X.

, 2003

. .
Werner Heisenberg

() :
2003 2004



.
:
.
: ,
, ,
,

. ,
.

.

.
04.01
ad magorem Dei gloriam
1
/
TK 30020
, , :
JorgePap@pathfinder.gr
JorgeBalt@Hotmail.com
2

(S.I.)

meter
m
m
Kilogram
Kg
t
second
sec

i
T

Amperes

Kelvin

mole

mole

Candela

cd

radian

rad

steredian

sr

deka
da = 101
hecto
h = 102
Kilo
K = 103
Mega
M = 106
Giga
G = 109
Terra
T = 1012
Peta
P = 1015
Exa
E = 1018

deci
d = 10-1
centi
c = 10-2
milli
m = 10-3
micro
= 10-6
nano
n = 10-9
pico
p = 10-12
femto
f = 10-15
atto
a = 10-18

:
12 cm = 12 10-2 m = 0,12 m
220 m = 22010-6 m
15 KW = 15103 W
200 nF = 20010-9 F

m2 m3.
:
cm = 10-2 m (cm)2 = (10-2 m)2 cm2 = 10-4 m2
mm = 10-3 m (mm)3 = (10-2 m)3 mm3 = 10-6 m3
:
1 L = 10-3 m3, 1 m3 = 103 L
1 L = 103 mL, 1 mL = 10-3 L

.
x
, . x(t)

. x=x(t) .
(x)

.
x y
o

x y
.
x y
,

A
yA

A(xA, yA)

xA

(x(t), y(t))

t.
.
x y
z o

x y z
.

r

r(t) =(x(t),y(t),z(t))

t.

z
zA
A(xA,yA,z
)
A

xA

yA
A

x


.
uur ur u
r

r r2 r1
r1 r2


.

x = x2-x1

S
.
.
u (Velocity)

uur
r r
. u
r
t
. (
13)
uur
r x
x2 x1
x
u
u
u
t2-t1
t
t
2
m/sec uur
r
uuur
r
: u
r(t)
t0 t
S
: u u
t

:
.

u =
x = xo + u(t to)

x = xo + ut

x = ut ( xo=0)

xo ( to=0 sec)

(m/se
c)

(
)
(m)

2
0

1
0
0

t (sec)

t (sec
)

xt
... .

u
uur
uur
r
r u
u u2 -u1
u

:
= =
t t2-t1
t
t 0 t
m/sec2

uur
u , :

()

Uo

U
+
x

Uo

()

U
+
x

r
a .

1
68

8
0
-2

.... (uo 0)
(>0)
(<0)

=
u =uo + t

=
u =uo - t

1
1
x = uot - t2
2
2
.... (uo = 0)
(>0)
(<0)

x = uot + t2

=
u =t

( !)

1
x = t2
2

8
0

-2

u2 u1
=
t2 t1

1
68
0

(m)

1
0
0

x2 x1
. u=
t2 t1

t (sec
)

(Force)
.
Newton = Kgm/sec2

F1

F2

F1

F=F2+F1

F=F2-F1

F1

F2

F1

F2

F2

F1

F1

F =

F12 F22
F1
= F
2

F =

F12 F22 2FF

1 2
F
1
= F F
2
1

Fy = F

:
:

()

Fx
=
F

Hooke

.
F=Kx,
.

10

K : ,
x : .
Newton

.
uuu
r r
F = 0 . . .
Newton

uuu
r
r F
uuu
r
r
F=m
=
m
uur
uuu
r p
: F =
( = )
t
x y :
Fx=max

Fy=may
: F = m
:

....

...

Newton
FAB ,
FBA. :
r
r
FAB=-FBA
Newton:
m1m2
r2
G :
G = 6,67310-11 m2Kgr-2
r :

F=G

m1
F1

m2

r
F2

:
0 ,max T,max=Fk
:
:
Fk : .

()

< ,max

10

11

:
T = Fk

()

= Fk

(Momentum)
r
r
p=mu

(
)
.
F=0 p=p
( . 48)
-

Newton ( ) :
uur uuu
r
uur
ur
uuu
r
ur
p Ft = F t p=
r
ur r
p

( )





(, ) .

<10-15
: (gluon)

.
.
:
(photon)

,

.
<10-18
:
W+, W-, Z

.
.
:
(Graviton) (
)

11

12

:
f : sec f =

N
,
t

Hz=s-1
- : f=
u
:
u=

u=

S
t

2R
u =2Rf
T
: m/sec

1
T

: =

2
= 2f
T
: rad/sec

S
u

u
u
.

!
.



.

- :

u = R

:

.
u,
,
.
u2
=
R

:
.
:
mu2
F=m F=
R
Newton :
FR=F =

12

mu2
R
.

13

r
xy,

( ) r:
uu
r
r dr
u
dt


, .
:
(//u)

u
( u)

ro

u2
R
R
( )
=

F = m

13

14

u
r r
W=FS ( W=FS)
:
F:
S:
: F S.

F
S

Joule ( J = Newtonm)
F=(x)

F=(x) x.

W = F=(x) .

=9
0

W=TS180 W=TS
( x1 x2) :
1
1
x12 - x22
2
2
T x1, x2

.
(...)
W =

(
)

. .

x1

x2

(Energy)
, . .

