

The kilns

are now made by only

a few of the many manufacturers of ten years ago.

In

this

type

of kiln r crbonization is discontinuous,

out by the combustion of part of the timber to

being carried
be carbonized.

For the

most part,

these kilns

work on the

d o w n w a r dr r r e l y
direct,
Observations
draught principle.
( f0)
made with
the hetp of regularly
spaced pyrometers
inside

kilns

of the stack type show that

carbonization

works

pit
or
traditional
the
direction
as in
p
.
f
r
o
m
t
h
e
a
n
d
g
.
f
r
o
m
d
o
w
n
w
a
r
d
s
the top
earthmound ki1n,
middle outwards. Carbonization temperature is usually 44OoC,
in

the

same

but

may be higher

Itflare-upstt

kilns

Portable
traditional
of

the

exceed 500o C during

and even stightly

stacks

have
in

over

the

reduce the

time

advantage

they appreciably
(about 48 hours),

that

carbonization

great

one

operation

chiefly

"dressing" of the stacks with earth

plocess
carbonization
Moreover', the
is
dispensed with.
some
there is
so that
requires much -l-ess surveillance,
p
r
o
d
u
c
e
d is
e c o n o m y i n m a n p o v { e r .F u r t h e r m o t e , t h e c h a r c o a l -

because the preliminary

from earth and glavel

free

and this

is

important where it

is

to be used for gas-producers or combustion engines.

The chief criticism
directed at these kilns emphasizes
that

that

and

weight

their

the
yield

charcoal

wood carbonized

of

appreciably
out

facilitate

do not

they

increased if

caIefully,

collection
is

(4).

charging

by-products,

compared with

The yieId,

the

however' can be

operations

various

the

especially

low

of

are carried

and control- of

the

air

intake.

The TonqanOiI Drum Kiln

2.2.1

small-scal-e
a Iow-capital,
(
f
l
)
.
method of producing charcoal from wood
As the name suggests, this kiln was developed in Tonga
when the need arose for a l-ow-cost method for converting
The Tongan oil

and wood to

coconut sheIls

was a simple-to-contruct
2OOIitre
but

is

drum kiln

a salable

and uSe charcoal

drum. 0ther drum kilns

because of

their

product.

design

kiln

The solution
made from a

have been made in the past,

have not been particularly

howevel' takes
The Tongan kiln,
advantage of the drum shape to produce good quality charcoal
efficient

or

easy to

use.

simply.
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The key to the Tongan design is the opening, about 20 cm

side of the drum (see
wide, which is cut along the vertical
Figure 1I). With the drum lying on its side and the opening
facing

plevailing

the

The

inside.

built

is

fire

breeze,

drum is rol-1ed so that the opening reaches a ploglessively

This a11ows more and mole firewood to be
higher position.
is important
It
the drum is completely fulI.
added until
kept burning without being smothered by
the addition of new wood. As the fire burns down' more wood
the whole plocess taking up to an hour. When no
is added
more wood can be added and the fire is burning strongly, the
process has
( tne charring
ready to be sealed.
drum is
that

a good fire

already

the

begun in
the

facing

lower part

The drum is

cannot reach).
is

is

ground.

rolIed
or

Clay

drum where the

the

of

air

over so that the opening

sand is packed around the

no smoke can escape. At this time, the entire

for 5-8 hours to cool' When
drum is seal-ed and can be left
it
is compl-etely cool , the drum can be rol-Led ovel again
bottom so that

and

the charcoal- removed (see Figure 1f).

The Tongan kiln

possesses several advantages:

The only costs invoLved aIe the drum and the

to cut it open (hammer,chisel, bush knife)'

Low cost:
tools

One person can carry

Transportabl-e:

to

it

the

site

of

the firewood.
Simple to
than

with

use:

some Iarger

major movement is
the fire

There is

kilns

by rolling

m a n a g e a b l - e .I t

and

does not

because the

retorts

and the

burned

being

l-ess danger of

smaLl size

require

highly

makes

skilled

labour.
Efficient:
per

Tests have shown that

kilogram

retorts.

of

firewood

equals

the output of charcoalthat

of

the

larger

It

can deal

with

small

amounts of

firewood.

merely

to
increase the number of
quantities are to be processed.

drums

0ne needs
greater

if

The disadvantages are:

Firewood must be cut to fit
Drums ]ast

at most 6 months

CharcoaL in
part

oi

the drum.

contact

the

with

process

the ground during

may absorb

the cooling

moisture.

To

prevent

this,

the original
section of the drum that was removed
make the opening can be replaced as a door using a
wire hinge.
to

2.2.2

The Philippines

This

kiln

Kiln

was

first
designed
and
used
in
the
Philippines,
in particuLar for the carbonization of coconut
shells. It employs an oiI drum set up vertically
(12).
The Philippines
which the
Reject

top

oir

kiln

is

made from an ord

and bottom rids

drums can

usualry

are

stilr

be

bought

oil

firmly

drum in
in

cheaply

place.
at

oi]

companydepots, and these are quite suitable. rn addition to

the drum, a flat
circuLar
sheet of
thin
metar, about
50-54 cm in diameter, with a centraL hole r0 cm in diameter,
is required.
This forms a movable rid for the kirn.
For
convenience, a handle can be bolted or tack-welded onto this
rid. A smaller piece of flat metal t5 cm in diameter is used
to
form a cap for
the central
hole in
the lid
when
charcoaling is completed.
The kiln
drum there
these holes

is

constructed

are two holes.

and, using

as

follows.

The plugs

At

the

top

of

the

should be removed from

an oxy-acetylene welding torch,

the

fop of drum
_+
( becomesbottom)

t holcs ( 5 cm dia. )
for hiln air inlet

Cover for hole in lid

( 15cm dia. )

L id ( 50 cm dia.) with
l0 cm hole and handle

Hole (15cm dia.) cut in

top of lid leaving rim
of Scm

Figure

12

The Phitippinesoil drum kiln

small-er one is cut out so that it is as big as the larger

one (see Figure 12). Two more holes are cut in the top of
hol-e and positioned at

the drum, the same size as the larger

the

same distance

from

the

edge of

the

midway

drum and

between the
circLe

of

first
two. At the opposite end of the drum, a
metal about 48 cm (rc inches) across is cut out.

The drum is

now ready for

holes

use, the end with the four

(see Figure 12).

forming the bottom of the kiln

To operate the kiln,
bricks
that

or

pieces of

the air

must be positioned

it

metal pipe or

hoLes are

not

rail-

blocked.

securely

on

about 5 cm highr

so

a round

Al-ternatively,

hole

about 50 cm in diameter can be dug in the earth over

which the drum is placed. Air channels must be dug under the

edge of the drum so that air

After

the

drum has

can freely

enter the air

been filled

with

coconut

hol-es.
she11s,

leaving a hol-e about 15 cm across by 15 cm deep at the top,

paper, coconut fronds , or an oily
rag are placed in this
hoLe and the fire

When the
lit
at the top of the kiln.
fire
has "caught onrf (this wil-l take about 5 minutes), the
lid is placed on top of the kiln.
Dense white smoke shoul-d
is

issue from the hole in

If

flames are

the ]id.

seen, there

is

The small centre hole in

kiIn.
a flat

the lid

piece of metaI, so that

emerge. The air

four

entering

too much air

entering

the

must be covered with

only white smoke continues to

the bottom of

hol-es should be controlled

the kiln

through the

by banking up earth or

sand

around the bclttorn of the kiln so that only two smal-l-gaps

(f cm by 1 cm) on opposite sides of the kitn remain.
As the shel-1s are converted to charcoal, they reduce in
vol-ume.The Iid should be removed and the kiln refilled
with
shel-1s about three times at
2 I/2
f rom

hours,

l0-minute

the smoke will

dense white

to

decrease in

pal-e bl-ue-grey.

virtually

stopped smoking, the

top

and the cpr the

kiln

hole,

interval-s.

must be sealed securely

After

quantity

and change

When the

kiln

cap shoul-d be put

kil-n Iid
with

and the

sand or

about
has

over

the

bottom of

the

earth

so that

no

air
can enter the kiln.
reduce the charcoal yieId.
Four hours after
touch

and

ready

12-25 kg of

Any air

sealing,

for

firing.

able to operate up to 10 kilns

2.2.f

wilI

should be cool to the

should yield
Each kiln

A single

on a daily

worker should be

cycle.

The Black Rock Forest Kiln

This

kiln

welded to

is

form

one piece,

in

a bell

l-ower part

The
reception
intakes.

of

steel

The kiln

The dimensions are

about 2.8 ^3.

smoke outlets,

holes,

with
the

which can be hoisted

are distributed

is a derrick

for

acting

the

as air

use as part
of

four

of

kilns

cement emplacements. The

in the centre of
a circle,
(see Figure I4, f5).

which

moving the kilns

Large stocks
and while

in

eight

for

with a metaL cap.

a view to its
yard, consisting

on to

others

was designed with

chareoaL burning

with kiln

being electrically

sheeting.

pierced

is

part

The upper part has a hole fitted

fixed

latter

the

of steel

shown in Figure L3. Capacity is

kiln

the kiln

discharge.
per

charcoal

the

entering

of

wood are

piled

near

the

emplacements,

place

carbonization is taking
on emplacement A,
(Figure l5), the crew prepares the stack on

no. l,

emplacement B.
l,lhen carbonization
is
emplacement A, number one kiln
is
Iifted
placed over the stack already prepared on
Firing

completed

on

therefrom

and

emplacement B.

place

takes
at once, and while carbonization is in
progress the crew sacks the charcoal- made on emplacementA
and prepares the fresh stack on A.
lVhen carbonization
kiln

is

so on. It

hoisted

completed on emplacement B,

the

and placed over the stacked wood on A,

and

is

can be seen that

when this

each of

the

emplacementsA, B,

each of

the

four

kilns,

crewrs working time.

there

C,

process is
D, E,

F,

are no slack

repeated for

G, H, and for
periods

in

the

| = Steel seet
2 = Lid for ignition hole
3 = Air inlets at fe bottom
4 = Chimney
5 = Hoisting rings
Figure

Figure

13

14

The Btack Rock Forest kiln.

Handting the kiln with a derrick.

lP

ARM OF
DERRICK

q,

A - H = Concrete emplacements for kilns

Kilns in operation
l-4=

Figure l5

A battery of four Black Rock Forest

kilns in operation

Preparation

of

intake

is

laid

the

into

fixed

pipe,
is

cavity

logs

in

the

and

by a

vertical

the

of the centralwhich fits

heaped and the wood to be carbonized

The steel

the central- chimney is

which

emplacement. Earth is

rests
piled

serving

cylinder

removedafterwards.
is

covered

the

cement

When the wood has been stacked, it

kiln

in

emplacement. Immediately around this

the

dry brush-wood is

Liqhtinq.
by

arranged

cylinder

steel

heaped to the top of the kiln.

as a guide for

is

wood

The shape and position

on it.

stack-formation
chimney are

The wood grate

the base of the kiIn.

hol-es in

on

correspond to

channeLs between them to

emplacement, leaving
the air

radialJ.y on the

wood. Logs are laid

the

upon

directly

around the edges of the kiln

alI

to prevent the passage of air.

The kiln

can

be

chimney, introducing
holer

central
into

Iit

embers and dry

or by thrusting

is

filled

means of

central
the

embers through a tube inserted

case, the central-

brushwood during

with

the

brushwood through

In the latter

one of the base inlets.

chimney

by

either

the

stacking

operation.
the upper hole is blocked,
well alight,
the smoke-outlet pipes are inserted, and carbonization goes
Whenthe fire

on until

is

flames appear at

the

lower

stopped up in turn and the stack is

2.2.4

holes.

These are

then

allowed to cooL.

Sectional Metal Kilns

Several

versions

markets and in
employed these

use.
kilns

of

these kiln

Especially
to

obtain

types

have been on the

during

war times

a clean

charcoal

the
for

army
their

otvnsupply.
They all
with

consist

of

at

one cylindrical

section

more smoke stacks.

0n the

least

a conicaL cover and two or

kiln base are usually four air channels fitted and the cover
is provided with four equally spaced steam release ports.

The kilns
local-

are made from sheet metal and can be built

craftsmen

in

r o l - . 1 - i n g ,d r i l l i n g

workshop which

and cutting

welding,

basic

has

by

equipment.

Figures 15 and 17 show a sectional kiln and the t,/aythe

wood grate on the bottom of the kiln is arranged.
principles

The
operation

of

which

for

apply

the earthmound kilns

and

charging

the

the previous

described in

sections are ai-mostthe same f or the sectional- metal- kilns.

The popularity
enjoyed is

and the

sections can be

mainly due to the fact

that their
p
l
-ant site.
to another

separated and carried

However, several- facts

during the past five
ri sing

iron

have

to ten years gradually:

prices
steeL
have

for

promotion

hampered their

and

unaffordabl-e

once

widespread use these kilns

many charcoal

kiln

made the

makers

in

especially

developing countries
the kiln

shell,

if

not properly

designed and contructed,

can be deformed during operation

machinery which woul-d be rarely

and the repair

available

requires

in

remote

is

short

charcoal- camp
the

kiln

tends to

corrode and the lifespan

comparison with firebrick

The Tropical
of

the

kilns
with

kilns.

Products Institute

(TPI),

0verseas Development 0rganisation

gained

considerable experience in
of

various

design.

good durability

in

of

U .K .

the

has

operating sectional- metal-

The institute

which is

unit

a scientific

has evol-ved a

considered to

kiln

be optimal

in

e c o n o m ya L s o .
The

institute

consisting
cover.

of

The

recommends a

two

inter-l-ocking cylinders
is

sectional
with

kiln,
conical

inl-eL/outlet
air
channels, arranged radiaJ-1y around the base (11).
During

kiln

two

charring

al-ternate air

supported

four

on

eight

smoke stacks

are

fitted

onto

channel-s. The cover has f our equally spaced

p
steam rel-ease orts which may be cl-osed of f with plugs.

6 0,4s,

Figure

16

Figure 17

A portable metat kiln

A i r i n l e t c h a n n e l sa t t h c
bottom of a portable metal
kiln with wood grate

The size

of

the wood to be charged to

exceed 50 cm in
Wood with
before

length

diameter

kilning.

m a x i m u md i a m e t e r

greater

than

The TPI

kiln

takes

this

must not

the kiln

and the

20 cm.

is
be

should

split

7 *3

approximately

of

fuelwood.
placing

After

supporting air
out

with

that

the

inLet

stringers

the

air

l-ower section

of

the

kiln

onto
is

channeLs the bottom of the kiln

forming

channels

a grate.

protruding

Care has to
into

the

the
laid

be taken,

kiln

are

not

blocked by the wood charge.

The

fuelwood

is

successive Iayers,
is

advisable

kiln

placed

normally

filling

in

to place the thicker

where they wiII

horizontally

as many gaps as possible.

logs in

the centre of

in
It
the

be more exposed to the heat as close to

a wall.
For the lighting
will

of

be prepared with

a flame is
During

the kiln

kindling

several points
and for

material

the base

at

the ignition

necessary.
the

carbonization

of

colour

the

smoke,

wall

temperature and leaks have to be watched. For the cooling of

the kiln alI openings are closed and the smoke stacks were
taken down before.
The author

has experimented with

various

TPI type in East Africa and has established

working schedule with hardwood (acacia d.):

kilns
the

of

following

Two experienced operators

1. day

Loading time
lighting

Charring time

l.

day

2 hours

08:00

l0:00

11 h o u r

10:00

1l:00

and draft

r e d uc i n g

Unloading

T 9 h o ur s
hours

the

08:00 - 10:00

For the operation the following

one crosscut
one cutlass,

saw, one axe,

tools

were in use:

two wedges, one sledge hammer,

one rake.

According

to

quantities

are necessary for

the

TPI

the

Part

following

materials

the construction
Material-

and

their

of the kiln:
Quantity
Sufficient

Base section

to cut:
Top and bottom

5 0 m mx 5 0 m mx

6 pieces,

rings

7 mmmild stee.l( m .s . ) a n g l e

each 2 43O mm

3 m mm . s . s h e e t

3 pieces,

Body

long

each 2 43O mm
x900 mm
or:
Body

J m mm . s . s h e e t

t pieces each
2480mmx
900 mm

Upper section
Top ring

5 0 m mx 5 0 m mx

7 pieces,

3 m m m .s . a n g l e

each
2 3 9 8 m ml o n g

Bottom ring

5 0 m mx 5 0 m m x

t pieces,

3 m mm . s . s t r i p

each
2 798 mml-ono

Body

? m mm . s . s h e e t

3 pieces,
e ac h
2 448 mmx
900 mm

Top coveq
Cover sectors

2 m mm . s . s h e e t

Steam ports

5 0 m m x 3 m mm . s . 4 p i e c e s ,

st rip

2 pieces,

each 630 mm
long

Lifting

h a n d l e s 1 0 m md i a m e t e r
m.s. rod
( concrete reinforcing

4 pieces,
each 500 mm
lonq

bar)

Steam port covers (t+ per kiln)

Bodies

Either

5 0 m mx

3 m mm . s . s t r i p

4 pieces,
each 44Omm
1 o ng

0R 140 mm

0R 4 rings,

diameter steel
pipe. (Use pipe

each 50 mm

if
Top discs

wide

available)

' f m mm . s . s h e e t

4 dises,

each

190 mm
d i a m e t er .
Handles

5 mmdiameter

4 pieces,

steel rod
(concrete rein-

each 180 mm

forcing

long

bar)

Base channels (8 per kiln)

C h a n n eI

3 m mm . s . s h e e t

sections

I pieces,
e a c h 5 0 0 m mx
500 mm

Spigots

Either
sheet

3 m mm .s .

I pieces, each
375 x 150 mm

OR

OR

I 2 O m md i a m e t e r
steel pipe

pieces,

each 150 mm
long

S m o k es t a c k s ( 4 p e r k i l n )
4 Piecest
e a c h 2 3 O Om m

Thin-walled steel
pipe

l -onq
This

as guide to
the

may be used by the prospective

list

charcoal-maker

own investment costs according to

about the
out
find
and to
metal- prices

determine his

domestic

m aj , n t e n a n c e c o s t s o f l - o c a l - s h o p s .
sacks the use of a sieve chute is
The chute is positioned in a sloped manner
very plactical.
and should have a width on the upper end of 1.000 mmand on
t h e l - o w e r s i d e 1 0 0 m mt o k e e p t h e s a c k s w i d e o p e n .
For

the

filling

of

Squale wire mesh and the

1
0
a
nd 40 mm to separate the
mesh sizes may vary between
charcoal- fines. The cl-assification of charcoal for exports'
however, will require sieving by standardised screens.
The Screen can be made from

The Carborion Kiln

2.2.5

Although the manufacturer of this

few years after
for

its

the Second lVorld War, it

As far

original-ity.

portabl-e

kiln

which

as

produces

heating,

and

The Carborien

Kiln

external-

type of kiln

it

is

is

worth mentioning

known, it
a

charcoal- in

may be

useful

ceased a

to

is

the

retort
describe

only
with
its

principles.
consists

of

tank

of

thick

sheet

be carbonized. The bottom of

with an air-tight
is fitted
the tank is perforated and it
o
n
e stele capacity
There are models of one-hal-f and
Iid.
respectively ( see Figure 18) .

m e t a . l -w h i c h t a k e s t h e w o o d t o

__J_r
l----l

E--:

I
2
3
1
5

= Secfionsof kiln shell

= Retort
= Apertures in retort ase
= Brick bed
= Door in outer casing

Figure

II

The Carborion kiln

The tank rests

on a small layer

and the whole

of bricks,

sections which
e n c l o s e d i n a s h e e t m e t a . l -c a s i n g o f f i t t e d
dismantled. The free space between the brick
are easily
layers serves as a furnace fed through two apertures in the
is

outer easing.
and Ioaded, the f ire is lit
As soon as combustible gases are given off
under the retort.
the wood, they must necessariJ-y
of
by the distillation
In
escape through the apertures in the base of the retort'
V r , h e nt h e a p p a r a t u s i s

with

contact

the

fire,

sited

the

gases explode

and so

ensure

continued burning.
There are small sight-holes in the outer casing, so that
the carbonization can be followed: it is conSidered to be
The outer
when gases ale no longer given off.
finished
is laid on the ground,
casing is then removed, the retort
and earth is
the

the

through

retort

base so that air cannot entel

The outer casing can
apertules.

packed around its

be used with another retort.

The whoLe apparatus weighs 45Okg (ItZ stere model) or
59Okg (f stere model).
from I-I/2 hours (L/2
period
varies
The carbonizing
stere) to 4 hours (f stere) according to the size of the

therefore

of wood being carbonized.

kiln

and to the ploperties

2.3

Concrete and Brick Kilns

kilns '
one finds the most effective
o
p
e
rated.
a
n
d
p
r
o
p
e
r
l
y
constructed
provided that they are
ovel mole
economic viabifity
Some types have proved their
In

category

this

than fifty

years.

present can hardly

The number of
be estimated,

these kilns
but

it

is

in

operation

certainly

at

close

t o 2 5 Or 0 0 0 .
reinvestment capital
good quality of charquirements are 1ow, and a surprisingly
coal is produced both for household fuel and industrial usesThe kiln

design

is

simple,

the

Both concrete and brick

of

important

simple

to

types must comply with

requirements to
construct,

must be

by

thermal

relatively

stresses

on

withstand

the mechanical- stresses

It

heating

and

must be unaffected

a number

be succesful-. The kiln

unaffected

cool-ing,

by rain

and

enough to

strong

loading

of

and unl-oading.

and weather over

six

to

ten

air

at

all

years.
must permit control

The kiln

the entry

of

of

times, and for

the cooling phase there has to be a provision

f or

hermetic

ef f ective

lightweight
fairly

seal-ing.

construction
and yet

easily

to

It

must be

all-ow cooling

provide

of

reasonabJ-y

to

place

take

good thermal- insulation

the wood undergoing carbonization,

for

otherwise the origination

of col-d spots due to wind impact on the kiln walls will

prevent proper burning of the charcoal- and lead to excessive
production of partially
c a r b o n i z e d w o o d ( b r a n d s) a n d l - o w
yields.
of

The ability

of

carbonization

is

conversion efficiency

the

brick

an

important

kiln

to

conserve the

factor

in

heat
high

its

of wood to charcoal.

The design of these kilns has been refined over a long

period of time. They can be differentiated
by their
shape
(
r
e
c
t
a
n
g
u
l
a
r
into hangar kilns
of square shape) and round
brick

kilns.

Hangar

kil-ns:

Missouri

kiln,

f urnace,

0ttel-inska

Cinder-block kilns.
Round

brick

Brazilian

kiln

The Missouri,
burn part
the

of

(haIf-orange),
kiln
kil-ns:
Argentine
(beehive), Schwartz furnace.

Cinder-block,

Argentine

the charged wood within

remainder.

The

0ttelinska,

and Brazilian
the

kiln

to

Reichenbach and

carbonize
Schwartz

f urnaces use the hot

f l-ue gases f rom a central- f ire

passed

kiln

heating

through
the

the

wood to

start

to

supply

heat

carbonization.

for

kilns

grate,

drying

and

The 0ttelinska,

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considerable amounts
chamber, and steel grates

Schwartz and Reichenbach types require

for buckstays on the kiln

of steel

and doors for

is

furnace.

the

practice

counted) are not in

Missouri

is

kiln

practice,

and is
made of

usually

has

use in

in

stilI

reinforced

similar

to the Argentine and Brazilian

large

be used for
for

world

cement

for

usually

imported items),

other

its

construction

furnaces.

climates

is

It

where

the

concrete

reinforced

temperatures permit

2.3.1

for

thus more suited

materials

skiIIs

and
are

conStruction

is

use in
for

temperate
and

steel

hand and l-ow air

at
is

attractive
available.

It

and

steel

of

are readily

cooling.

is

fitted

costly r and are

so easy to cooL as

not

is

and it

easy

lot

requires a
(both are

loaders etc.,

front-end

labour,

it

use:

It

has two disadvantages

and unl-oading. It

loading

developing

breeze

mechanical equipment to

doors which aIlow

steel

furnace.

is

It

yield

Its

doors.

chimneys and

steel

and

concrete

or

concrete

blocks
with

United States.

the

The

been developed in

has

it

firewood

the others.

to

superior

proven,

weII

(when the

yields

Their

where

The Missouri Kiln

for

The footing
concrete, steel
40 cm wide at

the

Missouri

45 cm wide in

reinforced,
the

sides.

charcoal

Two Iri

kiln

front

consists
and rear

cm rods are located

of
and

15 cm

and 15 cm from each side. The

(not in a
in undisturbed soil

from the bottom of the footing

footing
fiIled-in
filled-in

should

be

area).

Iocated
Should

the

kiln

footing

area r special consideration

to avoid foundation failure

footing

and

floor

may be

made of

in
a
constructed
must be given to the

be

in

the

native

future.

The

washed sand and

high
to
withstand
they
are
not
required
(
s
e
e
F
i
g
u
r
e
s
19
20).
temperatures
A notch is provided in the top of the footing to assist
gravel,

the
wall
to
the
in
locking
(I,3 cm) are placed vertically

footing.
30 cm

Reinforcing
apart

around

rods
the

foundation

wa11 joins

where the

These rods

footing.

the

shoul-d extend 25 cm into the footing and have a 12 cm leg at

a 90 degree angle to ensure a strong bond (14).
The

fl-oor

is

10 cm

ll rc/ # 10 steel- reinf orcing

the centre
the

kiln

Iiquors

line

of

slab

concrete

has a crown down

mesh. The f loor

the kiln

drain

the l-ow or

and at

15 x 15 cm

with

end of

the floor slopes 15 cm to either side so that the

processed from the wood will
drain out of the 6 cm

pipes built

in

the footing.

under the fl-oor should

Any fill

be of gravel packed over wetted soil- to ensure a firm base.

Undesired air
ashes. Doors at
loading
is

entrances

are

seaLed with

each end of

the

kiln

and unl-oading of

Six

when more than one kiln

kilns

(I4)

l-,50 m length

diameter,

are reguired

wal-l-s. Four pieces of

are desirable
the kiln

seven fresh
Eight
the

uninterrupted

being operated.

Construction details

of

the

mud or

clay,

provide

of

air

the

six

4 m long,

to pipe air
during

used boil-er

f or

ventilation

phase.

f 0 cm in

hol-es in

holes

Two door

side
tubes

f 0 cm diameter boiler

near the centre

Seven caps are required

chimney caps are required

cooling

inl-et

from the doors to

burning.

pipe,

f lue

air

made from

for

truck

the

rims.

plug the chimneys during

to

stops

are

necessary for

the

in

the

holes provided in the footing.

A
figure.

suggested l-adder and catwalk

are

indicated

These provide ready access to the top of the kiln.

l-adder may be used to

reach chimney tops

for

capping and

uncapprng.
The volume of
is

expected that

it

for

this
only

kiln design is 180 ^3 . However, it

zz
165 m- of wood would be loaded into

burning.

T h e w a l - . 1 - as n d r o o f

are made of

which has the same coefficient

cement with

air

entrainino

of

aoent.

expanded shal-e aggregate

expansion as the Portl-and
This wiIl

minimize cracks

in

the

kiln

charcoaling.
different

under

coefficient

concrete. The air

in

the

Some cracks
of

make the concrete a

the concrete, and amongother things,

insul-ator which helps prevent l-oss of

better

and

bubbles

agents cause minute air

entraining

the

steel

the

of

expansion

to

due

expected

be

to

in

encountered

temperatures

are

heat during the

coaling cycIe.
The f ront
are

25 cm

w a l - l - sa r e t O c m t h i c k . T h e s i d e w a l l - s
provides
heavy duty
This
thickness

and rear
thick.

unl-oading abuses.
the cordwood into
the

w a l l -r

the kiln

Dchanical-

automotive truck

ramming

equipment

w a l - lr-

the

loading

wall-s whilst

the

hitting

and often

loading

during

bumping into

example: throwing

for

These abuses are,

the

kiIn.
(fg mm thick)

Bent plates
I-beam on its

topped together

side form the door facing for

Each side

wal-l contains

chimney entrances.
A 12 cm air
w
a
y
haJ-f
between each chimney.
apart and centred in
is

tied

during
top

contains

unl-oading of

centre

line

of

the

kiln.
kiln

Each intersection
strength.

additional

hol-es for

Three of
within

fresh

air

these are down the

and two are

Their exact l-ocation may be varied

l-ocated

rods are l-ocated tO cm

steel

seven ventilation

the

for

tiles

is

hole

inl-et

t h e w a l - l - sa n d r o o f .

together with wire for

The roof

protection.

15 cm diameter

four

15 mm diameter reinforcing

kiln

a 30 cm

with

on

side.

either

limits.

To reduce

expense, these hol-es may be made from used truck rims cut in
half

to make two forms from each rim.

Doors

are made of
high.
of

the

large

are

entrance for

loading

enough to

9 mm thick

steel- plate,

There are two doors closing

kiln.

Each door

hinges. Fifteen
on each end of

is

2 cm bolts
the kiln.

apart on the top.

provide

truck

and

and unl-oading. The doors for

at

hung on

tractor
the

kiln

1.50 m wide and 2.5O m

the centre of
four

each end

40 cm heavy duty

are used to secure the door tight

These bolts

are spaced about 70 cm

0 p er a t i o n

per

is

shift

per shift

the

loader

to

control

the

of

portable

is

kitn

aIe

thermal

insulation

the burning and one man

ratio

system is

of

better

the

vol-ume to

of

endothermal heat

surface

carbonization
to

not so much subject

is

is
the

uninsuLated metal-

as the

winds and rain

of

a simil-ar way

because

better

and greater

util ized and the kitn

effects

in

controlled

usually

the

means that

cooling

operator

The gas circulation

metat kiln.

YieIds

better

and unloading

can supervise a number of kilns.

similar.
area

loading

and truck.One

front-end

sufficient

The burning
to

needed for

two men is

A crer{ of
equipment with

kiln.
kilns

Missouri
to

read the
is

This

and hot

temperature at

important
spots to

base

of

the

kiln.

action

vents along

or opening air

by closing

The cooling

process

kiln.

enables cold

as it

kilns

the

within

detected and corrective

be readily

taken by the operator

the

several- points

such large

with

thermocouples

equipped with

usually

are

can

also

be

checked so that the kiln is opened only when the temperature

o f t h e c h a r c o a l i s I o w e n o u g h ' . T h i s a v o i d s f i r e s w h i c h' i n
even with
control
easy to
kiLns,
are not
such large
mechanical handling.
The sudden entry
kiln

most serious
of a kiln.

in

Missouri

explosion

amounts of air

into

a burning

N u m e r o u sm i n o r e x p l o s i o n s h a v e
The
with no personal injuries.
destruction
was the partial
The person closest to the

reported

The top was blown off.

was 100 m away.

It

air

large

may cause an explosion.

been Ieported

kiln

of

is

commonly reported

ventilation

holes

in

that

kilns
top

the

' fp u f f r r , a n d I i d s
are

blown

off.

on
Such

occurlences can be avoided by ploper sealing with clay oI

soiI, preventing the sudden entry of ait, aS mentioned above.
The photos 3 and 4 exhibit
kiln

shelL

and faulty

caused by
operation.

failure

a not
of

the

so rare

damageof

construction

the

material

The kil-n cycle is

on

rates.

cooling

about equal

a b o u t 2 5 t o 3 0 d a V S . ' d, e p e n d i n g
is
two 180 m' kilns
capacity of

usually

The

seven medium-size Brazil ian

is

time

not

it

as

efficient
kilns

the

different,

to

could

be

unLess the

optimized

labour

of

utilization

of

battery

cycle

because the

But

kilns .

so

not

is

two

are mole than

mechanical equipment is
to
number of kilns is sufficient
there

unless

of

Utilization

a battery.

standard

wood consumption to

in

working more or less continuously.

keep it

time of

The cycle

a Missouri kiln

a warm climate

in

can

be at Ieast one month, madeup as follows:

Burning:

2 days 2 men plus machines.

5 days 2 men on L2 hr. oI 3 men on I hr.

Cooling:

20 days (min) I man part-time

Unl-oading:

2 days 2 men plus machines.

Loading:

The

30

If

days.

The Missouri
kilns

is

gleatest

kiln's

the

possibility,

supervision.

machines

aIe

not

to two months oI more.

the cycle time can stretch

available,
brick

is

time

total

shift.

advantage compared with

in fact the necessity, of

mechanical Ioading and unloading.

disadvantages are the high

Its

quantities

large

of

steel

cost,

and concrete,

due to
and its

the

use of

immobility.

cannot be demolished and rebuilt.

it
UnIike brick kilns,
within
wood supply must be available
Hence a ten-yeaI
The amount of
economic haul distance of any gloup of kilns.
be
would
kilns
I80 ^3
group
three
of
for
a
zz
50.000 n' approximately. About 2.000 ha of forest capable
of yietding 30 *3 per hectare would have to be set aside
for ten years to supply this amount of wood. Such an area
wood

of

a mean haulage distance

would give

about 1 km which is

reasonable.
It

is

suitable

the belief
for

o f F A O , / R o mteh a t

technology transfer to
large quantities

cause they require

like

cement and steeI.

Missouri kilns

Also the long cooling

d r a w b a c k w h i c h b e c o m e ss e n s i t i v e

are not

developing countries beof costly imported items

time presents a

in areas with a hot climate.

2.3.2

Cinder-Block Kilns

The

masonry-type

walls
of
these
kilns
be
should
supported by a continous perimeter-type reinforced eoncrete
footing. The footing shourd extend at least 25 cm below the
surface of
operation
footing

weII-drained
is

ground. If

planned in

only

intermittent

winter

areas where the ground freezes,

the

shourd

extend berow the frostline.

rf
continous
is planned or if
frost
seldom or never
occurs, a minimum footing depth of 25 cm may be used (see
Figures 21
2?).
winter

It

operation

is

very important

carefully

laid

in

second courses
blocks will

go into
are

hollow

core

must be
into

the first

bed of

accurately
with

are

with

the
to

the kiln

through cracks that

(
1
5).
wall surface
Neat cement or
may be used to

the

lever

off

to

sear off

the

the

base and

cores

vertical.

rf

might deverop on the inner

the tops of

mix of

cement and sand

the front

the angle-iron

ceiling

rf

blocks be

the top course, all

cores
prevent channetling of air

standard r:J

over which the bottom of

order

mortar.

hollow

used in

mortar

course of

laid,
the balance of the
arl joints perfectry broken.

place with

laid

blocks

filled

fulr

are

Alr

blocks

that

lintel

cover with

wall

bloeks

must rest

in

sand. A piece

of
sheet metal may also be used between the angle lintel
and the top of the wall to permit the linter
to sride more
bright

easily

along the top of

the warl.

A loose brick

may be used

to retain

the sand at the end of the lintel.

0 n e o r t w o c o u r s e s o f b r i c k a r e c o m m o n l yl a i d a r o u n d t h e
top edge of the kiln to act as a coping. The purpose of the
coping is to help prevent the ceiling sand from being washed
and blown off

the ceiling

steel.

sections

of

steer

rails

or

r-beams can serve both as a coping material- and as a support

the ceiling
beams. They arso distribute
the weight of
the ceiling
beams arong the side walls and restrain
the
for

walls from bowing outwards at the top.

ii

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44

Good workmanship is

very important when laying

the
an experienced mason is not available, some good
m a n u a l o f r e c o m m e n d e dp r a c t i c e s s h o u l d b e c o n s u l t e d b e f o r e
attempting to lay any brock. such publications will provide
walJs.

If

dimensions
mortar

of

mixes,

the

various

types

and many helpfur

of

blocks,

suggestions

for

recommended
buirding

good waLl.
mortar joints

All
neat

must be carefully compressed and left

compact, either
in a concave or V-shape. such
provide a good valley for searing compoundas
will

and

joints

sealing becomes necessary during operation.

mortar joints are not recommended.
Either

one or

used. ll/hen only

centre

of

the

as

many as

one chimney is
rear

walr.

four

0ther

types

chimneys are

used, it

is

located

of

normalry
-i.n the

when three

chimneys are used,

added at the lengthwise centre of each side wall.
are used, one is praced at or near each of the

another is
when four

corners of the kiln.

15 or
on

25 cm diameter sheet-metar chimneys are supported

resting
on masonry blocks.
chimney bases are

roose

constructed
directly

from

l-oose

the

ground,

on

resting

on the

blocks.

pier-type
with

Two 1.0

masonry

blocks

ptaced

loose steel
plate
covers
by 40 by 50 cm prates are

used at

each chimney. 0ne plate next to the kiln

is left
loose and removable so that a shovelful of sand can be added
for cl-osing-off the chimney during the cooling period.
Partial or fu11-length insuration of metar-type chimneys

is

helpful

buird-up
inside

in colder climates
of

tars.

to retard

chimney tile

masonry block

the condensation and

has been used successfutly

chimneys, particularry

those partiarly

or wholly
have
lining.

buried in an earth fi1I.

Somecommercial chimneys
been made from concrete masonry block without
any
All

chimneys should extend at

top of the kiln

Front-entry

least

l0 cm above the

structure.
air

suppry has given satisfatory

results in
both one- and three-chimney designs. Front air entry is most
easiry

obtained

by

hanging the
-68

sliding

metal

door so that

about 8 cm of

ale

there

to

then a simple matter

with

earth

prefer

sand as Iess

oI

use blocks

to

seal

is

It

line'

at a time
the opening a Iitle
air is Iequired. Someopelators

on their

]aid

floor

the

clearance at

sides

front

in

the

of

baf f 1e heavy winds during coaf ing. lr/hena laid-up

course are Iaid on
masonly door is used, blocks of the first
their sides so that cores are horizontal. Then earth or sand
is used to close off the openings as less air is needed.
SidewaII air ports aIe made by omitting half blocks in
to

door

the

along

predetermined locations

base couISe at

the

side

or brick

Each opening can be lined with chimney tile

cinder-concrete is
if
i f desired, oI used without Iining
can al-so be used as
used. Air ports lined with chimney tile

walls.

chimney openings.
it
the kiln,
p
r
o
t
e
c
t
or snov{ and to
for
shedding rain
desirable
is
parts from early corrosion. When roof trusses aIe
ceiting
structure
the roof
ceiling,
support the steel
used to

be

shed-type roof

of

any convenient

sheet-metal roofing. Trusses can

A
simple
lumber.
woodlot
ordinary

boards or

either

assembled

not a part

may be roofed in

The kiln

becomesessential.
wdy, with

is

structure

Although a roof

from

stabbed on two sides

and beams woul-d also furnish the

poles

with

rafters
necessary ceiling protection.
oI

squared for

material

of

Operation:
Three

types

of

wood

aIe

generally

used:

cordwood;

and short-length
w
o
o
d
m
a
n
u
f
a
cturing plants '
or
sawmilts
from
material
C o r d w o o da n d s l a b s a n d e d g i n g s a r e u s u a l l y I . 2 0 m o I m o r e i n
discarded material may valy from
Iength, and short-length
and edging stock;

sawmill

slab

about I

to 40 cm length.

The manner in
on

tlre

types

regulated

air

of

which a kiln
wood and

entry

the

and blocks

is

charged depends primarily

l-ocation of openings for

and smoke outlets.

The main object

is

LINTEL

STRETCHER

CORNER

PIE R

Figure 22

f ypical masonry units for block - type

charcoat o,,l,to

freely

circulate
madeof kiln

So

wood

the

stack

to

the

that

through the pite

gases

combustion

and most effective

can

use is

capacitY.

Cordwood and slabs

truck

or tractor,

hand.

