I he l\ Ol~"

of Petroleum Geologi~ts Bulleon

\ oK, No 7 (July 19841. P. 801-815,32 rig,.

IClil '\"l)(lJlllIil

Listric Normal Faults: An Dlustrated Summaryl

JOHN w. SHELTON"
ABSTRACT

Normal faults are commonly listric, that is, the dip flattens with depth. Movement along this type of fault is
instrumental in formation of several types of structural
traps (e.g., rollover anticlines and upthrown-fault-block
closures). Some listric faults are restricted to sedimentary
rocks, whereas others offset basement rocks. Tbeoretical
data, rock-mechanical and simulated model experiments,
and foundation-engineering tests and failures suggest tbat
this type of fault may occur where brittle rocks overlie ductile rocks in an extensional regime. In some places the ductile section may be thin and bounded sharply at its top.
Also, the extensional regime may be locally derived within
a broader stress regime of another type, as evidenced by
transtension associated with strike-slip movement and
arched strata in a compressive setting.
The flattening of the fault reflects an increase in ductility
of the rocks with depth and, in some cases, deformation of
the fault due to compaction or tilting of the upthrown
block. The dip angle may vary along the strike of the fault
in response to changes in throw. In cross section, a listric
fault may consist of relatively short, en echelon fault segments. This geometry may be particularly cbaracteristic of
growth faults. Sedimentary faults may sole in ductile
strata, or they may represent the brittle part of a fault-flow
system. Fault patterns commonly are characterized by
bifurcation, some of which may occur near the ends of
individual faults comprising a zone.
Although unequivocal recognition of listric normal
faults requires unusually extensive outcrop data, close
subsurface control, or high-quality seismic data, their
presence is suggested indirectly by such features as increasing dip with depth toward tbe controlling fault ("reverse
drag"), thick progradational sandstone overlying ductile
strata, and in some cases arcuate fault patterns, basins, or
uplifts.
Copyright1984. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All
rights reserved.
, Manuscript received, May 18, 1983; accepted, December 7, 1983.
2 ERICa, Inc., Tulsa, Oklahoma 74172.
For documentary data which have not been published, the writer is indebted
to Shell Oil Co. for materials from the Gulf Coast and to G. W. Hart for data and
interpretations in the Arkoma basin. Laura F. Serpa and R. E. Denison pro
vided information on basementinvolved faults and detached sediments,
respectively.
Appreciation is gratefully expressed to many colleagues and acquaintances
who for more than 2 decades have stimulated thought on this subject of listric
(rotational) normal faults. Kaspar Arbenz kindly reviewed the original manu
script and made numerous helpful suggestions. Appreciation is also
expressed to AAPG Editors M. K. Horn and Richard Steinmetz, Science Direc
tor Edward A. Beaumont, and reviewers for their valuable comments. Yet the
author must assume responsibility for errors or any aberration in accepted
thought.
David E. Brooker drafted the illustrations, and Sherry Hempel, Mildred P.
Lee, anet Dianne O'Malley prepared the typescript. O'Malley also assisted in
compilation of the references. S. W. Carey kindly provided the reference noted
herein to his work.

801

Listric normal faults form during rifting, drifting, and

evolution of passive continental margins with concomitant basinal denlopment. Listric faults confined to the
sedimentary prism are common features on passive margins, especially in progradational, post-evaporite
sequences. The basement is offset by listric faults as a fundamental element in the development of other types of
basins, including those whicb formed during postorogenic
extension. They also occur as secondary extensional features in an overall compressive stress regime due to plate
connrgence and during transform or strike-slip faulting.
INTRODUCTION

A listric fault is characterized by a decreasing angle of

dip with depth. It, therefore, is a curved surface which is
concave upward. Apparently the concept was introduced
by Edward Suess in the early part of this century (Bally et
ai, 1981) as part of his description of faults in coal mines in
northern France.
Listric thrust faults have been recognized for a long time
as a basic feature of thin-skinned tectonics, with decollements. Now, as deep faults soling in the ductile crust, they
are also considered an integral part of suturing during
plate convergence (e.g., Thompson, 1976). Although listric normal faults have been recognized as updip (or
upslope) segments of gravitational slides (e.g., Reeves,
1925, 1946; Hubbert and Rubey, 1959; Wise, 1963), most
commonly they have been regarded as a special feature of
syndepositional faults in strongly subsident basins containing thick shale (with or without salt) below progradational sandstone sections. This general opinion probably
derives from the abundance of sedimentary faults in the
northern Gulf Coast basin (Texas and Louisiana) and the
common knowledge of "rotational slips" and associated
failures in foundation engineering (Figure 1). Apparently
little significance was given to the early work of Davis
(1925) and Longwell (1933, 1945), who described listric
normal faults offsetting crystalline and/or basement
rocks in the western United States; to the theoretical treatment of Hafner (1951), who showed curved stress trajectories including conditions for listric normal faults; or to the
work of Carey (1958), who described listric normal faults
as a major feature in development of rift valleys. It seems
reasonable, therefore, to regard listric geometry as a common feature of both thrust and normal faults displacing
sedimentary and/or basement rocks.
Wernicke and Burchfiel (1982) have grouped normal
faults into two categories: rotational and nonrotational.
The rotational category is divided into (a) those with rotation of beds along listric faults, and (b) those with rotation
of beds and faults along planar or listric faults. Nonrotational faults have no rotation of structures along planar
faults.

