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ASM Handbook, Volume 7, Powder Metallurgy

P. Samal and J. Newkirk, editors

Powder Metallurgy Methods

and Applications
W. Brian James, Hoeganaes Corporation, retired

Powder metallurgy (PM) is the production

and utilization of metal powders. Powders are
defined as particles that are usually less than
1000 nm (1 mm) in size. Most of the metal
particles used in PM are in the range of 5 to
200 mm (0.2 to 7.9 mils). To put this in context,
a human hair is typically in the 100 mm (3.9 mils)
range.
The history of PM has already been outlined
in the article History of Powder Metallurgy in
this Volume. This article reviews the various
segments of the PM process from powder production and powder processing through to the
characterization of the materials and their properties. It will cover processing methods for consolidating metal powders including options for
processing to full density.
Powders have a high ratio of surface area to
volume and this is taken advantage of in the
use of metal powders as catalysts or in various
chemical and metallurgical reactions. While
this article focuses on the use of powders to
make functional engineering components, many
metal powders are used in their particulate
form. This aspect of PM is covered in the article Specialty Applications of Metal Powders
in this Volume.
Powder technologies are exciting to engineers because processing options permit the
selective placement of phases or pores to tailor
the component for the application. The capability of press and sinter processing or metal injection molding (MIM) processing to replicate
parts in high volumes is very attractive to design
engineers. The ability to fabricate complex
shapes to final size and shape or to near-net
shape is particularly valuable. Powder metallurgy offers the potential to do this in high
volumes and also for applications where the
volumes are not so large.
The three main reasons for using PM are economic, uniqueness, and captive applications, as
shown in Fig. 1 (Ref 1). For some applications
that require high volumes of parts with high
precision, cost is the overarching factor. A good
example of this segment is parts for the automotive industry (where approximately 70% of

ferrous PM structural parts are used). Powder

metallurgy parts are used in engine, transmission, and chassis applications. Sometimes it is a
unique microstructure or property that leads
to the use of PM processing: for example, porous
filters, self-lubricating bearings, dispersionstrengthened alloys, functionally graded materials (e.g., titanium-hydroxyapatite), and cutting
tools from tungsten carbide or diamond composites. Captive applications of PM include
materials that are difficult to process by other
techniques, such as refractory metals and reactive metals. Other examples in this category are
special compounds such as molybdenum disilicide and titanium aluminide, or amorphous
metals.
The metal powder industry is a recognized
metal forming technology that competes directly with other metalworking practices such
as casting, forging, stamping (fine blanking),

and screw machining. The industry comprises

powder suppliers and parts makers, plus the
companies that supply the mixing equipment,
powder handling equipment, compacting
presses, sintering furnaces, and so forth.
Powder metallurgy processing offers many
advantages. The PM process is material and
energy efficient compared with other metal
forming technologies. Powder metallurgy is
cost effective for making complex-shaped parts
and minimizes the need for machining. A wide
range of engineered materials is available, and
through appropriate material and process selection the required microstructure may be developed in the material. Powder metallurgy parts
have good surface finish and they may be heat
treated to increase strength or wear resistance.
The PM process provides part-to-part reproducibility and is suited to moderate-to-high volume
production. Where necessary, controlled microporosity can be provided for self-lubrication or
filtration. While dimensional precision is good,
it typically does not match that of machined
parts.
In the case of ferrous PM parts, they have
lower ductility and reduced impact resistance
compared with wrought steels.
The majority of PM parts are porous and consideration must be given to this when performing
finishing operations.

Metal Powders
Metal powders come in many different shapes
and sizes (Fig. 2). Their shape, size, and size distribution depend on the manner in which they
were produced. Metal powder production is covered in depth in various articles in the Section,
Metal Powder Production in this Volume.
There are three main methods of powder
production:

Fig. 1

Three main reasons for choosing powder

metallurgy shown in the form of a Venn
diagram. The intersection of the three circles represents
an ideal area for applying PM techniques. Source: Ref 1

Mechanical, including machining, milling,

and mechanical alloying

Chemical, including electrolytic deposition,

decomposition of a solid by a gas, thermal

10 / Introduction to Powder Metallurgy

5 m

Fig. 2

5 m

Example of the different particle shapes possible with metal powders

decomposition, precipitation from a liquid,

precipitation from a gas, solid-solid reactive
synthesis

Physical, including atomization techniques
Most metals are available in powder form.
Some may be made by many different methods,
while for others only a few options are possible.
The characteristics of the powder are determined by the method by which it is produced.
The shape, size, size distribution, surface area,
apparent density, flow, angle of repose, compressibility, and green strength depend on the
powder production method. In-depth coverage
of the sampling and testing of metal powders
is presented in the articles in the Section Metal
Powder Characterization in this Volume.