The sticks

are

usually

hauled

the

to

by

kiln

and the pieces aIe stacked in the kiln by

parallel
are commonly piled horizontally,

aS shown in Figure 23'

The uSe of stringers l-eaves less space for the charget
of air and hot gases is thus gained
but better circulation
with the result that there is less partly charred matelial'

to the sidewalls

and on stringersr

accumulates usually near the floor

where temperatures aIe lowest. The stringer.s
of the kiln,
should be placed so that they cause the minimum obstruction
of air intakes and chimney outlets.
M e a s u r e m e n to f t e m p e r a t u r e s i s h i g h l y i m p o r t a n t i n k i l n
material

This

since the coaling

operation,
of

(brands),

controlled

process is

The temperature at
gives
cyc1e, therefore,

temperature and time.

during
reliable
details
end of

the

coaling

by means

any given

time

direct

and

measure oF the progreSs of the run. Figure 2t shows

of the thermocouple assembly. Except possibly at the
smoke col-our and voLume give
the coaling period,

of the actual pattern of plogress (15)'

drying of the charge is plovided
The heat for initial
period. This heat is supptied by burning
during the ignition
indication

littIe

wood fuel

placed at

midpoint

by an oil

or gas-fired

oI

in

front

torch at similar

of

the charge,

or

]ocations.

c o m m o n l yu s e d a I e d r y k i n d l i n g w o o d ,
brands, charcoal-, and fuel oi1. The amount of fuel Iequired
depends chiefly upon the moisture content of the wood to be
Someignition

fuels

c o a l e d.
methods for igniting a charge
the most efficient
These torches are
torch.
is with a kerosene or gas-fired
comparatively inexpensive and provide a high-temperature
One of

seperate parts of the charge

in a very short time. The torch flame is directed through
one or more air ports until the charge is burning. Normallyt
this takes about 5 to 10 minutes (I5).

heat soulce capable of

igniting

7l

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heat

Sufficient

zone.

the
to

conditions

burning

temperature

the

maintain

to

then

wood and

in

must be generated first

proper

maintenance of

on

primarily

depends

carbonization

Satisfactory

coaling
dry

the

necessary for

carbonization. At the same time, the burning must

efficient
present to
heat is
sufficient
only
so that
be limited
temperature is thus the most
produce good charcoal. Kiln
rel-iabIe measure of control-.
production
of
For
the

good-quality

kiln

charcoal,

This

Iequired.

550o C are
content of about 75 to 82
c
a
r
b
o
n
charcoal- will
reduce the
per cent.
Prolonged higher temperatures will
for
u
p
g
r
a
d
i
ng it
necessarily
yield
charcoal without
of
temperatures from about 450o to
have a fixed

If,

use.

recreational

other

the

on

coaling

hand,

1ow, the charcoal may be too high

temperatures remain quite

in vol-atil-es.

kiln
caref u.l- check of
as
p
o
r
t
s
a
d
j
u
s
t
e
d
temperatures shoul-d be made and the air
n e c e S S a I y . T h e t e m p e r a t u r e s s h o u l d b e c h e c k e d a t - l - e a s te v e r y
During

cycle,

coaling

the

control-. More frequent checks

are advisable when seasoned wood is coaled or during periods
satisfactory

2 to 3 hours for

of strong or variable winds.

The air supply is regulated
air

port

strong

Undesirable

openings.

oI

winds can be modified

in

baffles

front

of

the

air

to

be

for

openings

by varying

of

the

combustion caused by
by the use of
controlled

fast

openings.

air

the size

admitted

during

The

Iocation

coaling

of

depends

largely on the kiln design and the coaling pattern desired.

In general, coaling time is related to kiln size. When
the time
ale similar,
the wood and opelating conditions
required

that

twice
the

for

the
will

fixed

rather

conditions
rate

in

kiln
for

18 ^3

rate

of

capacity.

witl

be approximately

Means for

temperature

charges aIe limited.

rise

to

modifying
coal-ing

Attempts to speed up

example, by al-Iowing mole air to enter

t e m p e r a t u r e s e x c e s s i v e . l - ya n d i m p a i r c h a r c o a l

kiln
and properties

raise

yields

one of

in

a 35 ^3 kiln

in

coaling

(15).
73-

rt

possible,

is

however,

changing the

size

which

it

directed

the

coaring

is

of

the

to

adjust

coaring

coaling

zone and the

time

by

manner in

through the charge. rn rectangular

kilns
it
has been possible
to reduce the coaling
time
greatry by centre firing.
rn the application of this method,
zone

simultaneously,

as

widens

compared to

in
the

opposite
one-direction

directions
movement

obtained with end firing.

cooling

cycle. when coaring has been compreted, arr air

are seal-ed for the start of the cooling cycre. After
the ports are sealed, the chimneys should remain open untiL
smoking has practicarty
stopped. This permits the escape of

ports

any smoke that may be formed during cooling and prevents the
development of
gas pressure in
the kiln.
chimneys can
usuarry be sealed from I to z hours after the air ports have
been cl-osed. They should

be seared immediatety after

they
smoking, because f resh air may be drawn in by norma.l.
cooling,
or a downdraught in an idle
chimney may admit
enough air
to
support combustion or possibry cause an
stop

explosion.
is
is

when temperatures have been reduced to 650 c or less, it

generarly safe practice to open the kirn. Before the kiln
opened for discharge, however, the charcoaL should be

checked for
the

overalr

localized
kiln

hot areas that

temperatures

were not evident during

measurements. This

check
should be made by opening severaL air ports and one or more
chimneys. rf the temperature does not rise within z hours,
it is considered safe to open the kiln compretely. rf the
temperature rises,
carefully

2.3.3

however, the kiln

checked for sources of air

Ihe Schwartz and 0ttelinska

Both kilns

originated

s h o u J _ db e r e s e a l _ e d a n d
leakage.

Furnaces

in Europe and h,ere very popular in

sweden. They work on the same principre by using flue gases,
for heating. They are constructed with bricks (17).

Figure

21

TheSchwartz charcoal furnace

*-)rff<**-)rff<
---1:--4l
#*-tttt'

Figure 25

The )ttelinska furnace

Figure 26

lmproving the Schwartz System by instalting

,, califorif res"
( c u r v e d h e a t i n g p i p e s)

The firing

of

the

kiln

is

accomplished by two
each other (see Figures 24

usually

burning chambers arranged facing

and ?5).

The kitn

can be fired

by burning

firewood or

with

t h e i n c o n d e n s a b l - eg a s e s f r o m t h e b y - p r o d u c t r e c o v e r y .
The draught for the hot gases is generated by one or
more

The

chimneys.

natural-

the

of

draught

chimneys is

supported by bellows.
through

The off-gas is drawn from the bottom of the kiln

several- pipes and is then passed through cool-ers.
The 0ttelinska
of

the

kiln

technology

carbonization

in

cycle

improvement

represents a significant
so

far

as

the

from

off-gases
points

are drawn from four

the

l-ocated more

towards the centre of the kiln.

Usually
linked

four

together

or

eight

kilns

by the off-gas

form

which is

battery,

ducts with

cooling

a central

and scrubber system and with a central- stack duct.

Further

advances have

installing
leading

been

so-called
the

carbonization

which
"cal-orifrS",
gas
heating
the
through
(see Figure 26).

During the cooling

the USA by
are gas pipes

in

achieved

during

kiln

phase, the cooled down gases from the

and chilling
systems are drawn through the
p
i
p
e
same
to shorten the cooling time.

centraL cooling

2.3.4

The Brazilian

These kilns
in

Brazil,

internally

Beehive Brick Kiln

which are

and especially
heated,

operated widely
in

fixed,

of

the state

batch

type.

and successfully
Minas Gerais,

The large

iron

are
and

steel- companiesoperate several- thousand of them.

They are circul-ar,
ordinary

f ire

bricks.

a domed roof , and are buil-t of

in
totally
The circul-ar wal-I is

with

the outside air. This type of kiln is known as

the "beehive brick ki1n" (see Figure 27).
A variation of the beehive brick kiln is the circular,

contact

with

4 m diameter kiln

that

is

built
-'77

into

a slope or

hill

which

forms the
type is

side

known as the

uses far

fewer bricks.

popular

producers.
the
to

the

of

"s1ope-type kiln"
Many thousand of

This
circul-ar kiln.
(see Figure 28). It

among

Their

operation

beehive brick
control,

as

the

kilns

is

because there
18

kilns.

Chemical and physical-

yields

of

charcoal- are

for

The general data for

composition

obtained

the
in

4.O m
33
24.8 m
33
2I.6 m

5. 00m
4 5 .3 L ^ 3

volume

inl-et port s

II

18

No. of smokestacks

66

33

ports

66

44

No. of outlet

as

Slope type

4 8 .9 4 ^ 3

vol-ume

kiln

N o. o f a i r

well

as

the two kil-ns are (l-8):

diameter volume

fffective

beehive

regular

those

c o m p a r a b . l - et o

Regul-artype

N o m i n a l -k i l n

one air

only

the

of

port

kiLns.

beehive brick

Kiln

charcoal-

than that

somewhat easier

compared with

They are

Brazil.

independent

smal1,
is

are in

these kilns

Minas Gerais and elsewhere in

operation in
very

walls

and rear

No. of emergency
outlet

ports

No. of bricks
Their

44

50

2. 000

8. 500

most advanced modification

is

29. The improvement has to be seen in

heating

chamber and the

reduction

presented in

Figure

t h e a t t a c h e d e xt e r n a L
the

of

number of

smoke

stacks .
For the heating of
and other
for

kilnino

residue

the kiln

material- is

usually
burnt,

branches, brushwood

which is

and would be wasted otherwi.se.

not

suitable

( FromUNID0/I00,
2 ? 8 , 1 9 7 8)

T h r e e - s e c t i o n a li r o n
b e lt

Emergencyports

otr

Stack

OD

2 , 4 0m

inlet port

Stack

FigUfe

2 7 . n e B r a z i l i a nb e e h i v b
erick kiln.

/,\
//

/t II

t/

t/

! /t

--7---7-

i//
//

Figure 28

Theslope-type beehivebrick kiln.

The dome is not yet completed.

OtOt

cc

q,q,

tt

t:

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gT

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Ig
c

\ cc
a

= sE
tt{
I

l;
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;$

.aLl

oho

tco
t

bibi
II

o)l
c!l
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PI
f,l

'91
\l

Jf

oo oz

Since

the

necessary energy for

the carbonj-zation is
by gases (leaving the fire
chamber) only, the

transferred
kiln

behaves like

a charcoal- retort

high charcoal- yie1d,

burnt

high

away;

charcoal,

fixed

because

carbonization cycle
for

content

terminal-

heated Brazilian

a charcoal

that

is,

for

Because the kiln

carbonization

collect

charge is
produced

the

of

brick

of

the

or

has only

gases are

the

raw material

c.l-earcutting actions

in

and optimal quality.

one smoke stack through which

guided it

a.l-so feasible

is

With properly

charcoal by-products.

quantities

equipment attractive

perfectly

is

kiln

commercial purposes where the

all

requirements are high charcoaL yield

the

advantages:

kiln

temperature

receiving

operation

supply from fueLwood plantations

forests,

the

can be very well controlled.

The externally
suited

carbon

the

its

with all

because no wood of

adapted recovery

pyrolysis

of

to

oil-

may be

of

beehive

gathered.
The

author

operations

has

during

established

investment costs were quite

smal-Iholder
firebricks

the

kiln

expenditures
USD650.-

for

and

conditions

between USD I7.-

50

the

800.-

In

al-so.

adequate clay supply was available

these

was found that

construction

operators or charcoal students rather

Under

number

n o m i n a . l -a n d c o u . l - db e a f f o r d e d

charcoal-makers
for

the past years and it

most
were

the

resul-ts
per

and 16.-

kiln

by

cases

the

made by

the

than purchased, so far

at the kiln

site.
construction

average

mf-vo.l-ume kiln

which

the

into
-r3,

ranged

between

investment

costs

approximately

10

t o 1 5 t i m e s l o w e r a s c o m p a r e d t o a m e t a . l -k i l n .
As mentioned already

the Iifespan

of

very high and exceeds in

general- their

usage periods by far.

Should the need arise

the
kiln

to move his

owner has two choices

and

carry

reconstruction

the

to

bricks

do

so.

to

the

put it

brick

kilns

is

operation to another area

or he may seLect to seIl

material- to buyers who will

all

He may dismantle
new plant
the kiln

site

the
for

as building

in service elsewhere.

Under these

view

points

the

charcoal-

of

investment

operation with fire brick kilns becomeseven more attractive

to the potential charcoal maker.
beehive kiln
The construction material- for a Brazilian
consists

fire

of

four-sectional
two steel

mortar made from cIay,

bricks,

band for

iron

angle lintels

The building

of

to

the dome and

beehive charcoaL brick kiln

is advisabLe for the
Therefore, it

a Brazilian

needs Some experience.

trade

or

each door.

for

for

untaught charcoaf-maker and especially

the

of

the tightening

a three-

the

acquire

necessaly

the

newcomer in
by

ski]l

training.

the
at
the
envisaged plant site and during the course one or more kilns
can be erected and put in use.
Also the operation of the kiln must be Learned to obtain
Preferably,

arranged

shoul-d be

instruction

a n o p t i m a l r e c o m p e n s ef r o m t h e i n v e s t e d c a p i t a l .
T h e c h a r g i n g o f t h e k i l n c o m m e n c e sw i t h t h e f o r m i n g o f a
The
grate on the bottom to al-1ow free gas circulation.
stringers
f reely

such a way that

are alranged in

the air

can fLow

to the kil-n centre.

logs

The fuelwood

are

placed

pieces against the wal-L and thicker

the
0n top of the vertical- pile

vertically,

the

thinner

logs towards the centre.

be placed
fuelwood will

it reaches the ceiling of the dome. All

until
p
a
c
k
e
d
together as cl-ose as possible to utilise
logs must be
heat
maximumand to make direct
capacity to its
the kiln
(
P
h
o
t
o
5).
transfer easier

horizontally

Some kindling
opening which is

is

positioned

usually

or the central- opening in

After
turns

to

the
a

safe sign,
opening wilI

ignition

dark

colour

the kiln
be plugged.

that

to

close

the uppel part of

the

ignition

the charging gate

the dome.
white

be

smoke will
is

issued

considered to

This
later.
has t'caught fireI

which
be a

and the ignition

process proceeds from the

The carbonization
kiln

to

the

centre,

bottom or

from the

depending on where it

The operator
issued

of

the

the entire

air

the

entering

by varying the position of

incLined against the porthol-e entries.

indicated

clay slurry
Also

crack

cycle

the smoke
as

may

air

in

is

stones loosely

brick

occur

ports

inlet

the

kiln

shell

smoke. This presents no major problem

by exiting

and can be easily

kiln

Carbonization

regulated

Occasionally

the

proceeds as long
white or clear (Photo 5).

stacks.

the colour of the smokeis

The draft

the

top of
to

had been lighted.

observes during

from the

gate

charging

corrected by brushing over the leak with

which should be always at hand.

during

brushed over

the

with

phase the

cooling

the

slurry

kiln

will

shell

several- times.

be

The number of

brushings varies between two and four.

After
is

the kiln

has cool-ed down to 50o

7Oo C the kiln
The skilled
operator wil-1 smeLl from the

opened rapidly.

gases whether there is

issuing

case he will

extinguish

it

fire

with

always approximately 2OOIitres

for

inside

a spray of
in

In that

the kiIn.
water.

Therefore

a drum must be kept ready

use.
It

pieces

is

good during

of

wood. The discharging

manually and special

unloading
rakes

with

to' separate
of

the

all

uncharred

charcoal

is

done

wide-spaced prongs are

in

use.
The discharged

charcoal- is

heaped near

the

kiln

and

a L l - o w e dt o c u r e t h r o u g h a e r a t i o n f o r s e v e r a l - d a y s .
Fresh
charcoa.l- absorbs
oxygen
eagerly
is
which
accompanied by a rise
of the temperature and may cause
spontaneous ignition.
Therefore,
the
fresh
charcoal
is
carefully
days.

In

watched by
case of

the

ignition

kiln

operator

during

the

he sprays water over to

curing

suppress

fire.
For
fire

the

brick

duration
kiln

of

the

no uniform

cycle

of

a Brazil-ian charcoal

schedule exists,

because this

@@
CNCN

@@
(\I(\I
(\J(\J
66

oo

HH

oo
oo
zz

==
EE
oo

LL
LJ.LJ.

o;o;
LL
+,+,
cc
(u(u
ctct
oo
oo
LL
.(l.(l

(J(J
0)0)
CC

.t'.t'
oo
.v.v

uu
:':'
LL

(J(J

cc
oo
PP

()()

JJ
!!

oo

LL
o-oG'G'

oo
(,(,
LL
G'G'
C)C)

.l

o
l
(Y) (Y)
II

( uIIl
Ll
=l
Etl

wilI

be influenced

by

several

factors,

including

content and diameter of the fuelwood.

The following
data have been derived
commercial operations and may serve the
prospective charcoal maker as a guideline:

moisture

from

different

planner

and

the

2.I

: l-

F u e l - w o o dl o a d i n g a n d
charcoal- discharging

88 h o u r s

Carbonization

80 hours

C o oI i n g

7 0 h o u rs

Total cycle

158 hours

The average yield

f or

medium dry

according

to

Brazilian

ratio

wood. For

firewood : charcoal- is

wel-l seasoned f uelwood 2.I : I.3

the author has performed. The

many tests

charcoaL-makersnormally apply the ratio

In a slope type kiln in

yields
will
be obtained.

2.L : 1.

general somewhatlower charcoal

The

firewood : charcoal-

ratio

2.2 : L would be realistic.

ftith

the

of 2.I:1.6

externally

heated Brazilian

type kiln

a ratio

can be achievedr ccording to own tests.

Commercialoperations :
For the production of large
beehive brick
all-ows

to

The

is

a number of Brazilian

are grouped together

kilns

simplify

transportation
J-east it

quantities

the

and the

logistics

for

charcoa.l- pick-up

in
the

batteries.
raw

and l-ast

This

material
but

not

also l-abour saving.

battery

consists

and several
seven kilns
batteries are enclosed in the charcoal- production centre.
Practically
there are no upper limits
for the number of
batteries

in

of

production

centre

except

environmental

considerations.
During
without

half

of

the

time

of

by-product recovery will

- -8'78'7

the
emit

carbonization

any kiln

a considerabl-e amount

of
in

areas
smoke which can cause embarrassment to residential
or to the employees working in the centre.
the vicinity
Each battery is attended by two men onlyr one charcoal

operator and a helper.

provides
The centre
charcoal

making,

stockyard

for

. g.

aII
water

for

necessities
supply r

s h o pt

facilities

for

bgging and Ioading

fuelwood,

efficient

maintenance

the charcoal, etc.

space of

requires

charcoal- battery

0ne

dimensions: length 70 m and width JO rl.

An important point for the selection

following
is

the

presented in

the

the site

of

An ideaL set-up is

the field.

of

elevation

the

Figure 7O.
battery
range between 5.500 and 6.000 ^3 of charcoal pel year (19).
In

general

the

production

rates

for

one kiln

The Argentine Kilns

2.f.5

is
hemispherical- shape the Argentine kiln
'
r
H
a
l
f
L
i
k
e
K
i
l
n
r
r
.
0
r
a
n
g
e
al-so generally referred to as the
any other brick kiln they can be built in Iarge r ildium and
of
olange kiln
Photo 7 shows a J-arge half
smal-1 sizes.
Due to

the

approximately

and in

80 ^3

Photo 8

only

smal-l- kiln

of

is

shown in

Figure

7 ^3 fuelwood capacity.
A variant
and it

is

of

Argentine

the

call-ed half

orange kiln

cupola rests
because the kiln
(
straight jacket ) .
foundation
This
charcoal

kiln

type

worl-d of

kiln

has

gained

on

with
the

greatest

South America,

jacket"t
"straight
above ground raised
popularity

especially

kilns

in
with

volume of approximately 15 ^7 are frequently employed.

All Argentine kilns are built completely with bricks
parts
no iron
kiln
Brazilian
to
the
in
contrast
necessary for
The larger

7I

the
a
and
are

construction.
Argentine

whereas the medium size

kilns

are designed with

and smal-I kilns

-88-

two doors

have one door only.

The

size

of

the

0.06 m. But deviations

For

O.24 m x O.I2 m x

shoul-d be

bricks

are the rul-e.

will

more than 15.000 bricks

a large-scal-e kitn

be

with
olange kiln
half
and the medium sized
jacket requires not more than 2.5OO stones. The
straight
the
mortar is made from clay and water only. To facilitate
dismantling of the kiln l-ater, aPFloximately 10% oF charcoal
necessaly

dust

are

added, which makes the

bricks

the

of

separation

easier.
Everything
concerning the

lifespan

of

bricks

section
kiln

a Brazilian

as well-.
Iequiles

kilns

of

Argentine

the

cupola must be carefully

construction

and the

mole skill

of

and durability

can be applied to the Argentine kiln

However, the

plevious

the

in

which has been said

arranged and oriented.

and the experience can usually

This skill
the

within

charcoal-maker

time for

include the instruction

Photo

shows

completed a half
week.

eight

charcoaf

orange kiln

straight

time

charcoal operators is.six

the

bricks

the

of

cupola

the centre

point

the kiln

of

one

within

one

by

two

kiln

technique of
them.

resetting

by

are extended starting

the cupola ark into

arranging

To achieve a

between each brick

v o l - u m et h e d i s t a n c e s

cupola base thus stretching

for

jacket

days.

The photo also shows the typical

high kiln

woul-d al-so

the operation of the kilns.

who have almost
students

with

The normal- construction

skilled

be acquired by

which

weeks

layer

and

from the

a more oval

shaped form.
The
firebricks

shifting

depend

distances

and can

be

precalculated.

on

the

size

They differ

of

the

between

layer to the other.

describes the operational procedures for a
jacket
which the author
kiln
with
straight

0.50 and 6.50 cm from one brick

The following
half

orange

considers as the best method to obtain good resul-ts.

Similar methods of practice may be used to run
Argentine kilns

but in

other

each instance they have to be adapted

and aJ-tered accordingly.

-89-

Figure

3l

Hatf-orange kitn with straight iacket.

0peration of the half-orange kiln

Fuelwood
I.3O m
The fuelwood is cut into pieces approx. 1.00 m
(
m
i
n
i
m
u
m
length
d i a m e t e r o f 5 . 0 c f r r m a x i m u md i a m e t e r o f

in

50.0 cm).
The
should

fuelwood
be

m i n i m u mo f f i v e
Thicker
20 cm

which

stored

as

e. g.

logs

possible

as

with

each

time is

diameter

kiln

the

to

site

kiln.

recommended.
in

excess

of

split

once or

twice

to

facilitate

the

moisture

content

and

to

shorten

the

be

of

carbonization

to

transported

to six weeks air-drying

should

reduction

is

close

time.

Charging the kiLn

of all,
stringers are placed on the kiln floor.
This
to prevent direct contact between the fueLwood and the
ground and to
provide
space to
aLl-ow free
sufficient

First
is

circuLation
centre

of

of
the

the
kiln.

from

air

The logs

the

inl-et

holes

through

the

on top

are stacked vertically

and packed as tightly as possible.

Iogs whose diameter exceeds 25 cm are positioned

of the stringers
All

in

the centre of the kiln so that they will be exposed as long

as possible to the higher carbonization temperature.
The kiln
of

charge is

logs which is

logs until

completed by the addition

stacked horizontally

reaching the ceiling

Special

bricks

outside,

ensure that

the air

inlet

placed in

the upper part

of

door to serve as kindling.

l.lhenthe kiln
with

on top of the verticaL

base remain open.

Some dry wood or rubbish is

the kiln

a layer

of the cupola.

care must be taken to

hol-es at the kiln

of

and

except

has been fulIy

mortar
for

charged, the door is

and
an

covered
opening

20.O x 20.O cm in the upper part

the t'ignition eyet'.
-94

of

with

closed

mud from

measuring

the door. This is

the

approx.
cal-l-ed

of the charge (see photo I0)

Iqnition
AII

holes and smoke ports must be open.One or two

of glowing charcoal aIe thrown in through the

inlet

shoveLs full
ignition

Initially,

eye.

smoke, which turns

that

fuelwood is

the

ignition

Iosing

eye will

and firmly

has begun and that

sealed.

eye

when the

does not

fire

caught

has

charge

of

and the closing

As a rul-e, the time between ignition

the

the

and mortar

bricks

with

in

time

this

At

content.

be fiLled

also

bluish

off

This indicates

time.

distillation

moisture

give

wiII

kiln

a short

after

phase of

initial

the

the

white

exceed twenty minutes.

phase

The carbonization
The white

smoke will

the uppel smoke ports

continue

from

white

smoke

and

may

this

wind direction

Furthermore,

the

simultaneously

in

all

begin to

smoke ports

of
white

the

sealed,

the

rorv of

smoke ports

aLso

carefully

much

very

depend

in

col-our

smoke ports;

emit

to

have

only.

In

been

occur

one port

discharge blue smoke. After

kitn

closed

the

on

not

will

rather,

bluish

location.

kiln

each individual

at

smoke will

foLlows the

upper ports,

first

be the

wiIl

change

another wiIl

operator

with

with mud mortar.

no set ruLe as to where the smoke coLour change

-- e. g. one cannot
to bl-ue will
occur first

which smoke port

prevailing

through

off

port

cLoses this

to the opening and seals it

fitted

There is
predict

be given

to
severaL hours and then start
reLeased from a
blue smoke is

for

As soon as
turn bluish.
particul-ar smoke port, the operator
brick

to

and

after

the upper
properly

be rel-eased through the l-ower

closing the l-ower ports, the

same procedure as in

the

case of

the

monitoring the col-our of the smoke.

-95-

smoke from a particular

As soon as the
clearly

turned

inside

bluish,

towards the

or not there is

the

centre

uses a

operator

smoke port has

stick to probe

the kiln to ascertain whether

(uncarbonized wood). If there

of

an obstruction

is
n o i m p e d i m e n t,
this
may be cl-osed. If
smoke port
uncarbonized or partly carbonized wood blocks up the path of
the probe stick
to the centre, the hole may be partially
closed

using

fitted

specially

But

brick.

under

circumstanees shoul-dit be sealed completely.

This procedure serves to delay the combustion of
charcoal- in

the

vicinity

of

smoke port

the

no
the

and enhances

carbonization.
If

the hoLe is

probe indicates
wood is

re-checked within

that

present,

still

by partially

influx

After

all

of

sealed,

of the air
This

it

is

amount of

the two nearest air

using brick I'stoppersr'.

the l-ower smoke ports

smoke will

uncarbonized

advisable to sl-ow down the air

closing

at the base of the kiln

properly

one hour and the second

significant

also

inlet

have been closed and

begin to exit

through some

inl-et holes.
perfectly

is

normal-

and

all

monitoring

operational- producers must be followed until

the last
inlet
hole has been closed and sealed, at which point
cooling phase begins.
If

hol-es

and
air
the

has been properly charged and operated, the

phase should be completed some ten to twelve

the kiln

carbonization
hours after

ignition.

The cooling of the kiln

It

is

exhibit
air

important

is

cooling will

the

kiln

shall

be

airtight

and

be delayed significantly.

Therefore,
least

that

no leaks or cracks through which air coul-d enter. If

present, the charcoal- charge wiII start burning and
after

the kiln

has been closed and sealed, at

three coats of mud slurry are applied to the exterior

(see Photo 11). This will
al-so help to reduce the

surface

-96-

cool-ing time.

V ' l h e nt h e

the door may be opened and the fire

one drum of
After

about

the fire

down suf f iciently,

has cooled

kiln

200 litres

is

waterl

extinguished with

one kiLn.

for

sufficient

discharging

has been completely extinguished,

may begin.
The kiln
These special
Their

discharged by two or three men using rakes.

is

tools

L4 prongs spaced ?.O cm apart.

bulk of the fines (less than

have 12

employment alLows the

20 mm) to

fall

removed later

after

has cooled down

of the kiln

the interior

They may be

the kiln.

through and remain in

further.
The charcoal
for

curing.

is

then hauled to

the nearby storage area

T h e m o s t c o m m o nm e t h o d i s

charcoaL on a piece of

to

simply

place

the

to

the

then carried

canvas, which is

storage area by 3-4 men.

Charcoal shoul-d not be handled or
quantities
until
sufficient
"curing
following
usually

discharging.
considered

A curing

sufficient

has

timerr

Iarge

in

transported

elapsed

time of eight

to ten days is

quell

self-igniting

to

the

produced charcoal.

tendency of freshly

curing r Dither the heiEht nor the diameter of

charcoal heaps shoul-d exceed I.50 m otherwise exposure

During
the

to the air

will

be insufficient.

Maintenance of the kiLn

The structure
for

instance

by

of
the

the

HaIf-0range

impact

of

logs,

can be damaged,

kiln
and

this

shoul-d be

which have faLlen out of the waLl-s or have

b e c o m e l o o s e s h o u L d b e p u t b a c k i n p l a c e a n d r a m m e dt i g h t .
avoided. Bricks

Periodically,
the

exterior

of

the
the

w h i c h h a s a c c u m u l - a t e do n

excess clay
kiln

as

residue

of

the

successive

should be removed with

This accelerates the charcoal cooling process.
brushings
The

with

kiln

necessary,

clay

f l-oor

some wet

slurry

shoul-d
clayish

always
soil-

- 9'1

be

kept

shoul-d be

a rasp.

level.
put

in

If
and

stamped down. The water

drainage ditches ar,ound the kilns

must always be kept unobstructed and c.Lear of aIl rubbish.
The economics
has been made public

Very littIe

about the efficiency

of

Argentine kilns.
The yearly
average obtained by the largest
charcoal
producer in Argentina, Salta Forestal S.A., was 3.75 tons of
fueLwood per ton of charcoal- (20) in I978, resulting in an
yield

average

25.67% (weighted

of

however, applies

to

large

Argentine

kilns

figure,

This

bases).

with

bottom

diameter of 5.00 m.
Extensive studies
East

African

orange

kiln

carbonization

carried

out on a commercial scaLe for

proved an efficiency
for the hal f
jacket
The
straight
of
28.2% (21).

countries
with
tests

were carried

out with

acacia species as

fuelwood.
Based on the same test

series

the

following

operational

data were extracted:

AnnuaI charcoal output

1.500 tons

N u m b e ro f k i l n s
fnvestment cost*
Kiln
A typical

operating cost

28
U S D I 5 ' 6 0 0 .USD 14,100.-

= U S D 5 5 8 .- / k i l n
= USD 4 . 1 4 / t

charcoal

cycle has been established as follows:

charging of fuelwood
ignition

5
(lO

of kiln

carbonization
(measuredbetween ignition

and

closing

apertures)

of 80%of all

kiln

cooling phase
unloading of charcoal

hours
m i n u t e s)

18

hours

22

hours

hours

48.5 hours

r--ffiLcks
are made by t h e c h a r c o a L o p e r a t i o n t h e c o s t s
w o u L db e c u t i n h a l f
-98-

Kil-n Designs f or Waste Conversion

2.4

During the J-ast decades many attempts have been made to

and agricul-tural- waste with simple and
carbonize forestal
inexpensive kilns.
most

Since
discharged

of

the

waste

smal-1 fragments

in

found

is

matter

particl-es

and

being

the

kiln

not suitabl-e

the previous sections is

technique described in

or

waste conversion without modification.

for

If

a large

kiln

l-oad will

not

unl-ess the cargo is

lr/ith the
solutions

aLlow sufficient
of

detail-s

waste conversion

pr.oper

and their

be dealt within the next chapter.

ovell-ooked is
view point
frequently

the carbonization

produce

continuousJ-y.

movedor rotated

wilI

Another
that

for

the denseness and compactnessof the

p e n e t r a t i o n o f g a s e st

instance with Saw dust,

kiln

fragmentary matter,

charged with

is

mainly

of

waste will

and agricul-tural

forest

which

charcoal- fines

be

cannot

fact

the
used

for

c h a r c o a . l - - m a k e rm u s t

household f uel r s an example, and the

consider an agglomeration or briquetting plant al-so.
investment
higher
imply
NaturaIIy,
this
will
especially

if

the

targets

el-evated charcoaL quality

can be met only with

markets

expolt

aIe

Their

standards.

cost
their

with

specifications

and expensive machinery and

specialised

equipment.
Although the requirements of Local- markets in developing
can do
countries are more l-enient and l-ess expensive outfits
a

job,

satisfactory

briquettes

or

formed

the

costs

operational

charcoal

are

for

perceptibly

comparedto the production of lump charcoal-.

Consequently, many charcoal- producers try
their

extra

utilisation
It

is

expenses

with

the

gains

of by-products.
not possible to describe within

from

charcoalhigher

to
sale

set
or

the frame of

as
off
by
this

handbook aIl modified systems which the igenuity of numerous

charcoal-makers has brought forth during the past ten year:s
aLone.

Instead,

one scheme will

be

presented

in

detail '

Smoke chimney

Fire

Carbo-6as r etort (twin unit). For better insulation

the retort may be covered with sand or clay,
main pipe for charcoal gas

copra dryer
wood kiln
gas engi ne
steam generator
dryer for charcoal
bri quettes
cooler and chiller
for pyrolysis oil
extraction

Retort I

Figure 33

Retort 2
C a rb o -6 a s re to rt p lant w i th charcoal gas
re c o v e ry f o r c o m m e rci al use ( 22 )

which the author has subjected

proved commercially successful-.

2.4.1

The Carbo

The retort

Gas Retort

is

quality

high

and has

trials

several

to

means to produce

one of the most efficient

charcoal

and

carbonization

coll-ect

to

by-products.
presented

The retort
from

carbonization
be added if
the

collection

unit

drums assembLed form

oil

one

chamber. An extra drum can

above one fire

necessary.
for
a pipe is installed
the retort
p
ipe
of the charcoal- gas. In the simplest way the
rear

end of

leads the gas underneath the retort

fire

constructed

can be

tZ

Figure

drums. Twice three

oiI

At

in

where it

burnt in

is

the

chamber.
In

pipe

other

designs the

from where it

Figure

3t

The

users.

with

the charcoal gas.

can be set up over a trench if

enough. In

a main

Carbo-Retort operation

demonstrates a larger

The retorts
solid

various

to

can be drawn-off

possible usages for

guided into

gas is

retort

this

case bricks

for

the earth is
not

support are

the

necessary.
general

fn
brick

the

kiln

construction

units

which

above ground by a

are raised

also

serves

to

fire

make the

chamber.
The

retort

operation

by-products can be utilised

must
or

installed

be

where sufficient

the

where

demand for

such by-products can be found in the vicinity.

Raw material
The
forests,

feed

supply and preparation

for

the

sawmilIs,

processing factories,
Some of

the

may be

Carbo-Gas retort

furniture

plants,

plantations,

copra drying stations,

waste

matter
101

is

very

found

in

food

etc.
moist.

The

water

drying using the charcoal gas

content can be reduced by kiln

emitted by the process for
reduction

Size

of

heating.

the

is

matter

waste

necessary. Branches or cotton

usually

not

as an example, can be

sticks,

h o g g e d o r b r o k e n i n s m a l - 1p i e c e s b y s i m p l e m e a n s .
The prepared raw feed is
fit

the cross-section
These trays

the retort

Loaded on curved trays, which

of each retort as much as possible.

are made from sheet metal

until

the charcoal is

and are left

in

ready.

0peration (22)
Early in the morning the retort will be charged with the
p r e p a r e d f e e d t r a y s . I t i s a d v i s a b . L ef o r l a r g e o p e r a t i o n s t o
have always an extra set of fiIled
kilns

ready for

After

trays

sitting

next to the

loading.

the

covers are
under the retort (leaves,

screwed on to

the

bolts

branches etc.)

bark,

flames shouLd touch the retort

the

is

fire

made. The

beLow.

The carbonization starts when the gas flows through the

pipe r usually
after
one or two hours. The process has
terminated when the gas flow ceases.
the gas evol-ving from the retort

If

is

the fire

burnt in

chamber the fire must not be stoked repeatedly. The charcoaL

gases will burn and maintain the temperature until the end.
The retort
The next
and the

tray

which f its
In
use
pipe,

remains tightly

morning the
with

into

larger

and will

the

cl-osed overnight

cover of
charcoal

the

retort

will

is

pulled

out

for

cooLing.

be unbolted
with

hook

a hol-e in the tray.

operations

always half

produce gas.

therefore,

has

an

of

all

retorts

The gas collected

aLmost

uniform

by

are in
the

consistence

main
and

represents an exell-ent f ueL f or el-ectric generators al-so.

The produced char has to be stored for curing and then
may be processed.

Under the

heading of

charcoal- briquettes

chapter

for

details

the

making

and extrudates are described.

Economicconsiderations
As with
very high.

In

the case of

produced

the

ingredients
contain
will

charcoal-

of

the

significant

will

the

contrastr

of

products made of
(23).

wood waste

is

that

price

depend very
metal- scrap,

of

cannot be cal-cul-atedon a

the raw material- cost

basis.

also

will

etc.
They will

waste and residue

in

This

processing

the plant

much on the l-ocal- situation,

maintenance cost,

not.

char.

applications.

crbonization

The investment cost

Finally

the
rice

have excel-l-entproperties

or nut shells

general

the

mineral-s. They

in

charcoal- made of

may excl-ude all

on

of

instance

for

husks

incombustible

carbonization

residues from many industrial

In

Rice

ravi material.

much

very

depend

amounts of

accumulate during

effect

is

the conversion efficiency

waste conversion, the quality

any charcoal retort

materials

Many are used to

on

differ

have already

fuel- a factory,

whether the

fact

the

a market val-ue or

others

are available

e x c e s s , a n d t h e y h a v e t o b e d i s p o s e d o f w h i c h w o u l - dc a u s e

additional- expenses to the owner.

o p e r a t i o n s c a n b e d e s i g n e d a s a s m a l - l -b u s i n e s s o r
they can be planned and organized for large-scal-e production
Retort

and fitted

into

a whole integrated

An important roLe for

achieved

by

the

industrial

the plant

utilisation

the

of

concept.

economics play the gains

gaseous or

liquid

matter

by-products.

Approximately

into

process can be recovered as gas or vapors.

a retort
In

40% of

some circumstances

the

the

saLes

organic
will

pay

for

put
the

operational- costs entirely.

Each factor
the

business

plays a part

go.

without sufficient

But

they

information

in

making the venture work and

cannot

be

discussed

in

detail

of the Local- particuLarities.

References
(1)

J. I.

Spaeth,

Verkohlen

D.

A.

des

grossen

in

Holzes

das

kleinen

und

Nrnberg, FRG, I809

Meilern,
(2)

Abhandi-ung ber

Praktische

Wood as

Tillmann,

R e s o u r c et

Energy

an

New York, USA, 1978

(t)

Costs and Benefits

K.0penshaw,
Planting

Programme for

of

Satisfying

Proposed Tree
llood
K e n y aI s

Energy Requirements, Stockholm, Sweden, 1982

(4)

M.

Vahram, QuaLity

Tumuluts,

National

University

of

Charcoal- made in

of

Science

Unit

Pit

CounciI,

Research

Guyana, Charcoal

the

Laboratory'

Report Nr. 4
( 5)

FAO Forestry

Paper

4l-,

Simpl-e Technologies

f or

Charcoal Making, Food and AgricuJ-ture 0rganization

of the United Nations, Rome, Itafy,
(6)

H.

Bergstrom,

Hndbook for

198J

KoIare,

Stockholm,

Sweden, 1934
(7)

H.

foer
TraekoLing. Toll- tjaemst
skogs och koLarsbar samt
Undervisningeanstal-ter och foer praktisk

Bergstrom,

0m

Undervisningen

vid

tekniska

bruk, 2. Auflage, Stockholm, Sweden, 1918

(8)

A.

Klanins ,

Die

H o l - z t e e r s c h w e l l u n g , R i g a,

U D S S,R

I9t4
(9)

F.

Klein,

Uber

stehenden Meilern,

das

VerkohLen

des

Gotha, G.D.R, 1810.

