Highway Materials

7-17

procedure, a small dog-bone shaped asphalt cement

sample is maintained at a constant temperature
inside a uid bath. This specimen is then loaded in
tension at a constant strain rate of approximately
1.00 mm/min. The failure strain (1f ) is the strain
corresponding to the maximum applied stress (sf )
and is calculated using Equation 7.9:
1f DL=L

sf

7:9

where 1f is the failure strain, DL change in length,

and L is effective gauge length. An example of the
stress strain plot for a test is shown in Figure 7.6.
The desired critical strain at the minimum
pavement design temperature is 1%. This test is
also conducted at 108C above minimum pavement
design temperature.

7.2.6

Stress

Strain
ef

FIGURE 7.6 Example stress strain relationship for a

direct tension test.

Polymer Modied Asphalts

Polymer modied asphalts have been used in the asphalt paving industry for over 60 years. However, the
birth of the PG system for grading asphalts provided new impetus for increased product development
and usage of polymer modied asphalts. Adding polymers to asphalt generally increases the high
temperature grade of the asphalt binder. However, depending on the type of polymer, the low
temperature grade may increase or decrease. Polymer modied asphalts may improve resistance to
permanent deformation, thermal cracking, fatigue cracking, and moisture damage. Many specifying
agencies are now requiring asphalts with performance grades where polymer modication is required. As
a rule of thumb, performance grades with a numeric difference of greater than 92 require polymer
modied asphalts. For example, the numeric difference for a PG 72-28 is 100. The asphalt cements
meeting this grade are likely to be polymer modied.
Polymers used in asphalt may be classied by their physical properties. Based on their response to
stretching with some force, they may be classied as plastomers or elastomers. Plastomers yield and
remain stretched after the force is released. Elastomers return to their original shape when released. Most
polyolens, such as polyethylene, polypropylene, and ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), are considered
plastomers. Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) and styrene butadiene styrene (SBS) are categorized as
elastomers.

7.2.7

Volumetric Properties of Asphalt Mixtures

A compacted asphalt concrete mix consists primarily of aggregate, asphalt, and air. The volumetric
properties associated with the combination of these three components are widely used for mix design and
production control. Since it is impractical to measure the volume of constituent components within a
HMA mix in the laboratory or in the eld, massvolume relationships are used to convert the
measurable masses into their corresponding volumes. The mass of a constituent is directly proportional
to its volume as shown in the following equation:
M VGrw

7:10

where M is the mass of constituent, V is the volume of constituent, G is the specic gravity of constituent,
and rw is the density of water (1.0 g/cm3).
The relationship between mass and volume is illustrated in Figure 7.7. This phase diagram is similar to
that used in soil mechanics, except that the liquid in HMA is asphalt cement instead of water. It shows
the air component at the top followed by the effective (free) asphalt component, the absorbed asphalt
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-18

The Handbook of Highway Engineering

Volume, cm3
VMA

Vsb

Air

Va
Vb

Vm

Mass (g)
Ma= 0

VFA

Effective Asphalt

Mbe

Vba

Absorbed Asphalt

Mba

Mb

Aggregates

Vse

Legend:

Air

FIGURE 7.7

Asphalt

Mm

Ms

Aggregate

Mass volume relationship diagram.

(i.e. absorbed by the mineral aggregate) component, and the mineral aggregate component. The total
asphalt in HMA is the sum of the effective and absorbed asphalt. Some volumetric properties are of
particular interest for HMA mix design. They can be found in Background to Superpave Asphalt Mixture
Design and Analysis published by the FHWA (McGennis et al., 1995). This reference is listed in the
references at the end of the chapter.

Example 7.1
This example involves the computation of (a) percent air voids, (b) VMA, (c) voids lled with ashphalt
(VFA), (d) effective asphalt content, (e) absorbed asphalt content, and (f) maximum theoretical specic
gravity based on the following information:
Mixture Bulk Specic Gravity, Gmb 2:331
Asphalt Binder Specic Gravity, G b 1:013
percent binder, Pb 5:0% by mix
Aggregate Bulk Specic Gravity, Gsb 2:707
Aggregate Effective Specic Gravity, Gse 2:733
Figure 7.8 illustrates the information available in Example 7.1 in a mass volume diagram.