Powder Processing
For the production of PM parts in high
volumes, compaction is carried out in rigid
dies. In most instances, the metallic powders
are mixed with a lubricant (e.g., ethylene bisstearamide) to reduce interparticle friction during compaction and to facilitate ejection of
the compacted parts by reducing friction at the
die-wall and core-rod interfaces.
The metal powders may be elemental powders; mixtures of elemental powders; or mixtures of elemental powders with master alloys
or ferroalloys, prealloys, diffusion alloys, or
hybrid alloys. See the article Ferrous Powder
Metallurgy Materials in this Volume for an
in-depth review of the alloying methods used
in ferrous PM. A consequence of the various
alloying methods available is that only the PM
materials made from prealloyed powders are
chemically homogeneous. The other alloying
methods can result in chemically inhomogeneous materials. The hardenability is determined
by the local chemical composition, and the
resulting microstructures are generally quite
complex. Chemical analysis can be a challenge
due to the inhomogeneous nature of the materials. Guidelines for sample preparation for the

chemical analysis of the metallic elements in

PM materials are provided in MPIF Standard
67 (Ref 2).
Complex, multilevel PM parts compacted
in rigid dies will not have the same green
density throughout. While the objective is generally to achieve a density as uniform as possible throughout the compacted part, taller
parts and parts with multiple levels are subject
to the presence of density differences between
adjacent regions. This is due to frictional effects
and compacting tool deflections. Taller parts will
have a neutral zone or density linethe region
of the compact that has experienced the least
relative movement of powder. The position of
the neutral zone may be adjusted by varying
the pressure exerted by the upper and lower
punches.
Compaction in rigid dies is limited to part
shapes that can be ejected from the die cavity.
Parts with undercuts, reverse tapers, threads,
and so forth, are not generally practical. Such
features are formed by postsintering machining
operations.
There are two main types of compacting
press: mechanical and hydraulic. Some hybrid
presses offer features of both. A detailed treatment of compaction is provided in the Section
Metal Powder Compaction in this Volume.
Some PM parts are molded (shaped) rather
than compacted. Fine-particle-size metal powders (5 to 20 mm, or 0.2 to 0.8 mils) are mixed
with binders and plasticizers and processed to
form a feedstock for MIM. Molding is performed using machines similar to those used
for plastic injection molding. Shrinkage during
the subsequent sintering operation is extensive
(15 to 20%) due to the fine-particle-size powders used and the high sintering temperatures.
Because the parts are molded and not compacted, they do not contain density gradients
that lead to distortion or problems with dimensional control. The process makes complexshaped, small-to-medium sized PM parts with
high relative densities.
Some metal powders are not very compressible. The powder particles are hard and have

limited plasticity. Rigid die compaction is not

suitable for consolidating such powders, and
they must be processed by other means such as
hot pressing, extrusion, or hot isostatic pressing
(HIP), described subsequently in this article.
Highly reactive metal powders are also not
suitable for rigid die compaction. They generally
need to be vacuum hot pressed, or encapsulated
and extruded, or HIPed.
Rigid die compacted parts and MIM parts
are thermally treated to increase their strength
in a process known as sintering. The parts are
heated, generally in a reducing atmosphere, to
a temperature that is below the melting point
of the primary constituent of the material, in
order to form metallurgical bonds between the
compacted metal powder particles. Sintering
is a shrinkage process. The system tries to
reduce its overall surface area via various diffusion processes. Metallurgical bonds (microscopic weldments) form between adjacent
metal particles (after oxides have been reduced
on the surface of the powder particles), pore
surfaces become less irregularly shaped, and
larger pores grow at the expense of the smaller
pores. Sintering is generally carried out using
continuous mesh-belt furnaces. For higher
temperatures (>1150  C, or 2100  F), pusher,
roller hearth, or walking-beam furnaces may
be used. Batch furnace processing is used for
special applications (e.g., pressure-assisted
sintering). More information on sintering may
be found in the Section Sintering Basics in
this Volume.

Powder Metallurgy Material

Properties
The majority of PM parts contain pores (see
options for processing metal powders to full
density later in this article). This is an advantage when metal powders are used to make
self-lubricating bearings in which the surfaceconnected pores of the parts are impregnated
with oil. When the bearing surface heats up
due to frictional heat, oil is released from the
pores. When the bearing cools, the oil is sucked
back into the pore channels by capillary action.
The porosity in PM parts has an effect on the
physical, mechanical, magnetic, thermal, wear,
and corrosion properties of the parts.
Thermophysical properties of sintered steels,
in particular their coefficient of thermal expansion and their thermal conductivity, are needed
when designing parts and when modeling heat
treatment processes. Opinions differ in the PM
community as to the effect of density on
these properties. Danninger has shown, however, that the coefficient of thermal expansion
up to 1000  C (1832  F), measured through
dilatometry, is virtually independent of porosity
(density) over a density range from 5.97 to
7.53 g/cm3 (Ref 3). In addition, thermal conductivity was determined in the same temperature range by using laser flash to measure
thermal diffusivity, and specific heat, and then

Powder Metallurgy Methods and Applications / 11




a l rCp

(Eq 1)

where a is thermal diffusivity, l is thermal

conductivity, r is density, and Cp is specific
heat at constant pressure.
Thermal conductivity was shown to depend
on density. The effect of porosity in the technically relevant density range was, however,
slightly less pronounced than the effect exerted
by the alloying elements; specifically, the variation observed between different standard PM
steel grades in the low-to-medium temperature
range. Both thermophysical properties are,
therefore, significantly less influenced by porosity than by chemical composition. Powder metallurgy steels are more similar to wrought steels
than was generally assumed.
The elastic constants are also of interest to
the design engineer. Youngs modulus, Poissons ratio, and the shear modulus are related
according to:
E 2G1 n

