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Personality, Risk Perception, Benefit Sought and Terrorism Effect
Personality, Risk Perception, Benefit Sought and Terrorism Effect
(2016)
Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/jtr.2068
key words
INTRODUCTION
Risk is a situation or an event where something of human
value (including humans themselves) is at stake and where
the outcome is uncertain (Rosa, 2003, p. 56). Benet (value)
can be gained or lost when taking risks, which means that
some outcomes may be more desirable to tourists than others
(Moutinho, 2000). In the context of leisure tourism, the literature frequently discusses tourists motivations (e.g. Dann,
1977; Gnoth, 1997; Bansal & Eiselt, 2004). Among the push
and pull reasons that drive tourists to go on a particular holiday, certain levels of risk-taking for some could be seen as
an added value that contributes to fullment of motivations
(Elsrud, 2001; Lepp & Gibson, 2003); for others, risk can
be seen as a deterrence. In this context, what is more inuential than the actual level of risk is the perception of risk that
shapes peoples attitudes towards destinations and consequently affects their decision-making. Overall willingness to
travel to a certain destination could be seen as being the result
of the calculation between benets and costs (potential experience of danger) (George, 2010) associated with visiting a destination. If the difference between risk perceptions/cost and the
attractiveness of a destination has a strong positive value, the
individual might decide to travel to that destination. However,
where it has a marginal positive value or a negative outcome,
the decision could be to not travel there (Mansfeld & Pizam,
2006). This equation is further complicated by the fact that
perceived destination risk is likely to vary from individual to
individual. Wahlberg and Sjberg (2000) suggest that risk perception is an example of cognition, or awareness, as the thresholds of risk tolerance may uctuate from one person to another
and across different situations. Thresholds, by denition, set a
bar and the fact that we all have thresholds for risk-taking,
means that few would, for instance, choose a destination that
*Correspondence to: Grzegorz Kapuscinski, Lecturer in Retail Management,
Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole, Dorset, BH12 5BB, UK.
E-mail: gkapuscinski@bournemouth.ac.uk
METHODS
A questionnaire survey was conducted comprising four different sections: travel preferences (allocentric-psychocentric)
personality and benets sought, perceived risk, willingness
to travel (normally and post-terrorist attack scenario) and
demographic information (age, gender and travel experience). Personality was measured using a 5-point Likert scale
composed of eight items adapted from Jackson and
Inbakaran (2006) from 1 = Strongly disagree to 5 = Strongly
agree for responses. To avoid an acquiescence bias and
mindless answering (DeVellis, 2003), the scale consists of
a mixture of both allocentric and psychocentric items. Each
of the items represents a different aspect of the tourist
personality i.e. the need for structure, familiarity/novelty,
off-the-beaten-track destinations and reliance on the tourism
industry, venturesomeness, intellectual curiosity, activity and
openness to other cultures. Phrasing of these items is formatted as statements referring to tourists holiday preferences.
The holiday benets sought are measured with a 15-item
scale of attributes and activities of a holiday destination (e.g.
beach and water activities, unique culture, remote/wilderness
Copyright 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
0.617
0.659
0.559
0.683
0.670
0.639
0.641
0.644
BENEFITS SOUGHT
In order to uncover the underlying dimensions of benets
sought by tourists that may be indicative of broad holiday
types, factor analysis using principal component analysis
(PCA) with a varimax rotation was employed. Following
the suggestion of Hair, Black, Babin and Anderson (2010),
conventional criteria were used for factor analysis: (1) eigenvalues above 1.0; (2) factor loadings equal to or above 0.40;
and (3) results of the factor analysis explaining at least 50%
of the total variance. The analysis revealed three factors with
eigenvalues greater than one, accounting for 64.7% of the
variance (Table 3). One of the variables, scenic beauty,
was excluded from further analysis as it did not load on to
any of the three factors. Bartletts test of sphericity indicated
a statistically signicant (p < 0.01) correlation matrix. Consequently, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy resulted in a value of 0.809.