, , .
Joule, J = Newtonm

m =mc2 (Einstein 1905).
,
.
( )
(.. ).
14

15

(Potential Energy)


UAB

U = - W

UB = mg(hh)

UB = mgh

1 2
x
2
To x .
UE=

q1 q2 r
qq
U K 1 2
r
(Kinetic Energy)
1
= mu2
2
(Conservative)
,

.
:
, (Coulomb), ,
:
, , ,



=+U

(
)
,
= 1 + U1 = K2 + U2



E=WF- (= Q)
.

15

16

( , ....)


= WF
= WF1+WF2+
(To .... , )

:
W
P=
=
t
t
P = E/t
() F :
Fu()
:
u
F u

P =

: Watt, W=Joule/sec HP =750 W (Horse Power = )

:
,

16

17

q Q (Electric Charge)
( ). :
(+)

(-)

:
, .
, ()
e = 1,6 10-19 C
e. Q=Ne

:
.
.
:
Coulomb C ( = Amperesec)

Coulomb
( ) q1
q2 :
qq
F=K 12 2
r
: K=9109 m2/C2
r
:

1
=
4
: (permittivity of free space)
= 8,8510-12 C2N-1m-2
: (
)
(Electric Field)

.

17

18

(Electric Intensity)

q
,

ur q
ur F
E=
()
+q
/C V/m.
Q
E =K 2
r
:
Q :
r : -

V (Potential)
V ,

q
,
q.
WA
V=
()
+q
U
V=
q
Q
VA = K
(o o Q o
rA
)

UA :

-q
F

+q

+q
+

WA

WAB
V = VA - VB =
()
q
UAB
V = VA - VB =
q
1 1

rA rB
( )
VAB = K Q

18

19

(Field Lines)

-q

.
:
- .
( )
.
.

(Capacitor)
.
:

C (Capacitance)

Q
C=
V
Coulomb C

Farad, F
Volt
V
:
S
C
l
:
:
:
S :
:

19

20

1
1Q2
U= QV U
2
2C

1
U CV2
2

(permittivity)

()
Co C>Co
=Co/C. (
).

20

21

(Direct Current)


,
.
(Electric Current)
: = q/t i = q/t
Ampere, ()
(Electric Cell)
,
.
()
(Electromotive Force)
W
P
= E=
q
I
(E W)
. Volt, V=J/C
(Resistance)

:
V
R=
I
Ohm, = Volt/Ampere
S
( )
:
l
R=
S

=(1+)
:
:
: 0
:
:
R=R(1+)
, Ohm

i V
R,
V
=
R
:
.

21

22

Joule
R i
t :
Q=i2Rt

E = iVt
E = i2Rt
V2
E=
t
R

P = iV
P = i2R
V2
P=
R

V1
R1

V2
R2

R1

i1

V3

R2

i2

R3

R3

i3

:
i

i1=i2=i3
V1+V2+V3=V
R=R1+R2+R3

V1=V2=V3=V
i1 + i2 + i3 = i
1
1 1 1

R R1 R2 R3

Kirchhoff
(+) (-)
. i = 0
( )

Kirchhoff

.
V = 0
( )

Ohm
, r,
R :
E
i

E=i(R+r)
R r
22

23

P = i

P = Vi

( = i2R )

P = i2r

.
r
V = E iR


()

V
i

(
)

..

V

i

i=/r

()
. .

23

24

(Magnetism)

, Fe3O4
(Magnetic Field)
.
ur
B
. (Magnetic
Induction) : Tesla, T=N/Am

B
. :
( )
(North N)
(South S)

Biot-Savart

i
r
=
:

il

4 r2

:
( )
=1,2610-6 mKgC-2

2i
4 r
2i
B = r
B=

:
: 10-7
Wb/Am

K =
4

24

i



(
)

25

i
:

2i
4 r
2i
B = r

B=

():


i
.

:



.

(Solenoid)


:
= 4nI
B = nI
N
= l I
:
:
(
)

B
i




:




(

!)

(Permeability of medium)

.

=/
:

25

26

(Ferromagnetic)
Fe, Ni, Co
>>1

(Paramagnetic)
Al , U,
>1

(Diamagnetic)
Cu, Bi, Hg, ,
<1

Laplace

Laplace
FL=Bi

FL

B
V

B Laplace
Laplace

FL=Bi


.

Laplace
FL :

B
.

Laplace.
Lorentz

q
u
,

FL

FL = Buq

T

:
ur r
(B) u
FL q(B u)

( .
)

Laplace.
:
i
ur ur r

FL q(E B u)
u.
i u
,
.
26

27

27

28

(Electromagnetic Induction)

.
(Magnetic Flux)
S


,

ur r
= BS = BS
:
:
S : ( )
:

n
S

n

S.


.

: Weber, Wb = Teslam.
(Faraday)

=t

d
=-
=t0 t
dt
Lenz

Lenz

.
Faraday.
( Von Neumann)

.

Q=R
(Self-Induction)


.
:
i
=-L
t
L =
Henry () ( = VsecA-1)
28

29

:
L = 2/
: ( )

:
:
:
:

i (
)
1
UB Li2
2
(Mutual Inductance)
( (1)
(2))
(2) i
(1) :
i
=-
t
M :

U

(
r
(l ,u) ) :
= U


Laplace
(Lorenz)
.