802

Listric Normal Faults

~FlLL+b

CLAY

L __________________________________

Figure I-Foundation failures resembling configurations of

faults in sedimentary rocks. A. Rotational slip in foundation due
to localized loading of uniform clay. B. Base failure due to loading offoundation with thin clay. After Terzaghi and Peck (1948).

Figure 2-Structural map of top of Wilcox Group (Eocene) in

South Bancroft field, Beauregard Parish, Louisiana, showing
rollover anticline. After Murray (1961).

o
Wernicke and Burchfiel indicate that large-scale displacement on low-angle listric normal faults results in a
series of tilted planar-fault blocks, forming "extensional
allochthons."
Both normal and thrust listric faults, along with planar
faults, are of major significance to the explorationist
because they are an important element in the formation of
traps in faulted strata. Presently a commonly held opinion
is that listric normal and thrust faults may be sequentially
related (or even coincident) in some areas that undergo
changes in tectonic regime. For example, listric thrust
faults may be reactivated as normal faults when an earlier
formed orogenic belt is subjected to extension (Bally et ai,
1966), and, conversely, normal faults may be reactivated
as thrusts during the evolution of a continental margin
from a passive to active phase (Cohen, 1982). Further, the
location of thrusts with displacement during the active
phase (after basinal subsidence) may be predetermined by
buried normal faults that formed during the earlier passive phase (during basinal subsidence). Listric normal
faults are probably important elements in the development of many basins. Downward dip-slip movement of
faulted strata in the hanging wall of a listric normal fault
may result in "reverse drag" in half grabens or "rollover"
(dip-direction reversal), with formation of an anticlinal
feature (Figure 2). Absolute movement, with rotation of
an upthrown block, may result in a tilted fault block with
reverse drag. Significant variations in displacement along
the strike of a fault present conditions for closure against it
(Figure 3). The closure may also result from differential
rotation (along the strike of a fault) of an entire block
which itself is downthrown with respect to a subjacent
"underlying" fault (Figure 3C), or by changes in stratigraphic thicknesses along the strike of the fault. The
detailed geometry of the faults provides subtle trapping
potential. For example, lateral branching or overlapping
ends of faults are possible elements of subsidiary traps.
Also, movement along individual faults of a fault zone
may result in several traps rather than one larger trap.

U
-7600'
-7650'
-7700'

400011
1000m

--~

A'

V=

!A'

(4)

(2)

---------

Z)

.....--~

------"------------->~---

Figure 3-A. Structural map of Lower Cretaceous marker in

Pleasanton field, Atascosa County, Texas, depicting tilted-faultblock trap. After Murray (1961). B. Hypothetical fault closure
due to absolute movement of upthrown block. C. Fault blocks
with potential for trap in each upthrown block due to rotation of
that block (e.g., dip in block 2 is due to rotational movement
along fault X).

CLASTICS AND VOLCANICS

ASTHENOSPHERE

figure 4-::,chematic cross section of major rift zones rupturing a

continent-before possible drifting and formation of passive
con1inental margins. After Dewey and Bird (1970).

803

John W. Shelton

ARE.A OF
EXTENSION

10mi
10km

--=-------

Figllre 5- "reas of extension with normal faults resulting from wrenching. A. Extension with formation of Ridge basin due to divergent wrenching between San Andreas and San Gabriel faults (after Wilcox et aI, 1973). B. Extension due to movement along parallel
en echelon wrench or transform faults. C. Extension due to conjugate wrench faults (based on discussion in Wilcox et aI, 1973). D. En
echelon normal faults of Lake Basin fault zone in south-central Montana due to left-lateral faulting (after Fanshawe and Alpha, 1954;
Harding, 1974). Faults of this type may be riedel shears along which there is some dip-slip component.

