The Television Production Process hen watching television, somebody's vacation videos, a bloggers video podcast, corevena movie, ou probably feel that you could do just as well or even better than whats onthe screen. This may be true, but tis more likely that you wil be surprised to find how difcultits to match the high protuction values of the average television show, ‘even ifthe content begs for improvement. The automatic features of most equipment may even fool you ito believing that television production i relatively easy-—until your luck runs out. Evenif your shart vacation video looks petty good to your It may need much more ‘effort and production sk to make it look good to somebody ese. A seemingly simple s55.second chat between a news anchorin Portland and a soccer star n Maid during hal time presents a formidable challenge even for experienced production personnel This book vill help you meet such a challenge. “The digital era has brought a general convergence of digital vdeo and the necessory production processes, regardless af whether you are working in broadcast television, in diital cinema r independent on small video projets. Fortunately this convergence hes vacommon base: multicamera and single-camera television production. Leaning the ins and the outs of multicamera television production allows you to readily adapt to other fr of digital video or cinema production. n fet. you wilfid that even established cine directors have learned from television the advantages of muiticamera productions, but they have also discovered that its much harder to switch fom single-camera production ‘to multicamera use than the other way around,major problern with earning television production i that to one pk ep explanations of equipment, production processes, and workfow. “ection 1.1, What Television Production ls All About, walks you through the three phases ‘of production, demonstrates a usefl production model, and introduces you tothe major rontechnical and technical production personnel Section 1.2, Technical Production Systems, introduces you tothe! systems the expanded multcamera systems, and the major television equipment. MME dip Ashotor bie series of shotsas captured onthe harddrive and ‘enti by aflename sffect-te-cause model Moving fom ida to desedeffecton the ‘ewer then Docking up the spec medium requirements to produce such a effect. [EP Stands for letonic fil production. Television production ‘outside ofthe studi thats normaly shot for postoroducion [nottve, Part ofl production. ENG stands for electronic news gathering The use of portable can orders” cameras wth separate portable ideo recorders, Tights and sound equipment othe production of day news stores ENG Is usally not panned in advance and soften ‘vansmited lve or immediataiy after postproduction editing, medium requicements All content elements, production elements, and people needed to generate the defined proces message, ‘muiticamera syste The use of two ox more video cameras or ‘camcorders forthe capture, selection, coring, o transmis sion of vdeo footage. news production personnel People assigned exclusively to the rotution of news, documentaries and special evens hentechnieal production perzonnel People concemed primat~ ‘iywith nontechnical proton matters that ea fom the basicidea tothe final creen image. Aso called above-the-ne personne. lee of equipment or production phase, you should already know all the others ter is designed to help you with this chickervanc-egg problem. it provides you pity an overview ofthe ital production process, the people involved in small and large syoductons, and the necessary tole to generate the screen images and sound the trandord television equipment. Later chapters provide more detailed descriptions and understand the function basiesingle-camera postpreduction Any production activity that occursfter the pro- “doction, Usual refers to either video ecting or audio sweet ning (a varieny of quality adjustments of recorded sound), postproduction editing The selection and the assembly of cps (eho) ina logieal sequence ‘preproduction The preparation ofall production deta process message Themessage actually perceived bythe viewer Inthe process of watching 2tlevslon rogram. The program ‘objective isthe defines process message. production The actual activities in which an eventis recorded and) cor televied tingle-camera system The use ofa single video camera or cam- ‘Corde forthe capture recording, or ansmision of video footage. technical personnel People who operate and maintain the techn “aleauipment, Als called below the ine personnel. {clevision system Equlpment and people who operate the eau ment forthe prostion of specc programs. The basi tele ‘Son system consists of television camera and a microphone, which convert pictures and sound int electrical signals and S television set and loudspeaker, which convert the signals ‘ack nto pictures ana sound.What Television Production Is All About Agee relatively easy to get your idea onto the ‘anvas, All you need is something to paint on, some pains a brash, and of couse a litle technique You are Fae only one involved inthe translation process fom idea to image, Such a tranelation procssfor even asimple elev sion production, however, is considerabhy more complex. You tre seldom alone in the production proces, face strict, Uendlines, and are always forced to work witha varity of ‘complex equipment. This section gives brief overview of the dhe phases of production—preproduction, produc- tion, and postproduction—suggests a production model that will streazaline the use of people and equipment, tind