:
1
E =
2

29

30

30

31

(Alternating Current)
V=Vot
Vo :
R i i=Iot
V
: = o
R
(Effective value)



I
= o
2
=0,707


.
V
V = o
2
V=0,707 V
Ohm
, :
V
V
V
i= ,
Io= o , I=
R
R
R
Z () (Impedance)
Z=

Vo V
=

.
(Capacitance)
ZC=

1
C

(Inductance)
L = L
(Resistance)
R = R

VC /2 i

VL /2 i

31

32

VR i
RLC (, , )
:
V (VL VC )2 VR2

V 2 L ( R)2
C

VL

L R2
C

-:
R
=
Z
i=t v=V(t+)
V

VL-VC

i
VC

VR

RLC

(Power)

P=iv
(Effective Power)
P=V

: - .
RLC
L=ZC VL=VC V=VR =0.
.
RLC :
1
2 LC
( RLC )
f=

32

33

(Periodic Motions)
(Simple harmonic motion)



x=At x=0 t=0
:
u = umaxt
= -maxt

umax=
max=2

..

...
F = - Dx
:
D :

x : ..
(angular frequency)
D = m2
D
=
m
(Period)
=2

m
D

-
= - 2 x
-
u = A2 x2

= u2max u2

UT =

1 2
Dx
2

1 2
mu
2

()
=

1
1
DA2 = mu2max
2
2

33

34

+ UT = E

( F=bu) .
:
b:

= e-t
:
: t=0
: b
t : t=NT

Ao A1 A2
=
=
=
A1 A2 A3


().
f fo
.
(Resonance)

:
f = fo.

fo

fo

LC
:
T= 2 LC

. q=Q i=0 t=0:

q = Qt
i = - It = Q
B. q=0 i=I t=0:
34

35

q = Qt
i = It

Q
+
+
+

q=
0

t=0

Q
-

T/4

+
+
+

T/2

i=
0

i
q=
0

i=
I

3T/4

i=
0

Q
+
+
+

i=
. q0 i0 It=0:
q = Q(t+)
i = - I(t+)

i=
0

(Capacitor)

UE =

1 q2
2C

(Inductance)

UB =

1 2
Li
2

E = UE+UB
E=

1
1Q2
= LI2
2
2C

i = Q2 q2

VL = VC

35

36

1/C

i/t

UE

UB

.
x=x1+x2
. 1=2=
. 1=2= 1 2

x1=A1t,
x2=A2t

2
2

t 1
t
x = 2A 1
2
2

x1=A1t,
B1. 1=2= 1
x2=A2(t + )
2
x = A t

:
x = A(t+)
2
2
A = A12 A22 2A1A

t = 1
= 2A 1
2
2
2

2
(beats)
=
1 2
:
1
=
f = |f1 - f2|
f1 2

36

37

(Waves)
( )
.
:
()
()
:
() :
( )
.
.

() :

. .

() :

,
.

(Wave length)

. : .
: 2

u =

t x
y = A 2
T
x

t x
y = A 2
T
x
() (Interference)
t r1 r2
r r

y = 2A 2 1 2 2

: |r1-r2|=
: |r1-r2|=(2+1)/2
(Stationary Wave)
.
.
y = y1+y2
x
t
y = 2 2 2

: x = , =0, 1,
: x=(2+1) , =0, 1,
2
4

37

38

Doppler
(Doppler effect)
(Observer O) (Source S)
:
u uo
f =f u mus
o

:
fo :
fs :
u :
uo :
us :
(
) .

.

,
,
,
c.

.
t x
2
T
= max
t x
2
T
B = Bmax


:
E
c=
B

38

c
E

c

.
c c=3108 m/s

39

(Reflection)

.

.

.

.
(Refraction)

n1

n1 n2

.
.

n2

n (Refractive Index)
n=

co
c

:
n > 1 c<co
n = 1 ()
n ()
c =

co
n

1 n2
o

, = o ,

n 2 n1
:
n.
n.
n c
: n=

39

40

()
.

.
n1 n2.
n1

n2

n1

n2

, n1>n2

, n1<n2

Snell
n

n
( n n)
(Total internal reflection)
.
90
.

n2

90

40

n1

90

n1
n2

n1
n2

41

n n1=1 =

1
n

(Dispersion)
n
.
.

n
1,54

1,51

400 nm

700 nm

n
()

:
c

.

()

41

42

(Center of Mass)
Oxyz
(
mi xi, yi, zi)
:
mixi
mi yi
mizi
xcm
, ycm
, zcm
mi
mi
mi
r
r
mi ri
: rcm
mi
( )

()
2
.
u
r : rad/sec
r d

dt

d


().

.

u
r
ur
F
cm

:
F :
:
CM :
P
( ) ()
r
u
r
dp
F
dt

F = 0 dP/dt = 0 P =

42

43

(Moment of Force)


u
r

= r F =Fd

d

F
=Fd
r
:
d : F
F


F d r
:









F
d .
= Fd

F
F

:


Fx 0
u
r r

uCM
F 0 Fy 0

F 0
z

:
r

=0


(Moment of Inertia)
:
I = m1r12 + m2r22 + + miri2
I = miri2

r1
r2

:
2
= r dm

r3
ri

m1
m2
m3
mi

43

44

mR2

1
ML2
12

1
M(2 2 )
12
R2

1
MR2
2

1
MR2
2

1
MR2
2

2
MR2
5

2
MR2
3

Steiner-Huygens
( )

= CM
:

Md2

CM :

:
d :

L (Angular Momentum)
L m
u
r
44

L
r
p

45

ur urr r r
L Lr p
r p
L=mur
:
p : p=mu
.
.
ur r r
L r p
L = mur L = mud
:
d : ()

I
ur u
r
L I (1)

L = I



ur ur ur
L L1 L2 ...

r
m

(1) .
L (
ur
u
r
!). Lz I, z
Lz z.