Hol-zes

in

(10)

out by the Forestry Technical

the Col-onial Ministry, Paris, France'

Research work carried

Department of
1943

1941

(rr)

Publication

of

Institute,

Iiokim

Technology Development
Pidgin
Long Drum, ( in

Appropriate
Sakol

Language), Lae, Papua NewGuinea

(12)

Charcoal

t',l. Emrich,

Philippines '

the

in

Making

Neu-Isenburg, F.R.G., L982

( 11)

(14)

l,',

Whitehead

Charcoal

Guide, Tropical

Poducts Institute

Technology

in

Industry

the

Missouri,

of

Uoiversity

Missouri,

of

State

No. 13, 1980

Wood Charcoal

The

Jarvis,

Rural

Kiln,

Transportable

J. P.

of

Construction

The

J,

Columbia, USA, L950

Forest

Anonymous, Charcoal Production 1n Ki lns

Product JournaL T (ffO, 339-4O3), 1957

(r5)

of

Anonvmous. Production
Kiln.

Block
Service,

and

Structures

Masonr

Operation'

F o r e st

Charcoal

US Department of

in

Agriculture,

Processed

Report No. 2084, 1957

Anonymous, Facts
Nr. 10-c,

P.

National

RaIph,

Charcoal

An

AIA FiIe
Chicago,

Concrete Masonry Ass.,

Kil-n

Inexpensive

H.M.

Bunburry,

Method

Temperatures.

Experiment Station,
(17)

C o n c r e t e M a s o n r yt

usA, 1947

rrI.,
(16)

about

AshvilIe,

The

W o o d , L o n d o n , U K , L925

for

Measurinq

Southeastern

Forest

N .C . ' U S A

Destructive

Distillation

of

(r8)

H.

Meyers,

Charcoal

Eeonomical

I ronmaking,

Review

Technical

Brazilian

of

and

Experience,

UNID0/r0D. 228, I978

(1e)

Fundacao Centro
Tecnologico
( C E T E C ) ,B e l o H o r i z o n t e , B r a z i l

(20)

M .A .

Trossero,

Carbon

(2r)

(23)

Congreso

l'l. Emrich,

The Feasiblitv

Selected

Areas

}t/.

Emrich,

Ltd.,
Making

Agricultural

Waste

International,

Ltd.,

Paper

tt

Agriculture
Rome, ItaIy

Gerais

Hornos de

ILAFA-AItos

Hornos,

Latinamericano de1 Fiero y el Acero, I97B

International,
(22)

Minas

Anal-ysis Comparativo de

Vegetal,

Instituto

de

63,

of

of

Charcoal

East

Making in

Africa,

Carbon

Neu-Isenburg, F.R.G., 1984

CharcoaL
the

from

Retort

Forestal
Wav,

and

Carbon

Neu-Isenburg, F.R.G., 19B4

Coconut

Shel1

0rganisation

of

Charcoal,
the

United

Food

and

Nations,

Chapter f
C O N C E P TASN D T E C H N O L O G
FO
Y R T H E I N D U S T R I A LC H A R C O A L - M A K E R

Industrial
history

charcoal-making

short

comparatively

The principles

back about 150 years.

dating

outlined

has

may be

as follows:

Relatively

high investment costs I

Intensive

use of Iabor-saving equipment and devices;

Efficient

recovery of

liquid

and/or

gaseous by-products

for captive and commercial use;

Wide range

of

raw

material

usage,

a n d m u n i c i p a l w a s t eI

residues as well as agriculturalprojects

Such

necessarily

qualified

studies,

plant

forestry

including

prior

involve

and

design

feasibility
of

organisation

logi sti cs.

According
2.3.I),

the

Argentine

these

criteria

Brazilian

kiln

industrial

to

types

charcoal

beehive
(2.3.5)

can

technology

be

also

when

( see

kiln

Missouri
(2.3.4)
brick
the

the

and

considered
in

employed

as

large

numbers.
Equipment for CharcoaL Plants with By-Product

3.I

R e co v e r V
By the
value

of

obvious.
about

middle of
the

the

nineteenth

by-products

The emergence of
pressing need for

of

century,

charcoal

the

plants

chemical

refining

potential

had

industry

become
brought

the supply of organic acids,

compounds which were present in the
charcoaL plants. The problem of recovery and

methanol and acetone,

condensates of

the

them could be resolved to someextent.

The chareoal-makers of
the new trend

and its

the

plants

existing

to modern retorts

with
(
recovery of by-produets 1).
The

change

in

mushroom growth
years.

It

the

patents

of

was only

sustain

the

technology

war

demonstrating its
The

machinery.

charcoaling.

the task

Some of

times

is

seventy

helping

of

new

the
in

still

p.Lanner needs

to

and

to

charcoal

use

today,

fundamental vaIue.

charcoal

techniques

was faced with

these

of

the

by the Second World War when

interrupted

the charcoaL industry

following

the

during

for

precipitated

industry

charcoal

new

from old-fashioned

installations

auxiliary

adapt

established

necessary

concepts. The equipment changed radically

kilns

to

and they started

if

and/or

immediately recognized

time

this

potential,

understand

The

status

of

the
the

to

know

the
of

elements
art

essential
industrial

modern charcoaL

of

t e c h n o l o g y m a y b e s u m m a r i z e da s f o l l o w s :
0peration

of

Iarge-sca1e

100 ^3 and more for

C o n ti n u o u s 1 y

for

the

and agricultural

Improved equipment for

pyrolysis

with

capacity

of

sma1l-scaLe

and

carbonization

of

wood Iogs

waste.

the recovery and fractionation

of

oi1.

Mechanised equipment for

charcoal retorts
Advanced

Ia rge-

operated

retorts/converters
and forestal

retorts

the charcoaling of wood logs.

the charging and discharging of

and converters.

technology

for

the

briquetting

and

the

energy

agglomeration of charcoal-.
Integrated

carbonization

content of raw materials

concepts utilizing
at an optimum level.

1 0 8-

The most
introduction

revolutionary

step

equipment for

of

the broadest sense. UntiI

forward

was made by

the charcoaling

of

then, roundwood, thick

trees

from natural- forests

first

appearance of

were the

continuously

run

branches of

choice.

onry

vertical

the

biomass in
l,lith the

retorts,

the

residues

and waste discharged by sawmilIs, plantations and

f o o d p r o c e s s o r s a l - s o b e c a m ei m p o r t a n t f o r t h e c h a r c o a l - m a k e r .
Biomass converters were first
developed for very large
plants
with
a charcoal- production
exceeding a
capacity
thousand tons
other

per

month.

industries,

e. g .

The equipment was borrowed from

and cement plants,

fertilizer

and

adapted to charcoaling.
Since

the

raw

were a necessity

for

coll-ecting
therefore

of

After

s a w d u s t,

economic operation.

huge

bark r DUtshells,
In many cases, the

proved uneconomic and was

waste and residues

the

new

furnaces

had

plants

for

a while,

the

interested

also,

Commercial plants
soon proved their
For

the

at

been

large

s m a l - l -c h a r c o a l - - m a k e r a r s o

first

vere erected

employed by
North

America.

between 1960 and

1965 and

in

economic feasibility.

cl-assification

handbook employs a
between traditional
the

vtlas high,

capacity

. g.

feedr

abandoned.

charcoal
became

plant

installed

accumul-ations of

of

charcoaL

technology,

this

modern terminology which differentiates

charcoal-making ( kiln
t e c h n o l o g y) a n d

processes. rn this context, kiln technology

equipment producing charcoa.L as the sole product,

industrial

means a1l

whereas retorts
industrial

or
plant,

converters

are essential

elements of

the

capable
of
recovering
and refining
chareoal by-products in commercial grades and quantities.

f.l-.1-

The Forerunners of Modern Charcoat Equipment

The Reichenbachand Carbo furnaces

The first

of

these,

once in

widespread use in

Finland

in

circul-ating

capacity,

40 steres

10 to

chamber, of

The cylindrical

casing.

an outer

gases

chamber heated by hot

and Sweden, has a brick-built

surrounded up to

is

of

two-thirds

heating

its height by a second wa11 which forms a circular

chamber. The brickwork often shows cracks and part of the
products burn in the annular heating chamber. Heat
volatile
poor.

output is

l-asts

operation

The

loading '
including
p
r
o
d
u
cts are
distillation
days

about

The
cooling.
copper pipe shaped at the end
b
a
s
e
b
y
a
evacuated at
like a truncated cone (1, 2).
The furnace yields the purest kind of tar and a good
and

distillation

the

crude pine oil.

quality

produces no pyroligneous acid.

It

however, a
derived from the above is,
(see Figure 34). It combines externala vertical
is
It
heating.
internal
tubular

The CARBI kiln

much improved version

heating

with

cylinder

in

of

middle

the

the

meta.L lid

f our

with

unl-oaded f rom a door in

(1).
The
chamber

gases

from

circulate

will

of
not

directly
special
passing

the
be

externaL

through

spiral

are dampers to

chamber; there
third

the

retort

protected

is

damaged by

upon the
feature
through

of
the

the

CARBQ is

middle

Iengthwise by a partition

of

heat.

the

by firebrick
gases;
the

of

a
the

the
top

large

sor that it
gases react

A
two-thirds.
p
i
p
e
verticaL

chamber and

the

air

required

central

pipe.

carried

into

Hence the

divided

the

l-eft-hand

combustion of
1 1 0-

the

their

for

combustion can enter. This air is supplied by the

from the
gases which,
issuing
externaL heating
are

the

The Lower

which does not reach the base of

the
the pipe is devised so that

the pipe. The base of

non-condensabl-e gases and

conduit,

the

sur'rounding

tubes

hot

the

metal- casing

has

adjoining

furnace

regulate

discontinuous

base. I'/orking is

the

is

charcoal- is

The

apertures.

loading

In

appalatus

The

by-products.

capacity.
there

base,

conical

slightly
f or

col-l-ecting conduit

400 steres

7OO to

sheet metal of

section

excess
spiral
of

the

non-condensabl-e

Aperture

II
Gas
par t iti o n

Central heating
ptpe

Combustion
chamber

Figure 34

T h e C a rb o fu rnace.

gases takes place starting from the base of the centre pipe;
after combustion, the gases escape into the air (or into a
The heat output

section.

through the right-hand

regenerator)

of the
this kiln is excellent owing to the utilization
non-condensable gases. Adjustment, howevel, is so fine that
is considered
it
to regulate constantly;
it
is difficult

of

that

is

kiln

the

woods of

resinous

treatment

the

and

for

the

of

direct

tar.

of high-quality

extraction

quality

even

very

for

above aIl

suitable

The Bosnic furnace

50 ^3.

of

retort

The steel

The raw material

is

length

manhole

of

in

of

capacity

logs

of

consisting

through

loaded

has

furnace

this

the

wood I m in
( see
top

Figure 35).
The

heating

can

be

and

firewood

with

started

when

from the exhaust fan to

off-gases develop, they are directed

the burning chamber underneath the retort.

air

The Bosnic

Furnace applies
meaning that

the off-gases,
of

exclusion

conducted under total

according to heating type B (see Chapter l).
is

The carbonization

through the

the retort

downdraught scheme for

the

the gaSeSale drawn from the top

bottom. The hot gases are cooled

water and the condensed pylolysis

with

vat is installed
a while (2).

vats.0ne
after
A

Furnace

is

technology

shown in
is

applied

36.

Figure

The

taken to

is

two

which settLes down

design

the

strictly

oiI

tar

to collect
effective

very

smal-Ler but

of

the

of

principle

same as

in

7 ,3

to

Bosnic
of

the

the

larger

operation.
The

retort

is
material
packed very
cycle

is

again

is

capacity

exchanging, which is

roundwood or

tightly

terminated,

to

facilitate

conducted by manual hoisting.

in
the

the
hot

sptit

retort.
retort

logs

which

When the
is

hoisted

The raw
must be

carbonization
off

and set

EE
ss
a_a_
\;

oo
AU

*CE
.:

\O ! ( J J u <

; = . eo C
o
(vJ O ;
.p.i
lY
t l ll s
Uu
> .)f u
, r

3
q
-

*,
\ or\:'q

.3-'otE
orE

t! \o

sh

0(o(5o-()
rtnrrtttt!O
qQ()akJ

cF)

oo
\\

JJ

.\t)

trtr

FigUfe 36

A smaller Bosnic ptant with interchangeable

retorts.

aside
is

for

cooling

the

now ready to take in

from cooling-off,

prevent the burning chamber

to

thus saving fuel.

These plants
carbonization

with a fresh charge.

the next retort

done quickly

The changing is

The burning chamber

charcoal- inside.

demonstrate

two

features

which had been neglected

charcoal-maker until

industrial
traditional

of the charcoal plant

of the raw material.

utilization

Diversification

of
the

then

fncrease in the energy efficiency

by better

by

by recovery of by-products for

commercial use and recycling

gases for

of residual

heating the plant.

The structure

of

these

simple

and no

exotic

Retort

steel,

firebricks,

constituent
off-gas

elements.

cooling

charcoal

plants

construct-ion materials
are

wooden vats

0n1y

in

system must

relatively

are

required.

the

essential

areas

sensitive
copper or

is

within
steel

stainl-ess

the
be

employed.

The Badqer-Stafford process

for

This process was formerly used by the Ford Motor Company

dealing with certain sizes of factory wood waste (birch,

oak,

maple,

ash).

20 x 5 x 2 cm and dried
and 30 m long.

in

waste

into

pieces

drum 3 m in

diameter

cut

was

a revolving

by means of a counterflow of
ovens of the steam-generation plant,

Drying, effected

gas from

furnace

The

the

Six drums
continuous.
capable of dealing with 400 tons of wood per day (l).
lasted

only

hours.

was

The wood unloaded from the

per
0.5
moisture.
cent

mechanically into
the

0utput

load

into

a chamber with
Badger-Stafford

drums at
The

l50o

wood

was

were

C contained
introduced

3 shoots which distributed

retort

works continuously,

for

which the encrusted tar

2 weeks, after

out;

had to

be burnt

2 were working while one was Iaid

hence, of 3 kilns,

up

f o r c l -e a n i n g .
The

cooled to

retort

then de-kilned

255o C at

into

down continually

settled
the

revolving

recovering

cylinder

oxygen.

retort.

It

the
was

diameter and 9 m long.

contact with

the eharcoal- was brought into

FinaIly,

the

base of

in

d r u m c o o . l - e db y o u t s i d e w a t e r

a revolving

The drum was 1.8 m in

circulation.
in

which

charcoal

it

where

was

operation

The complete

the air

stabilized

by

eooling

and

of

curing took only 5 hours.

The

yields

average

percentage

in

of

the

of

weight

wood were:

air-dry

20.o %

Charcoal:
W o o ds p i r i t :

I.7

Acetic acid:

4.5 %

10.0 %

Tar:
powdered

The

Precautions
explosion,

was

charcoal
have to

would

the

especially

be

made

taken

into

briquettes.
the

against

risk

of

dust from aIl

thorough removal of

gases.
Despite

its

remarkable

features

the

process proved uneconomicand the plant

f.1.2

Retolt

Although

Badger-Stafford

was shut down soon.

Technologv
is

there

charcoal retorts

no

preeise

and converters,

demarcation

the latter

term is

between
applied

equipment capable of earbonizing biomass fragments and

small particle-sized
waste. Consequently, the term "retort
to

technology'refers
reduced

in

size

exceeding I8 cm in
route will

to carbonization
to

minimum length

diameter.

be followed

technologies will

of pilewood or wood logs

of

For simplicity,

and therefore

and

not

the traditional

the retort

be discussed under different

1 1 6-

30 cm

and biomass

headings.

f .l. 2.1

T h e l r l a g o nR e t o r t
process was once of

The wagon retort

great

commerciaL

importance in

European countries and in the USA. More than

70 % of all
the charcoal produced was made this way. The
process has l-ost its
significance,
mainly because of its
high

manpower requirement

However, one

or

rationaLization

two

compared with

plants

have

survived

even in Europe with its

methods.

other
the

waves of

high Labour costs.

Process description
The principle
Figure

J7.

aIso,

plant

a h/agonretort

The most commonly utilized

roundwood, split
length

of

The prepared

A rail-

wood logs

grate

on the

are
top.

system connects the

site.

jerked

T h e J - o a d e dl o r r i e s

mechanically

charges wiIl
Large
with

are

pieces may be charged

l-oaded into

small

The shape of

the

designed to fit
the cylindrical
retort
optimal use of the retort space.
plant

in

illustrated
materials

roundwood and sawmiLl waste with an average

between 1.0 and I.2 m. Shorter

but in limited quantity.

which have a

is

raw

fill

into

tightly,

wood storage

are either

the

retorts.

Lorries
grate

is

and to make
area with

the

pushed manually or
Normally,

two lorry

the retort.

plants

have a

shunting-engines

shunting

and

system for

sidings

extending

the

lorries,

for

severaL

kil-ometres.
The cylindricaL
9 m, and their
of
for

steel

retorts

diameter ranges up to

and are

inserted
the heating gases (i).

All
heating

the

in

a brick

known wagon retort

of

into

to

2.5O m. They are made

structure,

operations

with

ducts

employ external

systems. The off-gases

by a fan and after

directed

have a standard length

of the retort
are drawn-off
devaporizing (pyrolysis oir recovery) are

a burning chamber underneath the retorts.

TT
Cl.r
=o
ovl

(J .F
anan
E>r
O.rg
+rL

ct>

+,
t

rO
-L
.r .r rt_ rt_
llllll
+, o+,
oo
J.r
C L
cE
o o

+rL+,
OGt+t
(utF c cl
.?o>
o
P
Gl L.r
.n .n .r .r O O{.r {.rtDtD
(J tr
.r o-!+,
.nE(,,Glt(l .r
>'= E G)L--CLL-CU-+,
(l,(u
+,
o
L-+r
L X'q,
t/,
E O)r.r
aYl
o--o H
ll-ll
[illll
Or<t'
f\@Or'--t-

+,+,
cc
G'G'

CLCL
PP
LL

L.n
(uct
ct)ct)
!!
EE

.-

-.tt
(J'g
.?
.n.n

ctl ctl

co

.eL

--

OLL
o(1,o
(J-lF

oo

FOL
ta
t(J(u
.o
+, (u EnO
L.r
E C, L-Cl
L 6, =
O L.r
It'+'
L
P L
ttt ()
O O.r-C
E,JVt(J=q/t
[]tIltllll
(lt (ltsf sf tr, tr,tC,tC,
F F GJ GJ

oo
+,+,
(l,(l,
LL
cc
oo
('l('l
tt

--

##
JI

:l

FIFI

The carbonization

time totals one working day. After the

phase has terminated, the lorries
are pulled from
the retort
and pushed with the growing charcoar into the
cooling cyrinder.
To facilitate
the lorry
transfer and to
coaling

prevent vigorous burning of the charcoal when it comes into

contact with the air, these coolers are positioned in front
of each retort cylinder.
The cooring of the charcoal to the
point

where it is no longer sel-f-igniting

by spraying water on the cool_ercylinder.

can be shortened

The off-gases

are passed through a cooler and scrubber

to strip the pyrolysis oil from them. rn our irlustration,
a
fractionating
coLumn is
p
l
a
n
t
attached to
the
for
the
recovery of raw acetic acid from the oiI.
This addition is
not

necessary if

pyrolysis

the

is

oil

to

serve only

as

f uel-.
Operational data
UsabIe retort

space: tength 7.50 rn, diameter Z.50 m

C a p a c i t y : A p p r o x. t 5 ^ 3 .
Possible throughput: 9 tons/n3/nonth,
Raw Material-:
diameter
basis);

8-12 cm.

Energy

I.0

I.ZO m,

to

content

max.

charcoal 33-tB %, pyrolysis

demand:

material,

0.6

approx.

KWh/ton

recovered,
will

size

Moisture

25

max.
%% ( w e t

wood species, no requirements.

Average Yield:

18-20

Wood, log

dry basis.

the

to

O.75

ZO-25 %

kcal /lon

raw

80 % covered by devaporized off-gas.

raw

feed.

If

energy supply

be sufficient

million

oiI

to

no
from

pyrotysis
the

oil

off-gases

cover the demand of

and the heat f or the briquetting as wel_l_.

the

is
al-one

retorts

Retort

iron,

cast

framework of

gates
sheets,
of the gates for

and

metal

Riveted

structure:

sating

the

and charcoaL cooLer by asbestos.

retorts

Economic considerations:

eight

to

six

of

battery

retorts is considered to be an economic plant size. The

for the wood supply, storage and prepalation
logistics
of the wood 1ay a heavy burden on the opelational cost.
To set-off
a1'e high.
lorries
is desirable.
oil
expenses, the Iecovery of pyrolysis
personneL
littIe
requires
is
simple,
The operation
plant equipment is robust,
and the installed
training,

Maintenance

of

costs

withstanding misuse.

possible,

drying

ait
a

conSequently,

investment is

capital
crusts

on retort

is

stacking

by

large

reqUired
tar

Cracking of

increased.

causes

order to

in

frequently

and

exchange;

down heat

wall-s which slow

the operation must be interrupted

not
way;

only

the
is

area

storage

is

Iaw material

of

Disadvantages: Mechanical drying

cLean the retorts.

l. I.2.2

The Reichert Retort Process

piece

The centre
retort

with

of

process

this

material-

raw

batchwise process requires

wood logs

significant

belongs to
recircui-ated of f -gas.
utilizing
of the plocess
The principles
heating

system

The wood is

manhole, up to capacity.
heating pipe is opened to
Since

the

retort

is

the

top

After
let

aIe
of

designed

is
the
( Chapter I.3) ,

shown in

the

closing
hot

process

the
type

which

charged at

The

s a w m i . l - lw
- aste which

or

of

feature

I00 *3.

of

of a metre.

must be reduced in length to a third

Another

large-scale

the

is

capacity

retort

the

the

38.

through

va1ve, the

gases into
for

Figure

main

interior.

d o w n d r a u g h rt

the

carbonization

starts

in

the hot gases enter.

the upper layers of the charge where

During the cycle,

zone

the charcoaling

moves slowly down to the bottom.

0n

its

way

out,

the

uncarbonized feed, taking off

After
stripped
oi1.

leaving

the

from tar

raise

burning

retort,

gas is

the

After

to

of

released at

the

has

bottom of

of

the

hot

the

been

in

with

commerciaL use
with

economically
mechanical
discharging
charcoal.

high
i f

only

is

it

High

the
to

the retorts

for

they

investment

than

the
of

have

years.
will

with
raw

have

In
work

labour-saving

conveying,

the

costs

gas heating
forty

costs,

airtight
coLd

they

provided

for

preparation

is

passing

done by

more

are

charcoal

dropped into

recircuLated

labour

installations
and

into
burnt

To prevent fosses by

retort.

char,

The cooling is usually

gas through the charcoal-.

Large-space retorts

the

stopped,

containers.

countries

pyrolysis

the

gases are

the

first

of 450o C.

carbonization

self-ignition
inert

obtain

scrubbed and introduced

chamber. Part
level

are

off-gases

the temperature of the heating gas leaving

to the original

the

through

the moisture.

and then chilled

The residual

central-

passes

off-gas

loading,

materiaL

prevented

and
their

widespread use until- now.

0perational

data

Retort size:

height 8.50 rn, diameter 5.0 m, vertical

Capacity: approx. 100 ^3

Possible throughput: 8 tons/n3/nonth,
Raw

material-:

Wood logs,

max.

dry wood.
Iength

diameter 15 cfr, moisture not exceeding 20 %.

3 5 c f ir

max

tntn

(u(u
NN

oo
oo
(u(u
tttttt

oo
oo
gg
cc
oo
c+,
oGt
.e
+t
Gl

C)C)

(u(u

c,c,
EE

LOr
lttC
CL.r

(ucn
LL
o-ct

5
C)
L-C'.F
E(J

uo-c

(,(,
oo
==

cl
O
()

oo
ss

.o

(u(u

c)

o+,

(t,(t,

vt
=L
ctoL
O
L+,
ctr
(u L.F
I
-trt L.Fo L (u
(uO
6P
()+) = L OL(J|tl00(u
c) (u r/rr+- ().cl

oo
o,o,

glgl
grgr
:f

L
e L LLO|E0cto
>r
O Or
>O
lF
=(uCr(u
{J()>L>
ctn,-,cltlc
O
Gl 5.r
Ot
u-o(J(Jg)q)

LLLL

u-uLL
G'G'
+,+,
lFlF

llill||lllll

-H>r',

;;
./,./,
oo
(-'(-'

LL

o,o,

II

II

)=2,

ofof
cc

oo

C'C'
EE

LL
CLCL

(,(,

xx
(u(u

(v) (v)
Ect
o
oo
v

+,+,
LL

oo
oo

+t+t
ut(u
Gl-c
ctrctr
EL
-E
Gtct

==
!L

LL

'F
ll,

.}J
E
.r4l
O
L
'F
.n.O
O
P
O
E
+,
,a
Ld
O,
L.c=
.O
LLL(J
cE
c,or(uo
c .l' O
o o.rrF
u
Gt CLo
oqO L'r
O'r
t/,LIJ(l,+,UIL
.clVrcto
+,
(u ur l-.o
ttrtF
t
I
Er
C' J-O
C
L L+'
L E(F
C'
ct ct ct () OtF
JF=t/t(JOt!
llllllillll11l

<co(Ja|rlu-(9

PP
LL

(u(u

EE
(J(J

.T,
e,e,
(u(u
FF

.l
col

Average yield:
from

1 ^3

22-23 kg,
Energy

Charcoal- 33-38 %; commercially obtained

wood (lgO kg dry wood): acetic acid (raw)
m e t h a n o l _ ( r a w ) e- A k g , t a r a n d o i l _ s 5 i k g .

demand:

100 KlVh/ton of
the

O.7

dry

mil-lion

kcal /ton

of

w o o dI
include
sawmil-l- (wood

wood. These figures

el-ectricity

consumption

the

of

dry

do not

preparation ) .
Economic considerations:
necessary
controlphase

to

of

the
and

by-product
tol-erable.

battery

operationaland

Expenses
The plant

of

six

retorts

economic operation.
during

high-quality

recovery

equipment.

an

temperature

guarantees

investment

the
for

the

lump

cost

be

install-ation
retort

requires

carbonization

charcoal-.

can

is

Complete

set-off
of

High
by

automatic

maintenance

permanent supervision

are
and

personnel_.

w e l - l -t r a i n e d

f.1.2. f

sustain

The French SIFIC Process

The

SIFIC

be

can

considered

as

the

most

succesful

technol-ogy.

Figure t9 illustrates
the schemeand modus operandi. The
importance (3 , 5) of continuous carbonization of woodlogs
a n d s a w m i l - l -w o o d w a s t e c a n b e s e e n i n t h e i n c r e a s e d t u r n - o u t
of products in relation to the investment capital costs, and
there is
retort

a definite

the

controlled.

of
at

During

down towards the

in

wood enters

level

permanently kept

zone

fuel- costs for

maintaining the

temperature.

The predried
l-ock.

saving in

the

raw
full

the

within

the

through a
retort

is

l-oad which can be eLectronically

charcoaling,

bottom.

centre

the top of the retort

material-

of

the wood moves slowly

When passing the hot temperature

the retort,
it
decomposes into
c h a r c o a J -a n d g a s . T h e g a s e s a r e d r a w n u p w a r d s b y a f a n .

oo
(u.o
LCD

oo

O+J L
Crlr(u
oo
- -.o
. F ' F

ooL
LC,
Qt,h.nQ

ulul
o o ur urr/r r/r
o >>ct
(JrCD
ool
sr '- '-(F
16 > >qc!, c!,
cL cL
o- o-oo
[illl
lrjl.t-(r-

,n,n
tntn
o,o,

(,(,
oo
LL
gg

+,+,
LL

oo
+,+,

,n,n
JJ

oo
55
EE

.P.P
EE
LO

oo
(' ttrL
>E(u
(l).r D
-+r-EE
o.tt|orE
LGq.
r(l)(J
fo focL cL tntn
.rOC(l
ott)
L
+, +, +, +,ctrctr
Gt+) Vr c
E L 5'r
o-cr+,
=+.' E.O
1('(u0(u
dr|E (J IIllll

<cct(-)o

(l,(l,
LL

(J(J
HH

t!t!
.t).t)
(J(J

cc
(u(u
t-t-

u-u(u(u
FF

.l

orl

-l

(ul
Ll
=l
trDltrDl

-Fl
LLI

The charcoaL is
carried
not

away to

provided

discharged

the

A separate charcoal- coo.l-er is

storage.

because the

plenum and

retort

the

at

segment assumes this

l-ower retort

rol-e.
In

Figure

lorries

4O, smal-l- auto-controlled

the

take

c h a r t o t h e d e s i r e d l - o c a t i o n s t o s a v e m a n p o v { e rc o s t s .
The SIFIC process can be run either without by-product
coJ-l-ection, or with the necessary attachments f or recovery
(as explained in Chapter 4), the equipment and apparatus
being

the

same.

Their

etc.

sizes,

capacities,

must

be

adapted individually.
The heating system for
functions

and

according
(Reichert

Chapter t.I.2.2
burning

Retort

picked

chamber is

up

principle

The fuel

Process).
at

described

scrubber

the

for
for

in
the
the

gas stream which passes through the

necessary recirculating
retort

the

to

commercially proved

is

the retort

charge.

Attention
moisture

has

content

to
and

system. The data in

The

recircul-ating

unit

the

the

f r o m c o m m e r c i a l -p l a n t s
species.

given

be

to

energy

following

demand of

which

gas quantities

the

of

wood

heating

European hardwood

energy

consumption,

and el-ectricity

expressed in cubic metre of solid

( f m ) . T h i s i s a c o m m o nt e r m i n t h e

the

of

have been obtained

table

by carbonization

on

influence

the

air-dry

the

were based is
wood substance

charcoal- industry
fm corresponds to 75O kg on average (hardwoodonly):

and I

Per fm (750 kg) necessary

Moisture
(%)

local

kcal-

kj

RecircuLatinq
gas (ml)

KWhKWh

6. 000

15.080

2IO

2.5

10

9. 500

39.700

270

3.2

15

17.000

I54.700

490

4.4

20

70.000

292.600

770

5.7

25

rr0. 000

459.000

I .050

7.2

to

155.000

647.900

1. 400

9.O

55

125 -

energy demand to raw material

probl-em. With
increasing
only

The proportionality
moisture

is

not

the

rates,

evaporation

of

install-ed

the

capacity

plant

the

of

is

reduced and consequently production sl-owsdown.

passed through a dryer

wood is

for

The options

drying

retort.

entering

the

and the

details

before

rar^/ material

the incoming

avoided if

These drawbacks can be eased or

are

described in Chapter 5.
have been made to

Several- attempts
process.

0ne of

the

the main features

is

results

burns part

of

by

the

SIFIC

a number of years'

Photo I2

are shown in

heated

the

was the CISR Lambiotte Retort.

PLants have been commercially run for

retort

simplify

and Figure

and

40. The

combustion device which

pyroligneous vapours (off-gas).

internal-

an

recycled

wood drying '

c h a r c o a l - c o o l i n g a n d g e n e r a l h e a t . l - o s s e so f t h e r e t o r t .
compensaLes for

This

The excess of
of

the

easily

retort

the

pyroligneous vapours is

and is

led

the

combustible,

back for

the retort

The carbonization
quality

of

charcoal.

of

taken from the top

use or

To be

re-use.

vapours must be produced from wood

w i t h a m a x i m u mm o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f

30 %. The combustion air

thus ensuring oxygen deficiency

can be wel-1 controlled,

regulating

needs

energy

and

temperature.
temperature is
In

lower

the

fixed
part

to
of

obtain
the

a good

retort,

second gas circul-ation coo.l-s the charcoal- before it l-eaves

the converter. This gas stream is refrigerated and washed in
a scrubber.
0perational

data

Size of retort:

( Lambiotte

et

Cie ,

S. A. )

height 18 m, diameter J m.

Possible throughput: approx. 7.OO tons of dry wood.

length
35 cffir diameter
Raw material-: wood logs, slabs,
I 0 c m ( m a x .) , m o i s t u r e n o t e x c e e d i n g 7 0 % .

t26-

oo
oo
q)q)
* t

or{

.S

bb
.!o

cc

o*

ot

-JO

.\

aa

EE
oo

{{
tt

VlVl

\\
oo
oo
+-+-

\\

oo

ii
.\oo
(U(U
!!
.\
t4t4

aa
\\

:p
. , ! \ ,

Sf,
Ot

'c; c
oo
UU
oo
qq

.O)O)
_
l\.\\.\
.

Expected

yields:

production

pyrolysis

of

lumP

2.5OO tons

approx

oil

feasible,

is

charcoal I
but extra

equipment is necessary.
requirements:

Energy

eLectricitY

heating;

retort

for

25 KI,,lh

the Carbonization of Biomass

Charcoal Technofogv for

f.f.f

in

described

The technology

the

preceding

is

sections

of stere wood oI wood 1ogs.

The following is a description of charcoaling equipment
which is
Iaw material
plocessing
of
the
designed for
sawdust,
particles,
.9.
smaII
composed of
naturally
the carbonization

appropriate for

cIUShed, chopped and reduced

to fragments, such aS sugarcane bagasse, bark, twiglets '
coconut shells, etc. (4) .
the
Because of the small diameter of these particles,
of enelgy from the converter
heat exchange and tfansfer
walls oI heating gases through the surface of the smal-1
particl-es
short.

is

or

nutshells,

is

deliberately

fast

ideally
this

Therefore,

and carbonization

type of

charcoaling

is

time

is

very

al-so refelred

to as the "rapid pyrolysis process".

plant
was the
process
pyrolysis
rapid
first
The
process ( see l. 1. I ) .
pleviously
m e n t i o n e d B a d g e r - S t af f o r d
many improvements have been achieved and the
For mole than
systems have been made enelgy efficient.
yeaIS, the charcoal- industry has employed multiple
thirty

Since

then

hearth

furnaces

capital

outlay

for
for

this

a multiple

development was initiated

early years of this
The
particular

pulpose.
with

hearth
small

technology.
pyrolysis
rapid

smal_I-scale

importance for

the

countries:

r29 -

the

Because of
furnace,
units

high

experimental
built

technology

charcoal-maker in

in
has

the
a

developing

Developing countries,
countries,
which

in

abound in

constitutes

contrast

forestaL

to

and

valuabre

raw

the

industriarized

agricurtural
material

waste

source

for

charcoaL and by-product generation.

Developing

countrj.es
need to
recover
energy
from
indigenous sources to make them independent of expensive
imports of fuel oil.

Almost arl rapid pyrolysis plants

the generation of three products: solid
and converter gas (5).
The biomass char
and

has

to

be

applications.

as fuel

is

agglomerated
of

improves the
yet

quality

sufficiently

oil,

powder

in

most

additionaJ- operations
of

the

the

fact

char and its

well

is

that
vaLue

known. Briquetting
be discussed in chapter g.

and

Generalized Flow Diagram

Rapid pyrolysis

plants

which has been adopted for

be

fine

briquetted

Moreover,

agglomeration technology will

f. 1. f. I

or

these

overestimated.
not

pyrorysis

char,

obtained as coarse or

The cost

frequently
briquetting

is

can be designed for

differentiated

by

Normally, a briquetting

are

built

according to

a scheme

more than two decades. They can

the
plant

reto rt/converter
is attached (this

type
is

on1y.

not shown

in Figure 4I).
The raw material

is

receivedr rduced in

(if

necessary) and stored.

the

feed is

size by hogging

Additional unit operations sueh

as ferrous
metal removal, glass
removal, etc. ,
ily be
performed before storing the sized material.
From storage,
retrieved

and conveyed at

a metered rate to the

Here the moisture content of the feed is reduced to
less than 10 % (wet basis ) , and the dried feed is then
conveyed to a surge bin.
dryer.

++
II
r\

RR F A N
DRYE

t(+-ut

aa

FTNES
I
O L L E C T O tR
HOGGED
FEED

DRYER

D R I ED
FEED

PYROLYSIS
UNIT

FUEL
GAS
SCRUBBER

DRIED.FEED
S U R G EB I N
FUEt
GAS
SCRUEBIN6
otL

OIRTY
otL

AIR BLOWER

otL
STORAGE
TANK

FILTER
CAKE

FILTER

otL

CHAR
STORAGE
BIN

Figure 4l

GeneralizedFlow Diagram of the rapid pyrolysis process.

( C o u r t e s y o f C a r b o n l n t e r n a t i o n a lL, t d .
Neu-lsenburg,FRG )

- 131-

Dried
at

feed is

and conveyed from the surge bin

to the pyrolysis unit.
Here the feed is
converted to char (charcoal) and oil
(pyrolysis

thermally
oil)

retrieved

a metered rate
gas

and

discharged

(heating

vapours

gas),

The

charcoar-

from the

bottom of the converter into

s c r e w c o n v e y e r w h e r e i t i s c o o J _ e dw i t h w a t e r s p r a y .

is

a sealed

The oir

and gas vapours are drawn from the top of the

the off-gas system. This stream flows through
a scrubber-chiller.
Here most of the pyrolysis oiI vapours
are condensed. The uncondensed gases then fl_ow through a
demister which coal-esces the mists into a separate riquid
converter into

oil

stream. The remaining fuel gases are drawn through the

fan and forced into burners to supply heat to the
dryer and to other on-site
units such as boilers,
kilns,
draught

briquette

dryer,

The newly

etc.
condensed pyrolysis
oir
frows to a rotary
(i r
n e e s s a r y)
particles
where solid
are

vacuum filter

removed. Then the

use

as

liquid

pyrolysis

oil

off-gases

from

clean

oil

fuel.
vapours
the

is

rn
are

top

stored

many

of

not
the

and is

charcoar

available

for

operations

the

instead,

the

c o n d e n s e dI

converter

are burned in an
steam boiler.
The steam produced in this way can
be piped and sold 'rover the fence' which is the desired
practice in many plants.
auxiliary

The integration
industries,

with

situation

of

important

tasks

possiblities

of

to

devetoping
for

available

pyrolysis

rapid

regard

the

countries,

the
to

charcoal
him

should be surveyed carefurly

(see also Chapter 7).
The criteria
for
s u m m a r i z e da s f o l l o w s :

can

during

is

into

be
a

of

the

planner.

numerous and
research
plants

f ragments on1y.

-t32 t32

existing

socio-economic

one

industry

pyrorysis

rapid

C o n v e r s i o n o f s m a . L lm
_ aterial

prants

prevailing

most
The
they

programme
may r be

content

moisture

the

Limiting

the

of

Iaw

material

by

mixing of dry with wet material r or pre-drying.

carbonization

1.aw material- during

the

M o v e m e n t .o f

forced flow or rotation.

free fIow,

of

time

Iaw

the

material

within

Short

residence

retort

or converter to prevent product l-osses.