This review is restricted to normal faults, with description of (1) faults along which the apparent relative displacement of the hanging wall was down with respect to
the footwall and (2) faults which formed in a local or
regional stress regime wherein the maximum principal
stress, (71' is interpreted to have been vertical or near vertical. In many places movement of strata along listric faults
is dip-slip and rotational, with the axis of rotation being
parallel with the strike of the fault. Under conditions
where the primary feature is a strike-slip fault, the dip-slip
component of the total displacement across the fault may
also be comparatively "small," and movement along the
listric fault may vary significantly from dip slip. The scale
of the "small" displacement, of course, may be more than
1,000 m (3,300 ft).
In this paper, concepts are presented before examples;
the topics, in order, are: causes of normal faulting and of
listric normal faults, geometry, propagation, growth
faults, evidence for listric faults, and occurrences. The primary references are Bally et al (1981) and Bally (1983). The
former is a resume of listric normal faults in various geologic settings, in particular, passive continental margins
and orogenic systems. The latter, which is a pictorial atlas
of seismic sections illustrating various structural styles,
contains outstanding examples of listric normal faults
from several extensional provinces.

CAUSES OF NORMAL FAULTING

Normal faults occur in response to extension, which may

be crustal extension, sedimentary-section extension, or
basement and/or sedimentary-section extension.
1. Crustal extension results from (a) divergent plate
movement, expressed by rifts (Figure 4); (b) arching by
thermal expansion (e.g., development of a plume); and (c)
transtension accompanying divergent wrenching (wrench
or transform faulting) and movement along parallel to
subparallel en echelon faults or "plates" or along conjugate wrench faults (Wilcox et ai, 1973; Harding anq Lowell, 1979; Burchfiel and Royden, 1982) (Figure 5).
2. Sedimentary-section extension results from (a) flowage of ductile substrate (shale and/or salt) (e.g., Bruce,
1973; Woodbury et aI, 1973; Humphris, 1978) (Figure 6);
(b) increase in stratal dip and resultant gravitational sliding (e.g., Hubbert and Rubey, 1959) (Figure 7); (c) bending, or arching, during uplift (e.g., associated with salt or
igneous intrusion; see Figure 8), and flexural or concentric
folding associated with compressional folding; (d) strikeslip faulting (possible normal separation along at least
part of the length of a fault which may be a riedel shear;
Figure 5D).
3. Basement and/or sedimentary-section extension
results from (a) uplift during transpression accompanying

804

Listric Normal Faults

UPPER
1.0

TOP NAVARRO

Figure 6-Schematic cross section across Texas part of northern

Gulf of Mexico basin, with normal faulting due to flowage of
ductile shale. After Bruce (1973).

2.0

;;

4000ft
1000m

--L

"

3.0 sec

..-?"

/'
ZONE OF ABNORMAL PORE PRESSURE

Figure 8-Seismic cross section of Pescadito dome, Webb

County, Texas, showing normal faults due to extension in strata
overlying salt. After Halbouty (1979).

Figure 7-Normal faulting due to gravitational sliding in

response to dip of strata with abnormal pore pressure. After
Hubbert and Rubey (1959).

wrench faulting (Harding and Lowell, 1979) (Figure 9); (b)

axial collapse associated with subduction (Beck et ai, 1975)
(Figure 10); (c) uplift andlor arching of earlier formed
foldbelt.
LISTRIC NORMAL FAULTS

The flattening of the dip of a normal fault with depth

may reflect one or more environmental conditions or
processes at depth. The first group is conditions that are
inherent, that is, conditions that contributed to formation
of listric faults.
1. Increase in ductility in sedimentary prism, generally
involving thick overpressured shale andlor salt, with
extension of "overburden" due to flowage or decollement
of "substrate."
2. Increase in ductility in crust (with extension of ductile
"substrate").
The second group includes processes that operated after
formation of the fault. This includes deformation of fault
by:
1. Compaction of shale in footwall (Figure 11).
2. Arching during uplift initiated in rocks below the
fault (e.g., due to salt or igneous intrusion; Figure 8).
3. Increased tilting (with rotation about an axis parallel
with strike of fault) of entire upthrown fault block reflecting movement along subjacent "underlying" fault (Roux,
1977) (Figure 12).
Theoretical and experimental data together with case
histories from foundation engineering suggest that the listric feature may be a basic element of some normal faults.
Included in the theoretical and experimental data demonstrating, or allowing inference of, listricity in extensional
conditions are results of the following works:
1. One set of stress trajectories derived by Hafner
(1951).

Figure 9-Seismlc cross section across wrench fault zone in Ardmore basin, Oklahoma, with flower structure which contains
minor listric normal faulting due to extension of Mississippian
and older strata. After Harding and Lowell (1979).

