Gesells Maturational Theory

The Maturational Theory of child development

was developed beginning in 1925[1] by Arnold
Gesell, an American educator, medical doctor
and psychologist whose studies in child
psychology were primarily concerned with
biological maturation and how it is related to
overall development.[2] Gesell carried out many
observational studies during more than 50 years
working at the Yale Clinic of Child
Development. Gesell and his colleagues
constructed a set of behavioral norms that
illustrate sequential and predictable patterns of
growth and development. Gesell asserted that all
children go through similar stages, although each
child may move through these stages at their own
rate [3] Gesell's Maturational Theory have
influenced child-rearing and primary education
methods for many years.[4][5]
Principles of Development
He believed that a childs growth and
development is influenced by both their
environment and heredity, but he largely
investigated the children's physiological
development. He called this process maturation,
that is, the process by which development is
governed by intrinsic factors, principally the
genes.[6]
According to Gesell, the rate at which children
develop primarily depends on the growth of their
nervous system, consisting of the complicated
web of nerve fibers, spinal cord, and brain. As
the nervous system grows, their minds develop
and their behaviors change accordingly.[7]
The Concept of Maturation
Gesell observed that maturational development
always unfolds in fixed sequences: an embryo's
heart is always the first organ to develop, then
the central nervous system (the brain and spinal
cord), followed by the peripheral organs. After
birth, babies first gain control over their lips and
tongues, then their eye movements, followed by
control over their neck, shoulders, arms, hands,
fingers, legs, and feet. There is a genetic

cephalocaudal (head-to-foot) trend in both

prenatal and postnatal development.[2]
As a baby grows, they learn to sit up, stand,
walk, and run; these capacities develop in a
specific order with the growth of the nervous
system, even though the rate of development may
vary from child to child. Gesell believed that
individual differences in growth rates are a result
of the internal genetic mechanisms.[8]
Maturational theory states that while the childs
social and cultural environments also play a role
in their development, these socializing forces are
most effective when they are harmonious with
the inner maturational timetable. He opposed
efforts to teach children things ahead of their
developmental schedule, asserting that once the
nervous system had matured adequately, a child
would begin mastering tasks such as sitting up,
walking, and talking from their own inner urges.
[8][9]

The Study of Patterns

Gesell studied infant behavior and how early
motor behavior develops. He determined that
growth is best measured not quantitatively but in
patterns. A pattern can be anything that has a
definite shape or form [10] such as an eye blink.
Gesell looked for patterns in the process by
which actions become organized; for example,
the steps in the development of eye-hand coordination.[10]
Reciprocal Interweaving
Gesell created the term "reciprocal interweaving"
to describe the developmental process in which
two opposite tendencies gradually reach an
effective balance. For example, when a child is
developing a preference for handedness, he or
she uses first one hand and then the other, and
eventually ends up with a preferred pattern of
hand use.[10]
Gesell also applied the concept of reciprocal
interweaving to the development of the
personality. Gesell asserted that, like motor
behaviors, personality also develops as a back

and forth pull between two opposite poles. He

gave the example of a child going through a
cycle of introverted and extroverted tendencies,
beginning at age three, until the two tendencies
become integrated and balanced. Gesell believed
that developmental progress requires temporarily
loss of equilibrium, but followed by reintegration
at higher levels of organization.[10]
Functional Asymmetry
Gesell found asymmetric development to be
common in children.[11] In motor behaviors, this
can be seen in an infants tonic neck reflex,
where babies prefer to lie with their heads turned
to one side and extend their arm to which the
head is turned and flex the other arm behind the
head. It is a reflex where the infant directs vision
towards the hand or fist in extension.[12]
Self-Regulation
Gesell believed that even newborns could
regulate their own development, and
demonstrated that babies were able to determine
their own schedules for eating and sleeping.[11]
Gesell also observed self-regulatory mechanisms
in personality and overall integration and
equilibrium. He interpreted development as a
process where behavior advances in a spiral
pattern, alternating between equilibrium and
disequilibrium as children enter new phases.
While tensions arise, these self-regulatory
mechanisms ensure that the organism never goes
too far in one direction.[13]
Individuality
Critics often point out that when summarizing his
findings, Gesell gave the impression that all
children behave in exactly the same way at each
age. However, his position was that the
developmental sequences are common to all
children, but they vary in their individual rates of
growth. He suggested that these growth rates are
possibly related to differences in temperament
and personality.[11] For example, he speculated
that a child who grows slowly might be cautious,
even-tempered, and patient, where as a child who
develops more quickly might be more outgoing,
happy, and quick to react. Gesell believed that a

childs environment should be adjusted to his or

her temperament and growth style.
Philosophy of Child-rearing
Gesell believed in a child-centered approach to
raising children. He urged parents to recognize
the inborn schedule that babies are born with,
pointing out that it is the product of over three
million years of biological evolution[11] He
observed that babies appeared to know what they
needed and what they were ready to do and learn.
He directed parents to look to the children
themselves for cues on how to help the child
develop as an individual, and to set aside their
own expectations of what the baby ought to be
doing,[14] particularly in the first year.
Gesell developed a series of development
schedules summarizing the sequences of
development in children.[15] He believed that
parents familiar with these sequences will
become more patient and understanding during
times of disequilibrium and instability [16]
knowing that they will eventually disappear.
Criticisms
Modern critics of Gesell point out that he put too
much emphasis on maturation and not enough on
environmental factors such as learning.[17][18]
Criticisms also include that his developmental
stages imply too much uniformity as if all
children go through the stages at the same age.[3]
He does not specify how much variation can be
expected at each age. In addition, Gesells
research was limited to middle-class children in a
university setting [11] so critics are hesitant to
generalize his findings to other cultures.
Critics also have asserted that the Maturational
Theory can can be used as an excuse to withhold
treatment and educational opportunities from
children.[5]
Recent research has challenged Gesells age
norms, showing that newborns may have more
abilities than was reported and that his
developmental picture may be too slow.[11]
Newborns have been found to be a lot smarter

than Gesell originally reported showing

advanced competencies at early ages. Despite the
many criticisms, pediatricians and infant
specialists still use Gesells norms to help them

determine what babies should be able to do at

various ages [11]