(type

heating

Internal-

A,

product

of

time

residence

and

the

whenevel

1. l)

section

see

the operation.

possible in order to simplify

control-

by

quantity

and

carbonization

yield

by

temperature

varying
(process

flexibility).
investment within

Low capital

the

means of

sma.Il-scale

producers.

furnace can best

This

circular

a number of

steel

refractory-lined
In

the

rotating

and

devices

by

Hearth Furnace (5)

The Multiple

f.I.f.2

equipment

m a x i m u mo f i o b o p e n i n g i s d e s i r a b l e .

labour if

with

automatic

of

Substitution

centre
with

shaft

rabbing teeth

is

(see Figure 42)-

sheIl

of

cylindrical

the

radial

hearth by rabbing teeth

The material

kiln
be described as a vertical
hearths which aIe enclosed in a

in

vertical

arms moves the feed from the top

a spiral path across each hearth.

thus constantly

before it

sheIl,

falls

agitated

and exposed by the

through drop holes from level

to level-.
controll-ed quantities
by combustion air bl-owers through burners or ports, or by
and
draught
ports.
Automatic
air
through
induction
The process air

can be suppJ.iedin

FigUre

4 2 . C r o s s - s e c t i oonf a m u l t i p l e h e a r t hf u r n a c e .
( C o u r t e s yo f E N V I R 0 T E B
, al'ifornia)
CS
HP
, D M S I O N ,B e l m o n tC

power
oxygen-monitoring equipment are util ized to minimize
d r a w a n d f u e l d e m a n dw h i l e e n s u r i n g c l e a n c o m b u s t i o n '
The shaft arms are cooLed by fOrced air from a fan' The
Thus the cool- air bl-ows
shaft has double-wa11 construction.
up the

centre

annular space to

the shaft

in

the

Ie-use

for

as

insulation

of

shell

low

and maintain

conselVe heat

walls

thick

and Iayers

Furnace refractory

combustion air.

furnace

the

furnace.

the

the top of

at

exit

ducted back into

is

Heated air

a l m sr a n d b a c k i n t o

through the rabble

tube,

temperatures.
There are
the

several

However, one of

market.

mul-tiple hearth

of

types

furnaces on
points

most important

the

to

the furnace to be sel-ected should have

so as to handl-e a wide variety of materials of
flexibility
Another point
varying physicaL and chemical- characteristics.
charcoaL-maker is the ability
to the potential
of interest

bear in

to

mind is

that

including

fue1s,

different

utiLize

dust

coal

as wefl

as

waste oil-s.
The trend
overaLl

furnace by adding
conVerter gaS. Thereforet

the

make USe of

equipment to

improve the

hearth

the multipte

economics of

to

development is

technical-

of

and

systems have been developed with predrying instal-lations

the energy contained in
recovel
steam boil-ers to
remaining driven-off gases.
which
Another potential
planner

production

charcoal

additional-

steam

is

possiblity

the

by

the

install

to

Since

activation.

charcoal

for

nozzles

considered

be

should

the

commodity
carbon has become a highly-sought-after
shoul-d be mentioned here
it
countries,
in industrialized
produced are made by multiple
that the Iargest quantities
the
The investment costs for
hearth furnace activation.
activated

retorts
be

furnace

hearth

multiple

are

very

and small-scal-e converters.

offset

productivity.

by

high

a
As

economical operation
charcoal per year.

rule

charcoalof

would

when compared with

Therefore, these have to

high,

capacity

thumb,
be

the

15.000

to

and

increased

l-ower limits
18.000

tons

for
of

F o r t h e p l a n n e r i n d e v e L o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , i t s h o u l _ da l s o
be pointed out that this technology is designed for reduced
manpower, and therefore
does not necessarily
create an
number of job openings.

attractive

f.l-.f.f
In

The Fluid

Bed Carbonizer

process the raw material (K) is directed to a

glowing charcoal_ in a closed chamber (D) ( see

this

bed of

hot

Figure

43).

introducing

This is maintained in a turbul-ent state by

an oxygen-containing gas under pressure into the

bed.
To

obtain

better

results,

the

gas

is
heated before
reaching the bed, but it may not be so heated. The gas and
particl-es may be introduced together or separatery, and the
gas may enter the bed at one or more points.
The glowing

charcoal quickly distils

and gasifies
the
The oxygen-containing gas and the evolved
gases are present in such quantity that the charcoal- and
particl-e bed is maintained in a turbulent
o r ' r fl u i d i z e d
wood particles.

statet' resulting
charcoal- is

in a uniformly high temperature throughout.

formed continuously in the process, and the

excess may be removed from the top of the bed in any desired
manner. rt may be removed periodicatly,
but it is preferable
to withdraw it continuously, and this is done by means of an
overf l-owpipe (F) , level_ with the top of the bed.
A certain
introduced

amount of the charcoal is

burned by the oxygen

into

the bed, and the heat of this

reaction
supplies a portion of the heat necessary for the operation
of the unit.
T h e e v o r v e d g a s e sr
rise

through

mist

being

the

hot

containing

acids,

charcoal- body,

cracked by heat
hydrocarbons.

to

136

fcohors and tars

portion

of

the

tar

form l-ower mol-ecular weight

d.d.
|.rl|.rl
C\.C\.

C, C,
lrl lrl
=CL
Gt^,

===

JU.IHCOH

dfrj

J
o(JCo
a=o
e,
e<,
FOlrl
F F :Z :ZCl Cl
trJ trJ
l^l l^l tJ tJJ J rt',rt',
ZdtrlFcL
<(JO
trj>-J
O=l!lr-H
C JJ( (J J
CC
L ' E T ! < O . CL d
atrl

:i;l

tf!

<D9

II

FF
II

EE

G'G'
LL
ctlctl
G'G'

EE
o,o,
NN
.tt.tt
LL

(u(u

II

cc
(u(u

r5r5
-l-llllo

C5C5

*r+

LL
(u(u
NN
EE

oo
-o-o

ttl

LL
G'G'
(J(J

!!

|\ : \.:'.'.':'iililti

r\.:.i

(u(u

L'..'f."t'l

.:..i;:;ii

mm

sit l'.\,J+

CJCJ

\\

lii.

. .t i!:

II
II

NN

cc

"'''1':l.=:j:
I

I .r . . . . . ( * )
>z>z

"i"'

EE

-t{t:',.dI-t{t:',.dI
==
-.1-.1
ii
?cj

;': .. .' ."

33

'F,!

c,c,
EE
FF
.l

col
srl
II

:!, :!, II
>l
Jl

(trl

.Fl
tLl

T h e c r u d e g a s p a s s e s t h r o u g h a d i s e n g a g e m e n tz o n e ( H ) i n
the chamber above the charcoal bed before it
is withdrawn
from the apparatus.
Since

the

particles
decomposition of
the
is
process,
it
is
necessary only
to
heat

exothermic
particles
to

to

replace

reaction
heat

endothermic

temperature and to

lost

by

reactions.

conductionr

The

operation

an
the

suppry enough heat

rdiation
of

and

the

unit

by
is

continuous.
A continuous fluid
been developed
produced as

for

bed gasifier

this

major product.

may range from particles

size.

process,

and this

(A)
desired

is

is

s m a l - l -p a r t i c l e s
which

fuer

The fragments to
of

has

gas

is

be gasified

of 3 cm down to a very fine

The decomposition rate

rapid,

for
in

dust in

the small particles

is

very

important for commercial purposes.

a closed chamber or

cross-sectionar

shape,

reactor
but

which may be of

any

is

usually round. The

chamber has an upwardly converging section (c) at its upper
end. The chamber may be formed of stainl-ess steel
and
covered by suitable
insulation

reactor

insulation
wilr

for

broader industrial

is

maintained

in

0xygen-containing

material.

applications.
the

gas

A refractory

all-ow a rarge range of

is

lower

lined

temperatures

The bed of charcoal (D)

section

continuousry

of

the

directed

chamber.
into

this

is

used,

bed.
rf

bone-dryr
yield

larger

preheated,

smal-1 particle

and higher heating

than by conventional

feed

fuel- gas are obtained

continuous gas producer operation. The
value

heating value of the gsr when the gasifier is operated with

air,
is
about twice
that
obtained by conventionar. gas
producers. The higher gas yield is a resuLt of more rapid
thermal
dried

decomposition

obtained

and preheated to

with

smal-t particre

feed,

its
decomposition temperature. The
higher heating value of the gas produeed is due to Lower air
requirements for gasification
of dry, preheated wood. The
nitrogen
in the air
is the main factor
in reducinq the
heating value of producer fuel gas (7).
1 3 8-

Technical and Process Data (7)

pitsr

Sawdust, fruit

Feed material:

flutshellst

s u g a r - c a n e b a g a s s er m a x . s i z e o . 5 c m
Achievable char yield:

basis ) ca 2n-

??

(dry

raw material

18 % to 25 % of

gas per kg raw

material.

Flow Converter (8)

The Vertical

3.I.t.4

The converter
composite refractory
bottom,

consists

an

shell ' a
f e e d m e c h a n i s ma t t h e

ScIew,

char

steel

outside

an output

lining,

l-ower plenum,

of

char

dischalge

and an air injection system. The

below
is
normally IUn at a plessure slightly
converter
atmospheric and is seaLed to prevent in-leakage of outside
air-Iockr

fl insulated

top,

(see Figure 44 and Photo 1l).

air

fed through the air-lock neal the

top of the converter I the flow rate through the converter is
controlled by the output system and a nucl-ear leveI detector
which controls the rate of feed into the converter.
Dried feed material

As the

material

is

flows

downwards through the

converter,

it
i s h e a t e d t o a m a x i m u mt e m p e r a t u r e o f a b o u t 5 5 0 o C a n d
and gaseous
charcoa.l- (char)
decomposes into
thermally
vapouls. The char is discharged into the l-ower plenum where
it

is

air-l-ock
The

cooLed and conveyed through the sclew and

conveying equipment which takes it to stolage.

watel-spray
hot

to

gaseous vapours

flow

upwards

heating the downward-flowing solids,

at the top of the converter into

through

and exit

the off-gas

the

b e d'

through a port
system.

Raw material
ho pper

Converter

T:[-l t
tl
U

_-]! :

T.T
iltl
Uu

L--.r - J_ __
/ -1
lg\

/-t

Cooling water
Revolving lock

Charcoal discharge

Figure 41

T h e v e r ti cal fl ow converter.
( C o u rtesy of A ME R IC A N C A N C O.
Greenw i ch, C onn. )

+) +)+)+)
cE
(Uo,
-l -l

.-l.-l

o_E

1i :

'tl1

t : , , :
a . r : a
: : l : :

: : : 1 ,

,,:,
,::,:
. , i i :l
:i

,$

-a-a
(da
oa)
cJ cJ o-ot-{ t-{.-l.-l
oo_
EE
out
(I'(I'
t-l t-l o)o)
o)o)
G)G)
+)O)O)
H+)
(l) (l) ._l._l (I'(I'

=Pr{

ss

t{t{

oo
+)+)
aa

oo
+J+J r-{r-{
o
,,,,,a.,1
oiirit,
i : ' : , : , 1 rF rF
c)!
f-rf-r
:':: i::i
f{E
(0(J
Fl=
E.E.
cUO
oo
u_l
cc
.Fl .Fl
(F(F
EO
+J+J
c!
:i::i:if:i:i
(I'F{
H-r
(d(d
:.o
:f,:
Fl Fl
oo
C)C)
::Fi:::i!:.i:
i
.Fl
ol
rt:::t::l
o+r
.-t
! t : .! ! . :
o
t{t{ t{ t{ .F{.F{
Go)
CJ CJCDCD
oo
+)+)
: : : t :

=c)
v(u
jo)

r{r{

(t)+r
ElG
o(l)
=J

CUO
E+r

=c.
o(L
F{v

oo

Raw materiaL receipt

Raw material
a miIl

is

or by truck.

magnet for

the

from

received from a drag chain directly

The process feed conveyor incorporates

r e m o v a . Lo f

The material

magnetic materials.

passes over

a screen which sorts out the oversized pieces

and sends them to a hammermill (hog) for size reduction. The

hogged material,
conveyed to
to

with

a bucket elevator

From storge,
has

together

sensing

Expensive

Material

which loads

control-

the

storage

bin

may

be

eliminated

and

manpower

dryer
is

fed at

a metered rate

from the metering bin

The dryer can be one of several types:

A three-pass rotary

dryer
dryer.

A screw conveyer dryer of individual

the

The metering bin

feed the dryer.

which

storage bin.

the sized material

wherever appropriate.

A single-pass rotary

In

the

is

fashion.

equipment

employed instead,

to the dryer.

to

devices

unl-oader in an on-of f

Raw material

undersized material,

a screw conveyor transports

a s m a l - 1m e t e r i n g b i n
level

the

each of

these dryers,

material.

hot

design.

gases are

passed through

gas temperature varies

The inlet

with

dryer

d e s i g n a n d r a n g e s f r o m 2 O O oC t o 8 0 0 o C . T h e d r y e r e f f l u e n t
gas is passed through a cyclonic type separator to remove
particles.

the entrained solid

SoLar or

air

predrying

wherever applicable

and will

of

the

raw feed is

recommended

improve the overalL economy of

the process.
The off-gas
collection

of

system of

pyrolysis

the converter

oi1,

incLuding

can be designed for

fractionation

of

the

produce raw material,

011 to

creosotes and

acid,

raw acetic

tar.
Technical and process data (8)
Converter: ForestaL

wastes,

sawmill

agricultural

wastes,

residues. Hoggedto approx. size 5 x 1.5 cm.

100 kg

Yield:

char

per

basis). 80 kg pyrolysis
feed ( dry basis ) .

oil

raw

of

35O-t9O kg

p e r 3 5 O - 3 9 Ok g o f

raw

150 kcal/kg of dry feed; 0.05 Kwh/kg of dry feed.

Energy:
For

the

of

economic operation

plant,

ml-nlmum

of raw feed is necessary.

throughput of 0.5 t/h

The Enerco Mobile Pvrolyser (ModeI 24) (14)

f.l.f.5
This

system

optimizes

charcoal production.
indirectly
nitrogen

quality

of

recircuLating

the

quantity

the

The Enerco method of

and

gas keeps products of combustion and

pyrotysis
thereby generating
Ieactor,

heated inert
out

of

the

the highest grade of wood gas and distillates.

direct

(dry

feed

contact

of

the

hot

inert

recircul-ated

Moreover this
gas with

the

wood feed maximizes the rate of the char reaction.

The producer gas can be used directly

in

a user's

boiler

a Bunker C type low sulphur oiI. Heat

and
unused
of
incineration
complete

and/or condensed into

obtained

from

uncondensed off-gaS
heat

both

from the

the condenser is

SUstains the
incinerated

made available

to ensure the proper operation

5.3).

The pressure

dryer,

material

varies

to be dried,

char

Ieaction.

The waste

products

of combustion and
a
d
e
q
uate gas pr.essur:e
under
of wood-drying equipment (see

widely

depending on the

and the drying rate.

r43 -

type

of

The equipment is
weather conditions.

intended

rain,

frost

freezing

or

operate

in

outdoors

most

and workmanship are such that

Materials

apparatus can perform

the

to

from snow,

interference

without

cannot

Any components that

rain.

meet these requirements must be protected.

wood particles

T h e m a x i m u md i a g o n a L d i m e n s i o n o f
not exceed 1.8 cm. The process is
range of

feeds,

wood. There is
prior

to

At

given

chipped

hogged or

the feed material

no requirement to size-sort

pyrolysis.

handle a wide

designed to

from unsized sawdust to

should

pyrolysis

the

temperature,

function of the dimension of the largest

piece to be charred (always taking the smallest dimension of
char

time

is

a given particle).
The wood feed
the

reactor

f loor

by a

l-evel.

is

time/voLume schedul-e by

is
a

the

exit

un.l-oaded on

end

flanged

to

at

these

of

the

the

top

feed

of

from

presettable

23 cm auger which
m (see Figure 45).

Both augers are tightly

preventing air or gas leaks
at

the

23 cm auger which el-evates the

Charcoal

charcoal to a height of I.2

provided

loaded into

automatically

e.Levates the
thus

reactor,

points.

A flange

off-Ioad

auger

is
for

convenient sealing to the userrs char-handling facility.

Moisture content limitations
Pyrolysis

of

has been carried

quicker

wiIl

it

energy vaLue of

on the feed

wood feeds up to

23 % moisture by weight

out successfully.

The drier

the

feed,

produce charcoal and the higher will

the

off-gas

stream.

To Lower the

the

be the
moisture

content of the feed, a heat exchanger is included with the

pyrolyser to provide warm, ternperature-controlled air to the
infeed surge bin.
For each 3 tons of
produces I ton of char, I

bone-dry
ton of

ton of
oil.
The amounts will
(species,
bark
concentration,
temperature.

wood infeed,

the

t'24t1

gsr and approximately I/2

vary

with

etc. )

type
and

of

feed

pyrolysis

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References
(1)

TechfoLogie und die

M. Kl_ar, Der Stand der

die

The

Destructive

der

schaftfichkeit
lrlochenblatt f r

Wirt-

Hofzdestiflationsprodukte '
5/ 6,
Nr.
Papierf abrikation,

I936.
(D

H .M .

Bunbully r

of

Distillation

Wood, London, L925.

(3)

F.
Fluegge,
Chemische Technol-ogie des
(le-7I) , Munich FRG, 1954.

( 4)

W.

rrThe Carbonization

Emrich,

preSented at

the

of

H o L z e s'

B i o m a s s" ,

Nuclear Research Center,

paper

Juelicht

F R G , 1 9 8 1._
(5)

l\,. Emrich, f'Recovery of

Forestal

Waste

Char and Pyrolysis 0iI from

by
Residues
Agricultural

and

Carbonizationff,

presented

paper

International- Recycling Congress, Berlin,

( 5)

Information
Division,

(7)

(I )

Envirotech,

by

Blmont, Californiar

Information
Carolina,

provided

at

the

FRG, 1982.
Eimco

BSP

USA 1982

provided by Protran Co., Ral-eigh, North

USA1982.

Information

provided

by

American

Can

C o. ,

Greenwich, Conn., USA1981.

(9)

Information

provided

by

Pennsylvania, USA 1982.

-t47-

Enerco,

Inc.,

Langhorne

Chapter 4
T E C H N I Q U EFSO R R E C O V E R I NC
GO M M E R C I APLR O D U C TFSR O MP Y R O L Y S I S
OIL
The off-gas

leaving

the

retort

temperature of 2B0o to f00o C. It

vapours and the
referred
In

or

converter

is

at

contains the pyrolysis

uncondensable residual

gas which is

a
oil

often

to as heating gas.
many cases,

burned

for

furnace.

the

this

high

energy containing

purpose

sole

firing

of

boiler

not properly

has a tendency to clog gas pipes if

It

is

off-gas

steam

handled and i f

t h e p i p e s a r e n o t w e l - l - i n s u L a t e d . T h e r ef o r e ,
extensive pipeLines must be avoided. These probLems may be
minimized by stripping and scrubbing it
from the pyrolysis
oi1.
It

has

been mentioned already

once an important
industries.

raw material

technologies,

source is

increasing

Factories
processes
products

in

make use of
raw

this

material-

carbonization/distillation

in

and separation

the

pure state

and has no

direct

methanol,

of

that

is

required

connection

with

itself.

The products
wood spirit
tar

acid

process

delicate

of the normal medium-sized charcoal- plant

(methanol), acetic, propionic, and butyric

and creosotes.

The outlook

for

chemicals

cannot be

forecast

at

while

acquaint

the

to

developing countries,
There is

in

The rectification

carbonization

acid,

interest

was

(1).

specializing

acetone and acetic

are:

the

oil

chemical- and other

usually
confine themselves to delivering
crude
(pyroligneous
tars )
acid
and
to
specialized

distilleries.
a

the

Today, although few charcoal- plants

recovery

is

pyrolysis

that

for

this

countries

time.

charcoal
in

which

pyrolysis

from

However, it
planner,

with the basics of

a c o m m o nb e l i e f

developing

derived

this

are

building

seems worth

particularly
special

the charcoal industry

up

oil
in

field.

that

those

their

own

chemical production

capacities

fa11

be more 1ike1y to

will

back upon these domestic resources.

Until
to

great

now, the

the charcoal industry

not

at

aIl

pyrolytic

products.

It

governments and their

give

will

in

the

of

recovery

of

seen

wether

the

viewpoint
to

remains

be

agencies concerned with

more attention

to

or

has been little'

the tropics

from

explored

raw materiaLs available

number of

energy supply

area of charcoal-making in

this

the future.

4. L

P vr o L v s i s 0 i l - R e c o v e r v
The

first

cooling

of

step

pyrolysis

in

gas.

the retort

system depends in

the

feed input

retort

to

in

2.OO ,2

feed, if

the

heat

place

or

the

area of
quantity

the cooling

cooling
of

on the

Theoretically,

converter.

necessary for

is

raw
1.90

100 kg dry
gas will

The resulting

agent.

is

devaporisation

The surface

first

exchange area

water is

oil

a temperature of 2O-3Oo C and contain C0, hydrogen,

C O Za n d a l - s o t r a c e s o f p y r o l y s i s o i l v a p o u r s .
In practice,
far greater heat exchange areas must be

be at

installed.
charcoal
the

The designer
technologyr

actual

size

are usually
is

It
stray

of

because there

advisable

and the

necessity

for

plants

particular.

coolers

takes
operation (2).
parts

cooler

oil
the

cooling
inserting

by
retort

or

ca.Lculate

and test

runs

l,{ithout it,

place
of

and the

with

products

the

which

must

be

cause

stages,

149 -

or

cyclone
This is

and rapid

pyrolysis

interruptions
this

section

which come in

made from

metals, usually stainLess steel

clogging and congestion of

equipment in

following

system against

converter.

continuous carbonization,

operation
the

protect

to

particles

rarv material

AI1

pyrolysis

the

no way to

is

not possible.

demister between it
in

experience of

must have sufficient

or copper.

of
of

the
the

contact

corrosion-resistant

Crude Acetic Acid and Acetone Recovery

4.2

is

The wood spirit

rectifier.

steam-heated
up

half-way

rises

acid

distills

col-umn.The wood spirit

rectifier
part

pyroligneous

The

eLiminated in

first

at

off

the

the upper

the pyroligneous residue runs off in the Iower

These two crude products are discussed in another

whilst

part.

section.
Lime acetate process
'

The pyroligneous

wood spirit

as above, is

and acetic

water

acid,

while the tar

drums at
acetate,

of

separation

crude

in copper vessel-s and the

distilled

col-lected in a Iimewash
in the retort (retort tar).

vapours are

acid

is

in solution

The l-ime acetate

the

after

left

precipitated

so

temperature

not

dry-evaporated in

is

known as grey acetate,

crude

This

exceeding L80o C.

80 % by weight of

contains

calcium acetate.
The solubility

caLcium acetate

of

temperature;

hence,

evaporation,

but

it

is

such

a crystalline

convert

magma into

evaporation

grey

must be carried

impossibl-e to
temperature

m a g m ac o n t a i n i n g

an

obtain

needed to

evaporate

acetic

decomposing grey
acid

derivatives,
acetate with
mixing

at

sulphuric

apparatus.

acetate

per

85

shoul-d be

the

To

cent,
It

is

acetate,

for

at

the

last

per

cent

of

with

cent,
obtained.

acid
of

mass

per

80

shall-ow Iayers.

on

20

sulphuric

contaminated
The

acid r D
by
sulphur

treatment

shoul-d be carried

Calcium sulphate

formed on distilLation

when the

only layers.

would begin to decompose.

moisture the acetate itself

By

out

anhydrous

dry

out

carry

at

acetate

with

little

varies
to

ceases

evaporation

congeals into
the

necessary

out in

and sulphuric

crude acetic

acid,

grey

of

heated

acid

are

purified

later

by rectification.
Acetone can
thin

layers

of

be

obtained

the l-atter

in

from

grey

acetate

mixing apparatus at

by

heating

400o C to

500o C. The crude acetone is

purified

by rectification.

These processes are not more used in modern pl-ants.

Direct

recovery of acetic

The process

acid by distillation

starts

from

obtained by the distillation

residue of retort

acid

weak acetic

solution

pyroligneous acid leaving

of

tar.

The process employed by several

companies uses tol-uene

to draw off the moisture during the second distillation.

The
process is based upon a principle
development to determine
the moisture content of wood.
A more sophisticated
is

used by a French company. First,

with
to

designed two-stage process

but well

xylenel

form a

on distillation,

binary

mixture

with

first-stage

concentration

again

benzene, forming

with

of

acid

acetic
fresh

diluted

combines with water

point.

Low boiling

very

is

the solution

the latter

mixture

with

still

point.

l-ower boiling

A process of

practical

far-reaching

used both by the

and Lambiotte

Socidtd

importance is

Chimiques de Clamecy

des Produits
(3, 4).

plant

Brothers

that

method is

This

also

based upon the el-imination of moisture by distillation

azeotrope formed with
wood

counter-current
acetic

of

vapour.
tank

7I.t

the

tank.

consisting

by

so that
Two
mainly

at

or

water

butyl

the

The

of

of

are

butyt

in

the

90o

the

C,

tank;

a
an

the

acetate and 28.7 per

heating

deposited:
acetate,

l-atter

The

At

of

condensation takes place at

layers

passed through

acetate.

upper part

of

which

vapour content
then

per cent butyl

weight.

in

circul-ates.

vapour is

an

of

a fraction

with

extractor

acetate

containing

azeotrope contains
controlled

tar

constant

off

moisture

This

azeotrope distils
cent

acetate,

into
butyl

maintain

acid

dehydration

butyl

passed

spirit

serves to

The

then distilled

is

the

returns

the

tank

is

the bottom of
upper
to

the

one,
tar

extractor; the heavier layer, consisting of a sol-ution of 30

per cent acetic acid in water, is conveyed to a further tank
151

for

the top of the

at

The azeotrope distilted

concentration.

condensed and separates out into a light

98.9 per cent butyl acetate and a watery

dehydration tank is
layer

containing

layer

containing

through the

returned

is

layer

The light

the latter.

only 0.8 per cent of

(see Figure

tank

dehydration

46) .
Deutsche GoId und Silber
the
method for
ether
acetic
uses the
Scheidenanstalt
extraction of acetic acid. Pyroligneous acid freed from wood
is introduced into the top of a L0-metre tower filled
spirit
The plant

with rashig
fitted
continuous (5).

rings

At the bottom of

the

to

bottom.

the

from

counter-current

same time,

the

introduced

is

ether

acetic

At

ether.

the

with

bel-onging to

the tower,

there is

rectifying.

A mixture of ether and acetic

given

is

rectification
of

separation

The ether

and recycled

into

the

is

It
offer

is

acetic

acid

The resultant

is
is

tar

acetic

by

col-lected by
tower.

The

effected

by

extraction

and

water

acid with a littIe

top.

crude

of

coLlected

is

from the

off

vacuum distillation.
cent; it

a run-off

which

ether

some dissolved

is

Working is

ensure good contact.

containing
tar

The tower

of

acid

is

at

95 per

rectified.

not known whether this

the same guarantees of

very attractive

rel-iability

process can

as those using the

various French techniques.

Acetone can be obtained by passing the pyloligneous acid
pyrolgneous
the
( after
or
wood spirit )
out
separating
o
over catal-ysers at 500 C.
distillate

4. ] Recovery of Methanol (f{ood Spirit )

Treatment of wood spirit
The
pyrolysis

separated as
contains about (6, 7):

wood spirit
oil

t52 -

above

from

the

crude

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EE

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9
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ro3

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ii

..

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ll

ll

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gg
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(u+, L
> C+r
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o cl-c,
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cc - O ( J
.e9,
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ltl

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trU
ttl'r
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ltlt

O.t:'+)
LL L = o
GIGI
(J(J

r3 5E

11 ll

11 ll

<co(Jcl

-153-

]tilllll
ct-o

()E

ItoIto

oo
oo

LL
GIGI
EE
|J|J

.l

\01

ol
ol

Ll
=l
s)l

'Fl

u-I

65

70 % methanol

10

I5 % acetone

I0

I5 % methyl acetate

II

33 % a c e t a l d e h y d e

0.5

II % a l l y l i c

After
is

neutralizing

of

the

Iime,

vapour passes into

The wood spirit

heated

directly

separated out.

by

acetate

are separated.

spirit,

now crude

rectification

tank,

the fourth

tank,

passes into

remaining wood

the

rectified.

is

pure methanoL is

In

fourth,

Rectification

obtained.

introduced

so a soLution of soda is

alone wouLd not suffice,

a first

acetaldehyde is

the

vapour then

a third

In

apparatus.

where acetone and some methyl

tank,

methanol,

crude spirit

the bottom of

here,

s t e a mI

The wood spirit

water-heated separation

into

milk

with

in a continuous-working multi-tank

rectified

tank

al-coho1, etc.

tank.

Processinq of Charcoal Tar

4.4.

process, tar

During the entire

locations

of

the

plant

is

different

obtained at

and kept separate

and then collected

in tanks.
A great
from

quantity

pyrolysis

the

of

the

the evaporation of

tar).

The tar

settling

The water-soluble
oil

and

is

distillation

tar,

discharged

or
has started,
the methanol (insoluble or settled

however, will
from

the

remain in

bottom

or

the pyrolysis
Iower

part

of

columns.

hardwoodshas the following

Acetic acid
Moisture

a few days.

normally requires

itself

Water-insolubl-e settled

Methanol

processing

b ef o r e

oiI

after

can be secured by settling

tar

2.O
o.7
1 7. 7

tar

in

pyroligneous

average composition (8):

%%
%%
%%

acid

from

co
o!
to

sJ U!

ut ut

VlVl

q,q,

((

ss
':':
55

to
G.l
t*

oo

s\ \ s
.co

Ec

LL

!o

\\
aa
EE

a
\\

RB

oo

.IE Tb.

a\a\

gg
=u

t
trP
a

\t
G
=-.^

oo

1414

oo
oo
u)u)
oo

oo

uu
oo
ruru

(l,(l,

55

(D(D

(J(J

OlOl

cc

oo
oo

\\

F3

::N E
EEP S
!LL

rfl{

lttltt\

{Qu

Ioo

UU
oo
qq

oo
OlOl

cc

oo
oo

\\

-155-

Nl
\l

II
ot

\l
JI
oiloil

r; \{- l- l

Light oils

5.0 %

Heavy oils

10.0 %

Pitch

64.6 %

Tar

in

(retort

solution

shows much the

tar)

same

composition in softwood or hardwoods:

Acetic acid

8.0 %

Moisture

32.O %

Pitch

60.0 %

Softwood tar

insoluble

than the latter.

Pyrolytic

Its

pyrolgneous acid is

in

average is:

acids

I2.O %

Terpenes and hydrocarbons

10.0 %

Tar proper

58.0 %

The

most

l-ess dense

valuab.Le commercial

products

which

can

be

gained by processing are shown in Figure 47.

Processing of insoluble
The tar

is

distilled

water, wood spirit

used for

is

the moisture,

off.

content of

are used, and are

Fl-orentin vessel- is
off (8).

oil-s carried

150o C, when most of

heated to 1400 to

the acetic

given

are

receiver

copper condenser.

first

tar)

oil-s.

steam-heated by a coil

separating the light

The tar
oils

(settled

separated from its

until

and light

Copper retorts,
connected with

hardwood tar

acid,
After

separates the water

and the light

the wood spirit

the

condensation,
from the

oils

Florentin

floating

on the

surface.
The water is

reunited with

the pyrolytic

which have an unpleasant sme1l,

are

of

acid;

the oils'

no use except

for

heating.
The tar

is

heated further

with

the

dlrect

introduction

of

retort

is

residue

acid in

but

tar,

the
of

acidity

retort

the tar

the

simply enables

it

resist

copper to

the

retort

the

substances. The base of

volatile

coal

distilling

to those used in

similar

in

should be distilled

shoul-d be made of

top

rectifies

to be collected.

the tar

To separate the creosote,

an open fire

but

moisture and acid

nol separates the creosote;

the heavy oils

the acetic

of

This process neither

heavy oils.

containing

stiII

free

then a tar

The

off.

carried

is

acid

more acetic

no

steam until

is of cast iron.
shoul-d be done with care, f or
The pyroligneous acid and the wood
condenser as a
from the
issuing

The prel-iminary heating

the tar

tends to

spirit

distil

froth.
first,

yellowish,

watery

The first

stage

tiquid
of

is

before

respectively
dif f erent

lighter

vessels.

completed around l-10o C'

raised to 25Oo to 2600 C

be

should

distillation

on top.

floating

oils

is

distilling

temperature

and the

light

with

resumed.

which

oiLs

The

aIe

and heavier than water are col-Lected in

T h e s e c r u d e o i l s a r e n o t y e t s a l - e a b . l - ef o r

they contain appreciabl-e amounts of tar.

The opelation
0i1s

from tars

petroleum

completed at 2600 C and pitch

is

have lost

products;
for

appleciated

their

their

heavy

creosotes

still

aIe

oils

which

remains.

the

val-ue with
are

used

rise

of

somewhat
for

wood

are washed with a soLution of

common soda, the acetic acid of which combines with the
pyrolytic
acid. The resul-ting purified heavy oiI contains 50
per cent phenols, and creosote, and is often known aS 'roil-

preservation.

These heavy oils

of creosoterr.
by washing with a
which transforms alL phenols and the
weak soda solution
so.Lution is
to
salts.
The separated alkaline
cleosote
steam-injected to lemove the traces of oil remaining at the
The creosote can be extracted

from it

bottom.
The saline
acid,

and

creosote

is

the
not

solution

is

treated

crUde creosote
pure,

but

the
- t5'7

rises

with

to

the

guaiacoal

dilute

mineraJ-

sUrface.

This

can be separated

it

from

by

and 1astly

soda, steam and acid

with

successive treatment
by distillation.

wood preservation

Creosote used for

is

oil

really

of

creosote.
P r o c e s s i n g o f i n s o . L u b L es o f t w o o d t a r
The composition of
the

return

normal-

distilled,

some degree upon

depends to

tar

used;

is

it

the

(ZO

softwood

moisture

per

to

begins

cent
the

resin

in
As the temperature rises
grows soft and gathers on the face

of

180o C, the resin

the

oils

first

When Iarge
distributed
off

of

retort

resin

turpentine

amounts of

wood are
is

is

obtained

is

a mixture of tars

distilling

the

of

composition

in

retort

the

from

Hence the

oil.

Sometimes

hotter portions of the

ca11ed I'Crude pine oilf' or
the more constant

apparatus,

products,

distilled

As

ruLe,

the

owing

which

condenses

which
and tar
condensers properly.

coolers

and the

to
of

distillation

sca.Le produces turpentine

softwoods on an industrial
between the

is

the

temperatures.

condenses only

heated areas

resulting

areas.

pine

evenly

from stilI

The smalLer the

evenness of

less

hotter

mixed with

an

turpentine

The

products

accompanied by

retort.
This crude turpentine
r r G e r m a ns p i r i t t ' ( 9 ) .
is

retort , the
wood. At

the

distilled,

impossible.

by the water vapour from the

so

off

points.

breakdown emanating from the

there is

carrying

and the products given off are,

followed by resin
the I'pine-oils"

temperature

carried

is

distiIls,

cracking,

at increasing boiling

the

to

moisture)

voi.atilize,

turpentine.

on

while

worth

point.

to this

When

this

process

charcoal-making

This

tar

contains somepine oil.

The

crude

Turpentine,
are

oil

is

given

crude commercial-pine oil,

separated.

extract

turpentine

of

The

crude

turpentine

off

1 5 8-

steam.

and a commercial tar

tar

commercial
by heating

with

it

to

is
1l0o

refined
to

to

150o C

and injecting
the

tar.

The
which

solution
well

resulting

distillate

fixes

fatty

alkaline

solution

sulphuric

acidr

is

acids

except

soda
washed with
and the phenols, as

aldehydes and condensing acetone. The

dilute
with
is
separated and treated

resinifying

as

any

products

all

off

steam which carries

so

furanes,

the

eliminating

the

aldehydes

an

uncovered

and the unsaturated compounds.

is

The washed oil

recti fied

improved

by

resulting

distillate

acid,

non-existent.
acetic

The tar
closed

very
This

acid

distillation
and

is

retort

gives

acetic

tar

acid
has

tar

no

rich

0i1

value

heating

acid

by
is

steam.

The opelation

practically

removed before cooling.

exhausted.

At ordinary

but

its

open-fire

by
with

1eve1, and then

distillation

acetic
is

coils

closed

The

in

of

fractioning
itself,

in

a copper retort,

coiIs.

two kinds

only

comparatively
pitch.

brittte

loaded into

enabLe collection

brittle

tar)

is
content
col-lected either
(
b
e
t
t
e
r
)
or
by steam treatment.

temperature to
the

(extraction

a pyloligneous

and

of turpentine.

is a commercial oil

0n being distilledr

The

120o C.

to

110o

at

vacuum distillation

T r e a t m e n t o f s o l - u b L et a r

products:

of the product being

the quality

furnace or in a steam bath,

with

either

the

both open
the

raise

open coils

continues
The

temperatures it

until

pitch

is

becomes

and can be used as fuel.

4.5 Concludinq Remarks

It is obvious that the overall
plant depends on the efficiency
However, the
effectiveness

of

overall
the

energy baLance of a charcoal

of by-product recovery.

economic balance

commercialization

by-products in current markets.

1 5 9-

of

depends on
the

the

recovered

technology and advanced equipment,

By employing current
a

plant

modern charcoaL

self-sufficient

has

reported

c o m p a r e dw i t h t h e t o t a l
is

It

be

an

as

operated

energy

(10).

entity

Industry

can

energy

commonlybelieved

in

factors,

utilization

energy input,

as

of up to 85 %.

the industry

the energy

that

charcoal- plants

cannot be reduced below 17 %,

I
'
n
aturaL'r losses result
perhaps even 20 %. These
from the
losses

of

eseape of

tangible

through

cooling

of equipment,

heat through the insulation

water,

freshly-discharged

heat

and

charcoal- which

from

l-osses

is

well

the

ambient

above

temperature.
Evidently,
is

Iimited

the

the

by cost-benefit

market

a potential-

investment of

value

of

products.

particuLar

in

considerations,

his

charcoal-maker

c h a r c o a l - - m a k e r sh a v e n o c h o i c e b u t t o a c c e p t a g l o b a l
bal-ance well

below the optimum of

by

many

Consequently,

energy

85 % as a resul-t of

lack

of demand.
the

Looking to

future,

and private

institutes
programmes

by-products.

on

the

This

should be noted that

it

companies have resumed their

optimal

research

line

had been neglected

the period of cheap petroleum and natural

This

branch of

modification
difficuLties
for

inherent

in

is

strong
these products.
progressing;

progress

in

pyrolysis

oiI.

the

efforts,

beingr pyrolytic

tendency to

in

the
it

oils

the replacement of
cement and fertilizer

particular,
heat

results

must be
for

plants,

with

the

encounters

stillpyrolytic

compounds,

sel f-polymerization
this
is

there
pressure

of

difficult

significant

treatment

of

which are expected from the

accepted that,

and charcoal- gas will

fuels

dealing

However, research in

catalytic

V'lhile awaiting
research

chemistry
of

during

gas.

products

the nature

example the

some of
area

specialized
pyrolysis

of

charcoal-

of

utilization

severalresearch

steam boilers,

for

the

be restricted
brick

gas engines, etc.

time
to

factories,

References

(1)

V ' l o o da r e

ChemicaLs from

Chemical

Economical Now

Engineering News, Dec. 6, I976

(2)

stand der Technik und l{iqtschaft

Wochenblatt fr
Holzdestillationsindustrie,

M. KLar,
der

Heutiger

Nr. 5/ 6, I936

Papierfabrikation,

(r)

Patent

French

N o.

696807,

Produits

des

Soc.

Chimiques de CIamecy, 1929

(4)

French Patent

No.

760593, Etablissements Lambiotte

Frres, Igtj
(5)
(6)

G e r m a nP a t e n t N o . 5 9 2 I I 9 , D e g u s s ar F r a n k f u r t , I 9 3 O
Pyrolyse des Bois Tropicaux, Influence
G. Petroff,
les
sur
l
a
C
o
m
position Chimique des Bois
de
Produits

de Distillation,

Revue Bois et

Fo16ts des

T r o p i q u e s , n o . 1 7 7, I 9 7 8
(7)

J. Doat, La Carbonisatj-on des Bois Tropicauxr Revue

Bois et For6ts des Tropiques, Do. I59, 1975

(8)

hl.

Stubben,
Forst-

(e)

D.

von
Die _ chemische Verwertung
fuer
des Reichsinstitutes
Markblaetter

Sandermann,

u n d H o l - z w i r t s c h a ft ,

Zinke1,

Chemicals from

1948
Trees

Forest

Products

Laboratory, Mdison, USA, I975

(r0)

ltJ. Emrich,
Briquettes

Sierra
and

Leone.