charts the major nontechnical and technical person- mnel. PROCESS? Proces introduction > THREE PRODUCTION PHASES rerodeton, production, end postpredution D> PRODUCTION MODEL ‘fect to-cause model, medium requirements ard recess rmessoge aging medtum requirements > PRODUCTION PEOPLE Nontechnical reduction personnel technica pesonneland «re and news prodcton personne ‘THREE PRODUCTION PHASES Regardless of whether you are part of the nontechnical tor echnical personnel, or whether you work with a big, production team or all by yourself, you wil inevitably be proved in one or al three of the production phases: pre production, production, and postprodaction. Preproduction reproduction includes al the preparations and activities before you actually move into the studio or the field on the '@ first day of production. It usually happens in two stages. § Stage | consist of al the activities necessary to transform the basic idea into @ workable concept or script. In stage 2 lallthe necessary production details, such as location, c=ew5, find equlpment for single-camera or multicamera produc © tion, are worked out Production ‘As soon as you open the studio doors for rehearsal of a Video-recording session, or load a camcorder into the Nan for a field shoot, you are in production. Except for ‘eheatsals, production involves equipment and normally s crew-~people who operate the equipment. Itincludes all activities in which an event is video-recorded or televised Postproduction “The major activity of postproduction consists of video and audio editing tay also include color correction of video dhps (eo thatthe redshirt ofan actor looks the sme from sone shot to the next), the selection of appropriate back- ground musi and the creation of special audio effects, When using a single camera film-syle, which means that scene is built by recording one shot after another with Sly one camera, the postproduction activities may take Tonge then the actual production. PROCESS>Phasn> preproduction | production | postreduction PRODUCTION MODEL Like any ther model, a production model is meanttohelp you move from the original denote finished production yeeficienty as possible. tis designed to help you decide on the most effective approach the first time around, evalvate teach major production step, and finish on time. ts faction fe similar to that ofa road map: you dont have to follow ito get from here to there, but it makes finding your way much easier. In any case, dont dismiss such a production aid simply because you havent heard it mentioned in “the teal world” Its presented here to give you an edge over the people in “the real world” who might not have heard fit or dismissed it before tryingit out. Ifyou fee that itis testrictive and cramps your creativity or style, don’t use i Effect-to-Cause Model Like most other production models the effect-to-cause model starts with abasic idea but instead of moving fom the basic idea to the production process, it jumps to the ddesved communication effet on the target audience —theSection 1-1 general program objective. This program objective can be reached through a specific message that, idealy, the viewer will actually receive internalize, or act on. Because this all-important message is generated by the process of the viewer’ watching the video and audio content of your television program and attaching meaning to it, we call it the process message. Ths process requires that you as 1 producer have a fairly clear idea of what you want the target audience to learn, do, and feel before you think about the necessary technical requirements. The model suggests that you move from the general idea directly to the desired effect and then back up and think about how tobringabout—cause—this effect. PROCESS Efet tovcause> basildea| desired eect | cause |actal fect. “The more the actual process message (viewer effet) ratches the defined one, the more successfl the com- ‘munication, se€141 Defined process message Rather than being driven by the initial idea, the production process is now driven by the defined process message—the desired effect on the target audience. As such it is more inclusive than a mere program objective. Before proceeding with your produc~ tion, you need to be sure to get the audience’ attention. ‘This you normally do with program angle—a certain program clement that hooks the viewer, much like using bait when fishing, Angle As you undoubtedly know, the angle isa specific story focus, a point of view from which to look at and describe an event. It can lead to an obvious bias of who tells the story or it can be subtler and make a story more interesting to watch. In reporting news, you need to be careful with angles that introduce spectic points of view. For example, ifyou were to side with the owner of a ddog who bites the letter carrer, your story angle might be in the neighborhood and the dog’ atempt to protect his master. If, on the other hand, you were to empathize with the letter carries, your angle may well be the viciousness ofthe neighborhood dogs and the need for stricter leash laws. Ina news context, both angles contain an. ‘unacceptable bias, but in a drama such an angle may play an important role in perceiving the dog as the hero (the letter carrier was actually an escaped convict in disguise) or the villain (the dog had previously bitten child on the ‘way to school) You can also use an angle that gives the story a specific approach without introducing a strong bias. For example, What Television Production Is All About 5 Desired Defined efecto eo > pees mee te Production | Feeback ual Acwlpoces —effeten