(Eq 2)

where E is Youngs modulus, G is shear

modulus, and n is Poissons ratio. E and n are
determined by resonant frequency and G is
calculated from Eq 2.
Beiss (Ref 4) has shown that:
E E0 r=r0 m

(Eq 3)

Youngs modulus, GPa

where E0 is the Youngs modulus of the porefree material, r is the density of the material,
r0 is the density of the pore-free material, and
the exponent m depends on the pore morphology
and varies between 2.5 and 4.5. Nevertheless,
over the density range of interest for ferrous
PM structural materials, 6.4 to 7.4 g/cm3,
Youngs modulus is essentially a linear function
of density (Fig. 3) (Ref 5).

P=P0 r=r0 m

(Eq 4)

where, P is the property of interest, P0 the value

for the pore-free material, r is the density of
the material, r0 is the density of the pore-free
material, and m is an exponent the value of
which depends on a given property (Fig. 4)
(Ref 67). While tensile strength increases in
a linear fashion as density increases, tensile
ductility is more dependent on reducing the
level of porosity. Fatigue performance is even
more influenced by density with an exponent
m of between 3.5 and 4.5. Impact energy is
the most dependent on density, with an exponent m of approximately 12.
Magnetic properties of ferrous PM materials
are affected by density. Induction and permeability increase as the density is increased.
Permeability and coercive field strength are
structure-sensitive properties that are degraded
by the presence of impurities. The sintering conditions are extremely important to keep carbon,
nitrogen, and oxygen contents to low levels
(C = 0.03 wt% max; N = 0.01 wt% max; and
O = 0.10 wt% max). Residual stresses from
operations such as sizing, machining, or shot
peening degrade the magnetic properties. The
properties can be restored through an annealing
treatment.

Processing Options to Consolidate

Metal Powders
There are three basic approaches to the consolidation of metal powders, as shown in Fig. 5
(Ref 8).
Pressure-based compaction establishes
density via the compaction process then sinters

52

7.5

51

7.4

50

7.3

49

7.1

48

7.0

47

6.8

46

6.7

45

6.5

44
6.4

Fig. 3

Poissons ratio is a weak function of density,

and for ferrous PM structural steels it can be
taken as 0.27 0.02.
The mechanical properties of PM materials
are a function of density:

6.6

6.8
7.0
7.2
Sintered density, g/cm3

Youngs modulus as a function of sintered density. Data from Ref 5

7.4

to develop strength in the compacts. Rigid die

compaction falls into this category and is the
most cost-effective method for the high-volume
production of PM structural parts. In order for
this method to be viable, the metal powders
need an irregular shape and good flow characteristics, they must be compressible, and they must
have good green strength. (Green is the term
used to describe an as-pressed compact.)
Extremely hard particles with a spherical shape
are not appropriate for use in rigid die compaction. Compaction takes place at high pressure
in confined dies (the dies are generally made
from cold work tool steel or cemented carbide).
Compacting pressures for ferrous powders are
generally in the range from 400 to 700 MPa
(60 to 100 ksi), from 100 to 400 MPa (14.5 to
60 ksi) for aluminum and aluminum alloy powders, and approximately 400 MPa (60 ksi) for
copper and copper-alloy powders.
The green density increases as the compacting pressure is increased and levels out at
higher compacting pressures. Powder particles
work harden as the result of plastic deformation
and it requires higher pressures to cause further
plastic flow. In addition, the lubricant that is
typically admixed to aid particle rearrangement
and to reduce the fictional forces between the
powder and the compacting tools eventually
has no place to go because all the voids
between particles have been closedeither by
metal flow or by the presence of lubricant.
More lubricant is beneficial at lower compacting pressures, but there is a transition point at
which the additional lubricant impedes further
densification (Fig. 6) (Ref 9).
Warm compaction processing was developed
to overcome the compressibility constraints of
rigid-die compaction (Ref 10). The powder
mixture and the compacting tools are heated

Youngs modulus, 106psi

the thermal conductivity was calculated from

these parameters and the density in accordance
with:

6.4
7.6

Fig. 4

Effect of density on mechanical and physical

properties of PM materials. Source: Ref 6

12 / Introduction to Powder Metallurgy

Contacting pressure, ksi
58.0
7.4

72.5

87.0

101.5

116.0

130.5

Green density, g/cm3

7.3

Fig. 5

Three basic approaches to the consolidation of

metal powders. Source: Ref 8

to approximately 120  C (250  F) and the

powder is compacted in a single press stroke.
Green densities of up to 7.3 g/cm3 are possible
with highly compressible ferrous powders. This
is approximately 98% of the pore-free density
of the powder mixture being compacted (The
pore-free density of the powder mixture is the
green density that could be reached if all the
porosity was removed from the material. It
can be calculated for any mixture based on the
density and the amount of each constituent in
the mixture and the volume they would occupy
in the pore-free condition.) Special lubricants
and binder-treated premixes were developed
for warm compaction. The efficiency of the
special lubricant enabled it to be reduced to
0.6 wt% from the 0.8 wt% more typically used
for rigid-die compaction: the pore-free density
increases by 0.1 g/cm3 for each 0.2 wt% reduction in the amount of the admixed lubricant.
Examples of warm compacted parts are shown
in Fig. 7.
More recently, warm-die compaction has
been introduced. In this instance, only the compacting tooling is heated (the powder is not
heated). The optimal die temperature varies
according to the specific lubrication system
being used. The die temperature is set so that
the surface temperature of the green compacts
reaches the desired range for the lubricant system in question. Warm-die compaction is ideal
for small-to-medium size parts that weigh less
than 700 g (1.5 lb), are up to 32 mm (1.3 in.)
high, and have wall thicknesses of up to
19 mm (0.75 in.). For larger parts warm compaction processing is required. Green densities
of 7.45 g/cm3 have been reached using warmdie compaction with lubricant additions of
approximately 0.3 wt% (Ref 11).
In sintering-based densification, the shape
of the component is formed in a molding operation (e.g., MIM) and sintering is enhanced by
the use of high temperatures and fine-particlesize powders. While extensive shrinkage occurs
during sintering, it is essentially isotropic in
nature so that good tolerance can still be
achieved. Metal powder loading in the feedstock used for MIM is approximately 60%.
The binders and plasticizers added to make
the mixture moldable must be removed prior

7.2
Transition pressure
7.1
7.0
6.9
Atomized iron
6.8
6.7
400

500

600

700

800

900

Compacting pressure, MPa

0.5% Zn St

0.75% Zn St

1.0% Zn St

Fig. 6

Effect of lubricant content on the compressibility of metal powders. Source: Ref 9

Fig. 7

Examples of warm compacted PM parts. (a) Torque converter hub. Courtesy of Chicago Powder Metal
Products. (b) Transmission output shaft hub. Courtesy of GKN Sinter Metals. (c) Hand tool parts. Courtesy
of PoriteTaiwan Co. Ltd.

to final sintering. This debinding step is the

rate-controlling phase of the MIM process.
Other sintering-based densification processes
that involve the molding or shaping of powders
are slip casting and tape casting.
Hybrid Densification. For some materials, a
hybrid densification process is used in which
pressure and temperature are applied at the same
time. As mentioned previously, some powders
are not suitable for rigid-die compaction; they
are too hard, are spherical in shape, or are too
reactive. In this instance, processes such as powder extrusion (typically after encapsulation) or

HIP are used. Hot pressing (often in vacuum) or

spark sintering may also be used.

Processing to Full Density

Options for processing metal powders to full
density are mapped in Fig. 8 (Ref 12). The vertical axis relates to relative stress (the applied
pressure divided by the in situ yield strength
of the material) and the horizontal axis relative
temperature (based on the melting temperature
of the material).

Powder Metallurgy Methods and Applications / 13

Full-density processing requires the simultaneous application of pressure and temperature.
The approach works because most materials
soften as temperature is increased. They also
become more ductile and deform with less
work hardening.
The processing options fall into the following
categories:

Low-stress processes that operate at high

temperatures and are dominated by diffusion

processes (e.g., liquid-phase sintering)

Processes that apply intermediate stress levels
and operate at intermediate temperatures and

rely on diffusional creep processes (e.g., hot

pressing or HIP)

High-stress routes that operate at high strain
rates and lower temperatures (powder forging
or extrusion)

Routes that achieve high density via the
application of ultrahigh-stress at ambient
temperature (explosive compaction)
Liquid-phase sintering results in a composite
microstructure that consists of a skeleton of a
high-melting-temperature phase in a matrix of a
solidified liquidfor example, W-Ni-Fe heavy
alloys, WC-Co cemented carbides.

Hot pressing is performed in a rigid die using

uniaxially applied pressure: it is a low-strain-rate
process. Graphite dies may be used, in which
case induction heating may be employed. Hot
pressing cycle times are slow compared with
rigid-die compaction. Vacuum is sometimes
used to minimize contamination of the compact.
Diamond-metal-composite cutting tools are
often hot pressed. Spark sintering is a process
related to hot pressing. In spark sintering, direct
resistance heating is applied to the punches,
die, and powder mass during consolidation.
Hot isostatic pressing applies pressure from
all directions simultaneously. In order to establish a pressure differential, powders must be
processed to the point where they have no
surface-connected, interconnected porosity, or
they need to be encapsulated prior to the HIP
process. Prior to HIP, a container is filled with
powder and heated under vacuum to remove
volatile contaminants. After evacuation and
degassing, the container is sealed. The container may be fabricated from any material that
is soft and deformable at the consolidation temperature, for example, glass, steel or stainless
steel (the choice depends on compatibility with
the powder that is being compacted). A HIP
vessel is illustrated in Fig. 9 and the sequence
used to make a HIPed part is shown in Fig. 10
(Ref 13).
Vacuum sintering then backfilling the sintering furnace with pressurized gas to assist
final densification is employed in sinter-HIP
processing (a pressure-assisted sintering process). A typical cycle is shown schematically
in Fig. 11 (Ref 14).