Newton
.
:
uur ur
=

:
ur
ur
uur dL
uur
dL


dt
dt



ur :
uur
ur
ur
dL
= 0 L L I1=2 ( =)

dt
.

45

46

11=22

1
= 2
2

:
1
1
2
= 2 + ucm
2
2

dS

F


W = dW = FRd = d
d .
:
W=

=

1
1
W = 22 - I 12
2
2

.

R
uCM


uCM = u = R

:
CM = R
:
CM :

ucm

:
=
= + t


:
46

47

=
= + t
= + t + t2

47

48

(Collisions)

.
()
.
,
,
(scattering)
(central) (non central),

(elastic) (inelastic), (
) , , .

r
r
p p
.


+
.
p=p
m2u2 m1u1 = (m1+m2)u

m1

u2

u1

m2

u
m1+m
2

.
...
m2
m1 u
u2
.
1
:
r
r
+
r ' (m1 m2 )u1 2m2 u2
u1
u1
u2
m1 m2
r
r
r ' (m m1)u2 2m1u1
+
u2 2
m1 m2
( )
,

.

r :
r ' (m1 m2 )u1
u1
m1 m2
r
r'
2m1u1
u2
m1 m2

48

49

. .
... .


( ).

(
).

49

50

(Perfect Gases)



( Gay-Lussac)
( Charles)
P
V
.
.
T
T


( Boyle-Marriote)
( Poisson)
PV=.
PV =.

PV = nRT
:
n : mole, n=m/MB, n=N/N
: Avogadro 6,0231023
mol
R : 8,3144 Jmol-1K-1

PV
.
T


( P, V, T) ,
.
, ,
, , ,

:
i.
ii. ( ,
)
iii.

iv.

v. ,
.
vi.
vii.


viii.

ix.

:
1
1N
P du2
mu2
3
3V
u2 :
d :
:
m :
50

51

(root mean square speed)

3kT
3RT
u urms u2

m
Mr

3
kT
2
:
k : Boltzmann,
k = R/NA 1,3810-23 JK-1


=kT.
f (degree of
freedom)
f=3
f=5
f=7
f>6
:
f
K kT
2

Cp=CV + R
Cp :
CV :

:
= Cp/Cv
CV = R/(-1)
CP = R/(-1)
CV = fR/2
CP = (f/2+1)R
(Internal Energy)
1
U Nf kT
2
U = n CVT

51

52

A
Q=U+W
Q : (>0) (<0)
U :
W : (>0) (<0)
(Reversible change)
()

.
P-V
.

P

P
2>1

2
1
V

:
U = 0, W = Q,

P2V2=P1V1

B V1

V2

V1

V2

Q = nCVT,

2
1

U = nCVT,

V1

V1<V

V2

W=0

:
P2/T2=P1/T1

52

53

P
P1
P2

P1

P2

2
1

P1

Q = nCPT,

U = nCVT,

P1<P2

W = PV

P2

:
V2/T2=V1/T1


. Poisson
PV = P1V1 = P2V2
( Poisson)

:
P
P1

V
V1

P2

P2
B

1
2
V

P1

V2

:
Q = 0, U = nCVT U = - W, W =

P2V2 PV
1 1
1

Poisson:
T1V1-1 = 2V2-1
T1P11-/ = 2P21-/

.
.
:
=0

U = nCV = 0.
: Q = W
( )

53

54

P-V
.
P
P1

W>0

P2

P1

P2

V1

V2

W<0

V1

V2

()
.
P-V.

, ,
( ), .
,
.
P

- V

()
,
.
Q1
1,

, Q2

2<1,
(

).
W=Q1 - |Q2|

54

Q1
W
Q2

2

55

n=

W
Q1 Q2
=
Q1
Q1

= 1-

Q2
Q1

n>1

Carnot
:
: 1
Q1
:
A
P
:
Q2 (<0)
:
Q1

nc
Carnot

1 2.
Carnot :

Q2
Q1

T2
T1

Q2

2
V

Carnot
nc= 1 -

T2
T1

Kelvin-Planck:

.
n<1
Clausious:


.

, ,
. S
( )
S

SAB= A

dQ
T

55

56

-

.
S0
.

.

. . :
.