mesage—taet audience 1.1 EFFECT-TO-CAUSE PRODUCTION MODEL ‘Te effect to-cause production model jumps from the inal ea and story angle telly tothe desired efact—the process mes Sage It ten backs up tothe medium requvements that suggest ‘he production elements and processes necessary to produce the define process message you could document a popular singing star by watching har give a concert for a large enthusiastic audience or by observing her during a studio recording session. The first version would bea more pubic looking, at” point of view, the second a more private “locking into” point of view. ‘This would change aot only what equipment you need (a rulticamera setup with ive switching o extensive postpr0- duction forthe first version) but also your shooting style (many more close-ups for version 2 than for version 1) Medium Requirements ‘The advantage ofthis model is that the precise definition of the process message and a specific angle will help the content and production people work asa team and facili tate selecting the necessary content elements, production clements, and personnel—the medium requirements. By first carefully defining the desired effect on the audience, you can then decide quite easily on the specific people you need to do the job (content expert, writer, director, and crew), on where to do the production most effectively (studio or fcld), and on the necessary equipment (single- or multicamera, studio or field cameras, types of mics, and so forth).6 Chapter 1 Process Message Shaping Medium Requirements Lets assume that you are to produce a 15-minute segment ofalive morning shove. The shows executive producer tells, you to find a lawyer who i willing to talk about an ongoing high-profile murder tral ‘The usual and intuitive way to approach this assig iment would be to contact a well-known criminal lawyer and have the art director design a set that looks like a well- to-do lawyer's office, with an elegant desk, leather chairs, ang lots of law books in the background. You would then have to arrange for the recording date, studio time, trans portation for the guest, talent fees, and other such details. ‘When using the effect-to-cause model, on the other hand, you might come up with two different angles: one that shows the intellectual brilliance of a defense lawyer and her skill to engender reasonable doubt in the jurors, ‘and another that reveals the emotional makeup and the inner conflict of a lawyer defending a suspect despite the “overwhelming evidence that he is guilty. Here'show the two different angles might influence the resulting process messages and, in turn, dictate different production approaches: Process message I: ‘The viewer should gain insight into some ofthe major defense strategies used by the guest Inthis case, the questions would revolve around some of the lawyers former cases and the reasons for their sue cessor failure. Would you need an interviewer who under- stands the law? Yes. The interviewer could interpret the legal language for the audience or immediately challenge the lawyer's ethics within the framework of the law. The elaborate studio set resembling the lawyer's office would ‘also be appropriate, You may even consider conducting this interview on-location in the lawyer’ actual office. Process message 2: The viewer should gain deeper insight into the conscience and the feelings of the lawyer when handling an especially dificult case as well as how ‘she deals with personal ethics when applying specific defense strategies, Do you now need a host who is a legal expert? Not at all. In fact a psychologist would probably be better suited to conduct this interview. You might opt for close-ups of the lawyer throughout most ofthe show. You may even stay fon a close-up of the guest when the host asks questions, Reaction shots (the lawyer listening to questions) are often more telling than action shots (the lawyer answering), Does this interview requite an elaborate set? No. Because the interview deals primarily with the lawyer asa person. The Television Production Process rather than the person as a lawyer, you can conduct it in any environment. Two comfortable chairs on an interview set are all you would need ‘As you can see, inthis case the angle was not stated separately but rather embedded in the defined process ressage. Would you need a process message if you were to write a play? OF course not. Even a nicely formulated process message would not help you writea more effective drama. Any dramatic presentation has its own internal structure that does not beneiit from stating its desired effect on the audience, Itis more important to think about character development and conflict than defining whether youwant the audience to cry or laugh. More goal-directed program forms, however, such as instructional shows, interviews, documentaries, and certainly advertising, can benefit greatly from a precisely stated process mes Sage. PROCESS» Effectto-cause> basic dea | dosed atect| cause Finally, some unsolicited advice: ‘There has been a great reluctance in television production to show “taking heads? —people talking on close-ups without any support- ing visual material special effects or « constant dribble of background music. Do notblindly adopt this prejudice. So longa the heads talk well, here is no need for additional visual or aural cuter. PRODUCTION PEOPLE Even the most sophisticated television production equip: rent and computer interfaces will not replace you in the television production process; ou and those working with ‘you sill eign supreme—at least so fr. The equipment can- rot make