Fig. 8

Options for processing metal powders to full density. Source: Ref 12

Fig. 9

(a) Typical hot isostatic pressing (HIP) vessel. (b) Schematic of the wire-wound unit. Courtesy of Avure Technologies. Source: Ref 13

14 / Introduction to Powder Metallurgy

Powder forging bridges the gap between conventional pressing and sintering and wrought
steel technology. The process is illustrated
schematically in Fig. 12 (Ref 15). A PM preform is typically compacted, sintered, and then
reheated before being forged in a single stroke
in confined dies. A detailed review of the powder forging of ferrous materials is given in the
Section Powder Metallurgy Carbon and LowAlloy Steels in this Volume.
Extrusion is used to make some PM tool
steels. These materials have better properties
than similar wrought tool steels because they
contain a finer and more uniform dispersion of
carbides compared with the wrought tool steels.
In the latter, the carbides are often banded and
in the form of stringers due to the rolling process used to make them, as shown in Fig. 13
(Ref 16).

Freeform Fabrication
Thermal spraying of nickel-base and cobaltbase alloy powders to form wear-resistant coatings has been practiced for many years. Spray
forming is a consolidation process that captures
a spray of molten metal or alloy droplets on a
moving substrate (Ref 17). Figure 14 illustrates
billet formation in a vertical mode by spray
forming. The process can be used to form billets, strip, and thick-walled tubing.
The term additive manufacturing of metals is
used to describe freeform processes that offer
the possibility to produce complex-shaped PM
parts without the design constraints of traditional manufacturing routes (Ref 18). The process relies on the transfer of a digital file to a
machine that then builds the three-dimensional
component layer by layer from a metal powder
using a laser or an electron beam to fuse the
particles together. Schematic illustrations of
powder-bed and powder-fed systems are shown
in Fig. 15 (Ref 19).

Finishing Operations
While PM is considered a net or near-net
shaping process, many PM parts require finishing

Fig. 11

Schematic of pressure-assisted sintering process

cycle. Source: Ref 14

operations. Sometimes parts need closer

tolerances than can be held during the pressing
and sintering operation; they can be sized to
reduce their dimensional variability.
The surface-connected, interconnected porosity in PM parts can be impregnated with oil,
and this is the basis for self-lubricating bearings
(Ref 20). Conventional bearings can absorb
from 10 to 30% by volume of oil.
Pressure tightness can be achieved in PM
parts by sealing the surface-connected porosity
by resin impregnation. Vacuum processing is
generally used to impregnate the PM parts. In
addition to developing pressure tightness, resin
impregnation of PM parts permits plating (otherwise, plating solutions would be trapped in
the surface-connected pores). Resin impregnation significantly improves the drillability of
PM parts, as shown in Fig. 16 (Ref 21).
Machining parameters for PM parts are different from those used for castings or wrought
components. The PM materials contain pores.
Depending on the hardness of the material,
the material in the vicinity of the cutting tool
will densify to a greater or lesser extent. As
the amount of porosity decreases, PM parts
machine more like cast or wrought parts with
a similar microstructure. Machinability aids
such as manganese sulfide (MnS) may be added
to the PM material prior to compaction to
enhance the machinability of the PM parts.
Powder metallurgy parts may be turned,
milled, drilled, tapped, and ground. Machinability depends on the density and the microstructure
of the material. For a PM material of a given
density and microstructure, the machinability
will depend on the type of cutting operation
being performed, the cutting tool material, and
the feeds and speeds being used.
Examination of the cutting tool is one of the
keys to understanding what is happening during
the machining process. Moving to a condition
of abrasive wear will lead to greater consistency and predictability in the machining operation. A statistical approach to evaluating the

To preheat
furnace

Eject from die

Powder fill

Press proform

Eject fully
dense part
Hot forge

Fig. 10

(a) Pre-HIP filled can weighing 2050 kg (4520 lb).

(b) Post-HIP. (c) Heat treated and sonic machined
HIPed part. Courtesy of Carpenter Technologies. Source:
Ref 13

Fig. 12

Rapid transfer

Schematic of the powder forging process. Source: Ref 15

Heat; controlled
atmosphere

Powder Metallurgy Methods and Applications / 15

Induction heated ladle

Particle
injector
(optional)

Atomizer (nitrogen)

Round,
spray-deposited
billet

Spray chamber

Exhaust

Fig. 13

Extruded T15 tool steel. (a) Wrought. (b) PM. Notice the bands of carbides in the wrought tool steel
compared with the uniform dispersion of fine carbides in the PM tool steel. Source: Ref 16

Fig. 14

Billet formation in a vertical mode by spray

forming. Source: Ref 17

Sweet spot
Robust process,
able to accept
variation

Ma

Fig. 17
Fig. 15

Schematic illustrations of (a) powder-bed and (b) powder-fed additive manufacturing. Source: Ref 18