SEDIMENTARY FilL

NORMAL FAULT

THRUST

l11Zl ~2~J~~~~TAL

~ OCEANIC BASEMENT

Figure IO-Cross section of Andean orogene, showing measure

of bilateral symmetry, with two outer zones of compression and
axial zone(s) of block faulting, interpreted to include listric normal faults. After Beck et aI (1975).

SHALE AFTEIICOMI"ACTION

Figure II-Flattening of fault due to compaction of shale.

805

John W. Shelton

----A - -

__

B --

-0.- _

-E
-f---

""o

8
N

2000ft

500m

Figure 12-Seismic cross section of local structure in offshore Texas part of northern Gulf Coast basin, showing deformed fault due
to rotation of upthrown block reflected by attitude of strata 1-4. After Roux (1977).

Figure 13-A. Profile of slope before failure. B. Cross section of

clayey deposits after slide flow. After Longwell and Flint (1962,
p. 142143). This type of failure, occurring where clays are very
sensitive, is thought to be analogous to fracture (fault) and flow
(incipient diapir) relationship of numerous sedimentary listric
faults.

2. Theoretical model for shale tectonics by Ode (Crans

et aI, 1980).
3. Geomechanical model by Crans et al (1980).
4. Theoretical considerations by Muehlberger (1961)
predicting decreasing dip angle of fracture surface with
increase in confining pressure.
5. Rock -mechanical experiments by Handin and Hager
(1957) showing decreasing angle of internal friction with
increase in confining pressure, and by von Karman (Handin and Hager, 1957) showing decrease in angle between
fracture surface and least principal stress axis with
increase in pressure.
6. Rock-mechanical experiment by Heard (1966) showing listric normal fault with distributed flow under high
confining pressure and high temperature.
7. Model experiment by H. Cloos (1930) simulating grabens and rifts.
8. Model experiment by Rettger (1935) simulating faulting due to gravitational gliding.
9. Model experiment by P. Diebold (Crans et ai, 1980)
simulating faulting due to loading.
10. Model experiments by E. Cloos (1968) simulating
growth faults.
GEOMETRY

E .::

08

f5

~ 2000ft

Dip

500m
TERTIARY UPPER CRETACEOUS
SHALE

LOWER CRETACEOUS CARBONATE

Figure 14-Cross section through Fashing field, south-central

Texas, showing listric normal fault in Tertiary and Upper Cretaceous shale. Dip of fault steepens with further depth in Lower
Cretaceous carbonates. After Murray (1961).

The dip of a listric fault flattens with depth, but it either

"dies out" in ductile rocks that deform by flowage or it
becomes a decollement zone. There is a strong tendency to
consider the latter as the dominant disposition of a listric
fault. Where gentle regional dip exists, creep may contribute to development of decollement zones or sole ductile
faults. Yet, the relationship of listric faults to shale and salt
diapirs suggests that a fault-flow system (Figure 13),
which is analogous to the slide flow in soil mechanics, may
be very common. In terms used in foundation engineering, base failures, where the ductile substrate flows in
response to asymmetric loading, are probably more analogous to listric sedimentary faults than slope failures, which
are not necessarily bounded by listric surfaces. Flowage
associated with base failure may be regarded as a form of

806

Listric Nmmal Faults

lateral "extrusion" that results in extension and subsidence in the area of loading. Ductility of the substrate generally reflects overpressure in shale and/or plasticity of
salt.
Some faults flatten at depth through a shale and steepen
below it (e.g., Murray, 1961)(Figure 14). That relationship
is generally attributable to shale compaction, but in places
it may reflect a lower original angle of dip through the

"-

~-

,,~

1965; Holmes, 1965; Anderson, 1971; Robson, 1971; Stewart, 1971), and from subsurface data in basins such as
the Gulf of Mexico, North Sea, and coastal Nigeria (e.g.,
Weber and Daukoru, 1976; Evamy et aI, 1978; Gallowayet
aI, 1982) (Figure 16). Several miscellaneous features are
noted below.
Arcuate sedimentary faults are probably common in deltaic strata, whereas essentially straight fault traces may be

~ --~
...........

~!