ethical and aesthetic judgments for you;itcannot tell you exactly which part ofthe event to select and how to present it for optimal communication. You make such decisions withinthe context ofthe general communication Intent and through interaction with other members of the production team—the production staff, technical crews, ‘engineers, and administrative personnel. You may soon discover that the major task of television production is ‘working not so much with equipment as with people, In general, wecan divide the production personnel into non- technical personnel and technical personnel. Because news departments work independently ofthe regular production personnel, we list them separately. Nontechnical Production Personnel ‘The nontechnical production personnel are generally involved in translating a script or an event into effective television images, They are also called above-the-linesection 1.1 personnel because they fall under a diferent budget cat- gory from the technical crew, who are called below-the {ine personnel, The above- and below. the-line distinction {s anything but absolute or even uniform, however, and it ‘changes depending on the crewmembers union affiliations land the budgetary or union practices of the production company. We therefore use here the more self-evident divi- sion of nontechnical and technical personnel. Figure 1.2 shows the principal functions of the major nontechnical production personnel. ste1.2 4.2. NONTECHNICAL PRODUCTION PERSONNEL What Television Production Is All About 7 ‘You should realize, however, thatin smaller television operations one person might carry out several diferent functions. For example, the producer may also write and direct the show, and the floor manager may take on the responsibilities ofthe line producer or occasionally even direct a show. You may find an AD (associate director) in the production of serial dramasor digital cinema but rarely during most routine television shows. The art director may also function as & graphic artist, and most medium- sized or smaller production companies havelttle use fora Ens Eien NONTECHNICAL PRODUCTION PERSONNEL Inchageofane or several lrge production r program seis. Manages budget and coordinates wth lent, station management averting agencies financial supporter and talent and wes agents. In charge ofan indidual production Responsible forall personnel working onthe production and fr cor- rating technica and nontechnical production elements, ten serves witer and acsonally as rector, sists producer nl production mates Often does the actual codinating jobs, such as telephoning Assists producer by taking charge of remote operations (ava om the tudo}. Atsmall tations, function Schedules equipment and personne forall tucio and feld productions. As called detrfbread- Assists producer andrector during the actual production. During rehearsal takes notes of produces Inchargeafrecing talent and technical operations. ultimately esponsblefor transforming sit into effective video and audiomessages, smal stations, may often be the producers wel Assists rector dring the actual production. stud productions, does timing fr ect in complied productions, els reed varius operations such as preseting specic camera shots or caling for avideo Incharge ofall activities onthe sti flat. Coordinates talent relays rector’ cues to alent and supe- vises lor pessnnel.xcent fr large operations, responsible for setting up scenery and desing the set, Executive producer Producer Associate producer (AP) talent an confirming schedules. Line producer Supervises daly producton acts onthe set. Feld producer may be pr of producer responses. Production manager astopertcns. Production assistant (PA) and/or rectors suggestions for show improvement Director Associate drector(AD) recardesto stat). Aso cle ssitant ecto, Foor manager ‘socalled for decor and stage manager, Foor persons Set up and dress ses Operate cue cards and ater prompting devices, easel cats and on-camera graphics. Sametieshelp setup ard ect potable fighting instruments and nicophonebeons, Asst camera ‘peatorsin moving cameradalies are pling camer cables. At smal station, as acta warrobe and makeup people, scaled grb tgehands, and utes personel }8 Chapter 1 11.2. NONTECHNICAL PRODUCTION PERSONNEL (continued) The Television Production Process Gian Ee ADDITIONAL PRODUCTION PERSONNEL Insmal operations these production ape are not always partof the permanent saath functions ee fulfil by oter personel Ax smalle stations andin corporate television, the sits ar often wren bythe detox produce. Writer Usually hed ona freelance bass. Artdinector Incharge ofthe ceatve design aspects of som (st design location, and/or graphics. Graphicartst Prepares computer grap, tes, charts, and electronic backgrounds. Makeup artist Does the makeup foal talent. Uuallhired on afalance basis Costume designer Designsand sometimes even constructs valous costumes fr dams, dance number, and chien’ sows. Usually hired on2fedlancebasis, Wardrobe person Handlesall wardrobe matters during production, Property manager Wnts and manages use cf various et and hand properties. oundin large operations ony Dtherwise, props re managed bythe oor manager. Sound designer Consrcts the complete sound tack (logue and sound fects) n pstproducon. Uva hired on afrelance basis forlrge productions. permanent costume designer, wardrobe person, property ‘manager, or sound designer, Television talent—the per- formers and actors who work infront of the camera—are usually considered part of the nontechnical production personnel (discussed in chapter 15). PROCESS> People