Fig. 16

Relative drillability of various PM materials. Source: Ref 21

data is extremely beneficial. Abrasive wear is

the common and natural mechanism of wear
during machiningit is the desired mechanism.
There are combinations of machining parameters (cutting tool, feeds, speeds, etc.) that
result in consistent machining performance

without the tool failing in a catastrophic manner. This is the safe zone for machining,
Fig. 17 (Ref 22).
Ferrous PM parts may be heat treated to
improve their hardness, strength, and wear resistance. Oil quenching and tempering may be used

ch

in

p
ing

roc

es

Safe zone
Noncatastrophic,
consistent tool
performance

Sweet spot for machinability. Source: Ref 22

for neutral hardening. Induction hardening of

PM parts is also possible. Gaseous carburizing,
nitriding, carbonitriding, and nitrocarburizing
processes are applicable. Care is required with
ferrous parts at densities below 7.1 g/cm3
(0.26 lb/in.3), because gas penetration to the core
of the part can lead to loss of toughness. The use
of salt baths is to be avoided because the salt
would penetrate the surface-connected pores and
lead to subsequent corrosion problems. Microindentation hardness testing is used to determine
the effective case depth of surface-hardened PM
parts (Ref 23). Where there is a clear difference
between the hardened layer and the rest of the
part, such as with an induction-hardened part, a
metallographic estimate may be made of the case
depth (Ref 24).
Powder metallurgy parts are often tumbled
in an abrasive medium in rotating barrels or
agitated in vibrating tubs to clean them and
remove burrs. They are generally resin or oil
impregnated before tumbling to minimize water
absorption. Rust inhibitors should be added
to the water. Parts may be spun dry or heated
to dry.
Ferrous PM parts may be furnace blackened
(steam oxide treated) for indoor corrosion resistance. Afterward, they may be oil dipped for

16 / Introduction to Powder Metallurgy

color as well as slightly greater corrosion resistance (a dry film oil is particularly suitable).
Steam treating forms a coating of magnetite
(Fe3O4) in the surface-connected pores. Parts
are heated to 480 to 570  C (896 to 1060  F)
and exposed to superheated steam under pressure. This improves the wear resistance of ferrous PM parts and improves their compressive
strength. It does, however, degrade tensile properties (Ref 25).
All types of plating processes may be applied
to PM parts, but the parts should have surfaceconnected porosity sealed by resin impregnation prior to plating. Electroless nickel plating
is applicable to nonimpregnated PM parts.
Most conventional welding methods are
applicable to PM parts (Ref 26). Care must be
taken to avoid residual lubricants, quench oils,
machining coolants, plating solutions, impregnating materials, cleaning or tumbling agents, and
free graphite or residual ash. An example of a
PM weldment is shown in Fig. 18 (Ref 27). Care
must be taken with lower-density PM parts,
particularly during fusion welding. Subsequent
solidification causes high stresses that often result
in cracks.
Furnace brazing can be used to join PM
parts. When choosing a brazing alloy, the capillarity of the pores imposes a special condition.
Standard brazing compounds will infiltrate the
adjacent pores, leaving insufficient material to
form a sound brazed joint. A special brazing system has been developed for PM materials that
restricts brazing alloy penetration to the immediately adjacent areas of the part (Ref 28). An
example of a brazed carrier and one-way rocker
clutch assembly is provided in Fig. 19.

Applications of Powder
Metallurgy Parts
The following examples have been selected
to illustrate the wide diversity of the parts made

using PM processes. They are taken from parts

that have won awards at the MPIF Design
Excellence Competition, which is held annually
to highlight the advances made in PM part production (Ref 29).
The carrier and one-way rocker clutch
assembly shown in Fig. 19 are used in the Ford
Super Duty TorqShift six-speed automatic
transmission. The hybrid assembly contains
five PM steel parts weighing a total of 7.7 kg
(17 lb). The sinter-brazed subassembly consists
of four multilevel PM parts, of which three
parts (cage, spider, and carrier plate) are made
to a density of 6.8 g/cm3. In addition, there
are 17 compacted brazing pellets. The rocker
plate is sinter hardened during the sinterbrazing phase and has a density of 7.0 g/cm3.
The assembly also has a doubled-pressed and
double-sintered cam plate made to 7.3 g/cm3
density with an ultimate tensile strength of
1170 MPa (170 ksi) and a mean tempered hardness exceeding 40 HRC. To form the parts and
maintain precision tolerances, innovative tooling
was developed and used in conjunction with
unconventional press motions. Ford subjected
the assembly to stringent durability testing: ultimate torsional torque loading at a minimum of
10.8 kN  m (7970 lbf.ft) and fatigue testing at
a minimum of 299,000 cycles at 2.3 kN  m
(1700 lbf.ft). The application provided an estimated 20% cost savings over competing processes and represents a new era in the scope
and size of PM parts.
A ball-ramp actuator consisting of a sector gear
and a fixed ring is illustrated in Fig. 20. The actuator applies torque to the front wheels in the
BMW high-performance X-Drive transfer case
that goes into various BMW platforms. Warm
compacted from a hybrid low-alloy steel, the parts
have a density of 7.2 g/cm3 in the ball ramps and
7.0 g/cm3 between ramps and on teeth, a typical
tensile strength of 1330 MPa (190 ksi), typical
yield strength of 1144 MPa (166 ksi), and a surface hardness of 50 HRC on the ball ramp surface.
The parts replaced forged components that had

been used in an earlier transfer case design and

provided 35% cost savings over the forgings.
The variable valve timing (VVT) rotor
shown in Fig. 21 consists of an assembly of a
PM steel rotor and an adapter. The parts are
joined by an adhesive, which joins them during
the machining of cross-holes and other features
on the inside diameter, and seals the joint between them. The assembly, used in a Chrysler

Fig. 19

Carrier and one-way rocker clutch assembly.