56

57

(Galileo Galilei 1600 ..)

t
t
t .

uoy

uox
x : ux=uox
uoy
x=xo + uoxt

g
uo

y : uy=uoy - gt
y=yo + uoyt -

uox

1 2
gt
2

uoy
uox
x : ux=uox
x=xo + uoxt
y : uy=uoy + gt
y=yo + uoyt +

1 2
gt
2

uox=uo
x : ux=uo
x=xo + uot

ux

x
g

y : uy=gt
y=h -

1 2
gt
2

g :
g=G

M
M
, r>R. go = G 2 ,
r2
R

V = - G

M
r

m
WA=m(VA-VB).
:

57

58

:
1=2

M
1
mu2 - G
m = 0 u=
r
2

2GM
, :
R

u=

2GM
M R
R

. u = 11,2 Km/sec
h
u=

2GM
R h

uor

.
( h )
: u=

GM
R h

.
F
qE
qV
=
=
=
m
m
m

+++++++++++++++
+++++
uoy
+q

uo

uox

+q
F

-------------------------u
, V
-

u
.

u=uo at
x=xo + uot

58

1 2
at
2

59

uox=uo
x : ux=uo
x=xo + uot
y : uy=t
y=yo +

++++++++++++++++
++++
uo
E

---------------------------

1 2
t
2

++++++++++++++++
(+)
++++
(-) uoy

uo
uox

E
+q
x : ux=uox
x=xo + uoxt
--------------------------y : uy=uoy gt
y=yo + uoyt

1 2
gt
2

q
:
WA=q(VA-VB).

.

Lorentz
u

.
FL=F Buq=mu2/R
R=

mu
(
Bq

T=

2m
(
q

)
)

FL

-Q1
u1

u2
R2

+Q
2

(
!)
.
.

59

60

, u
, u|| .
R=

mu
Bq

(
xx ) x= u||t
.

u
+
q
x

u||

xz
... y

( ).
x= u||t t=T

60

61

(atomic mass unit, a.m.u. u) 1/12
-27
12
Kg.
6 C . 1u= 1.6605410
(=mc)
eV. eV
1 Volt.
1 eV = 1,610-19 Joule. 1u = 931.4 MeV/c2

,
. (Plank)
Quantum: (. quanta).

f
hf h
=hf p= = (Planck 1900)
c
m u
h
=
( de Broglie)
mu
:
h = 6.6310-34 Js Planck

.
() ().

.
( ,
) .
Bohr
1.

,
, .
L
h

2
h
L = n , L = n,
2
n=1,2,3
h
=
( h bar)
2

2.

:
hf = E -
: n

61

62

: n < n
:
n = :

E
o,
2
n

n=1,2,3,

: , =

mee4
82 h2

me, e :

:
h
: Planck
:
rn = ron2, n=1,2,3,
:
r : , r=

2
h

mee2

me, e :

: =3,14
h
: Planck
(Radioactivity)
.
( decay)
A
Z

A4
Z2Y

=
..
238
234
4
92U 90Th + 2 He

4
2

He

+ (+ decay)
p n +e+ + e ( ,
)
A
A
+
Z X Z1Y + e + e

e+ : (positron)
: (neutrino)
..
11
11
+
6C 5B + e + e
- (- decay)
n p + e- + e ( ,
)
A
A
Z X Z1Y + e + e

e- :
e :
62

63

..
234
90

Th

234
91

Pa+ e- + e

( decay)
X * AZ X +

: ,
A
*
Z X :
A
Z

t
= e-t
:
N : t
: 0,
:
: t
-0

,
.
t
bequerel
(half time)

.
ln2
1/2=

.
= mp + Nmn - M
= mp + Nmn (M me)
: mp, mn, me , ,


EB
EB=c2.
,
.

/, ,
.

63

64

56

Fe

He

235

1
5
0

10
0

15
0

25
20
0
0

(Nuclear reaction) + +

m = + - - Q=c2
Q>0 .
Q<0 .
(Nuclear fission)

, >56.
..
235
1
93
140
1
92 U + 0n 38Sr + 54 Xe+3 0n +198,3 MeV
235
92

92
1
U + 01n 141
56Ba + 36Kr +3 0n +208 MeV

(Nuclear fusion)

<56.
..
1
3
2
4
n
1H+ 1H 2 He+ 0 +17,6 MeV
.
- :
1
1
2
+
1H+ 1H 1H+ e + e
1
2
3
1H+ 1H 2 He+
1
1

H+ 23He 42 He+ e+ + e

, .
64

65

( ).
(proton) (neutron) (electron),
.
(
anti-matter).

:
, parity, , .
, . p : , p, e-:
, e+ : ().
: .. ,
, c=c c , .
[ (bosons): ,
Bose - Einstein. (fermions): ,
Fermi Dirac.

( Pauli),
]

, .

(
).
(hadron)
(lepton) .
(hadrons)
, .
: (baryons) 3 quarks, p=uud,
(mesons) quark, antiquark,
. +=u d
(leptons)
,
, .
(force carriers)
4
. ( : 11)
(quark)
.

65

66

.
e .
( )
e.
Gell-Mann James Joyce
Finnegans wake !
(Quarks) spin=1/2

flavor
GeV/c

(Leptons) spin=1/2

flavor
GeV/c
ve
0
<110-8
u up
0.003
2/3

0.006
-1/3
5,110-4
d down
-1
e
v
c charm
0
1.3
2/3
<210-4

0.1
-1/3
0,106
-1
s strange

t top
ve
0
175
2/3
<210-2
4.3
-1/3
1,7771
-1
b bottom

quark : , , , ,
,
quark color (
)

. quark
(gluons). , W Z
(vector bosons)
.
(spin 1)

(gravity)

(weak)

(graviton)

(strong)

(electroweak)

W+
WZ0

GeV/c

80,4
80,4
91,18

+1
-1
0

(electromagnetic)

GeV/c

(photon
0
0
)

(gluon)
0,
0

quark 3 . : 18
. 6 . 24 .
48
. ,
standard model.