Pyrolysis

Production
Oil

from

Wastes, UNIDO,Technical- Report, 1981.

of

Charcoal-

Agricul-turaI

Chapter 5
R A r { M A T E R I A L SS U P P L Y
Until
primary

two decades ago,

raw

competition

materiaL

by

other

for

the

in

off-cuts

of

particLe

lumberyards

to

other

and

of

the

board and fibre

for

became unaffordable

European countries

charcoal-maker turned

wood was the

Because

charcoal.

industries,

board manufacturing wood prices

charcoal industry

pile

roundwood or

the

and the U.S.A. Thus

sources like

slabs

and

sawmilling,

bark

and

timber

sawdust.
Yet

today,

extracted
tons of
in

most

is

community who uses charcoal

that

ha of

in
(1).

statistics

Therefore,
industry
the

for

heating

wood

and cooking,
provide

high forest

wood supply

officiaL

made from

still

out of natural forests and generaJ.ly about five

wood produce one ton of charcoaL. For every person

about 0.5

and

charcoal

has to be set aside to

perpetuity,
if
one foLlows

charcoaJ- making

can

only

be

an

through
on-going

where improved and advanced technology is employed

raw materiaL resource is
managed to provide a

continuing supply.
Looking at
in

the encouraging progress which has been made

Argentine and Brazil

tenth

of

from

weLl-

one can easily

the area above would be adequate if

ef f iciently

managed
used.

fueLwood

Certain.Iy,

no way alter

requirments for

use of

only a

the wood comes

plantations
the

sawmiLl waste and land-cLearing

does in

recognize that
and

is

wood derived

residues for

more
f rom

charcoal-making

land or plantation

the Iong-term forest

fuel-wood.

The two major ways to achieve the objectives of resource

m a n a g e m e n to f t h e r a w m a t e r i a l
supply for charcoal-making
are to
and

make the

reducing

conversion
and its

forest

waste

ratio

of

in

the
by-products (2).

more productive
harvesting,

by improving growth

and

rau/ fuelwood to

-t62 t62

to

improve

finished

the

charcoal-

forest

A natural
jargon, glew

is

without

m a n a g e m e n ti s

forest

to

the

at

fftake
t h e m e a n a n n u a l - a l - . 1 - o w a b lo- e

expressed in
forest,

Same time,

measured in

usually

cubic

metres

from

as

minimize

an
the

process is

The resul-t of this

inputs needed to achieve this.

clop

productivity

its

destroying

ecosystem and,

on-going

a m a x i m u mt i m b e r

harvest

without

forest

such a

a reSoUIce which, in the economistrs

labour inputs from man. The aim of

or cut of the
peI

hectare.

o n e c o u l - d I e m o v e a v o l - u m ee q u a l t o t h i s e a c h
Theoretically,
In practice r the
year and the forest would maintain itself.
the
changes in
of
man produces long-term
intelVention
forest,

especially

in

the

tropics,

changing

species

the

the mature, natural

forest after harvesting and regeneration. htherever possiblet
a forest should be managed to produce the product mix of
composition and the diameter classes of

highest

sawlogs and veneer logs

val-ue

are first

priority.

wood which cannot

is
l-owest value; it
n o r m a l l y b e s o . l - df o r a n y o t h e r p u r p o s e . I t s p r i c e i s u s u a l l y
below pulpwood for the paper industry.
even in countries where
The usual- compromise achieved

Fuelwood has

forest
certain

the

m a n a g e m e n ti s
area of forest

strong
is

and well-oriented

al-located for

is

that

fuelwood supply with

t h e a n n u a l - a l - l - o w a b l - ec u t s e t a t a l - e v e l b e l i e v e d s u s t a i n a b l - e
The fuel-wood
the time.
at
from the knowledge available
harvesting

enterprise

then

endeavours to

stay

within

the

making

by
harvest
to
maximize the
s
m
a
I
l diameter
a
n
d
t
i
m
b
e
r
d
e
a
d
b
r
a
n
c
h
w
o
o
d
,
effective
wood of poor quality, etc, which is not normally incl-uded in
To
yield
calculations.
the assessed standing volume for

prescribed

cut

and

use of

system, howeVer' there needs to be

c o n s t a n t m o n i t o r i n g a n d m e a s u r e m e n tb y t h e f o r e s t m a n a g e m e n t
to ensure that target regeneration and growth
authorities
avoid damaging the forest

rates

are being achieved and to decide whether the aLl-owable

cut may be increased or must be reduced.

sources which are ideally
charcoaL-making are the residues of forestry and

As already
suited

for

mentioned, other

the primary and secondary wood industry

1 6 3-

G).

Numerous feedstocks have been tried out successfully by

carbonization during the rast
three decades. Among those
w h i c h h a v e f o u n d w i d e s p r e a d c o m m e r c i a l -u s e a r e :
leftovers

from

clear-cuttings:

brushes,

branches,

miIls

furniture

industrv:

Ieaves, roots
waste

of

lumber

sawdust, off-cuts,

and

the

slabs and wood shavings

residues of the pulp and paper industry,

As regards the yields
9sr no significant
these residues.
In

pyrorysis

of charcoal,
differences

bark
and heating

oil

between pile

exist

wood and

general,

it
does not make much di fference whether
h a r d - o r s o f t w o o d s a r e u t i l i z e d i f t h e c h a r c o a . l -i s u s e d a s a
cooking fuel
produce a Iighter
only ( 4) . Softwoods will
c h a r c o a . l -w h i c h a L s o t e n d s t o
rates.

This

makes

applications
carbon.

it

as reductant

The

dereterious

resins

higher

attrition

undesirable
for

blast

contained

side-effects,

such

for

and abrasion
industrial

some

furnaces and activated

in

coni fers

as

an

have

slight
flavour

unpleasant

imparted to barbequed food.

Many methods and concepts have been tested to baLance
out the lower density of softwood charcoal by aLteration of
the

process,

carbonization

effect.

The

industrial
speciar

most

but

promising

with

way

to

charcoal- from softwoods is

binders

which have the

very

little

make

or

an

no

adequate

by agglomeration with

capability

to

reinforce

the

formed char.
The

dissimilarities

hardwood or
softwood

softwood

pyrolysis

presumably

between pyrolytic

due

to

are

oiI
the

more
is

significant.

higher

resin

164 -

in

content

made from

oils
rn

general,

caLorific
in

the

va1ue,
wood.

Furthermore, extremely good yields of tar and naval stores

(turpentine,
pine oil ) can be extracted from these oils,
which makes them a valuable fuel (5).

5.1 Supplv from Fuelwood Plantations

Producing
that

the

wood for

cost

carefully

and is

fact,

in

stumpage of

oI

to

calculated

investment is,
cost

producing

of

in

set,

between zero

fuelwood on

the

forests

is

market forces'

by ordinary
a

the

0n the other

worth while.

where

such

that

ensure

wood from natural

effect,
cost

plantations

from

charcoal

small-scale

demands
stump be
long-term
hand' the
arbitrary
sornewhere
producer

charcoal

payment from vacant forested Iand, and

producing equivalent fuel-wood from plantations.

gathers wood without

the

cost

of

forest

State

services

sometimes attempt

to

fuelwood

set

of the natural
S
o
m
etimes private
forest
from which the wood is
taken.
natural forest owners set a stumpage rate as a percentage of
the value of the charcoal- produce. Around 10 peI cent is a

stumpage by cal-culating

m a n a g e m e n tc o s t

the

Government stumpages are

when expressed on the same basis (6).

typical
this

charge.

Given the
cl-eared,

or

countries

developed systems for

cultivating

quick

trees.

growing

forest

forest

devastated,

otherwise

than

less

fuelwood and charcoal- supply in

forests have been
where natural

problems of

many developing

usually

The

has

science

man-made plantations

of

eucaLyptuses native

to

Australia have been widely adopted and modified by selection

book
F A O' s
purpose
world.
throughout
the
for
this
rrEucalyptus for Plantingrrprovides
a wealth of information
in

this

fietd

interested
There
plantations,
conditions,
charcoal.

and

in this
are

is

for

essentiat

anyone

seriously

area.
many

allowing

of

species

adaptation

and fortunately
Where plantations

aII

to

used

particul-ar

make excellent

are
1 6 5-

eucalyptus

established

in

local

fuelwood and
and

managed

correctly

growth can be rapid.

suitable
sites,
(
i
,
|
n
f
annual increments
20 ^3 per ha over
) of 15
20 years rotations are not uncommon.
on

T h e e s t a b l - i s h m e n t a n d m a n a g e m e n to f
is

specialized

branch

of

5.2

Agricultural
With

the

development

becomea potential
the

Further

di s c u s s i o n

handbook.

Resources

biomass conversion,
mean

12

fuelwood plantations

forestry.

w o u . L de x c e e d t h e s c o p e o f t h i s

Mean

of

the vast

small-scale

area of

source of charcoal.

leftovers

from

equipment

agriculturalIn this

plantation

for

waste has

sense, wastes

harvesting

or

the

discharge f rom processors of agricul-tural

Experimental
these

materials

development
started

c o m m e r c i a . l -e x p l o i t a t i o n
in

1950 in

and

before

of

the

the U.S.A. The list

which have been successfully

more than forty

different

crops Q) .
pilot-pIant
tests

with

the

War.

Second

WorId

research resuLts
of

tried

began only

the agricultural
in

residues

the meantime comprises

raw materials.

They can be grouped

as follows:
husks and shells
plantation

of nuts

residues

from

coffee,

cotton,

papaya

and

or c h a r d s
discharges from farm cropping and food processing
sugarcane bagasse
straw, reed, bamboo,grass, weeds, underbrush, cactus
assorted municipal waste
industrial

waste

from

the

paper, slaughterhouses.
-166-

carpet

industry,

pulp

and

The

quality

different

made from

charcoal

of

agricul-turaL

e.g., nutshell-s are a classic Iaw

charcoal. The char displays a high

residues can Vary greatly,

for

material

activated

rates.

degree of hardness with 1ow attrition

their

severely Iimits
will

because aIl

applications,

be found eventually

in

the

char

materials

Some raw

of

mineraJ- content

naturaL

The

the minerals

and increase its

ash

C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e c a . l - o r i fi c v a l - u e o f c h a r c o a l - m a d e
consumers
pooI,
and industriaL
from such materiaLs is
Therefore' high
requiring low ash content would reject it.

content.

charcoal

ash containing

is

briquetted

usually

and soLd as

cooking fuel.
The yields
also

of

charcoal

and cannot be compared to

Vary greatly

wood waste.

wood or

made from agriculturaL

Yields

range

residues

those made from

between 15 % and 45 %,

on the dry feed. The same variations can be observed

in the output of pyrolysis oil-s. AIso the composition and
are very
oils
of these pyrolysis
burning characteristics

based

different.
Research in

this

field

has

not

yet

explored

the
are going
all

uses. fnvestigations
on to test the oil as a source of aLternative cal fueL. For
major commercial- vaLue remains as a
the time being, its
substitute for fuel oil in industrial- boiler furnaces.
One of the advantages of agricul-tural residues for the
for

opportunities

plant

charcoal
almost

is

bone-dry

predrying

industrial

that

condition.

can be seculed in

quantities

large
A

supply

of

this

kind

makes

equipment obsol-ete and reduces operationa.L costs

considerably.
It

remains to

be seen what efforts

deveLoping countries

a view to reducing their enelgy

and securing cheap cooking fuel- for the people. Most
bilIs
waste
of these countries abound with untapped agricultural

will

make in

resources.

this

field

with

Before

the

economy of
of,
The

introduction

plant

the charcoal

and the

cost

picture

has

small- waste

of

small

of

conversion units,

depended on the

collecting

concentration

huge rah, material

changed completely:

accumul-ations will

the

reserves.

a.Lready, relatively

sustain

plant

charcoal

economically.
5.1 Transport and Preparation of Raw MateriaLs
Getting
plant

the fueLwood from the tree

site

can be very costly.

industry

is

fuelwood

to

keep

the

transportation

minimum, and

instead,

charcoal- the longer distance.

ideal

situation

in

the forest

A guideline
carry

to

the

the charcoal_

of

distance

of

the

l_ess bulky

the

How cLose one can come to

the

depends very much on the charcoal technology

employed.
There

is

transport

always

trade-off

distance

carbonization

and
process. At

the

between

cost /yield

the

ratio

fuelwood
of

the

one end of the sca1e, there are

and the portabl-e metal kiln technologies which need
minimum harvest transport distance. At the other end of

the pit
a

the

scal-e

are

capital-intensive,

t e c h n o l og i c a 1 1y

the

large

scale

complex,

retorts

and the multiple

hearth furnace systems which are fixed instalLations:
these
imply relatively
rong transport
distances for
fuelwood.
Brick
kilns
having a life
of
severaL years imply
an
intermediate distance for fuelwood transport.
The fuelwood
transport

distance

technology
yield
for

of

retorts

the

more require
supplied with
life.

and

forest

carbonization.

usefur

associated

furnaces

and the
Retorts

brick

kilns

depends on

expected life
which may last

of

the
the

thirty

and

high

fueLwood
equipment
years

or

a large

block of forest so that they can be

wood at the minimumhaul- distance during their

Brick

kilns

require
this

with

having a life

of

about five

years

sufficient
forest
to maintain fuelwood supply for
period before increased transport costs force the kil-ns

to be movedto a new area.

ratio and the

words, the higher the yield/input
more sophisticated the equipment to be operated, the less
important does the transport distance become.
In practice, the small charcoal-maker who works with his
In other

on
depend totally
one type of raw material and must move as close aS possible
to his resoulces. The charcoaL-maker operating a biomass
conversion plant may choose his input amongmany feedstockst

charcoal- pit

or

trees

including

simple kiln

from the

method wiIl

forests,

to

and distances

his

raw

m a t e r i a . L r e s o u r c e s b e c o m eo F l e s s c o n c e r n t o h i m .
The preponderant majority of biomass plants are l-ocated
They generate
waste discharge.
the
of
soulce
at
the
quantities

significant

energy for

of

an existing

supply to

sUgar factolY , etc. Therefore , they are Sometimes attached

which can offer more convenient operating
to such facilities
conditions

Severalsuitable

maintenance.

and better

for

waste

materials

are

naturally

immediate consumption, e.g.,

husks, nutshells,

bin

cotton

waste, etc.

rice

state

in

husks, coffee

0thers will

require

p r e d r y i n g a n d c o m p a c t i o n : S u g a 1 , c a n eb a g a s s e ' v e t i v e r g I a S S '
reed, etc. For the conVersion of sawdust, only a predryer
will
be necessary, whereas bark usually makes additional
shredding unavoidable.
These

few

examples

are

given

as

guide

to

the

prospective charcoal-maker.

5 . f . 1 - K e y F a c t o r s i n W o o dS u P P l y
Harvesting and transport may be anal-ysedby breaking the
process down into I'unit operationsfr and treating these units
as cost centres to determine their influence on total costs.
The rrunit operationsf in harvesting are:
Roading the

forest

or harvesting units

compartment and defining

of the compartment.

t69 -

the

coupes

Felling

and bucking

to

required

lengths;

may

splitting

be required.
Primary transport

point.

to secondary collection

Drying of fuelwood in
Secondary transport

the forest.

to the carbonization

unit.

Drying and storage of wood at the charcoal-making centre.

The above processes may be further
operations may be combined and others

subdividedr

or

some

particular

omitted in

cases.
In

the

above unit

operations,

the

only

two which are

significantly
influenced
by
the
distance
between the
charcoal- production centre and the logging site
are the
primary and secondary transport of fueLwood. rn the case of
portable systems, i. e. pits r erthmounds and metalfully
kilns,

secondary

transport
is

different.

desired,

transport

remains more or
Primary

is

eLiminated

.Less constant.

transport

can

be

For brick
herd

primary

and

kilns

it

constant,

if

by laying

access road

out the forest area with a closely spaced

network which reduces primary transport
to a

minimum.
In

the

transport

case

of

an

costs have to

industrial

charcoa]

plant,

the

be borne fuIly

and are dependent on

of
which increases every day.
!he trucks,
Howeverr in practice many charcoaL plants have been located
close to or within
an existing
lumber yard, sawmilr or
the

mileage

furniture

manufacturing plant.

Transport costs usually

J-oad and
attempts

unload

pile

pire

truck,

have been made to

.Labour costs.
the

the

include

One of

the

rail-

simplify

the payment of l-abour to

wagon or
this

m o s t s u c c e s s fu l

barge.

Many

work and to
v/ays is

to

save
stack

wood on wire ropes, when lifted

by a crane,
wood forms a bundl-e which can be carried over to

the
the

transport
thus

vehicle.

considerably

Each bundle contains four to five steres,

shortening the stowing and discharging
known plants

the cargo. In alI

time of

mate, whereas

and his

being done by the driver

the work is

procedure,

using this

a platoon of workers had been needed for the iob.

for
costs
Despite
labour-saving
schemes, transport

previously

charcoal wood have climbed to new heights, making up 75 % of

In
all
costs incurred before processing the Iaw material.
some cases these costs have caused carbonization plants to
go out

business if

of

they

e c o n o m i c a l -r a w m a t e r i a l

couLd not

turn

to

more

other,

sources.
in wood supply.

Let us now look at some other factors

l r / o o da t t a c k e d b y f u n g i a n d m i l d e w g i v e s a I o w e r y i e l d i n
moreover, is
products and charcoal. The latter,
distillation
of

quality,

inferior

more readily
All

the

being

and

Lower density

of

fragile,

inflammable in the atmosphere.

mineral

eLements being calcium,

the

in

substances

wood

( the

chief

magnesiumr Potassium, sodium, iron,

wiIl be present in the charcoal.

manganese,phosphoric acid)
The proportions

of

and composition

importance, specially

for

metallurgical

trlhile the basic composition is

far

from the case with the chief

yields
1.

the following

ash wilI
fairly

be

of

great

charcoa-l-.
constant,

this

chemical eonstituents.

is
lllood

substances:

and essential
w a x,
fatty
benzener alcohol, ether, and
watet, are known aS rrextractable substanceS'r.
boiling
The nature of the resins and the changes they undergo
have a considerable influence on the
during distillation

Resins,
oils,

oleo-resins,

gums,

which are soluble

in

tars;
2.

Pentosanes, including

xylanes,

groups;

I7I -

arabane, and the

uronlc

3.

True cel-lulose equivaLent

glucose obtained by total

to

saccharification;
M a n n a n e sa n d g a l a c t a n e s , a l w a y s p r e s e n t i n
quantities

often in negligible
5.

resinous,

and

i n d e c i d u o u s w o o d sI

Lignine.
The percentage of extractable

species
vary

from a

from 9

few tenths
28 per

to

substances varies with the

25 per

to

cent,

clLulose

mannanes and galactanes

cent,

from 0
from 22 to 45 per cent (5).

lignine

cent;

the

pentosanes

from 30 to

to

I2

per

50 per

cent,

and

The composition

of the wood influences

the yield
of
acid and methanol-, the former being chiefly furnished
by cell-ulose and the latter and the pentosanes by Iignine.

acetic

Bark

contains

improves the
barking is
It

quality

great
of

very

important

stored

so

that

it

felled

wood has a 40 to

ash,

hence

barking

in

any caser FrtiaL

to be seasoned naturally.

that the raw material- should be

seasons as quickly as possible. Freshly

seasoning brings

50 per
this

lower the moisture content,

wiIl

of

charcoall

necessary when wood is

is

natural

deal

the

cent

moisture

content,

and

down to 15 to 20 per cent.

The

the more effective

carbonization

be. Anhydrous wood, however, gives l-ess acetic acid.

After

burden of
there.

the

fuelwood has arrived at the plant site,

the
p
r
e
p
a
r
a
t
i
o
n
further
is taken over by the personnel

Their duty consists of three major tasks:

Reducing

the

length

loading equipment for

of

the

felled

wood to

the dryer and retorts.

Reducing the moisture content of the wood.

Storing the excess wood.

172 -

fit

the

T h e r e fo r e ,
Charcoal
saws,

and a

retort,

f uel-wood goes

the

plants

usually

either

per

day.

a charcoal plant

Some of

continuously

to

logs

sized

the

carrying

the

o r v i a a m e c h a n i c a l -d r y e r .

directly

The sawmill of

sawmil-1.
circular

bandsaws and

employ two

conveyor for

the

to

f irst

the

works one shift

charcoaL plants

larger

operating

usually

automatic

saws,

have instaLled
eliminating

thus

l-abour almost completely.

importance

The
material
the

and the

duration

of

relationship

of

the

between moisture
cycle

carbonization

the

raw

content

and

of

content

moisture

the

been

has already

mentioned. In many plants it may be preferable to sacrifice

a portion of the plant capacity in order to obtain a quicker
return

one practical
that

dried

point

wood is

consideration
manually.

for

An

average six

be

one

ton

by

10 or

multiplied
charge)

tne

steres

freshly

wood,

of

tons,

done

where the work is

bUt after

steres

I0

lift

there

figure

If
this
to
handle.
15 per day (the number of
wet wood will

felled

drying

less

men loading

is

than wet woodr D important

charcoal- plants

all

However,

be overl-ooked, and that

should not
much lighter

woul-dweigh approximately four

would

wood preparation.

on the money expended for

is
per

15 tons

to

more water than men handling dry wood.

Very large
any

chances.

industrial
The

mechanical- dryer

standard equipment. The principle

in Figure 48 (8).
The Iogs

are

cylindrically

excess is
the
the

shaped dryer

forms

an

to

the

top

take
their

of

shown

of the wood dryer is

continuously
by

do not

part

of

the

The combustion

eLevator.

or
of
the retort
with
the off-gases
The hot gases are drawn and propelled through
wood charge (up-draught system), recirculated,
and the

chamber is
pyrolysis
the

carried

plants

carbonization

fired

oi1.

expelled from the dryer

drying
bottom

procedure,
of

the

by an off-gas

fan.

During

the wood charge moves slow1y down to

cylinder

di scharged.

r'13-

where

it

is

continuously

}lood 40X
moisture

G--

l-rl-r
t-l

)!qr

a
b
c
d
e
f

Fi gure 48.

=
=
=
=
=
=

D ry i n g c y l i n d e r
Entrance for green wood
D i s c h a rg e l o c k s fo r dry w ood
Combustionchamberfor retort gas
H e a ti n g g a s fa n
O ff-g a s fa n

A wooddryerfor continuousoperation.
( Courtesy
Frankfurt/Main)
of DEGUSSA,

- 1 7 4-

>Wood201
moisture

charcoal plants keep a reserve of

periods when the wood supply stops.

Large
nearby for
due

to

climatic

hurricanes,
transport

conditions,

heavy snow faI1,

or

other

or

This can be

rainy

the

as

such

wood stored
season,

causes such as

strikes.

A retort

requires

a certain

time to cool down

amount of

to normal temperature, and also needs time to heat up to its

operational temperature. The hull of a retort or converter
can be
is protected by refractory
and this lining
lining,
severely
that

damaged by

rapid

any breakdown in

cooling

of

the

the

retort,

supply
causes

It

change.

temperature

f o.l-lows

wood, with consequent

undesirabl-e production

of
an

standstill.
Incoming wood loads
are

normally

area should be situated

to

immediate demand

exceed the

which

transferred

the

The storage

area.

storage

the charcoal- plant

close to

so that

the wood can be movedon hand-propelled trucks or carts.

The best

wood storage

stockpilings
will

up to a height

be Iimited

course,
piles

the

to

by the

have been achieved with

8 m. The length of the piles

results
of

dimensions of

storage area.

the

expose the

as to

area should be open so

sunl-ight and wind as much as possible.

the

or more wood piles

have to

be set

the wind to pass freely.

of 7 m between the piles

is

In

temperate

months in
insects.

the

countries,
tropics

two

A distance

customary.

way without

this
In

wood

If

should be

upr the aisles

kept wide open to allow

0f

danger of

the

be

wood can

over

stored

attack

m a x j . m u ms t o r a g e

by

fungi

time

12
and
be

will

much shorter.
Al-1 the
roundwood,
sawmills
use for
wood

firewood,
in

to

the

branches,

practice

carbonization
slabs

and

and

treatment,

Forestal- residues,

agricultural
which

is

waste

norrnally

will
simpler

in

of
of

off-cuts

o t h e r w o r d s , t h e r a t , ' lm a t e r i a l - s s t i l l

most charcoal plants.

processors

different
costly.

above applies

common

waste from
require
and

fess

the high cost of transporting

In practice,

for

Sources more attractive

made other

fueLwood has

and preparing
the

charcoal-maker.
connected with the supply and the
The cost limitations
p
l
e
p
a
r
a
t
i
o
n
f
u
el-wood cannot be defined for all
o
f
on-site
and smalL
both large
of
attitude
cases. A significant
seems

charcoal-makers
refl-ected in

with

structured
them

to

the fact

adapt

to

that

a high

This

is

new charcoal enterprises

are

gaining

be
aIl

degree of

resources whenever the

which enables

flexibility
n e t r , /I a w

equipment to

their

ground.

economic situation

materials

demands a

and

change

of feedstocks.

R ef e r e n c e s

(r) u.N.

C o n f er e n c e

on

New and

RenewabLe Sources

of

Energy, Preparatory Committee, "Report of the TechnicaL

P a n e l o n F u e . L w o o da n d C h a r c o a l o n i t s S e c o n d S e s s i o n r ' .
A/Conf. 100/PCI 74, 1981.
(")

L.

Birr itz,

Industrial

Devel-opmentin

the

Management and

Developing

Management

Countri-es, UNIDO report

IO.476,1981.
(t)

l{.

Emrich,

Turkey,

Processing Industry,
(4) B. Mermesec,

Development of

the

Chemical Wood

UNID0Techn. Report, Vienna, I972.

Forest Energy in

Papua New Guinea, Papua

New Guinea Forest Dept., Port Moresby, l-981.

(5) w.

Sandermann,

Berlin,

1960

Naturcharze,

Terpentinl-

Tall1,

(6) D. Earl,

Charcoal: An Andre Mayer Fellowship Report'

FA0, Rome, Italy,

(7) K. I.

I974.

Thomd-Kosmiensky,

Countries, Berlin,

Eecycling

in

L982.

(8) Holzverkohl-ung, Chemische Technol-ogie,

F.R.G. I97I.

Developing

8d.7,

Munich'

Chapter 5
E N D - U S EM A R K E T SF O R C H A R C O AAL N D C H A R C O ABLY - P R O D U C T S

The
markets

charcoai--maker
and

require

industrial

different

packing styles
common for
market.

distinguishes

tactics,

producers

To facilitate

these

have their

and marketing habits.

charcoal

between

applications;

outlets

own specifications,

It

to

household

two

is,

be

active

comprehension, this

quite

therefore,
in

chapter

only

one

has been

subdivided accordingly.
5.1 Charcoal as Household Fuel
In many countries, charcoal cookery is the only way to
prepare food. Unfortunately, the price of charcoaL has risen
so high

that in most countries

to purchase a daily supply.
In

into

industrialized
the

public

only

countries,

square,

beaches and camping sites.

become synonymous with

the wealthy can afford

charcoal
patio

the

and

cookery has moved

to

In some countries,
the

space

age

the

gardens,

barbequing has

and

contemporary

lifestyle.
5.1.I

Lump Charcoal-

Lump charcoaL is
is

easy to ignite.

stiIl

preferred

by consumers since

In the market place,

it

is

it

sold by volume

as well as by weight.
Whereas in
little

the consumer in
to

developing

concerned with

these

the

countries,
quality,

industrialized

aspects

and

the

size

countries

distinguishes

names.
1 7 8-

normal buyer

is

and packing styIe,

pays much attention

between various

brand

Although price

is

buyers have become awale

cooking times and
in
exist

brand,

the other

selecting

one or

that

differences
values of various lump charcoaLs (1).

significant

calorific

trend

The

with

estimated

persons invo.l-ved in

future,

upward trend

and production

trade

charcoal

that
the

in

accelerate

can be expected to

owing to the fact

and other

oit

the

all

of

commonbelief

the

growing steadity.

t h e d e m a n di s
This

is

are

statistics

since

accuracy

However, it

be

cannot

consumption

charcoaL

sufficient

provided.

rarely

lump

of

reason for

most important

the

by far

from fuel

substitutes derived
price dramatically

that

and

have increased in

fuels

of people.

h a v e b e c o m eu n a f f o r d a b l e f o r m i l l i o n s
5.1.2 Charcoal Briquettes
the rising

l{ith
in

industrialized

c o n c e l n a b o u t e n e l g y c o n s u m p t J . o n ,b u y e r s
countries are beeoming aware that Iump

charcoal burns away fast.

attention

to

introduced in

charcoal
componentS- binder,
made long

times,

composed of

briquettes

are

filler,

energy extender

oI

same net

various
they

extended

hence displaying

aS Iong aS the

their
first

was

which

charcoal

burning,
twice

e.g.,

turning

therefore,

briquette
1955 in the U.S.A. (1).
the

Since

be

They are,

can

cooking

weight of

lump

charcoal-.
Unfortunately,
unobselVed in

this

fuel-saving

industrialized
0ther
cleanliness
various

the

with

briquette

remained

nov{ but
market in

has
all

countries.

features

of

charcoal-

the

and easy handling.

f o r m s:

pillow-shaped.

until

many developing countries

caused an unsulpassed surge of

has

effect

oblong,

The latter

is

a m a x i m u me d g e t e n g t h o f

briquette

are

Briquettes

are distributed

eg9-shaped,

hexagonal

its
in
and
form

far the most usable

50 x 60 mmand a thickness of

by

25 mm.

179 -

Export specifications

Q)

Lumpcharcoal

Briquettes
Without

With

enerqv extender enerov extender

A sh e s

M oi s t u r e

4%

Max.

Less than 5 %

8%

Max. 25 %

5%

5%

Carbon

80

82%

70

75 %

60

65%

Volatiles

10

15%

10-I

5%

l0

15%

Max.

8%

Max.

B i n d er
C a Io r i f i c
Value

5 , 8 0 0 - 7, 2 O O k c a I / k g 5 , 0 0 0 k c a l / k g

I %

5,2OOkcal/kg

5.2 Charcoal as Fuel- for Industrv

Before

charcoaL

became a

household cooking in
industriar

commodity,

metallurgy started
with
with

the

the

increasing

the

face competition,
be

lignite.

in

replaced
The

significant

in

it

of

the

regislation

was solery
years

the

aLmost all
by

natural

advantages

chemical
on

of charcoal

household fuel

properties

of

industry

controL
for

an

when

the

does not

applications

charcoal

coal r
FBtroLeum coke or
charcoar
depend on
six

which account for

its

continued use

low sulphur content

high carbon to ash ratio
few and unreactive inorganic
1 8 0-

and

the industrial

market charcoal

other

of

in industry:

rel.atively

for

to emerge.

diversification

Whereas in

product

consumer

especially

environment, the applications

market have multiplied.

could

major

developed countries,

impurities

pore structure

specific

with Iarge surface area

good reduction ability

almost smokeLess.
Up to
of

L960, charcoal- was widely

carbon

industry.

disulphide
Although

sufficiently
(metallurgy)

and

these

offset

the production

used for
by

sodium cyanide

chemical

the

markets have declined,

they

enlarging demand for

industry).
and absorbent agents (filter

The applications

by

reducing

the

charcoal

of

in

various

the

were

industries

may

b e s u m m a r i z e da s f o l l o w s :
ChemieaL industry:

Manufacturing

of

carbon disulphide,

sodium cyanide, carbides.

Iron

and

futnaces,

steel

industry,

ferro-silica,

BIast

metallurgy:

metal

hardening,

iron

non-ferrous

metal industry.
Cementindustry
Activated

carbon

purification,

filter

and

dechlorinationr

gs purification,

recovry, waste-water treatment, cigarette

Gas qenerator:

Producer gas

Water

industrv:

for

cars,

solvent

filters.
electric

power

generation .
Miscellaneous other applications
The

chemical

manufacturer
their

prefer

industry

and

lump charcoaL.

the

activated

This

is

partly

process requirements. Fine charcoal particles

carbon
due to
are more

reactive
raw

but

Losses by

material.

emission make fines

Therefore,

fines

charcoal

an undesirable
powder

and

are

to processes where compaction or agglomeration is

restricted

necessary before they are brought in to the operation.

(2)

Specifications
Each

application

specification

has

its

own

charcoal

rigid

determine both

the

actual process requirements and the future prescriptions

possible
to
alterations
in
the process technology.

due

latter
in

which must be examined to

has frequently

had effects

the past and'has led to

or

to

the

i f

not

The

industry

charcoal

production

changes in

plants

shut-down of

on the

techniques
observed.

strictly

quotations

usually contain the general data for

(
%
)
( % ), d e n s i t y , b u l k
fixed carbon
, a s h e s ( % ), v o l a t i l e s
density, moisture (%) and the sieve anal-ysis.

Charcoal

It

is

possible

not

and variations.
market,

which

industrial

to

indicate

alI

the

specifications

These can be found by a carefuL study of the

is

always

engaging in

necessary before

the

charcoal business.

6.3 Charcoal in Metal Extraction

Vrlheniron
universally

f i rst

was
as

made by

reductant.

introduced as an alternative
Small iron

blast

number

fLourishing

charcoal-based
of

countries

iron
and

modernization.

The

industrial ized

countries.

pig-iron

industry

centre,

is

charcoa.l. was

Metallurgical

during

the

furnaces and other

at the beginning of this

The

man,

continues
however,

considered to

century.

furnaces were

world-wide industry.

industry

T o d a y,

was

coke

eighteenth

reducing

used

still
its
has

expansion

a
and

moved away from

Brazil t s
be the

in

exists

charcoal-based
greatest

in

the

wor]d.
Charcoal. has
with

ores

strong

containing

reducing

metalr
1 8 2-

properties.

oXides,

and

When heated

sulphides,

the

carbon

combines

facilitating
used for

readily

metal

with

and

oxygen

extraction.

thus

sulphur,

can

Charcoal

therefore

be

the reduction of copper-containing ores aIso.

Most of the charcoaL used in blast furnaces is made from

(eucalyptus).
hardwood species
is
Although
charcoalgenerally acknowledgedto be as good sr if not better than
coke, there are practical
supplies

of

capacitites
price.
It

is

charcoal

difficulties

to

feed

only in

countries

obtaining

large

iron

adequate

and

steel

achieve a competitive

steel

the

which are needed to

in

extensive forests

with

use of charcoal for iron-smelting

is

that

the

to be profitable.

likely

6.4 Activated CharcoaL

The use of

charcoal

producing activated

for

very old when comparedwith

its

chemistry.

started

Markets

beginning of this
The term
carbons

first

have

carbon

develop

to

to

refers

undergone a

treatment to increase their

more

various
less

or

found that

the

of

the

forms

of

int ricate

and gas phase

forms and are used in liquid

processes. By taking
account

characteristics

or

powdered and granular

in

extruded)

absorption

around

not

absorptive properties.

Activated carbons are available

( or

metallurgy

century in Europe.

activated

which

carbon is

in

utilization

activated

of

carbons on

the

it

offer,

more than seventy types are currently

basic
is

dominating

the market.
Although

the

increased surface

capacity of alI

activated

of

area

the

surface

measure the

only

one of

factors

the

given

absorptive

capacity of a
purpose. The distribution
of the

specific
function
Steric

is

area and the

carbons are interrelated,

of

effects

the

different

pore

sizes

control- the access of

is

absorption
the size
needed to

carbon

for

pore volume as a
al-so important.

absorbate particles

to

internal

the

may be

grades of active
In

in

excluded

but

one case

an

carbon.

words, activated

other

absorbate molecule
for other
may be ufit'r

and therefore

surfaces

carbons with

total

large

surface

areas but with micropores may be effective in removing small

in
ineffective
from gases but
odour-causing impurities
absorbing

large

compounds from

colour-forming

shapes of activated

types,
carbon on the market (l).

Production capacitv

for activated

number of

150,000 t

l{estern Europe

I05,000 t

Eastern Europe

20, oo0 t

USSR
x)
_
Japan

70,000 t
f5,000 t

it

carbon,

the

was once
has

and the

considerations

rav{ material

only

partly

been

coai-, ligniter

carbonaceous materials:
moss. Price

replaced

Experience has shown that

the

quatity

of

materiai-s. 0n1y in

activated
f ield

the

eharcoal-based activated
Activated
low-yielding

carbon
process

in

to other SourceS.

rule,

factor

figure

for

there are no basic differences

other

raw

gas,/vapour applications

has

carbons made from

of

relation

whether charcoal- is
I.3

other

earbon remained of superior quality.

a
production
case
any
is
in

materials,
the

by

for

Ptroleum, coke, peat

of
limited availabitity

charcoal- vrere the main reaSons f or turning

in

and

carbon (1979)

North America

l{hereas charcoal
activated

great

the

may explain

This

solutions.
grades

to

the

input

the base or not.

can be applied

to

obtain

of

raw

As a general
a

realistic

the necessary input of raw char.

in the Philippines
producers have subsidiaries
il--Several
and do not manufacture activated carbon in Japan.
-184-

5.4.1 Synopsis of Industrial

Active Carbon Markets

Liquid phase applications

Drinking
industriaL
tropical

purification,

water

wastewater

centres,

fish

Purification
purification
tanks,

tanks.
fats,

breweries,

cLeaning in

operations,

cleaning

swimming pools,

plants,

treatment

of

in

tank

wastewater and

municipal

of

water

b e v e r a g e sr

oils,

of bottLes and winery

and pesticide spraying

cleaning

insecticide

baths,

eLectroplating

cleaning.

dry

Decolorizing
solutions

Vitamin
of
cane and beet-sugar solutions,
and pharmaceutical-s, high fructose corn syrup.

Gas/Vapourphase applications
Purification
Recirculated

of

exhaust

purification.

air

printing

recovery in

processes where high

machinery and in

immissions.

and

emissions
Solvent

matter

volatiLe

continuously being released. Prevention of offensive

Gas masks for

military

is

odours.

purposes.

and civil

0ther applications
Cigarette
for

filters,

platinum

depolarizator
rubber tires,

catalysts

in

additives

catalysts,

air-oxygen

electric

ce11s.

automotive evaporation control

The activated
legi sJ.ation

water
countries.

has led

whole and is

food,

for

Additives

for

systems.

carbon market has been stimuLated by the

on

industrialized
legislation

chemicaL processes, support

for

and palladium

and

1977,

Since

to a sizeable

expected to

l5 -

newly

growth of

increase

future.

control-

air-poll-ution

the

in

introduced

the market as a

growth rate

in

the

Specifications
The usability
content

its

and

Iow ash

wood charcoal- depends on its

of

Exceptionally

produced

with

good

charcoal

uniform

in

availability

quality.

from

can

carbons

activated

made

and

unvarying

sheLls

coconut

hardwood species, sawdust and wood waste, except bark.

In every case, the activated carbon producer sets
individual

standard and this

be
(4),
his

determined by his production

is

process. The requirements however will not vary much whether

products
liquid t
made for
finished
activated
are
the
gas/vapour phase or other applications.
Although

the

charcoal

producer may meet all

not
the

likely

to

material
of

in

the
it

testing
plant.

the purchaser is
the

Such

behaviour of

tests

comprise

absorption
the
to
determine
p r o d u c t o n m o d e J - s .T h e i n d u s t r y h a s

the finished

developed characteristics

such as the

methylene-blue value and isotherms of

the charcoal supplier
fact,
tests I
in
competent staff.

needs not

he

Average requirements
carbon production (2)

for

lacks

charcoal-

the

molasses figure,
benzene, etc.

involve

to

usually

Fixed carbon

the

usable

himself

However,
in

these

facilities

for

and

activated

82% m1n.

Ashes

4% max.

Vol-atiles

10%

M o is t u r e

4%

pH
pH refers

of

carbon

activated

criteria,

stated

without
pilot

the

procedures

sophisticated
capacity

take

to

offered

410
to

an acidity

test

of

charcoaL.