nontechnical Technical Personnel and Crew “The technical personnel consist of people who are primar- ily concerned with operating equipment. They are usually ppart ofthe crew, The technical personnel include camera ‘operators, audio and lighting people, video-record opera~ tors, video editors, CG (character generator) operators, and people who set up communication and sighal transmission equipment. The term technical does not refer to electronic expertise but rather to operating the equipment with skill and confidence. ‘The true engineers, who understand electronics and know where to look when something goes ‘wrong with a piece of equipment, usually do not operate ‘equipment; rather they ensure thatthe whole system rans smoothly, supervise its installation, and maintain it. You may find that in larger professional operations, however, the technical production people are stil called engineers, mainly to satisfy the traditional job classification estab lished by the labor unions, “The DP (director of photography) is sometimes listed as patt of the nontechnical personnel and sometimes as part ofthe technical team. The term, borrowed from film production, has found its way into television. In standard motion picture production, the DP is mainly responsible for lighting rather than for running the camera. In smaller digital cinema productions and EFP (electronic field pro- duction), the DP operates the camera as well as does the lighting. So when you hear that an independent television producer/director is looking for a reliable and creative DB he ot she is primarily referring to an experienced EFP camera operator, $6813 PROCESS- People? technica ‘As mentioned, many ofthe functions of echnical and nontechnical production people overlap and even change,Section 1.1 What Television Production Is All About 9 4.3 TECHNICAL PERSONNEL Ges Ae ENGINEERING STAFF hese people are cca engineers who ae esponibl forthe purchase instalation proper factoning, andmanoce ole eit Ghief engineer Incharge ofall techical personnel, budgets, and equipment. Designs sytem, ining q tesmsion ete an verses istlatons an ayn doops, Assan chief engineer ss chief engineerin alec mates and operations Ase caller supercar studio orremote vests eciic epertions Usual called engineer in-charge Maintenance engineer ohne equipmerand telson products NOWENGINEERING TECHNICAL PERSONNEL Although skied in technical ospecs, the llawing technical pesoanel do ot hove tobe engineers butusualy consist of tebncaly toned production people Teetical rector (10) Dees the sven and sil asa ech aechie Camera operators ‘Operate the camera; eften dotheihting for simple shows. When working primary in ie productions (ENGEFP), the ae sometimes led videagrphersand shooters. Director of photography (DP) Ini productions, in charge of ghting.In F, operates EFF came Lighting director (LO) In charge fighting; normaly found most in age preductions. Video operator(VO) juss camera contr fr optimal camer pictures (shang). Sometimes takes on addtional ‘echnical duties, especialy ring fi productions and remotes. bo alld shode Audi technician Incharge of al aude operations, Woks audio conse during the show. socalled audi engineer Video-record operator uns the ideo recorder. ‘Character generator Typesandor el rom the computer the names and other graphic materia tobe (Goperator integrated with the vide image. Video editor Operates postprodtion eng equipment. Often makes or sss In creative cetng decisions. Digital graphicartst Rendetsgtal raph fr on-air se. Can be nontechnical personel10 Chapter 1 depending on the site, location, and relative complexity of the production, For example, you may initially have acted asa producer wien setting up the video-recozding of the semiannual address of a corporation president; then, on the day of the shoot, you may find yourself busy wit such technical matters a8 lighting and runing the camera. In larger productions, uch as serial dramas or a talent series, your job responsibility is much more limited. When act- jngas a producer, you have nothing to do with lighting or equipment operation, When working the camera, you may hnave to wait patiently for the lighting crew to finish, even ifthe production is behind schedule and you have nothing else to doa the time News Production Personnel Almostall television broadcast stations produce atleast one daily newscast; in fact, the newscasts are often the major, production activity at many stations. Because news depart ‘ments must be able to respond quickly to a variety of pro- duction tasks, such as covering a downtown fireor a protest at city hall, there is generally litle time to prepare for The Television Production Process such events, News departments therefore have their own news production personnel. These people ate dedicated exclusively to the production of news, documentaries, and special events and perform highly specific functions. see1.4 Dorit be puzzled if you hear the assignment editor of ‘a news department sending several VJs to cover breaking stories, VJ stands for video journalist—an individual who must combine the functions of reporter, videographer, ‘writer, and editor. Thisrather demanding job was obviously not instituted to improve news coverage but to save money. [Nevertheless its apparent that you can no longer afford 2 narrowly focused training but must be fluent in all aspects of television production. ‘As in any other organization, television and corporate vyideo involve many more people than what you see listed in this section, such as clerical personnel and the people ‘who answer phones, schedule events, sell