H. Cloos (1930)

Figure I5-Configuration of listric normal faults in cross section. A. Triassic growth faults which are discontinuous (en echelon in
part). After Edwards (1976). B. Faults produced experimentally in small-scale clay models. After H. Cloos (1930) and E.Cloos
(1968). C. Proposed pattern of discontinuous en echelon faults comprising listric normal fault zone.

more ductile shale. Roux (1977) presents a very persuasive

case that shale compaction does significantly reduce the
dip and throw. However, the listric nature of faults in relatively brittle rocks and the listric nature of rotational slips
in foundation failures indicate that flattening of dip is an
inherent feature of many normal faults.
Dip of the steeper part of a listric normal fault commonly has been recorded as approximately 60 0 , following
the theoretical/experimental work of Anderson (1942)
and Hubbert (1951) and from subsurface data. However,
some faults are near vertical at the surface or in the near
surface.
According to de Sitter (1964), the dip of a fault is generally steeper near its ends (along strike) and flatter along the
middle section, where throw is commonly greater.
Small-scale faults in Svalbard are zones which show en
echelon patterns in cross sectional view (Edwards, 1976)
(Figure 15A). This configuration is shown also in some of
the experiments by H. Cloos (e.g., 1930) and E. Cloos
(1968) (Figure 15B). It seems reasonable that some listric
faults may in fact be zones composed of shorter faults,
some of which are listric (Figure 15C),
Plan View

Local and regional normal fault pCltterns are well known

from outcrops in the Middle Ea,l, east Africa, and the
western United States (e.g., de Sitter, 1964; Hamblin,

./"

~~------------~~--

--?>~------------~~

Figure 16-Map-view patterns of normal faults. A, Hypothetical

subsidiary faults (after de Sitter, 1964); B, branches (or splays)
developed near ends of major faults. C. Oligocene fault pattern
in part of Texas Gulf Coast.

common in nondeltaic deposits. This difference may

reflect "point" loading in the former and "line" loading in
the latter. In map view, tilted upthrown fault blocks are
generally convex in the direction of tilt (Moore, 1960). It is
common for faults to branch or splay toward their ends or
to show subsidiary faults there (de Sitter, 1964) (Figure

807

John W. Shelton

Figure 17--Contour map and cross section of listric normal fault at Lone Star field, northeast Texas. Fault is near vertical at surface,
which is strongly erosional. After Bunn (1951). Nacatoch Sand dips away from fault in both blocks, suggesting that it was part of
anticlinal feature at time faulting was initiated.

16). Although a fault zone may be very extensive, individual faults within it may be very limited in length, and contiguous (or successive) faults along strike may show some
overlap of their lengths. Also, in the Gulf of Mexico basin
where the age of major fault zones decreases gulfward
(generally basinward), a particular zone may contain older

faults immediately gulfward of younger faults.

Propagation

Many faults are initiated in a local area and extend,

propagate, or grow laterally (de Sitter, 1964). With propa-

Listric Normal Faults

808

gation of a fault, one or both blocks may move in such a

way that the greatest displacement (shift) of the block(s) is
at or near the fault-a circumstance that results in reverse
drag in the active block(s), including possible rollover in
the downthrown block where the direction of dip of the
fault is the same as regional dip. In an active upthrown
block, the most favorable area for trap development
would correspond to the section of fault with most displacement (Figure 3B).
Roux (1977) suggests that the throw of a fault not only
decreases laterally toward the ends but also both upward
and downward. This type of fault configuration is an indication that the horizontal (plan view) fault pattern in some
cases may assist in estimating the general vertical geometry. This relation is inferred also from the work of Moore
(1960), who correlated the direction of convexity of
uplifted (upthrown) fault blocks with the direction of
fault-block tilt, although Stewart (1978) has noted that
other situations are common.
Propagation of a fault upward and/or downward is generally inferred to be along a continuous surface. However,
Roux (1977) and Crans et al (1980) suggest that fault propagation is not that simple and that many individual faults
may compose a major fault as generally mapped. The en
echelon pattern has appeal because the propagation of an
existing listric fault upward or downward may require an
unrealistic geometry if that fault is one continuous surface. For example, the Lone Star fault (Bunn, 1951) (Figure 17) and the Mount Enterprise fault zone (Jackson,
1982) in east Texas show very steep dips at the present surface, and their upward extensions to the original surface
before erosion would require an unusually large component with near vertical dip. The same problem exists where
faults are characterized by many episodes of movement
during deposition. Therefore. it is suggested that en echelon faults in cross section may comprise a zont; which is
generally shown as one continuous listric fault.!
Roux (1977) has documented relatively steep branch
(horsetail) faults which formed after compaction and flattening of master faults (Figure 18A). This type of branch
may reflect reactivation of a fault which was initiated at or
near the surface. Where faulting is initiated at depth, a
branch fault may form in the downthrown block (Figure

B
_A

_____ 6--~~---A--8--

Figure i8-Brancbing (horsetailing) of normal faults in cross

section. A. Late, downward borsetail fault in uptbrown block of
listric growth fault in Upper Tertiary of offsbore Texas. After
Roux (1977). B. Hypotbetical upward horsetail in downthrown
block of major fault.