GKN Sinter Metals LLC, courtesy of MPIF

Fig. 20

Sector gear and fixed ring. Cloyes Gear &

Products Inc., courtesy of MPIF

Fig. 21

Variable valve timing (VVT) rotor adaptor

assembly. GKN Sinter Metals, courtesy of MPIF

409 Cb wrought tube

409 Cb wrought tube

409 Cb
PM flange

409 Cb
PM flange
TIG weld - no filler

Fig. 18

Example of a PM weldment. Source: Ref 27. Reprinted with permission from SAE Technical Paper 930490,
copyright SAE International

Powder Metallurgy Methods and Applications / 17

V-6 engine, is mounted to the engine camshaft.
Formed to a density of 6.8 g/cm3, the rotor has
an ultimate tensile strength of 415 MPa (60 ksi),
yield strength of 380 MPa (55 ksi), and a
160 MPa (23 ksi) fatigue limit. The adapter is
formed to a density of 6.9 g/cm3, has a minimum
ultimate tensile strength of 400 MPa (58 ksi),
and has a yield strength of 365 MPa (53 ksi). After
sizing and grinding, there is no other machining
performed on the rotor. The adapter is not
machined prior to assembly and is made to net
shape with vertical slots for oil feeding. The customer, however, machines the cross-holes for the
oil feed.
Figure 22 shows a complex PM steel twostage helical gear and spur pinion used in a
power lift-gate actuator. Made to a nominal
density of 6.85 g/cm3, the combined helical
gear-and-pinion design features precision journals for precise orientation in the actuator
assembly. The part has a tensile strength of
450 MPa (65 ksi) and yield strength of
380 MPa (55 ksi). The precise elemental gear
data tolerances enable quiet gear performance,
decreasing noise, vibration, and harshness.
Four metal injection molded (MIM) parts
(a blank discharge check, stop discharge check
valve, valve discharge check, and CRV spring
seat) that go into a device that controls fuel
flow in gasoline direct-injection pumps are
shown in Fig. 23. Three of the parts are made
of 440C stainless steel, while the fourth is

Fig. 22

Helical gear and spur pinion. Capstan Atlantic,

courtesy of MPIF

Fig. 23

Gasoline direct-injection pump parts. Indo-US

MIM Tec Pvt. Ltd., courtesy of MPIF

made of 17-4 PH. The extremely complex

geometry of the blank discharge check, with
the intercrossing of holes, required tooling with
six side cores, three of which move at different
timings. The parts have a minimum density of
7.65 g/cm3, an ultimate tensile strength of
480 MPa (70 ksi), yield strength of 150 MPa
(22 ksi), an elongation of 45%, and a 100
HRB maximum hardness. This design was
judged by the fabricator to be perhaps
the most complex high-volume part ever made
by MIM. The customer realized cost savings
of close to 35%, while the pump performance
was improved by modifying the geometry of
the holes to enhance flow dynamics, with the
result being a 10 to 20% fuel economy boost.
Another automotive application is shown in
Fig. 24. It is a PM aluminum camshaft-bearing
cap used in GMs high-feature V6 engine.
Designed originally for PM, the capstwo of
which go into each engineoperate in engines
that go into various GM brands, including the
Cadillac CTS, SRX, and CTX; Buick LaCrosse
and Rendezvous; and Saab 9-3. It is the first
dual overhead cam engine using a single cap
across both camshafts. The cap maintains the
camshaft position, radially and axially, while
providing integral oil channels for cam lubrication and hydraulic control of the variable cam
timing (VCT) system. Made to a net shape,
the multiple-level part has a tensile strength
of 117 MPa (17 ksi) and a hardness range of
85 to 90 HRH. Choosing PM over an alternative manufacturing process, such as die casting,
provided an estimated 50% cost saving by eliminating preassembly machining steps. The PM
caps require only one line-boring step during
installation.
In addition to being used in automotive applications, PM parts are also chosen for lawn and
garden use. The parking/emergency brake piston
shown in Fig. 25 is used in hydraulic transmissions in zero-turn-radius lawn maintenance
equipment. Made from an FC-0208 iron-copper
steel, the piston is compacted with three features
on top and six on the bottom, using two upper
and three lower punches plus a die shelf. The
piston has a density of 6.9 g/cm3, a tensile

Fig. 24

Powder metallurgy aluminum camshaft-bearing

cap. Metal Powder Products Co., courtesy of
MPIF

strength of 565 MPa (82 ksi), yield strength of

450 MPa (65 ksi), and a hardness of 80 HRB
before steam oxide treatment. The part is an
original design for PM, because its shape makes
it impractical for traditional metal cutting methods. It is pressed and sintered to net shape,
requiring no postsintering machining operations.
An example of small, intricate PM parts is
provided in Fig. 26. The three partsbracket,
slide, and removable drop-in hookused in the
Damon 3MX self-ligation orthodontic toothpositioning system are made via MIM processing. One bracket and one slide go on each
tooth, with the hook an option for approximately
5% of the teeth. The very tiny, intricate parts are
made by MIM from 17-4 PH stainless steel powder to a density of 7.5 g/cm3. They have impressive physical properties: a tensile strength of
1190 MPa (173 ksi) and yield strength of
1090 MPa (158 ksi). All of the parts are made
to a net shape. The customer tumble polishes
them and performs a brazing operation before
assembly.