commercial time, negotiate contracts, build and paint the sets, and clean the building, Because these support personnel operate ‘outside the basic production system, their functions are not discussed here. 1.4 NEWS PRODUCTION PERSONNEL inns Gitatos News director Producer Assignment editor Reporter Video ourmaist(W) Videographer Writer Video editor Anchor Weathercaster Tratfcreprter Sportscaster Incharge of al ews operations Beas timate responsi fora ews, Direct responsible forthe selection and the placement ofthe storiesina newscasts that they form a nif, balanced whole. Assigns reporters and videographers to specicevents toe covered Gathers the stres, Often reports on-camerafom thei. Reporte ho shoots and edits is orher own fotage omcodes operator. nthe absence of report, decides on what pat of the een to cave Also called news photographer and shooter. ‘ites on the-air copy forthe anchors The copy sbasd on the eprter notes andthe avalable video. Edis video according to rept’ nots, writers, or pogucers instructions. Prinpal presente of newscast, nocally froma studio set. (On-ames talent, reporting the weather (onamera talent reporting oa trafic cantons On-camera talent, ing sports news and commentary iSection 1.1 > Thethvee production phases are preproduction, production, and postproduction, > Preproductionincludes the preparation of show before the actual production activites take place. eusually happens ia {wo tages the fists the move from te basic dea tothe script the second isthe designation ofthe necessary equip ‘ment (cameras microphones and so forth). faites studle cr feld production). and people to transform the seriptinto a telelsion show. > Production indudesal the activites in which equipment andthe cow operating rete the actual program or ‘rogram segments. The program canbe video recorded ot putontheair the segments are usualy leo-ecorded for postproduction > Posiproduetion involves most video and audio adn. The ‘various program sections that were recorded inthe production pase are putinto the proper sequence Itcan also include the ‘enhancement of the pictures andthe sound, What Television Production Is All About n D> The etfec-tocause model faclitates the production approach. It moves rom the basic daa ta the process mes- sage (the desea effect onthe viewer] an fom there tothe ‘medium requirements (conten, people, ond equipment) necessary to actualy cause the process message, Th closer the defined and actal pracess messages mate, the more succesful the program. D> The nontechnical production personnel socalled above ‘the-tne include variety of people who desgn the program (owt, ar recor, sound designer and so forth) and ‘recut the program (producers director, lot manager ‘nd assstans, D> The technical pesonne aso called below-thetne include tre engineers who install and maltain the equipment, nd thenonengineeting technical personne who operate the equipment D> The news department has its own production perionnl no consist ofa variety of producers, writers, assignment ‘editors, raphic artis reporters, and videographers as wel _as ideo journalists, who report operate the cemera and ‘writ and ect te story{| sored or directly reconverted by the television set into 4 visible screen images. The microphone converts whatever Technical Production Systems “o make sense of the various pieces of television equip- ‘ment and how they interact in a multicamera or single ‘camera production, you should consider them part of a system. This way you can relate how they function together, ‘even though they are presented here individually. This ec tion gives an overview of the studio and field production systems and an introduction to the major equipment. D> BASIC TELEVISION svsTEM Hora progrem host appears onthe eeviion eeiver D> SINGLE-CAMERA SYSTEMS Single comera recording and ransmision D> MULTICAMERA SYSTEMS Mulicarera studi system ondinstant replay system D> MAJOR EQUIPMENT Camere, audi, ightng weer, ideo recorder and postproduction editing BASIC TELEVISION SYSTEM AA system isa collection of elements that work together to achieve a specific purpose. Bach element depends on the proper functioning ofthe others, and none ofthe individual elements can do the job alone. ‘The television system con. sists of equipment and people who operate that equipment for the production of specific programs. How a Program Host Appears on the Television Receiver ‘Whether the production is simple or elaborate or originates in the studio or in the field—that is, on-location—the television system works on the same basic principle: the television camera converts whatever it sees” (optical images) into electrical signals that can be temporarily 12 heacs” (actual sounds) into electrical signals that can 2 be temporarily stored or directly reconverted into sounds 4 by the loudspeaker. In general, the basic television system ® transduces (converts) one state of energy (optical image, actual sound) into another (electric energy), see1s The picture signals are called video signals, and the sound signal are called audio signals. Any small consumer cam: Consolesand mixers Sound recording and playbackdevices When an event is recorded for postproduction, most of the dialogue and environmental sounds are recorded simultaneously with the picture, In large and complex studio productions in which ‘single camera shoots a scene piecemeal, much in the ‘way films are made, the audio track is subjected to much ‘manipulation in postproduction, The sounds of explo- sions, sirens, and car crashes, for example, ace normally dubbed in (added) during the postproduction sessions. Even