Both observations in the eigenvalue and factor loadings in
the rotated component matrix have led to the conclusion that
there are three components in this matrix. Factor 1,
culture/heritage, is composed of benet items such as historic sites, heritage and arts exhibitions, traditional lifestyle,
etc. This accounted for 21.93% of the variance and had a
Cronbach reliability score of 0.84. Factor 2, labelled as
nature/adventure, included items such as physical challenge
activities, camping sites and abundant wildlife. Factor 2 explained 20.44% of the variance and had a Cronbachs value
Component
Total
% of variance
Cumulative %
Total
% of variance
Cumulative %
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
3.275
0.913
0.859
0.711
0.636
0.598
0.520
0.488
40.941
11.408
10.732
8.894
7.952
7.478
6.495
6.099
40.941
52.349
63.081
71.975
79.927
87.406
93.901
100.000
3.275
40.941
40.941
Factor loading
Factor 1: culture/heritage
Unique culture
Historic sites
Art/cultural events
Heritage and arts exhibitions
Traditional lifestyle
Factor 2: nature/adventure
Physical challenge activities
Abundant wildlife
Remote and wilderness environment
Camp sites
Factor 3: seaside
Warm climate and sun
Nightlife and entertainment
Amusement or theme parks
Beach and water activities
Good shopping facilities
Eigenvalue
Variance (%)
Cronbachs
3.071
21.934
0.84
2.863
20.449
0.83
2.818
20.131
0.81
0.718
0.819
0.791
0.849
0.661
0.836
0.807
0.861
0.716
0.737
0.749
0.761
0.772
0.728
35.997
2
<0.001
48.584
2
<0.001
38.157
2
<0.001
48.310
2
<0.001
KruskalWallis test.
Grouping variable: travel condence.
Allocentric
Midcentric
Psychocentric
Allocentric
Midcentric
Psychocentric
Allocentric
Midcentric
Psychocentric
Allocentric
Midcentric
Psychocentric
Mean rank
89
267
88
89
267
88
89
267
88
89
267
88
281.54
219.82
170.92
294.45
216.20
168.84
282.65
220.37
168.14
281.91
225.61
152.98
Political
Instability
risk
Health
risk
Terror
risk
Health
risk
Political
instability
risk
Terror risk
2013.000
5929.000
5.776
<0.001
1764.500
5680.500
6.559
<0.001
DOES WILLINGNESS TO TRAVEL AFTER A TERRORIST ATTACK DIFFER ACCORDING TO DIFFERENT PERSONALITIES?
The nal hypothesis for this study was set to test the difference between willingness to travel, after terrorist attacks,
and personality type. To achieve this, a comparison of the
willingness, before and after, was obtained using all three
psychographic types, as well as all types of benet sought,
using the Wilcoxon test. The ndings suggest that terrorism
signicantly reduces the willingness to travel in all three psychographic groups and all types of benet sought. The next
natural step was to examine the differences between the different psychographic groups and risk perception postterrorist attacks, conducting KruskalWallis tests. The result
suggested there are signicant differences between psychographic groups (Tables 6.1 and 6.2) in terms of willingness
Table 6.1 Ranks
Travel condence
Willingness for cultural
context after attacks
Willingness for adventure
context attacks
Willingness for beach
context after attacks
Allocentric
Midcentric
Psychocentric
Total
Allocentric
Midcentric
Psychocentric
Total
Allocentric
Midcentric
Psychocentric
Total
Mean rank
89
267
88
444
89
267
88
444
89
267
88
444
298.12
214.32
170.84
300.77
218.55
155.32
226.29
225.24
210.36
MannWhitney U
Wilcoxon W
Z
Asymp. Sig. (two-tailed)
Crime risk
Health risk
Terror risk
9046.500
12962.500
3.384
0.001
9155.500
13071.500
3.281
0.001
8867.500
12783.500
3.605
<0.001
7782.000
11698.000
4.942
<0.001
Correlation coefcient
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Correlation coefcient
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Correlation Coefcient
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Crime risk
Health risk
Terror riskb
0.323**
<0.001
177
0.281**
<0.001
177
0.266**
<0.001
177
0.322**
<0.001
177
0.249**
0.001
177
0.335**
<0.001
177
0.308**
<0.001
177
0.244**
0.001
177
0.363**
<0.001
177
0.391**
<0.001
177
0.294**
<0.001
177
0.407**
<0.001
177
50.270
2
<0.001
63.604
2
0.001
1.087
2
0.581
KruskalWallis test.
Grouping variable: travel condence.
MannWhitney U
Wilcoxon W
Z
Asymp. Sig. (two-tailed)
Willingness for
cultural context
after attacks
Willingness for
adventure context
after attacks
7330.500
43108.500
5.598
<0.001
7333.500
43111.500
5.618
<0.001
MannWhitney U
Wilcoxon W
Z
Asymp. Sig. (two-tailed)
Willingness for
cultural context
after attacks
Willingness for
adventure context
after attacks
1736.500
5652.500
6.623
<0.001
1498.000
5414.000
7.456
<0.001
MannWhitney U
Wilcoxon W
Z
Asymp. Sig. (two-tailed)
Willingness for
cultural context
after attacks
Willingness for
adventure context
after attacks
9381.000
13297.000
3.003
0.003
8254.000
12170.000
4.492
<0.001
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Dr John Beavis for helpful suggestions and invaluable support in data analysis throughout this
study.
Copyright 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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