10pcriALK

LlEGEN

Figure 19-5eismic cross section of Argyll field, North Sea, with

listric fault bounding riftlike Central graben on west. After Pennington (1975).

v';';';]
......

TERTIARY

Ly*~ CRETACEOUS ANO PRE-CRETACEOUS

10mi

1D1<m

'

PRE-CRETACEOUS

18B).
Growth Faults

If growth faults are defined as those which were active

during deposition, almost all normal faults are growth
faults because the downthrown block is a likely depositional site. Listric growth faults seemingly are regarded by
most workers as a basic feature of regions where the faults
are considered to be sedimentary, but it is now reasonable
to conclude that listric growth faults are common even
where the faults offset the basement (Figures 19-23), It
seems possible that a listric growth fault may represent a
zone of smaller listric faults or a zone of en echelon faults
(Figure 24). A reason for that suggestion is that an original
listric fault surface. if extended during significant growth
(deposition) as a single continuous surface, would probably not retain a realistic shape for a normal fault.

Hgure 2O-Schematic cross section of southern part of Bay of

Biscay showing listric faults which formed during rifting. After
Boillot et aI (1971).

Evidence for Listric Faults

The best types of evidence include abundant data on the

position of fault surfaces in the subsurface, generally in an
oil or gas field, unusual outcrop data where local relief
allows delineation of the fault surface with depth, and seismic definition of the fault (Bally, 1983). Indirect, but not
conclusive, evidence suggesting listric faults includes:
1. Sharply arcuate fault patterns. '
2. Sharply arcuate uplifts or basins. I
3. Increase in stratal dip in hanging walls with depth
together with increase in dip toward controlling growth

809

John W. Shelton

------y-------1------'-'. -1'
...

"-...

_--

- - - - IIftR TERTIARY

LOWER TERTIARY -CRETAClOUII

Figure 11-Selsmic cross section in central Mediterranean region Illustrating listric normal faults which formed during rifting.

TRIASSIC -

--

_ _- - - - - : - - - - - - - - - ]

~_1L------_r-- 'ER~~-t----

WRENCH FAULT ZONE

Figure ll-Seismic cross section across TornquistTeisseyre wrench fault zone separating DanishPolish basin Oeft) from Fennoscan
dian shield (right). Fault zone in cross section contains lower Paleozoic listric normal growth faults.

-------

++++
+++++51
++++++1
&Om;

l:nl:1 Jurassic I++ +I Basement

Triassic

Figure 13.....Palinspastic paleostructural cross section of eastern

Italian Alps showing development of basin due to movement
along listric normal faults. After BernouUi et aI (1979).

Fipre 24-Hypothetical configuration of growtb fault in cross

section showing propagation of individual listric faults within
zone.

fault (reverse drag).

4. Reverse drag in hanging wall where footwall strata
show no evidence of rotation about an axis parallel to the
strike of the fault. If strata in the subsurface were inclined
before faulting, the attitude of these beds with respect to
the fault may not be a criterion for a listric fault. For
example, the Nacatoch in Figure 17 dips away from the listric fault. Also, it should be noted that absolute movement
of the downthrown block from geometric considerations
could result in reverse drag along a planar fault with significant lateral changes in throw (Figure 2S).
S. Differential tilt between imbricate fault blocks (suc-

cessively steeper dips in the dip direction of the faults)

(Wernicke and Burchfiel, 1982).
6. Progradational stratigraphic succession, with thick
ductile shale below brittle sandstone.
Planar faults rather than listric faults may form where
the affected strata are entirely brittle (i.e., fault dies out
above any ductile rocks) or, in some cases, where the fault
has not been deformed.
OCCURRENCES

In terms of global tectonics,listric normal faults occur:

1. In rifts within various geologic settings. Some may

810

Listric Normal Faults

precede formation of passive con:inental margi!t~ ,t.g.,

Bally et al, 1981; Harding, 1983)
2. On passive continental margins during drifting as
they form and subside.
3. As sedimentary faults related to subsidence of passive
continental margins (e.g., Bruce, 1973; Bally et aI, 1981),
with "base failure" (involving overpressured shale and a
salt) or gravity sliding.
4. In deformed basins, including those which formed
along passive margins (miogeosynclines) (Ballyet al, 1981)

Hgure 25-Hypothetical structure map and cross section showing reverse drag along a planar normal fault due to movement of
down thrown block of areally restricted fault.