parts of the original dialogue are occasionally re- created inthe studio, especially when the dialogue occurs ‘outdoors. As you undoubtedly know and have probably experienced, wind is a constant hazard to clean sound pickup. AUDIO Systems Lighting Like the human eye, the camera cannot see well without a certain amount of light. Because itis actually not objects Technical Production Systems 19 1.17 AUDIO MIXER ‘The portable mizerhasa limited number of inputs and volume cones. ‘we sce but the light that s reflected off the objects, manipu- Iating the light falling on objects influences the way we perceive them on-screen. The purposeful control of light, and shadows is called lighting. ‘Types of illumination All television lighting basically involves two types of Ulumination: directional and dif- fused, Directional light has a sharp beam and produces harsh shadows. A flashlight and car headlights produce directional ight You can aim a light beam to illuminate a precise ares In television and motion pictures, such ight axe called spolighs, Diffuse light has a wide, indistinct ‘beam that illuminates a relatively large area and produces soft, translucent shadows. The fluorescent lamps in a department store produce diffused lighting, Television, and motion pictures use floodlights to echieve such gen ral nondirectional lighting and to control the density of shadows, LUGHTS> Lightinvoducten Lighting instruments In the television studio, the various types of spotlights and floodlights are usually sus- pended on battens that can be raised close to the ceiling and lowered close to the floor. ‘This enables the lighting. crew to place the instruments In the desired positions on the battens. When the battens are raised, the cameras and the crewmembers can move freely about the studio floor without interfering withthe lighting, seer.1e20 1.18 STUDIOLIGHTS SUSPENDED FROM MOVABLE BATTENS Typical stu lighting uses spotights and ootights Allistumeats ae suspended from battens that can be lowered closet the studio floor and raised wall above the scenery ENG and EFP use much smaller, portable instra- ‘ments that can be set up quickly and plugged into ordinary household outlets. LUGHTS> instruments std fle Lighting techniques As mentioned, lighting is the ‘manipulation of ight and shadows that influences the way ‘we perceive how things on-screen look and feel. All televi- sion lighting is based on a simple principle: to illuminate specific areas, mold shadows, and bring the overal light on 1 scene to an intensity level at which the cameras can pro- «duce optimal pictures and createa certain mood. Optimal pictures means that the colors are faithfully reproduced even in the shadow areas, that there is certain number of brightness steps between the darkest and the brightest spots in the scene, and that you can still see some detal in the brightest and darkest areas. For some shows the lighting is deliberately flat, which ‘means that there is litte contrast between light and shad ov, Flat (diffused) lighting is frequently used on news and interview sets, for game shows and situation comedies, and in many feld productions. Crime and mystery shows nor- mally use high-contrast lighting, This creates dense shad. cows and intensifies the dramatic tension. cHTs> Fallot> fast|siow | none The Television Production Process Switcher ‘The switcher works on a principle similar to that of push- buttons on a car radio that allow you to choose different radio stations, The switcher lets you select various video inputs, such as cameras, video recorders, and titles or ‘other special effects, and join them through a great variety of transitions while the event is in progress. In effect, the switcher allows you to do instantaneous editing, ‘Any switcher, simple or complex, can perform three basic functions: select an appropriate video source from several inputs, perform basic transitions between two video sources, and create or retrieve special effects, such as split screens. seetas Ifyou nowlook back at figure 1.9, you can see that three ‘video inputs—camera 1, camera 2, and a video recorder— are routed to the switcher. From these three inputs, camera 1 is selected to go on the ai. SWITCHING? Switching Introduction Video Recorder One of the unique features of television is its ability to transmit a telecast live, which means capturing the pic- tures and the sounds of an ongoing event and distributing them instantly to a worldwide audience. Most televisionsection 1.2 programs, hoviever, originate from playback of previously recorded material, Recording media Almost all video-recording is done ‘on some kind of computer-like high-capacity hard drive or solid-state storage media, An assembly of hard drives, with a very large storage capacity in the multi-terabyte range a terabyte equals 1,000 gigabytes) is called a server. Some servers do not use spinning hard disks (like what ‘you have in your computer) but rather solid-state drives (SSDs), which are basically large memory cards. For archival storage, programs are also recorded on digital videodises (DVDs). ‘The big advantage of a server over other storage media is that it can multitask. For example, it can record incoming program material while providinga newscast in progress with various news clips and, atthe same time, feed some news footage to the editing room for the subsequent newscast ‘You will ind that videotape has not entirely left the planets it is occasionally still used asa relatively inexpen- sive storage media for archival purposes. The problem, of course, is finding a working high-quality videotape recorder (VTR) and