1 8 6-

water extract

from

the

6.5 Special-ity Markets f or Charcoal_

H o rt i c u l t u r e
Charcoal is
for

the

used in

grades as a top dressing

different

lawns and bowling greens. These top

mulch and also provide val-uable trace

improvement of

dressings

act

as

eLements as well as soil

Pigments for printing

sweetener.

and paints

Vegetable blacks are dense and show great strength.

Poul-try and animal feed
Feeds are sometimes supplemented with
prevent certain diseases.
The

above

speciality

however, provide

markets

good support

deveLoping countries aLso, if

6.6 CharcoaL for
Because of
is

attracting

f rom charcoal.
cars,

trucks,

suitable

for

are
to

c h a r c o a . l -f i n e s

limited.

to

They can,

charcoaL-maker in

the

properly used.

Producer Gas
the

world energy crisis,

much interest,

another application
generation

namely the

Producer gas is

best

of

gas

as a f ue.L f or

utilized

and farm vehicles in particular,

but is also
gas engines used for
g
e
n
eration
of
the

electricity.
Producer gas made from charcoaL is
c o m m o nu s e d u r i n g
where it

filled

wood tvas also in

car engines (5).

the

the

not

new, it

tvas in

Last

tvar in

some European countries

gap in

petrol

supplies.

widespread use as a fuel

for

At

that

time,

gas-propelled

advantages which make it

fuel:

a superior

7,000 kcal/kg

of

energy density

compared with

as

for dry wood

4,2OOkcal/kg

4-5 % as compared with

low moisture content of

air-dry

severaL

displays

resistance against pressure

high attrition
high

charcoal

wood,

When compared with

20 % for

wood

no predrying necessaly because of the low water content

and storage container can be kept small,
comparedwith wood generators.
the gasifier

present,

At
for

it

not

is

producer gas charcoal.

pubtished sporadieally

in

projects

aiming

expensive

petrol

electricity

for

It

is

the

of

his

taken

goals

the

countries.

I
I

kg dry wood =
=
kg charcoal

charcoal
to

the

equivalent

generate

to

project

planner

use of

charcoal

cubic

metres

^3 producer gas
^3 producer gas
4.75 ^3 producer gas.

ca. I.25

1.5

ca. 1.9

2.2

ca. 4.25

1 8 8-

All

independent of

are

producer gas which can be obtained is:

1 kg wet wood

place

in rural- areas.

attention

number of

the
is

countries

vehicles

Other

market

knowledge of

East African

make farm

r e c o m m e n d e dt h a t

practice,

To the

sawmills or villages

should devote part

as producer gas.
In

to

supplies.

the

t h e d e m a n dh a v e b e e n

developments have

South America and in

are

forecast

developing

in

Progressive

considerable.
already

to

Figures for

and rarely.

interest

the

author,

possible

as

of

6.7 Bv-Product Utilization

Pvrolvsis

OiI as a FueI

has been commerciatly demonstrated that pyrotysis oiI

is usabre as a riquid fuel and al-so has a potential as a raw
material for the production of acetic acid, fiBthanol, tar
It

oils,

creosotes, tar,
The oil

kilns,

(d).

has been used commercially as a fuel

steam

potential

etc.

as

boilers,

brick

lime

and

ki1ns,

in

cement

etc.

Its

fuer

resides in the fact that the heating

(between f,000 and 4,000 kcal/kg);
varue can be significant

other

advantages are that the viscosity can be controrred by

adding water (up to 25 %) and it is transportabLe in drums
and tank cars. The unlimited miscibility
with fuer oir No. 6
permits its
be

use in blends.

The applications of pyrolysis

found anywhere, especially in

believed

in

pyrolsis

oils

the

plants

demonstrated the

with

the

Experience gained in

that
future

recovery
of

is

rt

the

and can
commonly

utilization

as

the

knowLedge. The

superiority

them to be an excellent

industry.

industry

grow in
will
become pubric

opportunities
existing

charcoal

are manifold

oil

facts

of
and

economics of

pyrolytic

have
oir
p
r
o
c
e
s
s
e
s
these
and proved
of

investment for

the owner.

commerciat operations

has brought out

some important findings:

The oil

should contain

minimum of

15 % water

and a

maximumof

30 %. This serves to reduce viscosity

and
promotes better atomization. AIso, it appears to enhance
combustion.
The

oil

should

be

he a te d

flammability.

1 8 9-

to

75o C

to

enhance

Precautions must be taken in

the heating system so that

the oil

heated above 1I0o C-

cannot be advertently

Pyrolysis

are

oils

corrosion

a fraction

is

rate

and 3O4 stainless

of

all

parts

The

bfore

using

exposed to

the

but
for

copper

it

in

an

must

the oil

are:
water

than

heavier

is

oil

year

devices.

be replaced by corrosion-resistant
0ther characteristics

stee1,

per

a mil

Therefore,

steel.
burner,

regular

existing

mild

to

corrosive

and

forms

stable

emulsion with water.

The viscosity of the oil at a moisture concentration of
10 per cent or above is lower than the viscosity of No.
6 fuel- oiI.
The flash
Pvrolysis

oil

point

is

high.

in

Economic activities

fatty

activated

major

industry.

of
After

First

the
raw

the

that,

to the use of

tall-oiI
stores r rosin,
was neglected.
peak period
experienced a

oil

silvichemicals

and during
part

showed divergent

naval

carbon,

acid products pyrolysis

Pyrolytic
before

silvichemicals

I97O. References were made solely

trends until
charcoal

industry

as a feedstock for

World }r|ar. They provided

material

synthetic

for

the

products

rising

the

chemical

made from mineral

coal, crude oil and natural gas becamethe front runners and
0nly
were produced at low cost in very Iarge quantities.
during
the
last
ten years have the chemical and food
industries

started

silviehemicaLs.

to

turn

their

attention

back to pyrolytic

Although the
oil

fractionation

and extraction

pyrolysis

of

are not highly

skilled
to this

sophisticated operations, they do require

The normal approach of the charcoal industry
technology is first
to produce crude pyrorysis oir.

labour.

The investment for

this expansion is not high and it

d o n e g r a d u a l l y a s t h e m a r k e t s d e m a n di t .
The number and yietds
widely

of

silvichemicaLs

can be

obtainable

vary

according

to the composition of the raw materials.

severar of
them can be extracted
from armost any
pyrolysis
oi1 and they are, therefore,
described briefly
under here.
But

Acetic

aeid:

is

recovered

dark-brown liquid.
from it

technical

food industry,

as

acetic

glacial

16.60 C. Specifications

raw

acid,

yellow

to

commercial grades can be made

several

acid,

wood vinegar

for

the

acetic

acid which solidifies

at
grading vary from country to

for

country.
Methanol: can be separated by rectification
aeetic acid; it
is dark-ye11ow in colour

from the raw

and contains

smarl- quantities

of acetic, butyric and propionic acids.

Commercial grades are pure methanol (an alternate
fue]
for
cars and commercial_ vehicles),
wood spirit
for
denaturation,

chemicar solvent ,
various chemical processes (7).
Pyrolytic

and basic

products

for

tar:

can be obtained by settling

down from
pyrolysis oil and is derived at different
stages of the refining processes for raw acetic acid and

concentrated

raw methanol.
are

The commercial grades of

distinguished

by

viscosity

and calorific

They are

also

the

flash

values

di fferentiated

water.

1 9 1-

points
(:, g00
by

their

pyrolytic
( eO

lj3o

tars
C),

7r600 kcal /kg) .

solubirity

in

pitch:

Pyrolytic

or

dark-brown
supply

has a
distillation,
plants
normally

tar

Charcoal

coLour.

black

grades which are marked by their

different

four

of

residue

softening points.
Tar

recovered

are

oils:

and during

distillation

smeLl. More than

a characteristic
known

are

and
by

classified

acid

to

from transparent

colour

range in

made

specifications,

to

calorific

viscosity,

weight,

tar
they

refining;

dark-brown and have

10 commerciaL grades

according

specific

of

stages

various

at

raw acetic

used

widely

point diagram. They are

vaLue and boiling
the
wood and in
of
for
the preservation
process for

guaiacol,

of
is
a
mixture
creosote
c
l
e
a
r
,
p
h
e
n
o
l
phenols, and
ethers I a

pyrolysis

the

creosol,

Iight-ye11ow Iiquid,
direct

have a history
them for
In

must not turn dark if exposed to

product,
and
is
a high-priced

for

the residual

dating

At that
public

time,

back to

sevetal cities
w only

consists

in Austria

consider

exhaust pipe after

up the composition of the pyrolysis
In

the nineteenth
made use of

lighting.

c o m m o n u s a g er

it.

a charcoal- plant

gases of

the middle of

l-eaves the plant

from

pharmacopoeia.

are governed by national

or converter gas

retort

Applications
century.

it
This

sunlight.

specifications
Uses for

of ores.

the separation and beneficiation

Creosote:

flotation

other

words,

the

the

off-gas

which

the

vapours, which make

oil,

have been extracted

retort

or

converter

gas

o f t h e u n c o n d e n s a b . l -pea r t s .

Measurements and

observations

made

in

commerciaL

average
the
that
suggest
(
u
s
i
n
g
m
a
terial)
g
a
s
r
a
w
wood as
composition of the residualis: (5)
operations

over

the

years

192 -

59.O Vol. %

coz
c0

73.O Vol. %

Methane

3.5 Vol. %

H yd r o g e n

t.O Vol. %

Vapours, etc.

1.5 Vol. %

However, these
the

gas

figures

produced in
followed

and during

the

last

significantly

from

charcoal operations. In a
gas consists of air
initial

continuous
the

batchwise operated retort,

and watet,

deviate

wiIl

by a gas with
third

of

the

COZ and C0 contents

carbonization cycle, the

high

hydrocarbons and vapours and has a low

from
expelled
off-gas
the
point.
contrast,
In
flash
of
content
and its
is
uniform
operations
continuous

gas is

loaded with

combustible

depends

substances

temperature and raw material

From what is

said

gas

the

on

strictly

congruity.
can be deduced that there
or converter
value of retort

above, it

single calorific
fact, v1ues range between 850 kcal and I,500 kcal
??
per m' (at L5o C).
pIace, the gas is used in the carbonization
In the first
plant to heat the raw material dryer oI as fuel for the

cannot be a
gas.

In

charcoaL briquette
burn it

dryer.

in an auxiliary

very

Another

steam boiler.

popular

use is

to

The generated steam is

sold to another industry.

6.8 Svnopsis of Ma.iorUses of Charcoal and Bv-Products (1)
P r o d u ct

Rawmaterial

Application

CharcoaI,

Hardwood,sof twood

Activated carbon,
grill
silicon,

1u m p

metal
cyanide,
phide,
silicon

1 9 3-

working,

frrocoal,
sodium

carbon

disul-

Swedish

steel,

Product

Ra! material

Application

Charcoal

Charcoal, lump

Activated

carbon,

addi-

tive

animal

food,

granular

to

fillings

compound

Charcoal,

Charcoal, lump

dust

Activated carbon,
of

for

gsr hardener

bottled

moulds in

Iining

metal foun-

production
dries r
of
briquettes,
cementation

Pyrolytic

oils

Hardwood,softwood
agricultural

granulate,

pyrotechnics

Fuel

steam

boiler

solid

fuel,

for

wastes furnaces,
fired

engines,

tallurgy,

me-

fire-brick

factories,
material

for

etc. ,
raw
chemical_

indust ry
W o o dg a s

Hardwood,softwood
agricultural

Heating gas for all

wastes of

operations

solid

or

types
using

liquid

fueIs,

gas engines
W o o dv i n e g a r

Hardwood,softwood

Preservation
vouring

of

smoked fish,

and

fla-

meat
and
prfume and

aroma industry
W o o dt a r

Hardwood

Rope industry,
ary

m e d i c i n er

c r e o s ot e
C r u d e m e t h a n o L W o o da l c o h o l

Methyl acetate

r94 -

veterinpitch,

Product

Rawmaterial-

S oI v e n t

W o o da l c o h o l

Iication
and

esters

Cetlulose

sYnthe-

agglutinants '
lacquers

tics,
MethyI formate

MethyI acetate

CelluIose

and crude methanol

agglutinants '
tics, lacquers

Crude acetic

acid

food,
film
Crude acetic

acid

lacquers

Chemical,
cal,

Propionic acid

sYnthe-

and
esters
Crude wood vingegar CeIlulose
s
Y
n
t
heand crude methanol agglutinants,
tics,

Acetic acid

and

esters

Crude wood vinegar

p h a r m a c e u it -

foodr

convenience

rayon'

textile

industries,

Pharmaceuticals,

and

vinegar
flavour

and fragrances
Butyric

acid

Crude acetic

acid

PharmaceuticaL and

Per-

fume industries

6 . 9 C h a r c o a l -C o s t s a n d F u e l P r i c e s
The prospective charcoal-maker often wishes to invoke
by a comparison of his expected
approvaL of his project
charcoal costs with the prices of other fuels on the market.
Charcoal proiects
the following

are normally

based on one oI

concePts:

Production of charcoal as the sole fuel.

more of

Production

of

charcoal

associated

with

by-product

reeovery.
Production of charcoal
deveLoping countries.
Production of

charcoal to
domestic market.
Production

is

make a profit

of

charcoar- to make a
currency in export markets.

foreign
rt

household fuel

AS

obvious that

in

combination,

of

feedstocks

will

each of
require

in

for

use in

the exj.sting

profi t

or

to

earn

these concepts, by itself

alternatives

in

the

or

selection

and technology. Because universal

charcoal
costs do not exist, it is necessary to carry out a thorough
feasibility
study of individuar
projects
to protect
the
investor from unpleasant surprises.
comparison with
k e r o s e n er

oturaL

other

fuels

firewood,

kiln

charcoal,

gs,

b i t u m i n o u s c o a L, e t c .
is not an
and can only be accomplished by considering the
e n e r g y v a l _ u e so f t h e c o m p a r e d f u e l s .
easy task

To obtain

reriable

varues of

test

fuels

under
confined
conditions
question. Especially the efficiency
affected

by the deviees in

for

wirl

household use, a
best

answer

of cooking fuels

which they burnt

the

will

be

shape, size,

draught, etc.
In order to make definitive
statements concerning the
position of charcoal within the class of combustible fueIs,
a comparative evaluation must be made. rt
is here that
reclassifying
biomass with
fossil
energy for
major uses
becomes important

and that

the

anarysis

of

fuels

becomes

critical.
The following
tabre presents four
dried sewage sludge to bituminous coal:

1 9 6-

fuel

families

from

FueI Material

Ashes

Moisture

Higher heating
v a l -u e
KJlkq

kcal/kq

Premiumfuels
bituminous coal-

4.1

3 Lr 3 O O

7,5OO

bituminous coke

ll

26r7OO

6r4OO
7,2OO

charcoal,

Iump

33

55

f 0, 000

charcoal,

briquettes

99

44

27,OOO

6r4OO

37

10,500

2r5OO

L5

15,500

3,7oo

20,000

4,800

W o o df u e l s
hardwood, green

1.5

hardwood, dry

0.5

pine bark

2.9

sawdust, fresh

1.8

JJ
45

9, 500

0.8

I4

14,600

2 r3oO
3,5OO

coconut shells

2.5

T2

14r650

tr5oo

bovine manure

17.I

sawdust, dry
Waste-basedfuels

55

bagasse, wet

I.3

45

bagasse, dry

I.9

II

coffee husks

II

65

15 , 9 0 0

3, 800

8r35O

2, 000

15 , 9 0 0

], 800

6r55O

I,550

rice

hulls

I5.5

66

15,000

3r600

rice

straw

L9.2

66

14,800

3,55O

12,I00

2r9OO

paper-mill

sludge

IO.2

10

1 7. 4

I2

4r7OO

I, I20

butane/propane

45,600

I0,900

k e r o s e ne

44,3OO l0, 500

diesel oil

40,100

sewagesludge

FueIs with high hvdroqen content

9,600

0n the basis of

this fuel tabIe, certain statements can

be made concerning the reLationship of charcoal to the total
famiry of combustible fuels. The primary fueLs are those in
which both
the

carbon and hydrogen contribute

energy

value.

The

wood fuels

transitional
fuels between the
r r w a s t e - b a s e d f u e l _ s r. f

can

categories

significantly

to

be

considered as
of tpremium' and

For the development of a charcoal- cost projection, it is

to establish
whether charcoal- disprays a cl-oser
proximity to the premium or transition fuel category.
important

the position

To fix
group,

it

is

of

necessary to

charcoa.L within
look

at

the

the premium fuel

potential

analysis.

Traditionally,

sulphur and ash are

principal

impurities

combustion fuels.

combustion,

forms

combine with

in

S0Z which

raj.n to

is

form dilute

transformed into

other potentially
when these pollution
criteria

charcoal-

porlution

considered the

The sulphur r oD
pollutant.
It
can also

sulphurous acid r or can be

dangerous compounds.
are applied,

the vaLue of

can

be
appreciated,
and it
should
thus
be
under the top grade fuers shown in the table, if
regarded solely as an industrial
fuel.
The present price Level-s for I milrion
kcar bear out
this statement:

cl-assified

Charcoal:
Heating oil:
The attractive
are enjoying in
application

U.S.A.

U.S.$

tI.40

Europe

U.S.$

4 5. 6 0

Europe

u.s.$

t4.70

price

Levels which all charcoaJ- products

industrialized
countries do not permit their

processes where the nature of the product can

support the cost of expensive fuels
e.g., the extraction
of rare metaLs from their
ores r or for hardening quality
in

steels in metallurgy.
The picture

changes when one turns

developing countries.

to charcoal-making in
we assume production costs of $ 55

rf
$ 100 per ton, the purchase price of 1 mirtion kcal of
charcoal- energy wilr be between $ 7.go and $ r4.to.
rt is
obvious that charcoal for domestic use is competitive with
r 9 8-

any other fuel

prices
although fuel

the

of

almost

a n d p r e m i u m g r o u p s'
to
from country
greatly

primary

may valy
m
u
st be pointed out that when comparing
country. However, it
charcoal prices with fuels of the premium group, the fixed
carbon content of charcoal must be taken into consideration,
and

between 68 % and 85 %'

is given by the following formuLa:

ftuctuates

normally

this

necessaly correction
Charcoal:

US. $ 55/ton

fixedC=70%

US. $

fixedC=85%(spec.)

The

Charcoal for
metalIurgy :

$ ss x as = u.s. $ 66.79per ton

70
the

Based on fuel- costs,

b e r e c o m m e n d e df o r i r o n ,
extraction
pig-iron

sintering

charcoal can

industrial

nonferrous metals and steelmaking:

from

iron

OICS

1n

furnaces

blast

and

furnaces

electric

extraction
pig-iron

of

use of

o f m a n g a n e s ea n d f e r r o - s i l i c a
for steelmaking and for

from ores

foundry iron

processes

hardening.

steel

Charcoal

has

other

engaged in

countries

the

potential
build-up

uses
of

their

developing

in

own chemica'L

note that the chemicaL

of charcoal- has been commercially proved. In such
reactivity
the use of charcoaL will be judged not by its
applications,
al-so by physical- and chemicalbut
alone,
fuel
value
Here it

properties,

such as porosity,

content,

hydrophilic

is

important

industries.

to

density,

congruity

of

and hydrophobic chalacteristics.

the ash

6.10 Packing and shlpment for Export/Market strategv

The packing styre

is of great importance to attract

the
the merchandise.
rn recent years,3
kg or l0 kg paper bags have become
popular in industrialized
countries, whereas the jute bag is
paper
common in
developing
countries.
bags
have
a
buyer and to protect

rectangular
be set
or

in

shape and a flat

an upright

three-layer

printed

paper.

and carries

warning labels

bottom which allows the bag to

position.

Bags are made from two-1ayer

The outside

is

normally

three-coLour

brand names, advertisements,

wherever this

is

or

special

required by law.

For shipment;

two or more bags are packed together in

The baLer bag consists of strong craft paper which
is
usually
left
unprinted
and in
natural
colour.
For
identification
purposes, the baler carries the denomination
one bale.

of the contents on a slip affixed to the outside.

Baler packing is used whenever the charcoar is ,'dead
stackedt' for transportation.
The most frequently requested
means of transportation
is ',on palletsr'. Since two or more
pallets

are placed on top of each other, care has to be

taken to prevent the charcoaL bags from damageas a resuLt
of
unavoidable
shi fting
palrets
of
the
during
transportation;
this is one of the most frequent causes for
damage claims.
carton which is

The best known method at present is a box

praced over the parlet load, thus protecting

the content.
0verseas shipments are

made by containerization
only.
Dry cargo typer o enclosed container with one
large opening at the front side, is the preferred size.
The 40-foot

Approximately
industrial
truck,

market

trailer
protection (2).

or

7o

per

is
rail.

cent

of

transportet

arr
in

charcoaL

for

guantities

the

bulk
by
These shipments need good weather

chareoaL powder, special silo

Charcoal fines and dust aIe
or tank trucks are available.
shi-pped as open deck loads. Extreme cale
also frequently
to
load wet' primarily
must be taken to keep the entire
of

transportation

For the

but also to avoid dust nuisance.

caused
damage, demurrage chalges

prevent self-ignition
for

Expenses

or

detayed

reimbursed

the

charcoaL

by

fall

and

supplier

customarily

are

deliveries

inappropriate

by
his

undel

responsibility.
its

bulk shipment because of

in

without

not

classi f ied

this

in

transportation

contact

with

time.

curing

sufficient

of

accept

usually

not

do

fines
charcoal
charcoal,
i
g
n
i
t
i
n
g
goods, but
a s s e . lfThat

category.

special

carried

lump

briquettes,

powder are

certification

shipments without
Charcoal

absorb oxygen which

is
time
reasonable curing

tendency to

Forwarders

necessary.

therefore

listed

fires.

causes

frequently

immediate

for

ready

not

produced charcoal- is

Freshly

permits,

flammable

but

goods

are

shipped

may be

means they

and

must

not

SUch aS

be
tlood

products, etc.
Marketinq and business strategy
and particular

When one considers the variety

of

the

it

markets,

to

surmount many difficulties

charcoal

that

becomes evident
find

his

the

exigencies

newcomel must

pLace.

Even the

business can be commonly considered aS a

"buyet's

between the

various

marketrr.
There

many differentiations

are

apptications

and

the

eonstant

requirement

for

reliable

supply and uniform quality.

Another task is
technical
alterations

change
of

to

the fast-changing trends of

frequent
plocesses;
requires
this

follow-up

in

products

which can have a

strong

impact on

costs.
The legislative
product Iiabilities

a m e n d m e n t sf o r

trade,

are another concern.

- -20r20r

transportation

and

Customer contact and structuring

of the annual market
prices are very sensitive matters and these should be dealt
with on a strictly
personal basis, in an atmosphere of
mutual confidence.
Finally,
the attitude
All

the

new entrant

needs to

become familiar

with

and behaviour of his clients.

these

facts

have led

in

time

to

the

pursuance of

proved

market patterns
to find
optimal ways for product
promotion. Therefore, the charcoal supplier who cannot fa]1

back upon his own expertise or sales force will

normally
engage the servi.ces of a representative or an agency who can
provide the business and technicaL know-how. These services
include:
Market survey.
Material

tests.

Advertising.
Cl-ient contacts.
Price structuring.
Preparation of sales contracts,
Applications
0btaining
meet

for

customs, import Iicences,

saLes certificates

health

and

safety

stating
standards

etc.

that
and

the

products

legislative

requirements.
Handling customer complaints
0btaining bank approvals for

customer credit-1ines.

202202

Since
broker,

the

agent

he receives
and for

expenditures
on sales

resuLts

However, the

and are

eventual

success of

depend on the flexibility

in

out

set

local

reimburse him for

his

based strictly

Fees are

remuneration.

as

acts

representative

or

a commission to

annuaL contract.

an

business will

charcoal

and how quickly

of the supplier

he

can serve the needs of the customers.

Last

not

but

technical

least,

capability

of

be

success wilL
his

production

rel-ated

the

In other

facilities.

words, the design of the charcoaL plant

to

may be the limiting

factor.
5.11 WorId Production
In
major

many countries,
factor

of

domestic

these

products

crbonization

exists

in

countries,

without

.Laborious in junctions,

products

the

and this

material

taw

the

Since

trade.

represent

may be

shipped

makes them a stabl-e

m e r c h a n d is e .
The world chareoal production cannot be caLculated with
precision,

nor

are the

quantities

produced and consumed

a few countries provide

of

charcoal by-products known, s only

statistical

market

charcoal
inquiry

data.

developing

In

countries,

is

rarely

the l-evet of

into

consumer

research

in

the

undertaken. The most eLaborate

charcoaL production in developing

out by FAO in 1980, with the object of

providing the best possible estimates to the UN Conference
o n N e w a n d R e n e w a b l e S o u r c e s o f E n e r g y i n N a i r o b i ( 1 9 8 1) .

countries

was carried

Data were gathered through questionnaires

available

Although much effort

that

for

and

very

and by searching

reports.
many countries
few

Subsequently,

went into

was

it

there was a wide range of

countries
it

the survey'

had

decided

estimates as random observations.

reliable
to

treat

data
the

was found
estimates
available.
available

Having
pyrolytic
great

of

market

nature than gIobal

than
the

more

are

has

author

gathered

and

surveys

decades in

two

and they re.Late only to

done a

resuLts

and

punctual

of

the situation

in

countries.

Despite

these

more satisfactory
considering
charcoal

more

research

However, these

particular

for

and production,

research

deal

studies.

invol-ved

been

also

drawbacks, it
picture
the

of

possible

today's

available

shipments, the

is

to

build

up a

charcoaL production

import

experience of

figures,

by

evidence of

equipment suppliers,

etc.
Estimated Annual Charcoal Production
(Basis: 198I)
Area

.000 t/v

Remarks

Africa
East African countries

I50

I7O

Madagascar,Mauritius,
South Africa

85

Includes

charcoal

briquettes.
West African

countries

580

d00

A m er i c a s
Argentina, Brazil

4,9OO

charcoal

Includes
briquettes.

Canada, USA

1,400

85

charcoal

b r i q u e t t es
Central America

25

30

A si a
Peoplers Republic of China

2OO

45O

Philippines,

100

140

Sri

Lanka

India,

Mainly
shell
including
briquettes.

coconut
charcoal,
charcoal

Estimated Annual Charcoal Production

(Basis: I98l)
Area

.000 t/v

AustraJ-ia

NewZealand

70

Remarks

90

E ur o p e
EECcountries

110

Czechoslovakia, Hungary

1r0

Includes

charcoal

briquettes.
Includes

charcoal

briquettes.
Romania, Yugoslavia,

30

I n c . L u d e si m p o r t s

Scandinavia

from S. America

Poland, USSR

250

300

Not

including

Asian territories.
South Pacific
Although

Basin
the

from estimates,

10

figures
they

in

12

the

illustrate

general

and
show
South
charcoal-producing continent.

tabte

partly

are

charcoal

the

America

as

derived

situation
the

in

largest

FAO attempted a forecast

in the above-mentionedstudy by
production figures with those of r97o.

comparing the latest

The

resul-ts

charcoaL has
fact,

show clearly

that

increased

arr

in

demand and
the

in

no case has a decrease of

found between I976 and 1980.
Although there
charcoal- output,
commodities

has

is

it

countries

obvious that

been

accelerating

world-wide energy crisis

of

searched.

rn

charcoal production been

no way to quantify

is

production

the upward trend of

the surge for

since

becamevisible.

1972,

pyrolytic
when the

increased and improved charcoal cookery, the

producer gas propelled engines and the recognition

need for

pyrolsis

value of

the

industrialized

in

for

countries
of

people

of

desire

the

addition,

In

fuel

for

as a substitute

oil

oil

impetus to charcoal production.

Presently only a few developing countries are servicing
countries.
with their exports the markets of industrialised
g
o
v
e
rnments and
But there is a growing awareness at the

has already given a further

private

of

enterprises

currency by foreign
the

0n

other

and

traders

for

cropping

side

the

companies

become very

industry r charcoal
industrialised
the

charcoal
of

to

observant

which reach the desks of all

existent

the

opportunities with accessible partners there.

the growing
in
This trend becomes visible
inquiries

hard

charcoal- trade.

shipping

have

countries

potentials

the

flood

of

people concerned with

the business.
Charcoal- exports
failing

packing materials
fixed
It

have

to meet the quality

curbed

been

most

in

standards, by Lack of

and unreliabLe

supply in

cases

by

available

terms of

meeting

shipping dates.
wel-I understood that

is

increase in

all

the

developing countries

charcoal

consuming will

the improvement of
a convenience fuel for

with

living conditions because charcoaL is

the households and the advantages must not be repeated here.
around the
However, the important questions spiraling
implications

for

the

domestic

markets

in

developing

remain unanswered as Iong as these countries

materiaL and a
are lacking of the respective statisticaL
national charcoaL programme.

countries

will

References
(1) H. Messman,ttWhatis

Charcoal?t', paper presented at 12th

Biennial

(2) l{.

Emrich,

Countries

The
and

Charcoal

the

Markets

Impacts

Briquetting

for

Conf. of the Institute

Agglomeration (IBA), USA, I97I.

in

Industrial-ized

Charcoal

of

and

Exports

in

Developing Countries, FAOReport, Rome, 1981.

(7) J.

Hassler,

Purification

with

Activated

Carbon, Chem.

P u b l . C o. , N e w Y o r k , U . S . A . I 9 7 4 .
(4) J.

Woodroof, Coconuts: Production,

AVI Publ. Co., Inc.,

(5) L.

Processing, Products,

Westport, Conn., U.S.A. I97O.

J a e g e r , G r u n d l a g e n d e r H o l - z g a s a n l a g e nf u e r

u n d f a h r b a r e n _J e ! r r e ! -

or!sfesten

Muenchen, F. R. G., L9V5

(6) M. Kl-ar, Technologie der Holzverkohlung, Berlin,

Q)

E.

Plassmann, 0n the

Trail

of

Center, Wolfsburg, F.R.G, I974.

New Fuels ,

1910.

Vl,{ Research

Chapter 7
OF EQUIPMENT
A N DS E L E C T I O N
P L A N N I N GA C H A R C O AVLE N T U R E

In

fast-changing

today's

with

world

great

its

is
essential
it
renewable energy
sources,
prospective
the
charcoaL-maker be aware of
available

him. An important

to

achievable
a great

yield

energy

deal

the

and a

is

yield

value

under
must be

among others,
the

of

figures

the charcoal industry

liquid

and

that

very

presented

are

not

sufficiently

and hence can be very misleading.

European experience has proved that,

the energy recovered from a raw material
following

S a general rule,
does not exceed the

vaLues:

Simple charcoal kilns:

charcoal pits,
18-22 %

earthmoundkiln
Brick and metal kilns

24-28 %

Retorts without by-product recovery

JO-J5 %

Biomass converter with recovery of

b y - p r o d u ct s

55-80 %

These

data

were

c o m m o ni n t r o p i c a l
the

dry

value of

any.

known in

al-so well

the

often
reliable

energy

equipment

to establish;

necessary, and tests

carbon content and calorific

defined

gaseous by-products, if
It

and

materials

raw

parameters. These are,

fixed

weight,

charr

the

from

experience is

of

performed on firm
material

limits

always be the

wilI

criterion

comparisons are difficult

Yield

consideration.

the

the technology and the choice of

of

opportunities

need for
that

varieties

of

obtained

countries.
agricultural

from

hardwood species

not

Also they cannot be applied to

residues.

They should

the planner more or less as rough guidelines.

serve

However, it

is

modern technology offers

obvious that

significant

economic advantage

utilization

as compared with

The benefits
profits
the

of

industrial

from the

saving

of

fu1ler

of

ratv material

superior

traditional

the

methods.

charring

charcoaL making incLude increased

use of forest products as well as

silvicultural

and

cost

resources.

natural

Advantages and rewards wiII not depend on the size of the

charcoaL production, whether it be a small--scaLe plant in a
remote sawmill

or

compound. They
planning,

large

will

operation

rather

be

within

the design and the organization

industrial

an

to

related

the

way

the

have been executed.

National pl-anning
In

particul-arly

developing countries,

where charcoal- is

to becomea basic industrial

raw material on a large scale,

p
l
a
n
n
i
n
g
the
should ensure that long-term wishes are Iikely
to be satisfied.
It

is

certainly

entrepreneur,

not

including

itinerant

worry about long-term planning,

Planning,

Forest

or

for

the

benefit

of

the

the

small
to

charcoal-maker,
is

essential

the

that

Department which supplies

the proposed plant

country.

should be carried

plan for

A national

but it

Agricultural

the raw material-s ensures that

charcoaL industry

for

necessary

the

The work

of

wiIl

work

planning

out at two leve.l-s:

which must fit

the charcoal industry

in with the development aims of the country.

2.

Planning
the

for

particular

objectives

above.

Planning

projects

be

planning

at

the

national-

converted

industrial

heating

production

cost,

required.

This

principles

the

account the annual increment of

safely

which must conform to

of

into

gas.

It

transport

Level

take

into

pyrolysis

which can
oiI

and

focuses on the probable

and marketing

fu11 appraisal

down

raw materials

charcoal,
also

wiIl

Iaid

organizations

should therefore

be done

by

an

economist,

National

Planning

coordinating

faet

will

agricultural

much importance for

become of

entrepreneur

in

trend,

already

in

established

industrialized

thinners
Initially,

thinners

raw material
from

less

of

were intended

reserves,

carbon.

in

But

other

markets

to

stretch

deveLoping

briquetters.
the

precious

their

use them in

that

countries

governments becomeaware that

the use of

gain more benefits

have adapted to the rrlong

budget. We are confident

in

on

is

words to

fuel-s and customers know how to

the family

catch

the
with

countries

developing

is forecast to spread widely: this

(energy
charcoal
extender)
by

cooking"

of various departments.

wastes in abundance.

Another
countries,

the

Iiaison,

to
available
techniques
are
quantities of feedstocks economically.

certainly

and

as

or

of

out

directly

proved

carbonize even small

This

Department

the interests

Commercially

planner

either

working

trend

this
s

also,

favour
will
as

soon

natural- resources can be

extended to serve a broader population or to raise exports.

of

The greatest impact may be expected from the development

I'Integrated Charcoal-Making Concepts'r. In a broad sense,

this

term

industrial

applies

projects

to
the

end

an

existing

on the plannerrs desk.

system or to one stili.

Whereas until

to

attached

of

Second World

the

Wat,

charcoaL operation

was based solely on the availability

charcoal plants wilI
be set up primarily

wood, future

predetermined purpose.

serve

plant

will

be

designed to

material

reserve

keyword

for

capability
fitting

with
into

by

future
other
a

make the
a

supplying
plants

state

will

industries
or

In

other

best

variety
be

-210-

the

use of the
of products.

their

to

future
rav
The

interlocking

and energy consumers, and

country-wide

programme.

words,

a
of

household

supply

7.1 Planning of Projects

modern

in

integration

industry.

iron

appraisal

in

It

is

order to

ploiects,

or future

existing

necessary

it

designed

.9.,
out

calry

to

that

ascertain

be

can

industry

charcoal

objectives

stages in

proof.

anal-ysis.

C o m m e r i c a l -a n d f i n a n c i a L
and risk

and alternatives.

Appraisal of suggested technology and its

SociaI cost/benef it

a charcoala project

economically and

is

sociatly sound. A commonly adopted sequence of

project appraisal is the following:
Study of project

for

(including

analysis

sensitivity

analysis ).

Other economic considerations.

C o n c l - u s i o n sa n d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s
Charcoal- Concept depends
therefore Figure 49 can only

The above-mentioned Integrated

on

situation

local

the

and

convey ideas.
A charcoal plant may deLiver its char to an activated
oI make briquettes
carbon producer, an iron oI steel millr
for the domestic and expolt markets, etc. At the same time,
it

can supply pyrolysis

for

as a fuel

oil

factory '
steam
industrial

a brick

particle

board plant,

boilers.

The options are numerousand cannot be described in

detail

in this

If
charcoal

the

industry

department,

orland

handbook.

decision

socio-economic

distill-eries

is

or

benefits

most

likely

the

made that
expansion

its

is

development of
likely

country,

to

the

the

planning

to

bring

government

department,

should

Woodwastes

%%

tf^Xtf^X
'"uLo
//

Ac ti v a te d
Carbon

Existi ng
Industry:
Charcoal
V a r i o u su s e s
Barbeque
briq.
Pharmaceut.
MetalI urgy

0rganic
I iquids
Methanol

ww

Disti I I eri es
Sugar
Cottonbin
I'loodextract.
Ore refinery
P u l p+ p a p e r
Particle board
llood industry
etc.

1,9o^
"r-r?rd"r-r?rd

Ag r i c ul t ur e
l'lastes

FigUfg

49.

T h ei n t e g r a t e dc a r b o n i z a t i o cno n c e p t
with four carbonizers.

Various
R a wm a t e r i a l s

appoint

agriculture
This

coordinator

in

interests

forestry,

a n d c h e m i s t r y t o h e a d t h e n e w c h a r c o a J .s e c t i o n .
would be given

section

maximum effort
decision

with

put

is

to

institute

coordinator,

whose

or

development of f icer,
Investigation

into

task

the

the

ensuring that

of

of

implementation

expand the charcoal- industry.

suggested

woul-d

title

be

the
The

charcoal

w o u . L dh a v e t h e f o l - l o w i n g d u t i e s :

of all

possible raw materia.l-sources.

Survey of the l-ocaI and export markets.

Designing a research programme.
Sel-ection and hiring

of consulting

The charcoal- development officer

with

the training

of

l-ocaL staff.

services.
woul-d also be concerned

A training

p r o g r a m m ew i I l

comprise:
Basic explanation of the principle
The correlation

of carbonization.

between raw material

type,

drying

preparing and

of feedstocks and its

effect upon the
char, pyrolysis oil and gaseous energy.

Practical

avail-able in
of

plant

demonstrations on a pilot

such pilot

deveLoping countries)
projects

or

the

yield

of

(usua1ly not
construction

may be the major objective

of the

course.
Safety precautions and first

aid.

Costs, bookkeeping, and marketing.

Each course shoul-d be terminated

-2t3-

by

an examination at

awards should be set

marks for

which the standard of

fairly

high.
industry

shouLd

up

properly

to

set

be

made before

The decision

charcoal

olganized

organization

the

Information

charcoal- research and development team.

of

gained

lead to modification of
from research and deveLoomentwill
close
therefore
and
the
SUggested projects
some of
D
e
p
a
r
t
m
e
nt is
with the Planning
and liaison
consultation
essential.
present

At
on

identification

the
all

long

period

on the

of

of

compounds in

is

concentrating
pyrotytic

the

oils

Research had been dormant during

materials.

from

research

chemical charcoal

cheap petroleum.
of pylolytic

oil

focusing

is

Today interest

ingredients

the

raw materials

as rare

the chemical, pharmaceutical- and cosmetic industries to

in the
origin
for compounds which have their
substitute
for

synthesis
are
as

farther
an

petroleum derivates.

of

reaching.

Extracts

fuel

alternative

for

pyrolysis

of

carS,

genetators,

equipment and electric

howevert

Some objectives,

if

can Serve

oiLs

trucks,

gricultural

properly

prepared and

gasi fied.
Cogeneration of
part

of

possible
sale of
costs

has

energy

again

become an

essential

Numerous combinations are

the charcoal industry.
and can be devetoped. The credits gained from the
a major part of operationaL
by-products can set-off
appears that

and it

more attractive

these

contributions

wiII

become

in the future.

(CISR-Lambiotte
Appendix I
bring
plant and Vertical
Flow Converter ( Tech-Air) plant)
of a modern plant and give an
out the main characteristics
The case

insight

studies

given

in

the planning process.

into

7.2 Selection of Charcoal Equipment

The heart
converter.
variations

In

of
a

the charcoaL plant

strict

between retorts

senSe,

is

there

the
aIe

and converters.
- 2r4

kilnr
no

rtort

or

perceivable

any event, the yield

quality, the quantity of

In
its

of

charcoal,

the

uniformity

of

and gaseous by-products,

liquid

the throughput and output of the plant will be determined by

the conversion equipment seLected. rf a decision has been
made about the type of operation, the other parts of the
factory

must be adjusted to it.