Solution
Figure 7.8 shows the phase diagram for Example 7.1 with the assumption that calculations are based on a
unit volume (i.e. 1 cm3). As air has no mass, we can determine that the mass of air is 0 g. Based on the
massvolume relationships, the following calculations can be made.
Volume, cm3
VMA

Vsb

Air

Va
Vb

Vm

Vba

Legend:

2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Asphalt
Gb = 1.013

VFA

Pb = 4.9% by Mix
Aggregate
Gsb = 2.707
Gse = 2.733

Vse

FIGURE 7.8

Mass (g)

Gmb = 2.331

Air

Asphalt

Ma = 0
Mbe

Mb

Mba
Ms

Aggregate

Initial mass volume diagram for Example 7.1.

Mm

Highway Materials

7-19

Mass of Mix:
Mm Vm Gm rw 1 cm3 2:331 1:0 g =cm3 2:331 g

7:11

Mb Pb Mm 5=100 2:331 g 0:117 g

7:12

Ma Mm 2 Mb 2:331 g 2 0:117 g 2:214 g

7:13

Vsb

Ms
2:214 g

0:817 cm3
Gsb rw
2:707 1:0 g =cm3

7:14

Vse

Ms
2:214 g

0:810 cm3
Gse rw
2:733 1:0 g =cm3

7:15

Vb

Mb
0:117 g

0:115 cm3
G b rw
1:013 1:0 g =cm3

7:16

Mass of Asphalt:
Mass of Aggregate:
Bulk Vol. Agg.:

Effective Vol. of Agg.:

Vol. of Total Asphalt:

Vol. of Absorbed Asphalt:

Vba Vsb 2 Vse 0:817 cm3 2 0:810 cm3 0:007 cm3

7:17

Vbe Vb 2 Vba 0:115 cm3 2 0:007 cm3 0:108 cm3

7:18

Va Vm 2 Vse 2 Vb 0:115 cm3 2 0:007 cm3 0:108 cm3

7:19

Vol. Effective Asphalt:

Vol. Air Voids:

Mass of Absorbed Asphalt:

Mba Vba G b rw 0:007 cm3 1:013 1:0 g =cm3 0:007 g

7:20

Mass of Effective Asphalt:

Mbe Vbe G b rw 0:108 cm3 1:013 1:0 g =cm3 0:109 g

7:21

% of Voids:
Pa

Va
0:073 cm3
100%
100% 7:3%
Vm
1:0 cm3

7:22

Voids in Mineral Aggregate:

VMA

Va 2 Vbe
0:075 cm3 0:108 cm3
100%
100% 18:3%
Vm
1:0 cm3

7:23

Vbe
0:108 cm3
100%
100% 59:0%
VMA
0:183 cm3

7:24

Voids Filled With Asphalt:

VFA

Effective Asphalt Content (% Mass of Mix):

Pbe

2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Mbe
0:109 g
100%
100% 4:7%
Mm
2:331 g

7:25

7-20

The Handbook of Highway Engineering

Absorbed Asphalt Content (percent Mass of Aggregate):

Pba

Mba
0:007 g
100%
100% 0:3%
Ms
2:314 g

7:26

Maximum Theoretical Specic Gravity:

Gmm

Gmb
2:331

2:520
Vm 2 Va =Vm
1:0 cm3 2 0:075 cm3 =1:0 cm3

7:27

The solution to Example 7.1 above made use of fundamental relationships to solve massvolume
calculations. The calculated volumes and masses are shown in Figure 7.9. However, mix designers often
use formulas that can be easily used in spreadsheets to automate these calculations. These formulas are
provided below.
Bulk Specic Gravity of Combined Aggregate:
Gsb