maintaining it over the years Technical Production Systems 2 1.19 VIDEO PRODUCTION SWITCHER “he production switcher has rows of buttons and other con tls fo selecting and mixing various vdeo inputs and creat Ing tansitone and spec et fects. Itthon sends the selected video tothe Hne-ut t i & Postproduction Editing In principle postproduction editing is relatively simple: you select the most effective shots from the original source material and join them with transitions in a specific sequence. In practice, however, postproduction editing can be quite complicated and time-consumi especially if it also involves extensive audio manipuls tion. EDITING? Eating trodeton ‘In the very early stages of video editing, videotape was tterally cut and spliced together again, very much like opti- «al film, Later the splices were done electronically. All tape editing was linea, which means you had to roll through shots 1, 2, and 3 before you could get to shot 4. With the advent of computer editing all clips—in fact, al frames— are placed into individual digital fle, which you can access randomly. This means that if you wanted to call up clip 4 directly you could do so without having to go through the previous three. Once all video and audio clips are trans- ferred othe hard drive of your editing system (your laptop, computer ora dedicated system), you can manipulate them pretty mach as you would edit text with a word-processing, program. You can call up, move, cut, paste, and join the various video or audio clips much like words, sentences, and paragraphs when editing a document. This method is,Chapter 1 stil frequently called “nonlinear editing” because you can call up any clip or frame regardless of the sequence in which it was captured or ingested by the editing system. With the demise of videotape, however, the division of video editing into linear and nonlinear no longer makes sense. We will simply refer to the process of selecting and sequencing clips as postproduction editing, see 1.20 eomIne> Nonlinear editing > system Eaingtoos deo tack 1.20 POSTPRODUCTION EDITING COMPUTER INTERFACE ‘The interface of most postproductionedting systems shows alist of avalable clip, a preview monitor ofthe upcoming shat that ita be edlted to the sho shown onthe program monitor a vdeo trac (blue tack wth thumbnail mages), two or mare aul tracks (green trace) and other information such as avaleble transitions The Television Production Process Regardless of the editing system you use, it cannot ‘make the creative decisions for you. Thinking about post- production as early as the preproduction stage facilitates considerably your editing chores. Always consider post production an extension of the creative process, not a salvage operation. Program mane uci AoiPOINTS > The basic teevision system consists ofthe ecuipment andthe people who operate the equipment pracuce specif pro- ‘rans. nits simples form the system comprise television Camera that converts what it sae ita a deo signal. a cro [hone tht converts what thers into an audio signal and 3 television setand aloudspeaker that recorwer the to signals Ine pictures and sound. MAL D> single-camera ystems us the camera for ENG (lecronic ‘new cathering) EF (electronic ele production), and digital D> Theexpanded mulcamera systems use to or mare cameras forthe simultaneous capture of events or event deta and for instant eplys. > The major production elements are the camera, au lighting, switcher, videotape recorder, and postpoductionedtng, D> There are several types of video camera: age tudo cameras that needa pedestal tobe maved about the studio Noor ENGY EP cameras that are srl encugh tobe cared by the opera tor and camcorders, which have the recording device but nto the camera, > Audio the sound portion ofa television show snecessary ‘ogive specific information about what sad and to set the mood ofa scene, > Audio preduction elements include microphones, sound con- {tol equipment ana sound recording and playback devices > Lighting isthe manipulation of ght and shadows that infu ‘ences the way we perceive objects on screen end how we fee ‘aboutthe screen event. D> The to types of llumination are directional ight, produced by | spotlights and aifused light produce by floodighs, D> The switcher enables you to do instantaneous eding by Selecting a specie picture fom several inputs ond performing basic transitions between two video sources, D> Almost al video-recording uses largecapacty hard drives, or servers and large-capacty memory cards, called solid-state ries (805), D> Postprotiuction editing consists of selecting vatious clips (shots ftom the source material end erranging them ina spect sequence. The digital ideo and audio materials recorded onto the eiing hard rive ae Res and manipulated during the actual eitng using computer software, Technical Production Systems @ For your reference ort wackyour work, the Zets \ideo.b program cussin tis chapter are sted hae sith thelr corespaneing page numbers, PROCESS Process intraduction 4 PROCESS-> Phases prepreduction| production |posipraduction 4 PROCESS Efecto-cause> basic idea) ested effect| cause actual effect PROCESS fect to-cause> basic Idea esredeect| cause 6 PROCESS? People? nontechnical 8 PROCESS- People? techolcal CAMERA? Camerainvoduction 16 CAMERA? Cameramoves 16 NUDIO> Auto inreduction 17 AUDIO? Micophones-> mictypes 18 AUDIO Consoles and mers 19 AUDIO systems 19 LUGHTS> Light introduction 19 LUGHTS> Instruments stud |feld 20 LUGHTS> Falo>fast|slow none 20 SWITCHING? Switching intociction 20 EDITING? Editing intodction 21 EDITING? Nonlinear editing system 22