0n the other hand, the raw material

wood

logs,

fine

or

coarse

non-agriculturaL,

wiIl

retort /converter

and the

material,

influence
kind

type

of

long or short
griculturaL

the

choice

or
kiln,

of

batchwise or

operation

continuous.
It

w a s d i s c o v e r e d v e r y e a r l y t h a t t h e e n e r g y d e m a n do f a
process is
charcoaling
closely
rel-ated to
the
retort
capacity, if the operation takes place batchwise. However,
yields

the

of

charcoal

and

by-products

are

little

very

affected by alterations
of the retort
capacity.
The same
p h e n o m e n o nc a n b e o b s e r v e d w i t h c i r c u l a r ,
i
nsulated
werl
earthmound kilns,
although
measurements are
reliable
extremely difficult.
this

chapter

The table

summarizes data

given in
which

the introduction
were

to
from

collected

European plants operating with hardwoodspecies.

The energy demandof
not onry to

retort

the charcoaling

capacity

process is

and moisture content of

related
the raw

feed,

but al-so depends on the efficiency

of
the heat
exchange between the ambient heating gas and the surface of
the raw material parts or particles.
rn a batchwise operated
retort

or

converter,

the

individual

parts

of
the
raw
remain al-most immobile, or are at best in very srow
motion during the entire carbonization cycle of many hours
or days. Under these conditions, access to the surface of

materiar

the raw material

the

parts

sufficientry

wilr

parts
also

will

be made more difficult.

remain close

exposed to

the

together

heating

and wirl

gases.

frequentry

observed in

resul-ts in

the discharge of a high proportion

poorly

This

operated charcoar

half-burned wood loos.

zLs--zLs

some of

of

not

effect
kilns

be
is
and

unburned or

the diameter and length of

of the heating gas

dimensions for

specific

charging,

kiLns

and almost aII

the retorts

the reason why most of

require, for their ploper

also

is

Heat exchange efficiency

penetration

0therwise,
not be adequate to meet the necessary velocity rate
heat exchange because of the high density of the charge.
Considerable improvement of the heat exchange can
the

wood 1ogs.

of

will

converter

opelated

continuously

demonstrated in

is

effect

kept in

the feed is

achieved if

steady movement, e.9.,

plant.

This

il't a

energy-saving
for

table

following

the

be

the

in comparison with the

In both cases, log
r
e
t
o
rt.
R
e
i
c
h
e
r
t
a
batchwise operation of
sizes and moisture content of the feed were identical (1).
SIFIC retort

opelated

continuously

R E I C H E R Tr e t o r t

SIFIC retort
C h ar c o a l
M et h a n o l
Acetic acid

of

Insulation
important

the

in

prevaLent.

kiln,

aIl

issue in

b e . L o w1 5 o C o r
are

19

2J

77

66

70

340 kcal/kg dry wood

2L KWh/t dry wood

5 . 6 K W h t/ d r y w o o d

demand

Electri.

23
17 kcal/kg dry wood

Heating demand

Ietort

countries

locations
Losses

of

350

770

t5 0

330

dry wood

kg/t

dry wood

kg/t

Yield of:

converter

or

becomes an

s e a s o n a . l -t e m p e r a t u r e s

with

where high
tangible

wind-chilI

factors

ale

usually

heat

negLigible in hot cl-imates, even at night.

between systems which heat
t h e w o o d b y e x t e r n a l m e a n s , u s i n g w o o d , o i I , 9 sr e t c . , a n d
systems which all-ow combustion on a limited scale to occur
inside the carbonizer by burning part of the wood charge and
a major difference

There is

heat

to

dry

and carbonize

using

this

latter

method shouLd be the most efficient

generated where it
practice,

it

extra wood is

is

needed, using

the

remainder.

The

since the heat is

Low-cost wood fuel.

In

to control- the combustion and some

burned which lowers the yield.

is

difficult

of

The uniformity
and

is

by-products

quality

the

this

charcoal,

is

directly

batchwise operations and

course, the terminaL temperature of

the Iaw material.

the residence time of

designed chareoal retort

temperature
as

internally

means of

heated

possibilities

found

traditional

are

and

carbonization

ale

controlled.

The

three

in

cost,

lowest

is

which

earth,

and steel- which is

are further subdivided into

intermediate

the most expensive. SteeI kilns

portable

flexibility

the

manually

and

masonry of

oI

Therefore, the well

can be judged by its

to alterations.

KitnS

bricks

converter

install-ation,

control

sensitivity

or

the

of

temperature

the

to

related

the

for

carbon content

fixed

the

conSUmer. As one regards

produced charcoal

consideration

important

an

the

of

cost,

and fixed types.

possess two advantages: they can be

moved easily,
which may be useful, and they cool quickly '
is not
allowing a shorter cyele time. However, portability
Portable steel

always beneficial,

kilns

to

becomes difficult

it

since

and supervise production

efficiently;

organize

moIeoveI, fixed

brick

water into
can be cooled quite rapidly by injecting
(
w
i
t
h
care!). Although cyele times are stil-1 around
the kiln
the
six to eight days, compared with two for steel kilns,

kilns

greater

v o l - u m ea n d m u c h l o w e r c o s t

preferable
Earth
are

slow

charcoal

except where portability

burning

non-existent,
has

It
material

is essential.

even when operated efficiently '

and contaminate the
sl-ow cooling

and

earth.

Howevet, where capital

is

limited

oI

they have real- advantages.

been

and the

demand a

make them

and pits,

kilns
with

kilns

of brick

certain

mentioned before
size

of

kiln,

individual
Itort

oI

that
parts

of

raw

or. particles

may

the

converter.

type
As a

thumb, raw material- sizes not exceeding 100 mm in

rul-e of

length

and

25 mm cannot be satisfactorily
converted in a batchwise operation. Such raw materials may
have been discharged by sawmills in the form of chips or

with

m a x i m u md i a m e t e r

of

- 2 t 7-

by plantations

sawdust, or
in

form of

the

pulpa

husks,

nutshells,

from coffee

or

twigletst

hu11s, Ieaves,

bagasse from the

They

sugar industry.

have been produced artificially

may also

crop processors

and agriculturaL

by wood chippers'

etc. fn any event, they tend to cause high

density charges (in some cases they have to be compacted
first)
when fed into the converter, consequently reducing
farm shredders,

the heat exchange efficiency

significantly.
is

The equipment supplier

and manufacture special machinery for

to

obliged

therefore

design

the charcoaL producer.

Basic equipment list

Raw material

receipt

saw, roller

and preparation:
in

SCreen. The feasibility

must be proved by a test.
chain,

Raw material

dryer:

chain

shredder,

band saw, chipper,

saw, circular

hammer mi11, drag

screvt dryer,

band dryer,

situation

each special

and

single

type
a
special
multi-pass
rotary
of
dryer,
dryer
( L a m b i o t t e) , g r a i n d r y e r , p n e u m a t i c d r y e r , c o n v e y o r b e l t ,
elevator,
lectro-magnet for the removal of iron debris,
silo.

Drying tests

drying

is

not

raw feed is

svstem,

cooler,

demister,

oil

When the

sufficient.

moisture content

less than 20 %, drying is

0ff-gas

pump, piping,

off-gas

r e c o m m e n d e dw h e r e s u n o r a i r

are strongly

pyrolysis

oiI

of

the

not usually necessary.

recoverv:

water

scrubber,

val-ves, temperature control,

storage tank. Major parts of the

draught fan,
tubing,

system must be made from copper,

ceramics or wood. The size

of

the

stainless

scrubber and the

steel,
surface

area of the water cooler must be determined individually.

F La r e

stack:

chimney,

piek-up

for

heating

excess

gas

is

automatic

gas supply,

required

by

burner,

burner

draught fan.

If

chamber,

burning of

environmental- legislation,

special design is necessary.

- -2t82t8

particul-ar

plants.

has

equipment as much as possible;

second

employ

to

can

minor aLterat.i-ons,

with

industries

become common plactice

be necessary in

charcoal- plant

industrial

an

Since

use machinery f rom other

it

will

the above list

the items in

Not all

hand

could leduce the initial

this

investment costs considerably.

the

Traditionally,

to

take

logical

the

difficult

very

of

usually

technology

new

economic
is

aIe dominant, it

introduce

to

precarious

their

Where socia.l- f actors

situation.

those who cannot afford

for

option

because

risks

societies

in

method which is

is

locality

rural

charcoal-making. To use the

known to work successfully in a

part

has played an important

established

wisdom of

inherited

of

are changed.
unl-ess the
social- f actors
one sees attempts to modify the technology of
charcoal-making by providing aid: inputs such as chain saws'
ar'e no longer
new kilns
and So on. When these inputs
charcoal-making

Frequently

available,
to

the

evaluated
But

revert
obvious

successful method with all its

fauLts. Therefore, carbonizing methods cannot be
sociaL
just
on the basis of technicai- factors:

are of equal importance.

good technology

improving
permit,

the producers to

traditional,

technicaL
factors

economic necessity forces

social

conditions.

methods which give

the

in

important

is

long

run

in

factors

social
Therefore, if
yields of better

quality

higher

charcoal- at Lower cost should be used.

charcoalTechnical equipment appropriate to industrial
production on a smalL scale has come into use only since
1 9 6 5 . S i n c e t h e n , t h e s e n e w d e v e l - o p m e n t sh a v e f o l l o w e d a n
ever-j.ncreasing upward trend,

preViously

not

known in

the

that

the

of

the

charcoal- industry.
It

may come as

investment

costS

entrepreneur
allows

ale

surprise
frequently

because the

the investor

add new capital

to

to
a

minor

adaptability

reduce his

risks

equipment whenever his

a n d t h e m a r k e t d e m a n d si t .

outsider

the
of

conceln

modern equipment

considerably
funding is

and to

sufficient

7.3 Conclusions
Charcoal
energy

is

sources

growth

that

the

derivatives

chemicaL industry

use

of

industrialized
as an industrial

to

to

and household fuel

and

its

be

closer

of

marked as is

the

effect

usually

frequently

wages,

lower

Much of
agricultural

use in

outlays

for

developing countries.
in

comparison shows that

the

differences

outlay

costs

for

the

are

the investment is

considerable

as

not

for

the

utilities,

abundant resources

residues is

at

of

labour

and

higher

of the product.

forestal-

waste and

present untapped, burnt

the lack of technical

it

high,
in

savings

through upgrading the quality

wasted owing to

practices.

capital

thought.

compensated by

profitability

their

improved

of

or sma11, appear at first

and

concerned,

Where the capital

is

to their

analysis

plant

the

forms of

be important

increase

will

synergistic
that

in

level-

cost per ton of charcoal produced, over the

terms of capital
life

and rise

in developing countries.

by-products
the

admitted

be a barrier

However, a

and

Thereafter,

Low

never ceased to

improved charcoal equipment, Iarge

sight

iron

where more concentrated

But it

because of

must

was once

of

ago.

charcoal technology and advanced silviculturalIt

the

It

sparked the start

declined

countries,

Charcoal

the extraction

hundred years

charcoal

energy were available.

contribution

namely,

of

over the world.

Charcoal and its

the

for

class

ores and paved the way to industrial

other metals from their

of

rapidly;

household and industry.

and only fuel

development alI

the

to

belonging

growing

is

supplementary fuel-s for

mankind's first

fuel

expertise

away or

and economic

e n c o u r a g e m e n tb y g o v e r n m e n t s . B e c a u s e t h e s e e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s
are

renewable and their

the

overall

charcoal
developing

utilization

technology

carbonization
forests

of
has

special

countries

need additional

can help

and farm crops,

significance

which hold these large

funds to practice economically.
220--220

to

optimize
the
for

reserves

new
aIl
and

What should governmentsdo?

Either

the Planning Department or in

within

Department, a
the

section

promotion

of

should

the Forestry

up concerned with

be set

charcoal

industrial

well-organized

production.
Guidelines

measures should be issued to

legislative

or

define

and clarify

within

the existing

Since

modern

the

place

industry

energy concept.

charcoal

technology

resources provided by forests,

administrative

charcoal

the

of

roadblocks

must be removed to

give

between

alI

on

draws

biomass

and agricul-turet

industry

competing

agencies

concerned a cl-ear view of

the nationaL concept.

or

fiasco

Therefore,
priorities
the fuel

the success

the government holds the key to

preservation
of
resource

Eventually,

the
for

for

administration
the use of

must

programmes.

clearly

nationaL reserves

households and industry

wilI

state

from which

be made in

the

future.
F u r t h e r r e c o m m e n d a t i o n sa r e :
A pilot

should be implemented to

demonstration project

investigate

the

validity

planned

of

ventures

and

to

study operating characteristics.

T r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e ss h o u l d b e c o n d u c t e d .
Data

should

industrial

be

coLl-ected on

applications

for

industry.

- -221221

resources,

products

of

markets
the

and

charcoal

should be disseminated to interested

Information

and private

universities,
A

study

should

investors.

be made of

equipment suppliers

groups,

the

possibilities

potential

and their

to

of

loca1

provide

the

necessary equipment from indigenous maintenance shops.

Industrial
together
depletion.
priority

charcoal-making

and

can

But
is

to

be

and

instrumental-

much work
spread

remains

information

modern charcoal-making to utilize

silviculture
preventing

in
to

be
on

done.

the

go

wel-I

resource
The

first

capability

of

waste materiaLs.

R ef e r e n c e s
(1) F.

F l u e g g er

C h e m i s c h e T e c h n o . l - o g i ed e s H o l z e s ,

Munich FRG, 1954

( S e,

57),

Chapter 8
LANUFACTURING
A N D A C T I V A T E DC H A R C O AM
C H A R C O ABLR I Q U E T T E S

in

make charcoal more convenient

applications require charcoal

always a need to

There is

use, and special

industrial

in agglomerated shapes. For this purposer severaL techniques

producer:
extrusion,
charcoal
the
to
available
are
pelletizing

and briquetting.

The l-atter
units

be

can

excess heating

is

by far

attached
gas for

tons

per

the

year.

dryer.

briquetting
from

starting

designed economicatly,
hundred

t h e m o s t c o m m o nm e t h o d . B r i q u e t t i n g
plant
using
to the carbonization
a

of

capacity
known

largest

The

They can be
a

few

briquetting

operations turn out between 70,000 and 80r000 tons annually,

and
pressing,
drying
employing automatic equipment for
bagging.
The
materiaL
with

term

I'briquettesrr

obtained

a binder.

molasses, tar,
Further

by

normally

is

thoroughly

This is

mixing

liquid

a thick

applied

to

the

powdered charcoal
of

consisting

starch,

etc.
are inorganic

additives

fillers

which delay the

and ignition
briquette,
the
burning
rel-ease of
r
r
e
a
s
y
l
i
ghtingrr.
enhancels (sodium nitrate) to make them
by
cannot be Iit
In any event, charcoal briquettes
heat

simply putting
aIe

paper. or

liquid)

a match to them. The usual kindling

the

charcoaL

lighters

sold in stores.

8.1 The Briquetting

The

special

material-s
( solid
and

equipment

medium-sized plant

Process (1)
here

described
with

a briquetting

5,000 tons/y.
- zLj

is

suitable

capacity

of

for
1'000

aa

to

Preparation:

The raw material is received in a hopper and an

accurate feeder accumulates the charcoal and feeds it to the
pulverizet.
The total plant output is centred in the feeder
and pulverizer.
Crushinq:

Usually

hammer mill

is

installed

to

the

size

material

to the desired screen analysis. The screen analysis

will
depend very much on the type of briquette
to be
produced.
Mixinq:

A mixer which provides

guarantee

complete

blending

the

extra

with

retention

the

time

to

fi1ler,

binder,

additives,

etc.
is
necessary. Thorough mixing
reduce the quantity of binder considerably.

can

also

F o r m i n g : T h e m o s t c o m m o n l yu s e d p r e s s e s a r e t h e r o l _ l - e r t y p e s
that may be adjusted to differnt
pressures and speeds. Photo
14 shows a roIler
press discharging
Photo 15 a close-up of the briquettes.
Selection

of

binder:

be applied.

Tests will

suited

will

and

briquettes

T h e m o s t c o m m o nb i n d e r i s

As weIl as alL types of starch,

attention

pillow

also

corn starch.

sugar cane molasses can also

show which type

determine

should be paid to

the

of

resistant

to
18 months (2).

Selection

any

of

filler:

This

incombustible mineral.
other

materials

frequently

as

ground

briquettes.

oyster

should be

at

must be

least

consists
shells

The addition

total

smoke caused

In most cases, limestone is

such

found in

agression,

additive

Much

the

Also the briquettes

fermentation

best

because the cost

0dour and visible

by some binders are undesirable.

is

composition.

question,

this

binder

of the binder wilI

contribute
signi ficantly
to
production cost of the briquettes.
The briquettes
subjected to a burning test.

and

of

of

for

an

used, but
are
a

also
filler

Upper
pressureplate

qq
art of mould

tonfl
Plston plate

H ydraul i c cyl i nder

Tabl estand

F'igure

50.

S i m p l eC h a r c o a lB r i q u e t t i n g P r e s s
( C o u r t e s yo f C a r b o nI n t e r n a t i o n a l , L t d . ,
N e u - l s e n b u r gF, . R . G . )
_226_

serves

two

sl-ow heat
cal-orific

purposes:

prolongation

(bakeoven effect ) ; and reduction

value of the briquette (fuel-saving effect).

particularly

characteristics,

burning

display

composition will

the

of

release

A weLl balanced briquette

by

cooking time

the

of

superior
when

time,

cooking

compared with lump charcoal-.

their

energy extenders because of

will

wear out

are not suitable as

they
abrasive propelties;

fillers

Sand and high silica-containing

the moulds of

the briquette

press in

a short

found

numerous

period of time.

during

additives

or

fermentation,
is

involved.
i.. to give

purposes only,

f Iame col-our.

a certain

Equipment

8.1 .1 Simple Briquetting

Frequently
in

small

produce

to

be

is

likes

charcoal-maker
a s s e m b L e de a s i l y

to

operations
markets

In

turn

these

all
to

not

equipment

and

the

where

demanding high
the

situations
which

can

be

by Local workshops.

capital

weight on the

dumped into

briquettes.

charcoal

the

charcoal-

arises

equipment

l-ow cost

for

need

the

especially

If

prevent

serve decorative

additives

enhance the

which will

proceSses when charcoal

chemical

accelerate

grade

10 years

Iast

characteristics,

ignition
0ther

the

has

industry

briquetting

The

Additives:

outlays

economics of

for
the

Labour do

not

bear

venture one may prefer

great
more

m a n u a l l y o p e r a t e d a p p a r a t u s a n d p a r a p h e r n a . l - i a sa L s o .
In general the assemblage of the machinery should Ieave
to

the

charcoaL-maker the

production

possibility

needs expansion and his

to

add more when his

budget can afford

it.

This, of couISe, implies the idea to employ smaller machines

for which the constituent elements are at hand
and an outfit
when they are wanted.

press

Briquetting
Usable

are

satisfactory

solidifying

be achieved by
the right

kinds

all
a

presses

of

of

the mixture,

pressure.

raised

are

which normally can

Anyway, tests

numerous

types

presses

of

piston

c h a r c o a l - - m a k e r so p e r a t e m o d i f i c a t i o n s :
presses, tablet

give

will

fit

of

which

presses, table

presses, soap and stamp presses.

Figure 50 displays a design which is

be

permit

will

answer.

There

can

which

together

by

too1s. The illustration

reach the shape of

c o m m o n l yi n

use and

any workshops equipped with

is

sel.f-explanatory.

basic

Up to a limited

the eharcoal- agglomerates may be altered

a.Lso.
Dryinq equipment
For

the

drying

of

the

have been commonly adopted:

"green" briquettes
drying
stationary

cupboards and mobile drying trays

The latter
sized

way of

chambers or

or racks with wire cloth.

desiccating

charcoal- operations.

two methods

The

is

more popular in

trays

with

the

medium

elustered

c h a r c o a l - a r e p l a c e d o n s t a n d s w h i c h c a n b e w h e e l - e di n t o
drying kiln, which usually is a masonry structure.
It

is

obtained
fire

normaL practice
from

the

burning

to
of

the

with hot gases

g
a
s
in an adjacent
charcoaL

heat

the

kiln

chamber.

8.2 The Activated Charcoal Process

Although unactivated charcoal already has some ttactive
properties",
it would not meet present-day requirements. To
improve and enlarge the active
surface of charcoal,
processes are mainly used: gas ( steam) activation,
chemical activation (3).

two
and

Gas (Steam) activation

from pre-carbonized

Here one starts

not

usually

mined for

been manufactured or

which has

material

purpose of

the

peat
e. g. ,
wood charcoal,
coconut charcoal,
c h a r c o a l , b r o w n - c o a l c o k er o r e v e n c o a l o r t h e 1 i k e .
The raw material, in the form of Iumps or finely ground,
activation,

is

subjected to

the

action

gases such as water

of

vapour'

carbon dioxide, ait, or mixtures of them, t 7OO I000o C.

Oxygen present in the free state, or combined in the gases,
burns

up carbon and produces the

powdered

carbon

is

often

activation,

the aid

the

of

with
production

intimately

of

hot coal-tar

accel-erators and the mixture

product

axtruded

is

wood

pitch

carbonized

at

reduced in
inactive.

by

fluidized

bed at

however still

water

carbon from the

vapour

7OO
interior

in

9000 C.
of

is
The

size

furnace

Hz + C0

finally

in

or

in

vapour removes

The water
grains

by handling

They are

rotary

the

moderate

only

operations,
activated

charcoal

and with activation

temperatures. The baked grains,

are

before

extruded through dies.

is

the

For example, in

coking binders.
powdered

Also

presses

in

extruded

peIJ.ets,

mixed with

pores.

desired

accordance with

the equation:
C+HZO

and thus produces the desired porous structure.

and
furnaces,
Kilns r
rotary
furnaces,
Herreshoff
fluidized bed furnaces are alI used. The possible variations
procedure,

material,

taken in conjunction with the choice of ravt

provide an almost unlimited number of types of

activated

carbon having different

in

absorption properties.

The

of the processor lies

in
conducting the activation
process in such a way that combustion of the carbon does not
art

take

place

consistent

from the outside

properties
can

production

conditions

adhered to.

This applies to all

are

of
be

the grains. Products with

produced only
when the

accurately

known and

activation

processes.

strictly

Figure

5I

of activated
If

the

product,

plant for the

shows an activation
carbon pellets (see aLso Photo 12).

aim

is

produce

to

granulated

production

powdered

or

the machinery or equipment required will

be simpler.

Chemical activation
generally

Chemical activation
vegetable

products,

impregnated with
to

name the

product

is

directly,

with

such as sawdust, peat,

zinc

chloride

to
at

be in

the

400o to

granuLar carbons, one can start

activated

If

the
is

previous

after

These are

etc.

a powder, it

form of

700o C,

uncarbonized

phosphoric acid,

soLution or

most commonly used materials.

However, better
if

starts

carbon

calcined
For

drying.

from granular raw materiaLs.

products with

harder grains

resuLt

the

"greenrr mix is made from finely divided material and

the mixture is extruded to give moulded forms. These moulded
forms

must be thoroughly
dried
before cal-cination.
0n
heating (calcination),
the added chemicals draw water out of
the
The

raw materials
carbon

chemicals.

and result

is

dried

Thus,

the

a porous carbon structure.

in

after

washing

out

chemicaL additives

the

are

activating

recovered and

returned to the cycle.

As in
of

gas activation,

activated

characteristics

carbon
of

the

a large

can

be

number of

produced

green mixture,

and by the way in which calcination

There are many patented processes for

activated
carbon

carbon,

but

producers.

In

internally
the

none are
fact,

followed

carbon

manufacturers to keep details

quite secret.

the production of
rigidly

The competitive

industry
of

their

has

the

additives,

out.

most processes are

developed techniques.

activated

varying

by

by special

is carried

types

different

by eurrent
unpatented
nature

required

of

carbon

processing techniques

(5(5

==
:z:z
L)L)

==
oo
77

CLCL

FF
(J(J
FIFI

u-uanan
.t1.t1

==
oo

(J(J

HH

(J(J

EE

oo

66
LL
G'G'
L'L'

tu

(u(u
.F

\G
tn\

+,+,

ffiffi,fi

=
- \\
\
==
lrllrl

oooo
crcr

==
(,(,

tt
ii

z,z,
oo
tdtd

==
>Z>Z
L,L,

G'G'
LL

--C'C'
tt
EE
ctct
LL

LEI

fiEfiE

l-rIIl-r l-

oo

IFL

oo
+,+,
c, c,.n.n
.o .o
+,+,

F(u
CL-

c(u
.o cL

.l.Ct

==

HH

uu

, - l .rP
| tr

tf)

oo
z,z,
HH
e,e,
(5(5

IL

G , I EE
(J

til

l-l+,
rd
=l
Jl>rF
.e
9ll
.-lP
.'
l(,
t-l- l<

-t-

-23t-

.6
5
E
ct
E

Photo 16

rotary

activation

kiln
of

charcoal

the Philippines
( Photo t./. Emrich)

-232-

for
in

it is certain that
Although details are not available,
standard steam activation
rather
most producers follow
methods with
arise

Major processing variations

source materials and from

very close control.

different

from adapting to

carbon treatment designed

for
for
carbon suitable

and post-activation
particul-ar
properties

pre-activation
to

yield

spedific
To

applications
service

the

(4).
carbon

activated

market

adequately,

specif ic requirements must be met. To enabl-e the charcoalproducer to meet these requilements, each production process
must be investigated to determine the best method of making
the desired products.

REFERENCES

(I ) Y.

Y o s h i d a,

Status

of

Hot

and Form Coke

Briquetting

Technology in Japan, I97I.

(2) IBA

Proceedings,

The

Briquetting

for

Institute

and

Agglomeration, 14th Biennial- Conf., Reno, Nvada' 1981.

(7) M.

Smisek,

Applications,
(4) H.

V.

Carbon manufacture,

Active

Efsevier,

Kienle,

and

Amsterdam,Ntherlands I97O-

Aktivkohl-e

A n w e n d u n g ,S t u t t g a r t ,

Properties

FRG1980.

zJt

und

ihre

industrielle

Chapter 9
S A F E T YP R E C A U T I O NASN D E N V I R O N M E N T A
C LO N S I D E R A T I O N S

9.L Safety in Charcoal Operations

Whether charcoal
industrial
explosions

is

made in

methods,

two

gases

and

of

traditional

the

hazards
dust,

are

and

way or

present :

always

fires

in

by

the

stored

charcoal.
Accidents can be greatly
features

reduced by making use of

and adopting safe work habits.

high-temperature

operating

extensive,

carel-essness or

Production

hazards increase,

burning conditions
cl-ose attention
course

of

the

structuralstorage

can arise

to

such

conditions

bins.

destruction

if

of

can

the operator
operational

the

dangerous

neglects

to pay

factors

as

production

the

indicators,

equipment

plant

of

ruinous.

be

pressure

ample records

where

c o m m o n p l - a c ea n d

and undesirabl-e or

temperature,

There are

all

are

slovenliness

vital

converter

In

conditions

safety

plants

and

damage and

caused by such neglect and oversight.

Expl-osions
The causes of
They are
retort

thought

such accidents are not clearly

understood.

to

mixture

be caused most often

of

or converter gases with air.

In

batchwise

quantity

of

coaling

time,

needed to

operated

gas is

present in

hence the

run

retort

the

operations,

the retort

admittance

process

can

form

of

In a continuously run converter,

more air

than

place

is

and

at

the

greatest

the end of

more air

highly

mixtures.
first

by a

than

explosive

explosive

mixtures

is
gas

the admittance of

needed may cause over-temperature in

form

the

in

the

the

off-gas

system. However, according to

Swedish sources, frequent
t'puffingsn have been observed during the early stage of

c o a l - i n g , w h e n c o m p a r a t i v e l y I a r g e v o L u m e so f w a t e r a n d o t h e r
cool raw materiaL.
vapours are being condensedon relatively
The non-condensable gases,

mixtures with air.

are thus free to form critical

explosion,

caPable of

those

of

including

Fires
are

Exptosions

major

cause

Whilst

fires.

of

the

minor damageto the systemt

fire can resuLt from admission of large quantities of air to
the retort,
converter or off-gas system through cracks.
unfamiliarity
aIe the opelator's
Other causes of fire
may cause only

itself

explosion

procedures and outright

proper operating

with
In

high-temperature

of

wall

This

Should

separation.

remain Unnoticed,
through

operations,

may

result

accidentaL

always the

is

openings occul

fire

and

excessive amounts of air

easily change the temperature patteln.
temperature
high
gradually
in
very
creating

outbreaks, or they might take place very rapidly,

serious

danger

Seepage of

the

them could

there

carelessness.

The operator's

condition.

with

familiarity

his

equipment and the steps necessary for counter-action are the

practice
satisfactory
and
for
best
insulance
safe
of the
inspection
production.
Well establishedr
Priodic
the
often indicate
will
industrial
charcoal-making plant
measUres neceSsary for

corrective

proper. control

and reduce

the possibility
of

of damaging fires.
Also of major importance are the reduced yields and.l-oss
operating time caused by improper sealing oI structural

leakages
cooling

of air
period.

well-standardized
The importance of
during

the

conditions,

in

the

Such

conditions

cooling

bins

may occul

during

even

the

when a

of operation has been established.

inspecting and maintaining cooling bins

pattern

cooling
and

charcoal

cycles,

using

safe

over-emphasized.

- -235235

controlling
practices

operational
cannot

be

Skin irritations
and smoke produced by carbonization,

The tars

poisonous, may have long-term

not directly

on the respiratory
care

should

providing

be

damaging effects

system.

and pyrolytic

Wood tars

although

taken

to

protective

acid
avoid

can irritate
prolonged

clothing

and

the skin

skin

contact

adopting

and
by

working

procedures which minimize exposure.

Hazards to the public
Fire,
or

uncontrolled,

public.
not

whether controlled
eonstitutes

are

Unauthorized persons,

be admitted to
necessity

transport

the
for

plant
the

the retorts

inside

potential

or converter

hazard

for

the

public,

should

unless guided. Safety

helmets

including

worknen

of wood or any raw material,

and

the
the

visitor.

The

charcoal handling and

other essential
work involves
hazards. Thereforer sfety
measures and safe work habits are of prime importance.
9.2 Safetv Devices and Equipment
Pressure-relief

doors

Explosions are always a potential

dusty material,
and

storage

or

one which contains

bins

are

therefore

danger when handling a

gaseous vapours. Feed

designed

with
explosion
tops which lift
to vent the gases when the internaJ.
pressure rises abnormally, e. g. , above 35O
400 mm water.
In
addition,
dead-weight
relief
doors
are
usually
relief

incorporated
lift

in

the

tops

at a lower internal

of the
pressure.

bins.

These doors should

Automatic temperature shutdown

In

the

event

that

converter,

or

the

limits,

air

supply,

the

the

fan of

same

temperatures

off-gas
the

the

air

inside

the

exceed

predetermined

fans of

heating

gas system are

the converter

time,

system

supply

of

retorts,

the retorts

or

down. At

the

shut

continuously

operated

converters is cut off and the converter gated off.

gases are vented through the emergencyfIare.
power failure

Electric
If

deviees

power failure

a total

occurs,

supply and the

gates remain in prefailure

draught fan stop and alr

condition.

Residual-

the air

shut-off
process becomes dormant, the

When the

system is

gated off.
Temperature indication

and control

The equipment that

and

controls

carefully.

the

indicates

safety

the

devices

Regular inspection

operation

must

be

temperatures

sel_ected very

and proper maintenance are

necessity.
9.f

General Safeguardinq of Charcoal plants

Water supply
A
pIant.

water
A

supply

hose

with

is

highly

important

nozzle

should

be

to

any

kept

charcoaL

ready

for

immediate use at assigned points in the plant.

Back-pack
water pumps or large-capacity
provide
fire
extinguishers
somemeasure of fire protection.

-237 -

Detection of poisonous gases

Poisonous gases (carbon monoxide) are present in retorts
t h a t h a v e j u s t b e e n c o o . l - e d d o w nI o I i n t h e o f f - g a s s y s t e m
just
There are portable detectors on the
shut-off.
after
the concentration

market which indicate

of

the gas confined

to

enSUre thorough

in the production apparatus.

HoweVer, the
before

ventilation
bins

workmen or

is

maintenance staff

and a.l-so during

retorts

or

preVention

best

the

they

are

time

entire

the

enter

occupied.
Safety manual
All

safety

instructions

and any changes in

them must be

made known to the workmen without deIay. The time-proven

practice in all weLL-organized plants is that every workman
lesson each quartert
has to attend an additional- instruction
given

by

the

plant

most important

engineer.

factor

accessories

Adequate first-aid

supplies,

(carbon monoxide) masks, should

central

Customarily,

be

dust

availabLe

kept

and

gas

at

the

Charcoal Storage

the charcoal- demandis

necessary to stockpile
A great

deal

produced charcoal.
the

including

point.

9.4 Precautions for

it

necessary coping

and if

in the plant.

with hazardous situations

First-aid

c o m m o ns e n s e r e m a i n s t h e

But

preventing

in

ambient

air.

a considerabLe inventory.

care

of
It

seasonal- which makes

must be taken in

has a tendency to
Rapid

absorption,

storing

freshly

absorb oxygen from

however,

generates

considerable
stockpiled

heat

char starts

high

spontaneous
for better

therefore,

more

are

the

subject

lump

larger

to

charcoal.

has been water-sprayed

charcoal

charcoal,
char

for

should

from rain

than

place freshly

to

advisable

discharged

openr sEparated from previously

the

the

protected
rather

than

and charcoaL

fines

charcoaL

volatiles

may occur if

in

heat or

of

combustion

conditioned
time,

where the

cooling.

is,

It

point

to

up

to burn.

content

Self-ignition

charcoal

builds

packed masses of

Tightly
with

which

fire

be

exposed to

tarpulin.

If

an open shed

in
is

there

no

the 24-hour period,

after

and

circulation

air

preferably

and
this

During

hours.

24

least

and wind,

under a

active

at

cooled

evidence of
the

charcoaL

may be considered safe for warehousing.

9.5 Environmental Considerations for the Charcoal-Maker
During
the

the

related

two decades, environmental control- and

last

legislation

have become important

concerns of

c h a r c o a L - m a k e r s . N u m e r o u sc a s e s a r e k n o w n w h e r e p l a n t s
operation

for

down or

radically

pressure.
aspects
setting
is

and the

as

considerations
up a plant.
the

feed

very largely
ejected
the

before

input

of

stream

as

these

take

should

money

industrial

and

charcoal-

stream as charcoal,
reduced by the

are significantly

condensate, which

off-gas

an

under

be shut

legislative

spending

removed in a solid

off-gases

of

resul-t

charcoal-maker

into

removal of
cleaner

changed

The potential

Fortunately,
plant

a century have had to

more than half

aLso in

resuLts

compared

with

much

traditional

charcoal-making.
gas generated by the

The combustible
cleanly

in a stack if

the

fact

that

burn

not otherwise utilized.

Another favourable
is

system will

feature

these

of

industrial

systems discharge

? 3 9-

charcoal-making
minimal

liquid

plants

the

where

oil

usually

the

depend vely

except

in

from

the

by distillation.

The environmentai. aspects of

wilt

occur

fractionated

are

by-products

pyrolytic

original

not

Wastewater does

effluents.

much on the

throughput capacity.

charcoal-making

industrial

type of

Therefore,

raw material

and a.l-so
can

component effluents

be discussed only in a general way.

preparation

Raw material

causes noise Levels which may

allowances. Normally, the noise is

Hogging machinery usually

exceed local

decibel

confined by enclosing the machines, and in

residential

areas

the machinery is not operated during regular night shift.

Dryer exhausts are dust-loaded and the degree is rel-ated
to

the

of

size

the

feed

( fines).

Cyclonic

equipment is

instatled to depress the grade of dust exhaust and serves at

the same time to prevent undesirabl-e Losses of raw material
it.

by retrieving

Retorts and converter

Any fugitive

vapours or dust from these units

a retort

when they are opened. In continuous operations,

converter

will

and therefore,

occur only
or

only be opened during the shut-down period

tro preventative measures are needed.

Char handlinq
Conveyer betts
outbreathing
char dust.

is

are

normally

encl-osed. The char

passed through a bag collector

Captured dust will

bags and all-owed to settle

be periodically

inside

the bins.

to

binrs

retain

vibrated

the
from

Scrubbing system for pyrolytic

Any fugitive

oil

in

burned

combustion device

existing

an

draughted vent

in

vapours can be collected

hoods. They are

( flare stack ) .
E m e r g e n c yv e n t i n g

The systems are

unusual- pressure
vapours

are

personnel

within

to

can

uncommon, and

be

0n

safety.
do

the

such

long

of

occurences

are

few

only

outside

usually

are

the

done for

is

last

they

occur

systems

an

of

fire,

basis

the

that

event

the

system or

the

stated

when they

Since

in

that

atmosphere. This

the

equipment

it

seconds.

rise

vented

and

experience,

designed so

the vapours disperse quickly.

installations,
Wastewater

charcoal-making plants

Industrial
water to

seh,age. Water is

recircuLated
effluent

in

is

from

the

some organic

The

tars

humane and animals.

effluents

charcoal

water

for

the

case, the water wiII

a

to

sent

Fish

liquors

drinking

may also

be

can

water

seriously

supplies

for

affected.

adversely

and wastewater from medium and large-scal-e

operations

shoul-d be

ponds and aIl-owed to

pass into

primary

stage.

contaminate streams and affect

Liquid

and is

cooling

shoul-d be

and it

pyroligneous

and

for
The

systems

In this

oil.

liquid

chemical-after-treatment

systems.

distillation

of pyrolytic

fractionation
contain

used primarily

closed-loop

very IittIe

discharge

the local

trapped

evaporate so that

in
this

settling

large

water does not

drainage system and contaminate streams.

KiIns
and pits,
from retorts
s distinct
systems, do not normally produce Iiquid effluent

because the

by-products

as

are

mostly

dispersed

- z1 |

into

the

air

and

other

vapours.

Precautions

against

environment
Therefore,

are
kiln

of

air-borne
contamination
of
greater
importance
in
this

batteries

may

neighbourhood

not

be

set

up

in

the
case.
the

of
residential
areas
their
since
smoke
e m i s s i o n w o u l d c a u s e a n u i s a n c e . S m o k ee m i s s i o n w i I l a l s o b e
the limiting
factor for the number of kitns assembled in a

bat tery .

L+Z -

Chapter l0
C H A R C O ALLA B O R A T O RYY' I O R K

Whereas the traditional

analytical
without

it.

Raw material

investigation
safety

of

Fortunately,

the

producer cannot do

charcoal

quality

composition,

customer

complaints,

etc.

the

regulation,

engages in

charcoaL-maker rarely

work, the industrial

are

and

environmental

problems to

procedures to

analytical

control,
with.

be dealt
be

performed do

not require

extremely sophisticated and expensive equipment.

The procedures for analysis are the same as those employed
for

bituminous coal
(e.9.,
for

and

standards
contained

in

laboratory
This

DIN 5I749).

with

figure

these

are

Germany the
inventory

include

national
are

standards

of

equipping a charcoal

is

around U.S.

The cost

basic

does not

in

out

set

rel-evant

provision

the

$ 8,000.
space and

of

furniture.
The laboratory
are

on

which means also

duty

during

duri,ng normal
night

of
the
most
procedures. Although most of
and

have

been

industry,

some suppliers
in

times,

operational
The following

shifts.

common test

and

is

analytical

them were developed many years

commonly adopted

Therefore,

and two

one or two technicians

compilation
go,

degree of skill

must have a certain

In most plants,

and training.
assistants

staff

stiIl

their

use

comparing anaLytical

by

the

charcoal

own

methods.

one has to

results,

know

the procedure by which they were obtained.