.
4 ,
4 .
,
(Grand Unified Theories)
.
.
(string superstring theories)
66

67

67

68

=
,

=

=

-1

1
0

-1

2+2 = 1
=

(2k+)=
(-)=
(2k+)= (-)=-
(k+)=
(-)=-
(k+)=
(-)=-

/2
/2

( -)=
( +)=
2
2

( -)=
( +)=-
2
2

( -)=
( +)=-
2
2

( -)=
( +)=-
2
2

68

=1

(+)=-
(+)=-
(+)=
(+)=

(-)=-
(-)=
(-)=-
(-)=-

69

0
0

27
0
3
2

36
0

-1

-1

3
3

30

45

60

90

180

6
1
2
3
2
3
3

4
2
2
2
2

3
3
2
1
2

1
1

x=2k
x=
+
x=
x=2k

x=k+
+-
x=
x=
x=2k
x=k+

()=
()= m

()=
1
m
m1
()=

.
3=3-43
3=43-3
3-3
3=
1 32
3-3
3=
32 -1
-1 x 1,

2
1-2

2=2

2=

2=2-2
=22-1
=1-22

2-1
2=
2

2=

1
2
2

2=
-1 x 1,

1
2
2

- x ,

2=

1-2
1+2

2=

1+2
1-2

- x ,

69

70

-

+=2

+=2

2
2
2

-
-
-=2

2
2
2

-
-=2

2
2
( )
( )
+=
+=

( )
( )
-=
-=

( Werner)
(/2)

1
=2R
=
[(-) = =
2
2

, ,(+)]

=, , 2

1+
1
=
[(+)+(2

2

1-2 )]
2 2=2+2-2
=
1
2 2=2+2-2
=
[(+)
1+ 2
2
2
2
2 = + -2
+(-)]

-1

3
2

70

71

-1

3
2

()2=22+
()=3+3
()=4+64+

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
:
1 5 10105 1

1
6 1520156 1
.
.
.
. . . . . .

Pascal
:
n

(+)n= 0 n+ 1 n-1+ 2 n-22++ n 1 n-1+ n n

n
n!

=
( )
n!=123(n-1)n
k!(n k)!
k
)

-=(-)(+)
( )
-=(-)(++)
-=(-)(+++)
-=(-)(++++)

-=(-)(-1+-2+-3++-2+-1)
-=(+)(-)
-=(+)(-+-)

2-2=(+)(2-1-2-2+2-32-+2-2-2-1)

71

72

+=(+)(-+)
+=(+)(-+-+)

2+1+2+1=(+)(2-2-1+2-22--2-1+2)
( 2+2)

4...3
= 1 42

()=

=+
-
=

-=

x= x= ,

= ,

= +
=
1

-
=

=
=

x= :


>0
<0

()

-()

x= x=log

loga1=0
logaa=1
aloga =

ex= x=ln 10x=

x=log
e=2,71828, >0, 1, >0

log()=log+lo
log=log

g
1
log
=

log
= log

log( )=log
log

log

log

=1+(-1), =+1-
+
S= 1
2

1
=1-1, =

1-
1
S=1 1 , S=1 1
<1

x+x+=0 =-4
72

73

>0

x1,2=
2

=0

x=
2

<0

-

x + x + = 0 x1 x2

S
P

S P
1 2 1 2 :
x - Sx + P = 0
x+x+
>0
x1 x2

=0
x

x=0
x1

x1

x2

<0

73

74

(Scalar product)
r
r
=(1, 2, 3) =(1, 2, 3)
r r
( )

r r
r r
=, 0 =11+22+33
r r
r r
r r
r r
= 0
= ||

(Vector product)
r
r
=(1, 2, 3) =(1, 2, 3)
r r
:
r r
r
= n
r

n (n=1)

r
r

r r
r
n

, n

r

(
r
r
n
)
:
r r r
i
j k
r r

= 1 2 3
1 2 3

r r
r r
= -

74

r
r r
r
r
= (23-32) i +(13-31) j +( 12-21) k
r r r
r r r r
r r
r
= 0 || = n

75

u (a.m.u.)

Avogadro

NA

Bohr

h2
=
mee2k

Boltzmann

k=R/NA

me

eV
e

1.380710-23 J/K
9.1093910-31 Kg
5.48579910-4 u
0.51099906 MeV/c2
1.60217710-19 J
1.60217710-19 C