A
OLIGOCENE
- - - - - - - - - E O C E N E - - - - ___ _

E~

OLIGOCENE
______ .!.OCENE

00
0"

4000ft
1000m

B
-------_______

OLIGOCENE

~======================::.:::;l-- EOCENE-E

S 4000ft
o

1000 m

c
Figure 26-Cross sections A and B across Vicksburg flexure. Significant subregional displacement across this fault lone, with interpretive listric faults, apparently reflects basinal development. C. Schematic cross section showing possible relationship between major
fault in basinal development Oike that reflected by Vicksburg flexure) and sedimentary faults. After unpublished Shell Oil Co. report.

Sm;
Skm

Figure 27-Seismic cross section of listric sedimentary growth

faults due to salt and shale flowage. Area is outer continental
shelf in offshore southeast Texas and Louisiana where diapiric
uplifts are semicontinuous. After Woodbury et al (1973).

1 mi
1 km i

Figure 28-Cross section of Valentine salt dome, La Fourche

Parish, Louisiana, with listric normal fault associated with diapiric shale and salt. After Halbouty (1979).

John W. Shelton

811

tral Mediterranean (Figure 21); Gulf of Suez (Lowell and

Genik, 1972; Lowell et ai, 1975; interpretation of Robson,
1971, by Harding and Lowell, 1979; Harding, 1983); Lake
Superior Precambrian rift (Weiblen and Morey, 1980); and
Rio Grande rift (Brown et aI, 1983).
2.0 sec

.....

_-_ ... ./

.-

/
/

DUCTILE
SHALE

5mi
5km

4.0 sec

Figure 29-Seismic cross section of offshore Texas showing listric normal faults above ductile shale, which probably is incipient
diapir. After Bruce (1973).

OLIGOCENE

EOCENE

Passive Continental Margins

Falvey (l974)*uggested that rifted stratigraphic sections

and basement on passive margins commonly underlie less
deformed sequences which formed during "drifting."
Although the subsidence of passive margins undoubtedly
reflects to some extent isostatic adjustment to the load of
the sedimentary prism (Dietz, 1963; Hsu, 1965; Bott,
1978), subsidence to significant depths is thought to be by
movement along basement faults (e.g., Shelton, 1968). It
is suggested that these faults may be listric (Figure 26), that
they are similar to and possible outgrowths of faults
bounding rifts at earlier stages, and that they may be ulti-

SAND WITH SHALE

SHALE
/"

/
/

Figure 30-Cross section of North Maude Traylor field, Jackson and Calhoun Counties, Texas. listric normal fault is related to
flowage of ductile Eocene shale. After unpublished Shell Oil Co. report.

or as foredeeps.
5. As late-orogenic and postorogenic faults after earlier
formation of foldbelts-very similar tCJ rifts (Bally et ai,
1981).
6. In axial zones of oro genes on active continental margins (Beck et ai, 1975).
7. Along transform fault boundaries as a result of transtension or in extended upper part of transpressional
(flower) structures.
Rifts

Examples of rifts, excluding postorogenic faults, where

listric normal faults are fairly well documented or where
interpretation of them from available data is reasonable,
include North Sea (e.g., Bowen, 1975; Pennington, 1975;
Evans and Parkinson, 1983; Harding, 1983) (Figure 19);
Bay of Biscay (Boillot et aI, 1971; de Charpal et ai, 1978;
Montadert et ai, 1979) (Figure 20); offshore eastern
United States (Sheridan, 1974; 1977; Crutcher, 1983); cen-

mately responsible for sedimentary faults where ductile

strata are thick owing to movement along this type of fault
during deposition (Figure 26C). Basement-involved faults
in this type of setting are illustrated by Morgan and Dowdall (1983) from Baltimore Canyon Trough, and by Petrobras (1983) from Potiguar basin, offshore Brazil.
Sedimentary Faults on Passive Margins

Deformation of progradational sedimentary sequences

on passive margins may be dominated by half grabens,
reverse drag, and rollover related to listric normal faults,
which commonly are associated with overpressured or diapiric shale or salt diapirs, and which were active during
deposition. The best known areas for this type of deformation with listric growth faults are the northern Gulf of
Mexico (Figures 6, 27-30) and the Niger Delta (e.g., Hardin and Hardin, 1961; Ocamb, 1961; Bruce, 1973; Busch,
1975; Lehner and de Ruiter, 1977; Curtis and Picou, 1978;
Evamy et ai, 1978; Raux, 1979). Other areas are Sarawak

812

Listric Normal Faults

GALTON
RANGE

PURCELL
RANGE

PCmsed
."-..

."",.~

PCmsed

"- .....
::: E

"

80 08
... C')

5mi
5km

------

PCmsed

Pf\EC~t-/lSf\\

~N SHIELD

PCmsed

PRECAMBRIAN METASEDIMENTS
PURCELL LAVA

'-,~".