Fig. 25

Brake piston for hydraulic transmission used in

zero-turn-radius lawn maintenance equipment.
Lovejoy Powder Metal Group, courtesy of MPIF

Fig. 26

Orthodontic system bracket, slide, and hook.

FloMet LLC, courtesy of MPIF

18 / Introduction to Powder Metallurgy

Another example of MIM parts is provided in
Fig. 27. It is a high-compression jaw used in
laparoscopic vessel fusion. The jaw design has
top and bottom jaws, an anchor, and an I-beam.
All four components are made from 17-4 PH
metal powder and have as-sintered densities
greater than 7.6 g/cm3. The parts have very thin
walls and highly complex geometries, making
them difficult to manufacture economically by
any other technology. Top and bottom jaws
pivot at the lobes that provide the fulcrum for
the assembly. The cutting mechanism on
the laparoscopic device is in the shape of an
I-beam. Very high compression is maintained
as the blade is advanced from the proximal to
the distal end of the jaw. The SurgRx system
incorporates smart electrotechnology in a
high-compression jaw design to provide rapid
vessel fusion without thermal effects.
A sound tube used in a hearing aid, the function of which is to enhance sound frequency
and improve hearing, is shown in Fig. 28. Fabricated via MIM using 316 stainless steel, the
highly complex part achieves all its features in
the as-sintered condition, with only glass-bead
blasting for a better finish performed as a
secondary operation. The tube has a minimum
density of 7.65 g/cm3, an ultimate tensile
strength of 480 MPa (70 ksi), yield strength of
150 MPa (22 ksi), an elongation of 45%, and
a hardness of 100 HRB max. An original design
for MIM, it is estimated the part provides 20%
cost savings over competing forming processes.
A three-piece assembly (nozzle interface,
outer nozzle, and metal collar) that goes into
high-end sound-isolating earphones that enable
user-customizable frequency responses is
shown in Fig. 29. Made via MIM from 316L
stainless steel, the components met the objective of producing final net-shape parts that not
only satisfied the cost demands of the highly
competitive professional-audio market but also
maintained a cosmetically perfect surface so
critical in a consumer product with a clear exterior. The parts have a density >7.6 g/cm3, an
ultimate tensile strength of 520 MPa (75 ksi),
yield strength of 175 MPa (25 ksi), an elongation of 50%, and an apparent hardness of 67
HRB. Metal injection molding was the ideal
choice because alternative fabrication methods,
such as die casting or machining, could neither
have provided the precision needed at a reasonable cost nor been able to provide the required
material performance.
At the other end of the spectrum are much
larger examples. An end cover used in the
Large Hadron Collider, the worlds largest and
highest-energy subatomic particle accelerator,
is shown in Fig. 30. Made from 316LN stainless steel powder, the part is hot isostatically
pressed to full density. The superconducting
dipole-cryomagnets operate in a cryogenic
environment at 268  C (450  F). As HIPed
to a near-net shape of 115 kg (253 lb), the finished end cover weighs 69.5 kg (153 lb). The
fabricator incorporated finite-element analysis,
computer-aided design, numerically controlled

Fig. 27

Fig. 28

Fig. 29

Nozzle assembly for high-end sound-insulating

headphones. Flomet LLC, courtesy of MPIF

Fig. 30

Dipole cryomagnet end cover. Bodycote HIPSurahammar, courtesy of MPIF

Fig. 31

Manifold used in offshore oil and gas production. Metso Powdermet AB, courtesy of MPIF

Laparoscopic jaws. Parmatech Corporation,

courtesy of MPIF

Hearing aid sound tube. Indo-US MIM Tec

Pvt. Ltd., courtesy of MPIF

sheet metal cutting technology, and cuttingedge robotic welding and part manipulation to
produce the end covers. This resulted in an
increase of more than 50 times over the typical
production rate of fully dense, HIPed PM nearnet shapesan unprecedented breakthrough in
productivity. Approximately 2700 end covers
have been delivered to the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). The design
of the part features several complex configurations. For example, both the inner and outer
surface of the broad face are radiused with the
inner surface approximately parallel to the
outer surface. The exterior of the curved surface
has either eight or ten projections, depending on
which version of the part is produced. The
design differs slightly depending on which side
of the dipole magnet it is located. The PM
HIPed part meets the equivalent mechanical
properties of 316LN wrought stainless steel,
including internal toughness and high ductility.
A final example (Fig. 31) is a manifold used
in offshore oil and gas production. Formed by
HIPing from a duplex stainless steel material,
the manifold weighs approximately 10,000 kg
(22,050 lb). Hot isostatic pressing replaced

forging and conventional machining of these

very large parts, providing an 8% cost savings.
Hot isostatic pressing also reduced the need for
extensive welding. The manifolds are formed
close to net shape. The only machining required
is preparing weld bevels for circumferential
welds of the header outside diameter and sealing
areas of the connecting flanges. The manifold

Powder Metallurgy Methods and Applications / 19

sections are produced to an average length
of 2.5 m (98 in.). The manifold collects oil or
gas from wellheads and is also used for water
injection.

9.

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