8.314510 J/Kmol

6.6725910-11
Nm/Kg

mee4
82 h2

0,5291810-10 m

13,605698 eV

mn

1.67492810-27 Kg
1.008664904 u
939.56563 MeV/c2

410-7 /

1
c2

h
Planck

1.6605410-27 Kg
931.434 MeV/c2
6.0221361023(g mol)-

h
2

8,8518781710-12
C/Nm
6.62607510-34 Js
1.0545726610-34 Js

mp

1.67262310-27 Kg
1.007276470 u
938.2723 MeV/c2

2.99792458108 m/s

75

76

76

, 49

Kirchhof, 20

, 50

, 26
,
21

, 36

,
33

, 8

,
38

, 61

, 61

, 19

, 19

, 49

Carnot, 52

Avogadro, 47

, 15

, 14

, 45

,
43

,
54
, 26

, 52

Kirchhof, 20

, 39

, 48

, 54

, 55
, 21

, 58

,
30

, 36

,
39

, 36

, 36

, 23
,
38
, 59
-, 60
+, 59
, 60
, 4

, 39

, 3

, 18
, 55
, 8

Laplace, 24

Lorentz, 24

,
30

, 17,
22

, 48

,
46

, 45
, 57

, 60
, 28
, 28
, 28
, 28

, 28
, 13

,
26

,
15
, 14
, 14

,
30
, 14

, 18

, 48

, 14

, 20
, 14

,
31

,
32
, 14

,
31

,
26

, 60

,
61

, 21

, 48

, 28

, 28

, 19
, 52

,
32

de
Broglie, 58

, 34

, 27
, 5
, 12
,
12

, 58
, 13
, 13

, 13

, 13

78

,
43

,
15
, 13

, 6

- , 6

, 6

, 6

, 5

- , 5

, 5

, 19

, 19

, 32

, 33

, 33

,
17

, 17
, 17
, 16
, 18

, 19
, 20
78

, 19
, 20

, 19

,
34

, 35

, 34

, 42

, 51
,
49

SteinerHuygens, 41

,
15

, 43

, 48

, 41
,
47

, 50

, 49

, 40

, 49
, 15

, 29

, 20

, 29

, 12

Lenz, 25

, 23

,
23

, 47
,
58
,
39

, 54

, 56

, 45

, 48
,
43

, 47
, 45
,
11

, 11

, 11

,
11

Newton

, 11
, 11
, 11

,
11

, 50

,
30

Carnot,
52

, 61
RLC,
29
,
43
, 34
, 34
, 34

, 58

, 23

, 22

(),
25
,
25

, 22

, 22

, 23
,
23

, 22
,
22
, 4

, 39

, 51
, 3

, 34

, 34

, 14

,
14
, 15

79

, 3

Bohr, 58

, 47

, 47

, 47

, 47

, 47

, 47

BiotSavart, 22

Coulomb, 16
Hooke, 8

Von
Neumann, 25

(Faraday), 25

, 26

Newton,
9

, 60

Joule, 20
Ohm

,
28

, 21

Snell, 37
,
19

Newton, 9

Newton, 9

Newton, 9

, 37
,
54
, 10

,
10

, 10

, 23

, 4
, 4

, 4
, 4

,
30

,
44

, 45

,
21
,
3
, 18

, 18

, 18

,
61
,
59

, 21

, 41

, 40

,
40

, 40

, 23

Boltzmann, 48

Planck, 58
,
34

,
39

, 39
, 42

, 42

, 34

,
20
,
20
, 20

,
33

, 28

,
8

, 52

,
26

, 14

,
31

RLC
, 29

, 30

, 30

,
31

, 30
,
30

, 31
, 32
, 31
, 5

, 11

, 11

, 55

, 47


, 36

, 9
, 9

, 3

Doppler, 35
, 16
, 16

, 22

, 21

, 60
,
18

79

 ...................................................................................................................................1

.................................................................................................................................................3
(S.I.)................................................................................................................................3
................................................................................................................3
..........................................................................................................................................................4
. ...................................................................................................................................4
. ...............................................................................................................................................4
. ...............................................................................................................................................4
x...........................................................................................................................................4
S.................................................................................................................................................4
u (Velocity).................................................................................................................................5
........................................................................................................................5
.................................................................................................................................................6
...............................................................................................6
........................................................................................................7
:......................................................................................................8
Hooke...............................................................................................................................................8
Newton.....................................................................................................................................9
Newton.....................................................................................................................................9
Newton.....................................................................................................................................9
Newton:............................................................................................................9
:............................................................................................................................................9
:.......................................................................................................................................9
(Momentum).....................................................................................................................................9
.............................................................................................................10
............................................................................................................................................11
:........................................................................................................................11
:...............................................................................................................................11
Newton :...............................................................................................11
................................................................................................................11
- ............................................................................................................................................13
..........................................................................................................................13
F=(x)...........................................................................................................13
:............................................................................................................................................13
( x1 x2) :............................................................................................................13
(Energy).....................................................................................................................................13
................................................................................................................13
(Potential Energy).....................................................................................................14
................................................................................................................14
.................................................................................................................14
.................................................................................................................14
(Kinetic Energy)..........................................................................................................14
(Conservative)...................................................................................................14
...................................................................................................................................14
.................................................................................................14
.......................................................................................................14
....................................................................................................................14
....................................................................................................................15
.........................................................................................................................................................15
:..........................................................................................................15
..................................................................................................................................................16
q Q (Electric Charge).................................................................................................................16
:...................................................................................................................................16
Coulomb........................................................................................................................................16
(Electric Field)...............................................................................................................16
(Capacitor)..............................................................................................................................18
(Direct Current)...................................................................................................................19
........................................................................................................................................19
(Electric Current)....................................................................................19
(Electric Cell).................................................................................................................19
() ..................................................................................................19
(Resistance)..............................................................................................................19
, Ohm..................................................................................................................................19
Joule........................................................................................................................................19
...................................................................................................................20
..................................................................................................................20
Kirchhoff................................................................................................................................20
Kirchhoff................................................................................................................................20
Ohm ....................................................................................................20