Whether raw material
be analysed or tested,
done

carefully.

samples of
best

In

or

carbonization

case

of

mixed

in

drum which

capacity.

After

sample is

taken off

rotating

the

is

the

charcoal,

a batch or of a truckload

have to

important and must be

the sampling is
the

products

ready for

filled

drum for

to

collected

shipment are

only

half

its

severaL minutes,

and ground to a mesh size of under I mm.

The Laboratory takes 200 g of

aside

for

sample

discussions,

set

can.

This
and

in

as

if

is

further
investigations
t h e y b e c o m en e c e s s a r y ( 1 ) .

storage

serves

it

of

the sample. Half

closed

proof

and

tin

sealed

for

10.1 Analysis
in raw material-s:
Accurately
and

dry

it

weigh 10 g

in

an

temperature of
not

weight

the

electric

chamber at

after

more than O.25 % in

dayfs drying

is

percentage of

calculated

as

constant

3 hours and continue

24-hour intervaLs

at

ground sample

crushed or

drying

l-05o C. Weigh it

the weighing and drying

is

of

until

time.
the

the.l-oss

The l-oss of
initial

wet

weight.
In

the

case of

approximate size

of

of moisture percentage are the same as for

and determination
crushed

wood 1ogs, blocks must be cut with an

5 x 5 x 6 cm. The procedure for drying

and ground material.

- in charcoal and charcoal- briquettes:

Crush the sample in
weigh accurately

7 g.

a porcelain

mortar with

a pestle

and

Drying and weighing procedures are the

same as above.
Ashes
in raw material:
Crush or

grind

the sample and weigh accurately

platinum or porcelain crucible

8 0 0o C i n a n e . L e c t r i c m u ff l e
heating

at

intervals

of the initial

weight.

untiL

the

with
oven.

a 1id.

Check by

weight loss

3 g in

Heat up to
is

7OO

weighing and
under O.25 %

The difference
the

sample

expressed as

after
a

between dry

initial

combustion

percentage of

all

of

initial

weight and weight of

is
matter
organic
weight,

and is

ash

content.
- in charcoal- and charcoaL briquettes:
Prepare the sample as above. According to estimated ash
a platinum or
5 g in
weigh 3 to
content,
accuratety
porcel-ain crucible

with

Then foIIow

1id.

the

plocedure

described above.
If
drops

burn completely, apply several

and heat the
hydrogen peroxide (l % solution)
supported by a wire triangle on a tripod, with the

the charcoal- does not

of

crucibte,

flame of a bunsen burner.

VoIatiIes
This

and Fixed Carbon

method is

applied

to

atI

charcoal

products:

lump

and charcoal
PIlets
By heating the charcoal under the exclusion of
briquettes.
air (oxygen), the confined gases are expelled. These gases
a r e c o m m o n l yt e r m e d I ' v o l a t i l e s r r .

charcoal,

charcoal

fines,

granules r

- preparation of charcoal sampl-e:

The necessary crushing
porcelain

mortar

with

should
pestle.

be

done manually

Forced

grinding

is

in

a
not

r e c o m m e n d e db e c a u s e o f t h e h e a t w h i c h c o u l d b e g e n e r a t e d a n d
Dry the sample
which wouLd drive off part of the volatiles.
at 105o C (not higher!)
determination of volatiles

and fixed carbon:

Accurately weigh 1 g of the dry powdered sample in a

(preferably)
platinum
or porceLain crucibLe with a 1id.

- 245

Dimensions of
diameter

35 Dffir height

pinhole

in

wider ! ).
brim

the crucible
the

of

the

of

lid

with

the

crucible

lower diameter 22 ofi, upper

without

centre

The rim

are:

diameter

tid

has a
1.5 mm ( not

of

must comfortably

prevent

to

40 mm. The lid

the

intake

the

overlap

of

air

during

heating.
Stand the
tripod

with

a wire

and heat the bottom gently

distance
less

crucible,

between bunsen burner

than 6 cm. After

screw

and

the

capacity

air

and

pinhole

with

a shining

and crucible

control

of

the

until

Put

the

cloride

in

hot
the

crucible

The difference
weight is
The
following

into

bottom as

sample has cooled off.

flame.

The

should not

smalL

flame

be

the

that

all

with

and leave

fuI1

above

indicates

desiccator

desiccant

Weigh it

to

bunsen burner

the

in
goes out.
the lid
This
matter has been driven off (1).

volatile

on a

3 minutes, open the gas adjusting

continue

firmly

triangle,

calcium

until

the

as usual.

between the

initial

weight and the

final

the content of voLatiles.

value

for

fixed

carbon

is

calculated

by

the

formula:
Cfi,

(volatiles

= 100 %

+ ashes)

Sulphur
This is
most

usually evaluated in all charcoal products.

common method is
calorimetric
combustion of

charcoaL with

the

formation

sulphates

chloride

of

it

of

dilute

permits

sodium hydroxide.

precipitation

with

The

barium

as barium sulphate.

Accurately
insert

addition

The
the

into

weigh

of

the calorimeter

the

dry

powdered sample and

according to

the instructions

given by the supplier

of the equipment. Combustion takes
place under an excess of oxygen, and the pressure is kept at
20 atm. After ignition,
the calorimeter must be shaken for
(
1
)
.
about half an hour

Then release
residures

into

pressure and discharge the

the

a beaker by several

barium

the

point and
boiting
(approx.
25Og
solution

beaker

chloride

distilled

water).

After
through

glass

filter

the filter

After
is

barium sulphates.
of

the

and weighed to

This is

empty filter

distilled

with

water,

determine the content of

the difference

between the weight

dried

carefully
(
in a drying oven 10:o C).

and the

with the precipitate

filter

barium sulphate

the

which collects

several- rinsings

dried

10

the contents of the beaker are poured

off,

white

add

appear.

cooling

precipitate.

of
"tJ
BaCl
Z / 7 O O O" t f
precipitation
of

to

Immediately

barium sulphate will

combustion
water (the

must be completely transferred).

contents of the calorimeter

Heat

with

rinsings

Use the following

formula
the sample (accurate 1.0 g):

weight of
to

the

the

calculate

sulphur

in

% sulphur = weight of dry barium sulphate x f2 x 100

233.5
Screeninq analysis
Charcoal fines and charcoal powder are classified by the
percentage distribution
of grain sizes. For the analysis' a
set

of

standardized

screens
following
No.

with
set:

screens are used consisting

different

mesh sizes.

Most

of

common is

(2)
Mesh size

several

l,lire thickness

44

3.3 mm

1.0 mm

33

2.5

I.0

22

I.5

I.0

II

1.0

o. 65

the

Assemble the

screening set

top and no. I

in

in

Accurately weigh I00 g

the lowest position.

of dried sample and put it

4 on

screen no.

with

order,

screen no. 1.

in

Shake the whole csreening set

2 minutes,

for

making two

t o - a n d - f r o m o v e m e n t sp e r s e c o n d . T h e n w e i g h t h e r e s i d u e s o f
the fines remaining on each screen. Note down in your report
weights as percentages of total

the different

in the following
grarn srze
tf

For

the

( screen no. 4)

3.V mm

IV

ll

weight

initial

order:

III

2.5

II

1.5

3.7 mm (screen no. 3)

2.5 mm(screen no. 2)
I.5 mm (screen no. 1)

II

1.0

00

screen transi t

classification

are necessary to

lump charcoal,

of

evaluate the grain

size

larger

mesh sizes

distribution

which

normally ranges between 10 and LzO mm.

The friability

test

Friability
of

tests

the charcoal

to

are

break into

to repeated handling,
coals will

which size

descent inside
charcoal

and so indicate
decrease in

in

% indicate

has suffered

lower the % figure,

This is
indices

It

is
of

the

during

the stronger is

- evaluation of friability

tests.

tendency

smal-Ier pieces when subjected

the rel-ative extent to

size

during

or

transport,

a bl-ast f urnace.

The figures
the

measuring the

a means of

reduction
the

test.

coke of
Standardization (IS0).

size

which
the

the charcoal.

by the tumbler test

considered the most important

derived

in

Therefore,

of

the friability

f r o m R e c o m m e n d a t i o nR - 5 5 6 o n t h e M I C U M
the

International

-248-

0rganization

for

10

kg

placed

are

charcoal

of

drum

test

steel

in

with four steel1 ,000 mm diameter, fitted

lengthwise inside the drum. The drum is rotated
a t 2 4 r p m f o r o n e h o u r ( t o t a l o f L r t + 4 Or e v o l u t i o n s ) .
The
tested at the works reception.
Charcoal is first

I,000 mm long,
angles fixed

is

hand-sieved and only

is

coal

tumbler

protecting

tested

to

avoid

pieces

coarser

the

of

sizes

fine

effect

cushion

their

by

3I.75 mm

than

materiaL larger
the possibility

against shocks and abrasion.

Before

tumbler

the

new average size of the

on the resul-ts of the screening
the

test,

charcoal must be calculated

anal-ysis.

BuIk density of charcoal- fines

the weight of the charcoal fines

This indicates
v o l - u m ea n d i s
Pour
plant

the

calibrated
portion

the

the

calibraJion

point

the

volume
mark of

of

100 .tJ

filling

the

from
into
in

vigorously

cylinder

cylinder
is

portions

After

time.

where further

the

received

is

it

discrete

sample, stamp the

wooden board to
reduce

three

one at

cylinder,

of

sample,

in

storage

or

shipments.

an important datum for

charcoal

per unit

a
each

on a

stamping does not

content.

reached, stop

When the

and weigh the

charcoal fines.
The obtained
density per Litre.

weight

multiplied

The procedure may be facilitated

bY I0

gives

the

bulk

by employing a shaking

machine.
Viscosity
For

of pyrolysis
the

oiI

measulement of

viscosity,

the

genelal

liquid

principle

of

of known viscosity.

several

standard

operate according to
comparison of the sample with a

apparatuses are on the market. They aIl

Most

common

determination

in

the

according to

charcoal

industry

the Engler scale.

is

the

The instruction

comes with the apparatus.

F1ash point
This is

of pvrolvsis

the lowest temperature at wich a fuel

gives

vessel

off

momentary flash
its

surface.

Calorific

enough combustible
fire

or

when a

small

vapour

to

flame is

in

an open

produce a
passed near

Special apparatus can be purchased.

value

This

is

the

number of

complete combustion of
pyrolysis

briquettesr
an

oil

heat

charcoal,

oil

units

obtained

charcoal

fines,

or off-gas.

by

the

charcoal.

For the determination,

oxygen caLorimetric

bomb is
necessary,
purchased. Follow the instruction manual.

which

can

be

Sampling of qas
For gas sampling,
avoid
be

inaccuracies

tested

frask
tightly

or

caLorific

al-so important

can be

Art

containers

only

its
out

a glass

in

must be

sealed

sampling.

Besides its
is

container.

to

sample should

otherwise
alterations
of
p1ace. If testing is not carried

gas sample may be stored

the

rubber

after

rul-es must be applied

The off-gas

immediately,

composition may take

immediately,

some general

and mistakes.

for

determined by

the

value,
plant

suction

of

the composition of
operation.
the

the gas

The composition

gas through

specific

absorption agents which retain

one gas component but
others pass. These apparatuses can also be purchased.

250 --250

1et

General- remarks
The above enumeration of

procedures is

analytical

from complete. There are many other operations which will

far
be

required only once a year or even less frequently.

Some items
handbook

of

work

in

described

this

practice '
in
required
rarely
be
a sma1l plant which produces two commercial

may

particularly

laboratory

the

also

in

products, as happens frequently.

factor

A Iimiting
not

available,

hand.

or

However,

has

laboratory

existing

is
at

charcoaL producers

smal1-scale
university
quickly

it

technician

laboratory equipment is not

practice
been the
always

skilled

engage the

to

which could be either

private.

or

may be that

proper

charcoal

the

Normally,

of

an
the

beginner

Learns what he must do himself and which part

laboratory

of

help

a facility

of

of

the

work should be contracted out.

In aIl

cases known to the author,

has been resoLved by

the personneL question

of

training

on-the-spot

an adaptable

person.
A charcoal-maker engaging in
has

to

rely

on

his

partners'

abroad,

equipped and have capable staff

that

arise

an export business usually

to

who should

deal

with

and to give usefu.Ladvice to their

the

be

well

problems

suppliers.

1 0 . 2 B e n c h - S c a l - eC a r b o n i z a t i o n T e s t s
as for

the

with
managerr it is indispensable to be familiar
ways to conduct carbonization tests. In practice, there

the

For the

charcoal

industry

developer as well

plant

many reasons for:

investigating

the yield
for

are

new raw material, checking

charcoal plant, or just

efficiency of an existing
demonstration purposes.
The essential

52 which is

parts

of the apparatus are shown in

self-explanatory.

- 251

Figure

Thermometer

C ontai ner made

from w i re cl oth

Bunsenburner

Watercooler
E u r n i n gc h a r c o a l
gas

II
I-

II

Charcoal condensate

FigUfe

5 2 . A p p a r a t ufso r b e n c h - s c adl er y d i s t i l l a t i o n .

The small- retort

be

made f rom

has a

copper,

capacity

aluminum or

thermometer must be calibrated

of

I,000

stainl-ess

and can
"rf
steel-. The

above 550o C.

The retort
with

the

airtigth.

s h o u J - db e f i l I e d
to about three-quarters ful1
prepared raw material- sample and the lid
closed
Heating with the open flame of the bunsen burner

should start

slowly

and proceed according to the description

in Section I0.1.
After

the

terminal temperature has been reached, the

obtained products
charcoal and pyrolysis
oil
can be
weighed to determine the yields.
It

is

a . l - s op o s s i b l e

to obtain

data for

off-gas

with

the

apparatus.
It

shoul-d be borne in mind that this l-aboratory retort

indicates
data
for
processes
intermittent
carbonization
only,

and they cannot be applied to continuous projects in a

straight
l-ine,
But
give
the
resuLts
wirr
valuable
information

and insight

for

planning and decision-making.

References

(r) c.

B u g g e , N e u e U n t e r s u c h u n g s m e t h o d e nf u e r
d e r H I A G - W e r k e ,1 9 4 7 , ( p r i v a t e p a p e r ) .

(2) SABS1399

die

Produkte

1983, SA Bureau of Standards, Pretoria,

S.A.

APPENDICES

Appendlxl

CASE

STUDIES

charcoal plant with continuous c. r.s.R.

Lambiotte Retort

Annual production of Iump charcoal.

UsabIe calorific
excess energy

Rawmaterial:

Charcoal plant
( Tech-Air)

2r2OOt
36 x 109 KJ

10,000 t of dry wood (lO % moisture)

with

continuous

Vertical

Flow

Converter

Annual production of charcoal briquettes

4,5OA t

Pyrolysis

2,gOOt

oil

CaLorific

excess energy used for

drying of feedstock

Rawmaterial :

1 2 , 0 0 0 t o f s a w m ji _ I a n d
agricultural
wastes (air
d " Y)

Ii6'[F-Tne

capacities of both plants are adaptab]e over a

wide range and can be modified.
-255_

RETORTX)
CISR LAMBIOTTE
I.

P L A N TC A P A C I T Y

The

suggested

C.I.S.R.

plant

comprises

one

more

or

continuous

charcoaL per

L A M B I 0 T T ER E T Q R T S ,2 2 O O t

year

per

high

unit.
This

medium capacity
cost

transport
from

high

productivity

has

been

to

avoid

the wood but at the same time, to benefit

output '
high
i. e. ,
]evel,
technological

for

and quality.

AnnuaI wood consumption per

10,000 t

chosen

unit:

6500 t

of

dry

matter

of 34 % moisture wood.

Annual charcoal production:

2 2 O Ot

Enerqy balance of the Process:

_,

(35O working days).

x I0l0

kcal = 100 %

(4,2OO kcal)kg)
b)

0utput
2,2Oo t lump charc o a l ( 5 , 8 0 0 k c a l -/ k g )

c)

I . 4 9 x 1 ' 0 1 0k c a l =

5trT %

o.34 x 1010 kcal =

I2.3 %

Process losses
3r4OOt

of moisture

to be evaporated
( 1 , O0Okcal /kg)
3 % heat loss

'l 'l
nn

kcal- =

through insulation

0.08 x L0'"

Remaining energy

0.85 x 1010 kcal =

FfTnTormation

provided bv the manufacturer

-2s6-

3.O %

3o.g %.

The remaining process energy (exeess energy) is

to the calorific
II.
A.

vaLue of 800 to 900 t

of fuel

equivalent

oil

Per Year.

C O S TC A L C U L A T I O N S
BASIS
Free wastes of

(slabs)

sawmill

f0,000

per

Year at

30 % moisture.
M a n p o w e v e r :7 p e o p l e . A v e r a g e c o s t $ T r O O O / y r p e r m a n .
price:

Capital:

a) entirely

loaned (10 % year)

b) entirely

subscribed

$ o,zs/kg.x)

22oo t

per

Charcoal selling
production.

year

Total investment: $ 732,000.

Amortization:

I5 years, $ 48,8oo/year.

Delivery and erection

B.

delay: 6 months.

C a I c u l - a ti o n s

Annual cost:

4 9 ,o o o

47,OOO

l3.zoo

subtotal

$
$

169,2oo
48,8oo

T o ta l

2 1 8 ,o o o

Manpower
0thers (water, electricity,

bags, fiintenance,

etc. )
Loan interest:

Amortization

xJ--Tverage market price

markets, I981.

for
-257 -

lump

charcoal

in

European

of the $ 47 000 ttothersfr cost:

5,000
GazoiI, grease
$

Details

I2, 000

Electrici ty
Bags (ZS kg)

18,000

Spare parts

6r000

Maintenance

5,000

If

the capital

situation
lst

is

not loaned but is

entirely

subscribed, the

becomes:

year:

275 rOOO
144,800

sal es
charges
( m a n p o w e r ,o t h e r s ,
a m o rt i z a t i o n )

1 3 O, 2 O O

P r of i t
( t a x e s e x c l - u d e d)
2nd year:

5 5 0 ,o o o
144,800

Profit

4o5,2oo

sales

5 5 0 ,o o o
144,800

4O5,2OO

sales
charges

frd

year:

c h a r g es
Profit
At the end of

the second year,

50 % per year before taxation.

-258-

the return

on the capital is

TECH-AIR)X)
V E R T I C A LF L O WC O N V E R T E( R

P L A N TC A P A C I T Y
The

proposed

plant
is
(medium size )

converter

recovery unit.

one

composed of
with

complete

vertical

flow

pyrolysis

oiI

dryer and
machine, briquetting
bagging equipment are attached to the charcoal production.
The capacity
utilizing
dryers,

of

the

the plant
wastes

of

sawmills,

nut

and plantations,

processors,

copra

etc.

consumption
raw

forests,

can be adapted to small operations

of

sugar factories,

Rawmaterial
Types

A briquetting

materials:

brushes,

sugarcane bagasse,

Sawmill

waste,

residues

from

cotton
sticks,
leaves,
nutshells,
husk (puIpa) , municipal
bark r coffee

waste, etc.
Max. Iength of particles
Annual- consumption
(airdry material ) .

5 0 f f i D rd i a m e t e r 7 m m .
(dry

I0,000

material )

11,000 t

Annual production
The plant
If

can be run with or without pyrolysis oil recovery.

no pyrolysis oiI is produced, the charcoal- yield will be

significantly

higher:

charcoal- briquettes

4, 500 t/y

or

6,000 t/y

pyrolysis

2r8OOt/y

or

none

oil

heating gas

tl,

see energy balance

none

Tnf oimati on prov ided by t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r

-2s9-

Enerqv bai.anceof the process

Input
10,000 t dry biomass
(4,2OO kcal /kg)

4,2O x 1010 kcal = 100.0 %

0utput
4,5oo t charcoal briquettes
( 6,000 kcal /kg)

z.7o x 1or0 kcal =

64.i %

2,800 t pyrolysis
( 4,000 kcal /kg)

l.l2

x I0t0

kcal =

26.7 %

O.l0 x I0I0

kcal =

2.5 %

x l0I0

kcaL =

3.O %

kcal =

O.9 %

kcal =

2.6 %

oil

Process.Losses
I,000 t

of moisture to

be evaporated
( I , 000 kcal /kg)
3 % heat loss through

0.ll

insulation
Briquetting

dryer

45O t of moisture to
be evaporated

ln

0.04 x I0*"

'ln

Unused energy

O.lI

x l0'"

II.

I N V E S T M E NCTO S T

I t t o o dP r e p a r a t i o n

Carbonizer unit

with pyrolysis oiI

chimney (fob plant)

and flare-up
Briquetting

recovery
380,000.4 O O , 0 0 0-.

plant

5 0 , 0 0 0 .-

Transportation equipment

$
Freight,

fnsurance

Erecting,

start-up

General cost,

40,000.-

8 7 o ,o o o .-

70, 000.50, 000.-

conI5, o0o.-

tingencies
$

I45,000. -

7 7 , O O O-.
lf,000. -

$1,015,000.-

Plant site,
p r e p ar a t i o n
Start -up

2 5 0 ,0 0 0 . -

l{orking capi tal

$
T O T A LI N V E S T M E N T

3 4 Oo
, o o. $ 1, f 5 5 , 0 0 0 .-

Plant Site,

Buildings,

G e n e r a l -S e r v i c e s

C o st
Plant site:8,ooo
^2
(incI. preparation, fencing)

Io,ooo.4 0 , o o o .-

Buildings: 800 ^2
(0ffice,
laboratory,

ware-

houser ilintenance)
12,000.-

Hook-up for water, electricity,

s e w er

1 0 , 0 0 0 .-

Foundations
Water pump, pipesr etc.

5,000.Total

II I.

7 7 , 0 0 0 .-

COST CALCULATIONS

A. Basis
Waste material

free.

Manpower: 22

including

sal-aried
$ 7,000 per year per person.
Ex-factory

price

for charcoaL briquettes:

Ex-factory

price

for

oil

No. 6):

pyrolysis

oil

T o t a l i n v e s t m e n t : $ I r 3 5 5 , 0 0 0 .Depreciation time 15 years: $ gOTOOO/yr.

Start

loaned (10 % per year).

up delay: 5 months.

cost

$ O.28/kg.

(usually

$ o.Iz/kg.

Capital entirely

average

staff,

50 % of

fuel

B. Cal-cualtions
AnnuaI costs:

I 5 4 r 0 0 0 .-

Manpowever
spare parts,

Utilities,

maintenance, lubricants
Binder, fi1ler,

additives

Bags
Loan interest

l6,000. 1 L 0 . 0 0 0 .-

S u bt o t a 1

4 2 5 , 0 0 0 .9 0 . 0 0 0 .-

Total costs

5 r 5 , 0 0 0 .-

D e p r e c i at i o n

IV.

45,000.g o , 0 0 0 .-

E C O N O M I CO
SF T H E P R O J E C T

AnnuaL sal-es:

Charcoal briquettes
4,5OO,000kgx$0.28
Pyrolysis

oil

2,800,000k9x$O.I2
Total sales
Lst year of operation (six

sufficient

costs and interest,

cash flow of:

7 6 6 0 0 0 .-

$ rr626,000.-

months)
8I3,000. -

Sales
This is

$ I ,260,000.-

to cover the operationairesulting

in an excess
f88,000. -

2nd vear of operation (ful1

capacity)

$ r , 6 2 5 ,o o o .-

Sales
OperationaL costs
Excess cash flow
lst

4 2 5 , O O O-.

$ l , 2 o r , o o o .-

year excess

cash flow
A c c u m u L a t e dc a s h f l o w

1 8 8 0 0 0 .-

$ r,589,000.-

This allows the owner to repay loaned capital

and stilL
frd

have an excess cash flow of $ 224,000.

year of operation (fuIl

capacity)

S a .l -e s
0perationa.L costs
(without interest)
Excess cash flow

$ I,626,000.3I5 0 0 0 .-

$ r , J r l , o o o .-

Znd year excess

cash flow
Accumulatedcash flow
It

is

third

estimated that at the end of the

year the return on the invested

capital

will

be higher than 80 %.

224 0 0 0 .-

$ r , 5 3 5 ,o o o .-

DISTRIBUTION

ENERGY

Aopendix 2

DIAGRAM

energy contained

the

pilot

in

to the end products

distributed
plant

the

selecting

most appropriate

technology.

carbonization
Since

in

helpful

diagram is

This

and/or

tests

tests

the

feed

material

can

be

char, PYroIYsis oil ' gas

with bench scale equiPment

should be conducted.
factols ' and
the kind of feed. Therefore only the results
reliable
supply
will
tests
conducted

The energy distribution

in
of

particular,
efficiently

depend on various

will

forecasts.
By using
researcher

diagram on

the

be

witl

able

the
to

following

page,

formuLate his

the

charcoal

decisions

in

comparatively short period of time. The basic data needed as

tests
input for the diagram should be derived from pilot
large and representative sample of
based on a sufficiently
the particuLar

product. These data are:

Weight yield

of the char (X of dry feed).

Weight yield

of the condensable pyrolytic

products (X of

dry feed).
or kglKJ) of both the above'

Calorific

values (kglcal

Calorific

value of the dry feed (same units).

aa

qq
EE

'.J'.J

GROSS
GROSS
. . BTU/LB
ENERGY
IN ENERGY
IN
PRODUCTS
PRODUCTS
BTU/LB
DRY
DRY
OF
OF FEEDFEED
oo
oo
oo
|rt|rt

oo
oo
oo
(!)(!)

ctrctr
LL
55
.c|.c|
EE

oo
oo
oo

(u(u

anan

oo
rctrct

II

==
o,o,
==
c.

oo

frJfrJ
UJUJ
lLlL

vlvl

==

fi=fi=

eF
FA

3E3E

oo
ctllJllJ
d,d,
lrllrl

oo
|r||r|

ar ar GtGt
EE

e,e,
oo
tr.tr.
lr,lr,
oooo

5u
ee

oo
rt rt tttt
L.P
.6J
(J(J

>o

0h 0h

.o-('uE

oo
sfsf

ruru

oo
(-)(-)

t/,t/,

trJtrJ

f.:,f.:,

c,c,

lrjlrj

==

\\

'F'F

(l,+,
+, +, agag
LC
:]L

t!t!

{{

BF

EE
.u.u
.F

EE

\=\=

8E
FJ FJ
lJ- lJ-

AE

\\

oct
G
'b

//

,)t..

\\

\i

.E

UE

.\l

\l

//

.F.F
+t+t

o
-

E
Fb
tE
cL
,

cr

ol
(f)l

tnl

ol

= =l
]f)]f)
(\I(\I

oo

(\l(\l
SISI
(\l(\l

lr'lr'
rcfrcf
rc)rc)

oo

- kcal/kg 0F DRyFEED
GROSS
IN PR0DUCTS
ENERGY

lrllrl

|r)|r)
rrlrrl

o$ fll

The

liquid,

solid,

gas

any

of

distribution

energy

governed by

is

the

specifics
is

of

the

not possible

or raw material mix. It

these parameters by Speculation; however, when
been
has
parameters
numerous possible
the

pure Iaw material,

to

process

carbonization

forecast

one

of

established,
law

of

the

and owing to

the

distribution

of

fact

that

energy

remaining parameters needed for

efficient

there
in

the

is

a natural
plant,

design of

the

a plant

may be derived from the diagram.

It

is

evident

enter into

that

the

such costly

small
test

charcoal-maker has no need to

procedures.

-267 -

Apendix f
A D D R E S S EOSF C O N S U L T A N T ISN S T I T U I E S A N D E Q U I P M E N TS U P P L I E R S

Note
These lists were compiled to the best of the author's
knowl-edge, and all
names and addresses are given as they
were known at the time of writing.
The absence of a risting
should not be construed as an unfavourable rating because in
s o m e c a s e s t h e p u b l i s h e r v v a sn o t a b l e t o o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n .
Entries are listed in alphabetical order.

C O N S U L T I N GF I R M S ANDAND
I N S T I T U T E SP R O V I D I N G
SERVICES

T O T H E C H A R C O AILN D U S T R Y
1.

A L D R E DP R O C E S P
S L A N TL I M I T E D
0akwoodChemical lrlorks, Sandy Lane
lVorksop, Notts S80 IEy
United Kingdom
Primary representative:
Phone: 0909 47686I
Telex: 54625

2.

C A R B 0 NT N T E R N A T T o N ALLT, D .
Buchenring 7
D-5078 Neu-fsenburg 4
Federal Republic of Germany
Primary representative: Dr. Walter Emrich
P h o n ez O 6 9
69iZOl
TeLex: 4 18967I carb d

'.

C E N T R EN A T I O N A LD ' E T U D E SE T D ' E X P E R I M E N T A T I O N

(c r u n c n E E )
ONEEMA
Parc de Tourvoie
92L8O Antony
F r a n ce
Primary representative:
Phone: 666.2L.09
TeIex: 204585
4.

TROPICAL
C E N T R ET E C H N I Q UFEO R E S T I E R
45 bis,

Avenue de la BeIIe-Gabrielle

9 4 I 3 O N o g e n t - s u r- M a r n e
France
Primary representative:

Jaqueline Doat

Phone: 873 32 95
5.

ENGINEERS
F O X C O N S T R U C T O&R S
P.0. Box I528
Dothan, Alabama36302
USA
Primary representative:

H. E. Sprenger

Phone: 205-794-0701
6.

S TECNOLOGIA
F U N D A C ATOR O P I C A LP E S Q U I S A E
Rua Latino GoeIho n. o. 1. J0l
11.000 Campinas

SP

B r a zi l
Primary representative:
Phone: 4l -7822
7.

Dora Lange

A. C. Harris
Consultant
5 Duncraig Raod
Applecross
Western Australia
Primary representative:

A. C. Harris
-269 -

8.

LAMBIOTTET Cie. S.A.

Avenue Brugmann, ZgO
B.1180 Bruxelles
Belgium
Primary representative:
P h o n e: ( O Z ) l 4 l . O I . 4 6

Andre Lecocq

TeLex: 51588 elleco b

9.

T R O P I C A LP R O D U C TISN S T I T U T E
CuIham. Abingdon,
0xfordshire,

0X 14 IDA

United Kingdom
Phone: 086-730-755I

M A C H I N E RAYN D E Q U I P M E NSTU P P L I E R S
1.

A E R O G L I DC
EORPORATION
P. 0. Box Aeroglide
Raleigh, N. Carolina 276II
USA
Phone: 9I9-851-2000
Area of activity:
W o o dd r y e r s ,

2.

charcoaL briquetting.

A L D R E DP R O C E S P
S L A N TL I M I T E D
0akwoodChemical Works, Sandy Lane
Workshop, Notts S80 j4y
United Kingdom
Phone: O9O9 47686I
Telex: 54625
Area of activitv:
Portable metal kilns,
horizontal

vertical

carbonizing units.

and

3.

B E P E X ,G m b H
Daimlerstrasse 9
D-7105 Leingarten
Federal Republic of Germany
Phone: 0713I-4OO82
Telex: 7 28 738
Area of activity:
Charcoal briquetting

4.

B I 0 - C A R B O NG
, mbH
Soecking 25
D-8254 Isen /OBB
Federal Republic of Germany
Phone: O8O83-624
Telex: 526 O4t
Area of activity:
Traditional
activated

and
carbon

industrial
plants,

plants '
carbonization
p
r
o
g
rammes,
training

briquetting.
5.

C A R B O N E RDAO C K8 0 D
Enrique Marengo 810
San Andres, Prov. Bueno Aires
A r g e nt i n a
Area of activity:
Charcoal briquetting

6.

C e C o C oC H U OB O E K EG O S H IK A I S H A
P.0. Box 8
Ibaraki

City,

Csaka Prefecture

567 Japan
CaIbe address: Cecoco Ibaraki,

Japan

Area of activitv:
Cecoco small-scale kilns,
7.

briquetting

C. DEILMANN
AG-GROUP
P.0.Box 75
D-4444 Bad Bentheim
F. R.G.
Phone: 05922-72-O
Telex: 098 833
Area of activity:
Pyrolysisr

8.

gsification

and activation

of biomass

E N E R C OI N C O R P O R A T E D
01d 0xford VaIley Road lll
P. 0. Box I39 A
Langhorne, Pennsylvania I9O47
USA
Phone: 215-493-6565
Area of activity:
E N E R C 0P y r o l y t i c

9.

converter system for biomass conversion

E N V I R O T E CBHS P
One Davis Drive
Belmont, California

94OO2

USA
P h o n e : 4 15 - 5 9 2 - 4 0 6 0
Telex: 34-5586
Area of activity:
Multiple

hearth futnaces, large-scaLe charcoal production

- 2'12-

R E S O U R C ECSO M P A NAY. G .
I O . E R C OE N E R G Y
Zollikofer Strasse 228
C H - 8 0 0 8Z r i c h
SiwtzerLand
Phone: 0I-551010
Telex: 57-229
Area of activitv:
II.

E R C 0f l u i d

bed carbonizer

LAMBIOTTET CiC S.A.

Avenue Brugmann, 29O
B-1180 Bruxe]Ies
8elgi um
Phone: (02) 343.01.46
TeLex: 61588
Area of activitv:
Continuous C. I. S.R. Lamiotte retort

L 2 . L U R G I K O H L E& M I N E R A L O E L T E C H N I K
B o c k e n h e i m e rL a n d s t r a s s e 4 2
D-6000 Frankfurt/M.

Federal Republic of GermanY

Phone: O69-7II9I
TeLex: 4 12360
Area of activity
CK-Process (Reiehert retort)
IJ"

N I C H O L SE N G I N E E R I N&G R E S E A R CCHO R P .
H o m e s t e a da n d W i l l o w R o a d s
Belle Mead, NewJerseY 08502
USA
Area of

activity:

MuItiple

charcoal production

- 2'13-

hearth

furnaces,

Iarge-scafe

1 4 . P R 0 C T 0 R+ S C H W A R T ZI N
, C.
7th Street

and Tabor Road

Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania I92O

USA
Phone: 215-329-6400
Area of activity:
Charcoal briquette
I5.

dryers

PROTRAN
INC.
P.0. 8ox IO764
Raleigh, North Carolina 27605
USA
Phone: 9I9-7BI-4I48
Area of activitv:
Fluid bed carbonizer

16. LA STE CARBOLISI

Via E. Fermi
Martara, PV
ItaIy
Area of activitv:
Charcoal plants
17. LA STE LAMBIOTTE POUR
Tour Manhattan
6, place de 1!fris
9 2 4 O OC o u r b e v o i e
France
Area of activity:
W o o dd r y e r s , c h a r c o a L p l a n t s

- 2't4-

Aooendix 4

C O N V E R S I O N

T A B L E S

UNITSOF LENGTH
1 kilometer

= L76o yards
= 1000 meters

I mile

= I.607 kilometers

1 miLe

1 meter

= 0.1048 meter
= t.28O8 feet

1 inch

= 2.54 centimeters

I centimeter

= 0.3937 inch

foot

= 5280 feet
= 0.6214 mile
= JO.s centimeters
= 39.37 inches

UNITSOF AREA
1 square mite

= 640 acres

= 2.5899 square

= l-,000,000 square

= 0.186I square

kilometers
I

square kilometer

meters
1 acre

= 411560 square feet

1 square foot

= I44 square inches

mile
= o.o929 square
meter

1 square inch

= 6.452 square
centimeters

1 square meter

= IO.764 square feet

L square centimeter= 0.155 square inch

UNITSOF VOLUME
I.0

cubic foot

1.0 British
gallon

= 1728 cubic inches

imperial= I.2

= 7-48 US gallon

US gallon

1.0 cubic meter

= 35.3I4 cubic feet

1.0 liter

= 1000 cubic centi-

= 264.2 US gallon
= 0.2542 US gallon

1 US Barre.L

meters
= 42 US gallon

= 34.97 Br. imp'

galIon
= 0.158 cubic meter

UNITSOF WEIGHT
1.0 metric ton

= 1000 kilograms(Lg) = 2204.6 pounds

(rb)
1.0 kilogram (tg)

= 1000 grams (g)

1.0 short ton

= 2000 pounds (1b)

= 2.2046 pounds
(tb)

UNITSOF PRESSURE
I.0

pound per square incl

(psi)

= I44 pound per square

foot
-

1.0 pound per square incl (psi)

1.0 pound per square inch (psi)
1.0 pound per square inch (psi)

27.7 inches of water*

- 2.iI feet of water*
- 2.O42 inches of

t. o atmosphere

1.0 foot of water = O.4J3 psi

= [:";:unds
per square
inch (psi )
= 33.95 feet of water*
= 62.355 pounds per square

1.0 kilogram per square centi-

foot
= 14 zZj pounds per square

1.0 atmosphere

meter

inch
= O . O 7 O Tk i l o g r a m p e r

1.0 pound per square inch

square centimeter
U N I T S O F P O W E RA N D E N E R G Y
1 . 0 h o r s e p o w e r ( E n g J . i s h)

= 746 watt = 0.746

kitowatt (kw)

1.0 horsepower (English)

= 550 foot pounds per

1.0 horsepower (English)

seeond
= i3rOOO foot pounds per

r.0

kilowatt

(kw) = 1000 watt

m in u t e
= r.i4 horsepower (hp)
Englisch

1 . 0 h o r s e p o v r e r( n p ) ( E n g l i s h )

F).-7ffidegrees

Fahrenheit

(Ie.e

= l.0l19 metric horsepower

(cheval-vapeur)
degrees Celsius)

1.0 metric horsepower

= 75 meter X kilogran/

1.0 metric horsepower

= 0.735 kilowatt

se c o n d
= 736

watt
1 kilowatt

= 3.412 British
units (Btu)

hour

= I.34

thermal

horsepower hours

= 3r600 kilojoules
I British

thermal unit

(Btu)

= 3.6 megajoules
= IO55,2 Joules (J)
= O1252kilo
(kcal )

calories

FUEL CONVERSIONS
(a) I

quad = I

x I0I5 Btu (quadriltion

atu)

l quad
=;: ;i:: :::: :il:lilffi":::'io.,;
and
= 62.5 x 105 tons lignite
= 172.4 x 105 barreLs of oil
q
u
a
d
1

1 quad = I x 1012 ft3 natural- gas

I quad = 62.5 x 105 tons wood (0.0.

basis)
1 quad = 96.2 x 105 tons wood (green basis)
I quad = 105 x 106 tons municipal waste
I

q u a d = 2 9 3 x 1 0 9 K y 1 hd e l i v e r e d

(b) 1 ton bituninous coal = 25 x 105 Btu

(c) I barreL of oil = 5.8 x 106 Btu
(d) I ftl naturaL gas = looo Btu
(e) I
I

ton wood (0.0. basis) = 15 x 105 Btu*)

ton wood (green basis) = I0.5 x 105 Btu*)

(f)

r ton municipat waste = 9.5 x 106 Btu*)

( g ) I K t t { h( d e l i v e r e d ) - 3 4 I 2 B t u

T-l{6g-e

value,

s u bj e c t

to wide variation

I { O O DC O N V E R S I O N
(a) 1 cubic ft = Jo.o lb**)
(b) 1 cord = 3162 ^3 = Ir25 ton
(c) I bd ft = 2.5 lb**)

(d) I stere
= ;r;'l;'r::t;lr:;:::

**)

with edges of 1 m length)

( E u r o p . h a r d w o o d )* )

softwood = 27 lb and I
t ftl
average.
+) A cord USA is defined as wood
pile.
There is much variation
Because of wood density, free
of stackwood, weight is subject
++) Approximate value.
- 2't8-

ftj

hardwood = 32 tb

on

stacked in a 4 x 4 x 8 ft
in this unit of measure.
space within a cube made
to wide variations