Figure 31-Seismic cross section across Rocky Mountain trench in southwestern Canada showing listric normal fault which developed by opposite movement (backslippage) along earlier listric thrust fault. After Bally et al (1966).

NNW

SSE

UPPER MIDDLE ATOKA DATUM

='=-=-~~~C~-:--=-~-===~-~=-=-~-~-~~-~-~~~=='-=\

LE

100m
500ft

MIDDLE ATOKA SANDSTONE SECTION

"

WAPANUCKA

'"

Figure 32-Paleostructural cross section of part of Arkoma basin, Oklahoma, with Atokan (Pennsylvanian) listric normal growth
rault. After G. W. Hart (1978; personal communication, 1983).

and Sabah, east Malaysia (Schuab and Jackson, 1958;

Scherer, 1980), offshore Brazil (Brown and Fisher, 1977),
offshore eastern North America (Jansa and Wade, 1975;
Sheridan, 1977), and North Sea (Gibbs, 1983).
Late-Orogenic to Postorogenic Faults

Bailey et al (1981) described examples of listric normal

faults from western North America which may be interrelated. These include (1) faults that may represent opposite
movement ("backslippage") along preexisting listric
thrust faults (Bally et aI, 1966; Royse et aI, 1975; Allmendinger et al, 1983) (Figure 31); (2) rifts, horsts1i.nd grabens,
and half grabens; and (3) two types of faults in a mountain
and valley system, with (a) an older decollement zone
exposed in the mountain and (b) younger listric faults of
the valley which may offset the decollement and contribute further to basinal development in the valley.
This region is where some of the early studies demonstrated tilted fault blocks and low-angle listric normal
faults (Davis, 1925; Longwell, 1933, 1945). Additional

studies documenting listric normal faults in this region

include those of Mackin (1960), Moore (1960), Osmond
(1960), Hamblin (1965), Hamilton and Myers (1966),
Anderson (1971), Armstrong (1972), MacDonald (1976),
Proffett (1977), Bally et al (1981), and Robison (1983). It is
suggested that listric normal faults in this tectonic setting
may be common in many orogenic belts. Listric faults may
bound some grabens and half grabens in which the Triassic of the Appalachian system is present (Barrell, 1915;
King, 1959, p. 50). As noted previously, faults in this type
of setting may be parts of rift systems; correspondingly,
the Triassic would be related to rifting which preceded
opening of the Atlantic.
Axial Zones of Orogenes

In regard to subduction zones of island arcs, Beck et al

(1975) have proposed that Pacific island arcs show a central collapse zone. The Andean orogene also contains an
axial zone of block faulting and collapse (Figure 10). This
zone apparently has a causal relationship to a young volcanic belt.

John W. Shelton
Transform Boundaries and Strike-Slip Faults

Normal faults may form as a result of transtension associated with lateral movement-transform and/or strikeslip fault zones (Wilcox et al, 1973) (Figure 5). These
normal faults may be listric (e.g., Southwest Lone Grove
field, southern Oklahoma; Westheimer and Schweers,
1956). Those superimposed on a more fundamental
crustal wrench or transform fault zone may be large-scale
features (Figure 22).
In areas of transpression, normal faults in the extended
part of the uplifted flower structure may possibly be listric
(Figure 9), similar to those associated with compressional
folding or extension over salt or igneous intrusives.
Deformed Basins

Faults in these settings are essentially of the same types as

those which formed during rifting and drifting. Bernoulli
et al (1979) have mapped Mesozoic listric normal growth
faults in the eastern Italian Alps (Figure 23). These faults
affect a dominantly carbonate section. Woodward (1961)
and Wagner (1976) have described growth faults affecting
the lower Paleozoic section in the Appalachian basin; they
may well be listric.
The Arkoma basin of Oklahoma and Arkansas was a
foredeep during the Atokan (Pennsylvanian), when both
basement faults and listric sedimentary faults were active
(G. W. Hart, personal communication, 1983) (Figure 32).
The latter type is very similar to those of the Gulf of Mexico basin.
CONCLUSIONS

Listric normal faults may be an integral part of basinal

development, and formation of several types of structures, with potential for entrapment of hydrocarbons,
results from movement along them. Listric normal faults
occur in the various geologic settings reflecting extensional stress reaimes that are crustal and/or relatively
superficial (restricted to the sedimentary prism). Their formation is enhanced by, or perhaps requires, a ductile "substrate."
The detailed three-dimensional geometry of listric faults
may be expressive of subsidiary structures with some
exploration or development potential. For example, short
en echelon faults in cross section may constitute a zone,
and define tilted fault blocks which are areallyand stratigraphically restricted. Further, splays or subsidiary faults,
commonly developed near the ends of major faults,
present conditions for potential traps.
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