81

..............................................................................................................20
.............................................................................................................................................21
....................................................................................................21
.............................................................................................................................21
............................................................................................................................................21
..............................................................................................................................................21
(Magnetism).............................................................................................................................22
...................................................................................................................................22
(Magnetic Field)...........................................................................................................22
...................................................................................................22
Biot-Savart.....................................................................................................................................22
..................................................................................................22
..........................................................................................................23
(Solenoid).............................................................................................23
(Permeability of medium).....................................................23
Laplace........................................................................................................................................24
Lorentz.........................................................................................................................................24
(Electromagnetic Induction)..........................................................................................25
(Magnetic Flux)............................................................................................................25
(Faraday)......................................................................................................................25
Lenz.....................................................................................................................................25
( Von Neumann)...............................................................................................25
(Self-Induction)....................................................................................................................25
.......................................................................................................................26
(Mutual Inductance).....................................................................................26
.....................................................................................................26
.................................................................................................................................26
(Alternating Current).................................................................................................27
(Effective value)..................................................................................................27
.................................................................................................................................27
Ohm ........................................................................................27
Z () (Impedance).....................................................................................27
(Capacitance)..........................................................................................................27
(Inductance).................................................................................................................27
(Resistance)...........................................................................................................27
...............................................................................................................................27
....................................................................................................................................27
............................................................................................................................27
RLC (, , )..........................................................................................28
(Power)................................................................................................................28
(Effective Power)...................................................................................................................28
RLC ................................................................................................................28
(Periodic Motions).....................................................................................................................29
(Simple harmonic motion)....................................................................29
.................................................................................................................................29
(angular frequency)..............................................................................................29
(Period)..................................................................................................................................29
- ........................................................................................................29
- ...........................................................................................................29
..............................................................................................................29
..............................................................................................................29
...............................................................................................................29
() .................................................................................................29
........................................................................................30
...............................................................................................................................30
.....................................................................................................................30
.............................................................................................................................30
.............................................................................................................................32
(Waves).............................................................................................................................................33
(Wave length).................................................................................................................33
.......................................................................................................33
......................................................................................................................................33
() (Interference)...........................................................................................33
(Stationary Wave).............................................................................................................33
Doppler .....................................................................................................33
..........................................................................................................................34
(Reflection)...................................................................................................................35
.......................................................................................................35
(Refraction)...................................................................................................................35
n (Refractive Index)..................................................................................................35
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......................................................................................................................................36
Snell........................................................................................................................................36
(Total internal reflection).............................................................................................36
(Dispersion)......................................................................................................................37
.................................................................................................................................................38
(Center of Mass).......................................................................38
..............................................................................................................................38
............................................................................................................38
........................................................................................................38
..........................................................................................38
(Moment of Force)..........................................................................................................38
..........................................................................................................................39
....................................................................................................................39
(Moment of Inertia)......................................................................................................39
........................................................................................40
Steiner-Huygens.......................................................................................................................40
L (Angular Momentum)..........................................................................................................40
..................................................................................................................41
............................................................................................41
.........................................................................................................41
..............................................................................................................41
......................................................................................42
............................................................................42
..........................................................................................................................................42
........................................................................................42
......................................................................................42
(Collisions)....................................................................................................................................43
. ......................................................................................................43
. ......................................................................................................43
. ...................................................................................................43
(Perfect Gases)........................................................................................................................44
............................................................................................................................................44
...................................................................................................................44
.........................................................................................................45
.....................................................................................................................45
(Internal Energy).........................................................................................45
.............................................................................................................................................46
A .................................................................................................................46
(Reversible change)..........................................................................................46
..................................................................................................................................46
....................................................................................................................................46
.................................................................................................................................47
...............................................................................................................................47
....................................................................................................................................47
.......................................................................................................................48
....................................................................................................................................48
..............................................................................................48
Carnot...........................................................................................................................................48
Carnot............................................................................................................................49
.......................................................................................................................49
...................................................................................................................................................49
...............................................................................49
.........................................................................................................................50
(Galileo Galilei 1600 ..).........................................................50
.........................................................................................................50
........................................................................................................51
.....................................................................................................52
.......................................................................................................................54
...........................................................................................................................................54
.................................................................................................54
.................................................................................................................54
...................................................................................................................................54
Bohr .....................................................................................54
:...............................................................................................................55
:..................................................................................................................55
(Radioactivity)....................................................................................................................55
( decay)...............................................................................................................................55
+ (+ decay)............................................................................................................................55
- (- decay)..............................................................................................................................55
( decay)................................................................................................................................56
...........................................................................................................56
82
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........................................................................................................................................56
...................................................................................................................................56
.........................................................................................................56
............................................................................................................................57
......................................................................................................................................57
..................................................................................................................................................60
.............................................................................................................................60
...............................................................................................................................................63
...................................................................................................................................................64
..........................................................................................................................................................64
................................................................................................................................................64
.....................................................................................................................................................64
...........................................................................................................................64
..................................................................................................................................................66
...........................................................................................................66
...........................................................................................................66
..................................................................................................................................................67
.............................................................................................................67
......................................................................................................................................69

:
Halliday Resnick ,
Serway Physics for scientists and engineers
.
The pocket professor - Physics Formulae, Maths Formulae
www.fermilab.com

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