P1 P2 Pn
P1
P
P
2 n
G1
G2
Gn

7:28

where P1 ; P2 ; Pn are individual percentages by mass of aggregate and G1 ; G2 ; Gn are individual bulk
specic gravities of aggregate.
Effective Specic Gravity of Aggregate:
Gse

Pmm 2 Pb
Pmm
P
2 b
Gmm
Gb

7:29

where Gmm is the theoretical maximum specic gravity of mix, Pmm is the percent by mass of total loose mix
(100%), Pb is the percent asphalt by total mass of mix, and G b is the percent asphalt binder specic gravity.
Theoretical Maximum Specic Gravity of Mix:
Gmm

Pmm
Ps
P
2 b
Gse
Gb

7:30

where Pmm is the percent by mass of total loose mix (100%), Ps is the percent of combined aggregate by
total mass of mix, Pb is the percent asphalt by total mass of mix, Gse is the effective specic gravity of
combined aggregate, and G b is the asphalt binder specic gravity.
Total Volume = 1 cm3

Gmb = 2.331
3

Air
Asphalt
Gb = 1.013
Pb = 4.9% by Mix

0.075 cm
0.115
cm3

1.0
cm3
0.817
cm3

0.108
cm3
0.007
cm3

Legend:

FIGURE 7.9
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Aggregate
Gsb = 2.707
Gse = 2.733

0.810
cm3

Air

Asphalt

Mass (g)
0.0g
0.1094g

0.1165g

0.0071g

2.214g

Aggregate

Final mass volume diagram for Example 7.1.

2.331g

Highway Materials

7-21

Asphalt Absorption:
Pba 100

Gse 2 Gsb
Gb
Gse Gsb

7:31

where Gse is the effective specic gravity of combined aggregate, Gsb is the bulk specic gravity of
combined aggregate, and Gb is the asphalt binder specic gravity.
Percent Effective Asphalt Content:
Pba
P
100% s

Pbe Pb 2

7:32

where Pa is the percent asphalt by total mass of mix, Pba is the percent absorbed asphalt by mass of
combined aggregate, and Ps is the percent aggregate by total mass of mix.
Percent Voids in Mineral Aggregate:
VMA 100% 2

Gmb Ps
Gsb

7:33

where Gsb is the bulk specic gravity of combined aggregate, Gmb is the bulk specic gravity of compacted
mix, and Ps is the percent of combined aggregate by total mass of mix.
Percent Air Voids (by Volume):
Pa 100% 2

Gmm 2 Gmb
Gmm

7:34

where Gmm is the theoretical maximum specic gravity of mix and Gmb is the bulk specic gravity of
compacted mix.
Percent Voids Filled with Asphalt:
VFA 100% 2

VMA 2 Va
VMA

7:35

where VMA is the voids in mineral aggregate and Va is the air voids in compacted mix by percent of total
volume.

7.2.8

Design of Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete

The objective of mix designs is to produce HMA that performs well both structurally and functionally.
From a performance standpoint, the HMAC should be durable and be able to resist pavement distresses
(such as permanent deformation, load-induced fatigue, thermal fatigue, low temperature cracking, and
moisture-induced damage). From a construction standpoint, the mix should be workable enough to
place and compact with reasonable effort. Additionally, surface courses should provide sufcient skid
resistance for safety considerations.
7.2.8.1

A Brief History

Crawford (1989) traced asphalt mix design back to the 1860s with the rst bituminous pavements placed
mostly in Washington, DC from about 1868 to 1873. In those days, tar and naturally occurring Trinidad
Lake asphalt were used as binders. The tar mixes did not perform well as surface mixes but were
satisfactory as bases. Richardson (1912) later developed what could be considered the rst mix design
test, the Pat Test, to determine optimum binder content in a HMAC. This was a visual test that
determined if the optimum asphalt content was achieved by evaluating the stain created by a sheet sample
of asphalt against a brown manila paper.
Several others also contributed to the advancement of asphalt technology. However, it was the work of
Francis Hveem (mid 1920s) and Bruce Marshall (late 1930s) that led to mix design procedures still widely
used around the world today. Vallerga and Lovering (1985) provided a detailed account of the evolution
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC