Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A Review of Froth Flotation Control
A Review of Froth Flotation Control
A Review of Froth Flotation Control
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 6 August 2010
Received in revised form 19 April 2011
Accepted 8 May 2011
Available online 14 May 2011
Keywords:
Froth otation
Process control
a b s t r a c t
The last few decades have seen major advances in instrumentation and technology, and simplications and
modications of new otation plant designs. This has allowed for signicant developments in process control.
In particular, the development of base level process control (control of pulp levels, air owrates, reagent
dosing, etc.) has seen signicant progress. Long-term, automated advanced and optimising otation control
strategies have, however, been more difcult to implement. It is hoped that this will change as a result of the
development of new technologies such as machine vision and the measurement of new control variables, such
as air recovery.
This review looks at each of the four essential levels of process control (instrumentation, base level otation
control, advanced otation control and optimising otation control) and examines current and future trends
within each sub-level.
2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Key variables and considerations in the control of otation . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.
Key variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.
Effects of plant layout and the location of the cell in the circuit . . . . . .
2.3.
Types of process input disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.
System constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Instrumentation and base level otation control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.
Pulp levels in cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1.
Instrumentation used for pulp level measurement and control. . .
3.1.2.
Base level control systems for pulp level control . . . . . . . . .
3.2.
Air owrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1.
Instrumentation used for air owrate measurement and control . .
3.2.2.
Base level control systems for air owrate control . . . . . . . .
3.3.
Slurry owrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1.
Instrumentation used for slurry owrate measurement and control
3.3.2.
Implementation of slurry owrate in control systems . . . . . . .
3.4.
Elemental assaying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1.
Instrumentation used for elemental analysis . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2.
Implementation of elemental assaying in control systems . . . . .
3.5.
Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1.
Instrumentation used for density measurement. . . . . . . . . .
3.5.2.
Implementation of density measurement in control systems. . . .
3.6.
Reagent addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.1.
Instrumentation used for reagent addition . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.2.
Base level control systems for reagent addition . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.
Eh, pH and conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.1.
Instrumentation for the measurement of Eh, pH and conductivity .
3.7.2.
Base level control systems for Eh, pH and conductivity control . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
58
59
59
59
59
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
61
61
61
61
61
61
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
58
B.J. Shean, J.J. Cilliers / International Journal of Mineral Processing 100 (2011) 5771
3.8.
Gas dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.1.
Instrumentation used for the measurement of gas dispersion variables
3.8.2.
Implementation of gas dispersion variables in control systems . . . .
3.9.
Machine vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9.1.
Instrumentation and methods used for machine vision . . . . . . .
3.9.2.
Implementation of machine vision in control systems . . . . . . . .
4.
Advanced otation control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.
Advanced control of mass pull and re-circulating load . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1.
Mass pull control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2.
Re-circulating load control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.
Advanced control of grade and/or recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1.
Model-based methods in advanced otation control . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2.
Expert systems in advanced otation control . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.
Optimising otation control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.
Modelling-based methods in optimising otation control . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.
Expert methods in optimising otation control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.
Examples of approaches found in advanced/optimising otation control . . . . . . .
7.
Commercial advanced/optimising otation control software . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
Froth otation is one of the most broadly used separation methods
in the mineral processing industry. However, despite being introduced in the early 1900s and numerous years of research and
development, otation is still not fully understood and remains
relatively inefcient. As such, large economic gains stand to be made
through optimisation of many present processes (McKee, 1991;
Hodouin et al., 2000; Moilanen and Remes, 2008).
It is important to realise from the outset that process control
consists of several interconnected levels. Several authors, e.g. Roesch
et al. (1976); McKee (1991); Laurila et al. (2002); and Gupta and Yan
(2006), describe the process control of froth otation by a hierarchy of
34 inter-connected layers. The hierarchy described by Laurila et al.
(2002) is presented in Fig. 1.
The lowest level is the instrumentation itself, which is the basis for
all process control. As such, the choice/design and maintenance of the
instrumentation is of central importance to any process control
system. Furthermore, the correct choice of instrumentation can only
be achieved if a detailed understanding of the functioning and
application of the required instrument, within a given process, is
acquired (Laurila et al., 2002).
Base level otation control is focused on maintaining primary
variables at setpoints. These primary variables include: pulp level, air
owrate and reagent addition rate. This is generally achieved through
the usage of conventional SISO PID control; although more advanced
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
63
63
63
63
63
64
64
64
64
64
65
65
66
66
67
67
68
68
68
68
68
Fig. 1. Process control system level hierarchy for otation processes (Laurila et al., 2002).
B.J. Shean, J.J. Cilliers / International Journal of Mineral Processing 100 (2011) 5771
59
60
B.J. Shean, J.J. Cilliers / International Journal of Mineral Processing 100 (2011) 5771
B.J. Shean, J.J. Cilliers / International Journal of Mineral Processing 100 (2011) 5771
61
bank air owrate prole control is also advantageous. If the cell air
owrates are not controlled individually, and air is fed to a group of
cells, buttery valves are often operated manually to adjust the ow
to each cell. Lastly, Laurila et al. (2002) add that otation cells with
self-aspirating aeration mechanisms often do not have automatic airow
control. The available range of airow control is anyhow limited. This
problem is pronounced at high altitude. This limits the potential for the
implementation of advantageous A/OFC strategies.
3.3. Slurry owrates
3.3.1. Instrumentation used for slurry owrate measurement and control
Magnetic ow metres are commonly used to measure slurry
owrates and are based on Faraday's principle of induction, with the
device consisting of an electromagnet coiled around an insulated
length of pipe. Electrodes are installed at opposite sides of the pipe,
which enable an electric current to be generated through the owing
uid and measuring device. From this measured current a owrate
can be determined. This method is non-obtrusive and modern
magnetic owmeters take up to 30 measurements per minute. Slurry
measurement is problematic, however, as solids and air bubbles
decrease performance. Moreover, if magnetic solids (e.g. magnetite)
are present de-magnetisation is required (Laurila et al., 2002). Slurry
owrates can also be controlled by variable or xed speed pumps that
are capable of handling slurries. Suitable valve options have already
been discussed in Section 3.1.1.
3.3.2. Implementation of slurry owrate in control systems
In otation circuits, slurry owrates are generally manipulated to
control pulp levels in cells (see Section 3.1.2), and are not controlled
to a setpoint. Nevertheless, the measurement of slurry owrates are
important, as Laurila et al. (2002) point out, for A/OFC, and allow for
calculating re-circulating loads and performing mass balance calculations. Slurry owrate measurement is also important for reagent
addition base level otation control.
3.4. Elemental assaying
3.4.1. Instrumentation used for elemental analysis
On-line X-ray uorescence (XRF) analysers provide elemental
assays from process ow streams and are now considered standard
hardware on large scale otation plants (Garrido et al., 2008). Several
points of the process can be sampled, with some modern XRF
analysers handling up to 24 streams and most machines being capable
of analysing for several elements and solids content. The time to
analyse a single sample can range from 15 s to a minute, and the
sampling cycle time is between 10 and 20 min depending on the
number of sample points attached to the analyser (Laurila et al., 2002;
Fig. 2. Illustration of (A) thermal gas mass owmeter, (B) venturi tube with differential pressure metre and (C) Pitot tube.
62
B.J. Shean, J.J. Cilliers / International Journal of Mineral Processing 100 (2011) 5771
3.7.2. Base level control systems for Eh, pH and conductivity control
Base level control of pH involves maintaining the slurry pH at a
desired setpoint, through manipulation of acid or lime addition rates,
with PID control loops being adequate for the task (Laurila et al.,
2002). Long response times of the system mean a lag time should
follow any corrective action/s performed to fully appreciate the effects
it has had (Wills and Napier-Munn, 2006). Commercial controllers,
such as FloatStar pH Controller, are also available and use advanced
control methods.
Control of Eh usually involves the addition of nitrogen or air to the
system to alter the electrochemical potential (Woods, 2003). Much
research into improving metallurgical results through Eh manipulation (A/OFC) has been published over the last four decades. Ruonala
et al. (1997); and Woods (2003) present thorough reviews of this
work on both laboratory and industrial scales, for several ore types. A
summary of a brief literature review, listing the ore-type the studies
were conducted on, is listed below in Table 1.
B.J. Shean, J.J. Cilliers / International Journal of Mineral Processing 100 (2011) 5771
Table 1
Summary of literature review for Eh measurement/control in froth otation.
Author and date
Mineral type
Berglund (1991)
Bruckard et al. (2007)
63
Fig. 3. Schematics of (A) gas velocity, (B) gas holdup and (C) bubble size measurement devices (Gomez and Finch, 2007).
64
B.J. Shean, J.J. Cilliers / International Journal of Mineral Processing 100 (2011) 5771
Table 2
Overview of methods used for feature extraction by machine vision (Aldrich et al., 2010).
Type
Methods
References
Physical
Edge
Watershed
Spectral
RGB
Banford et al. (1998); Forbes and De Jager (2004b); Forbes et al. (2006); Lin et al.
(2007a,b); Wang et al. (2003); Wang and Stephansson (1999)
Forbes and De Jager (2004a); Sadr-Kazemi and Cilliers (1997); Ventura-Medina and
Cilliers (2000); Yang et al. (2008)
Bonifazi et al. (2005a,b); Gebhardt et al. (1993); Hargrave et al. (1996, 1998); Hargrave
and Hall (1997); Morar et al. (2005); Oestreich et al. (1995); Siren (1999);
Vathavooran et al. (2006)
Moolman et al. (1994)
Bartolacci et al. (2006); Liu and MacGregor (2007, 2008)
Hargrave and Hall (1997); Holtham and Nguyen (2002)
Aldrich et al. (1995, 1997); Bezuidenhout et al. (1997); Moolman et al. (1994, 1995a,b)
Bonifazi et al. (2000); Hargrave and Hall (1997); Hargrave et al. (1998)
Bartolacci et al. (2006); Liu et al., (2005); Liu and MacGregor (2007, 2008)
Estrada-Ruiz and Perez-Garibay (2009); Hytyniemi and Ylinen (2000); Jeanmeure
and Zimmerman (1998); Kaartinen and Hytyniemi (2005); Moolman et al. (1995c);
Niemi et al. (1997)
Botha (1999)
Barbian et al. (2007); Forbes and de Jager (2007); Holtham and Nguyen (2002);
Moolman et al. (1994); Supomo et al. (2008)
Nguyen and Holtham (1997)
Barbian et al. (2003, 2005, 2006); Moolman (1995); Morar et al. (2006)
Statistical
Co-occurrence matrices
Fractals
Latent variables
Dynamic
Mobility
FFT
Wavelets
Texture
Spatial and neighbouring grey level
Fractal descriptor
PCA
Neural networks
Bubble tracking
Block matching
Pixel tracing
Stability
B.J. Shean, J.J. Cilliers / International Journal of Mineral Processing 100 (2011) 5771
65
66
B.J. Shean, J.J. Cilliers / International Journal of Mineral Processing 100 (2011) 5771
B.J. Shean, J.J. Cilliers / International Journal of Mineral Processing 100 (2011) 5771
67
varied to four cells in a rougher bank, and the air rate that yielded the
PAR identied in each of the cells. Moreover it was shown that
operating the cells at their PAR air rates resulted in a higher mineral
recovery being obtained.
The link between operating cells at PAR air rates and improved
otation performance was also shown in studies presented by Smith
et al. (2010) and Hadler et al. (2010), where it was shown that
optimising air recovery in a bank of cells resulted in either a higher
concentrate grade, a higher mineral recovery, or in many cases both.
This has important implications for control as air recovery is a single
quantitative variable that can be measured and maximised; and the
process optimised in terms of grade and recovery.
Other methods of OFC exist; some using modelling and others
resorting to expert control methods.
Fig. 5. Graderecovery curve illustrating optimising control objective (Wills and
Napier-Munn, 2006).
This in turn creates recovery and/or concentrate grade setpoints for the
lower AFC/base level control structures (Laurila et al., 2002). However,
OFC should only affect lower control levels if the process is at steady
state (McKee, 1991).
Graderecovery curves vary according to feed grade and can be
altered through manipulation of plant operating variables such as air
rates. In this way, graderecovery curves can be optimised (Neethling
and Cilliers, 2008). An example of this is presented by Hadler and
Cilliers (2009), whereby the graderecovery curve for a bank of four
rougher cells was optimised by maximising the stability of the froth
within each cell.
The use of froth stability as a parameter was rst presented by
Moys (1984), who published a study whereby the horizontal velocity
of the froth could be related to the froth stability, (also dened as
the air recovered into the launder in the form of unbroken bubbles).
Using this quantitative measure of froth stability, Woodburn et al.
(1994) developed a semi-empirical froth-based otation model that
combines a conceptual froth structure with the kinetics of otation;
the latter being based on the ux of bubble surface area overowing
from the cell (see Eq. (1)).
B = Q a Sb vf hw Sb
68
B.J. Shean, J.J. Cilliers / International Journal of Mineral Processing 100 (2011) 5771
Table 3
Summary of literature review focusing on various types of control.
Branch
Type
References
Modelling based
Inductive learning
Modelling and/or AI based
Fig. 6. Graphical representation of a fuzzy logic generated reagent addition calculation, based
on concentrate and tailings grade by FloatStar Reagent Optimiser (www.mintek.co.za).
Atkins, J.E., Barton, G.W., Johnston, R.D., 1986. Synthesis and evaluation of alternative
control schemes for a chalcopyrite otation circuit. International Journal of Mineral
Processing 16, 2942.
B.J. Shean, J.J. Cilliers / International Journal of Mineral Processing 100 (2011) 5771
69
Table 4
Summary of commercial packages (Aldrich et al., 2010).
System
Company/institution
Year of launch
Major installations
AceFlot
Frothmaster
JKFrothCam
SmartFroth
VisioFroth
1994
Chile
Outokumpu, Finland
1996
Finland, Cadia Valley (Australia),
Macraes (New Zealand)
JKMRC, Australia
1999
Australia
Metso
2001
Escondida (Chile), Freeport
(Indonesia), Australia
Aldrich, C., Moolman, D.W., Eksteen, J.J., Van Deventer, J.S.J., 1995. Characterization of
otation processes with self-organizing neural nets. Chemical Engineering
Communications 139, 2539.
Aldrich, C., Moolman, D.W., Douws, F.S., Schmitz, G.P.J., 1997. Machine learning strategies
for control of otation plants. Control Engineering Practise 5 (2), 263269.
Aldrich, C., Marais, C., Shean, B.J., Cilliers, J.J., 2010. On-line monitoring and control of
froth otation systems with machine vision: a review. International Journal of
Mineral Processing 96 (1-4), 113.
Arbiter, N., Harris, C.C., 1962. Flotation kinetics. In: Fuerstenau, D.W. (Ed.), Froth
Flotation. Edward Brothers Inc., New York, pp. 215246.
Banford, A.W., Aktas, Z., Woodburn, E.T., 1998. Interpretation of the effect of froth
structure on the performance of froth otation using image analysis. Powder
Technology 98 (1), 6173.
Barbian, N., Ventura-Medina, E., Cilliers, J.J., 2003. Dynamic froth stability in froth
otation. Minerals Engineering 16, 11111116.
Barbian, N., Hadler, K., Ventura-Medina, E., Cilliers, J.J., 2005. The froth stability column:
linking froth stability and otation performance. Minerals Engineering 18 (3),
317324.
Barbian, N., Hadler, K., Cilliers, J.J., 2006. The froth stability column: measuring froth
stability at an industrial scale. Minerals Engineering 19 (68), 713718.
Barbian, N., Cilliers, J.J., Morar, S.H., Bradshaw, D.J., 2007. Froth imaging, air recovery and
bubble loading to describe otation bank performance. International Journal of
Mineral Processing 84 (14), 8188.
Bartolacci, G., Ourriban, M., Bouajila, A., Gomez, C., Finch, J., Goyette, G., 2008. On-site
use of hydrodynamic sensors to improve metallurgical performance of otation
machines. In: Kuyvenhoven, R., Gomez, C., Casali, A. (Eds.), Procemin2008, V
International Mineral Processing Seminar, pp. 357366. Chapter 6.
Bartolacci, G., Pelletier Jr., P., Tessier Jr., J., Duchesne, C., Boss, P.-A., Fournier, J., 2006.
Application of numerical image analysis to process diagnosis and physical
parameter measurement in mineral processes part I: otation control based on
froth textural characteristics. Minerals Engineering 19 (68), 734747.
Bascar, O.A., 1982. Modelling and computer control of a otation cell. PhD thesis,
University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah.
Bascar, O.A., Herbst, J.A., 1982. Dynamic modelling of a otation cell with a view toward
automatic control. XIV IMPC, CIM, Toronto, Canada.
Bascur, O.A., 1991. Integrated grinding/otation controls and management. In: Dobby,
G.S., Argyropoulos, S.A., Rao, S.R. (Eds.), Proceedings of copper 91, 2. Pergamon
Press, Oxford, pp. 411428.
Bascur, O.A., 2000. An interactive dynamic otation model framework. Proceedings of
XIV International Mineral Processing Congress, Rome, Italy, pp. 2131.
Bearman, R.A., Milne, R.W., 1992. Expert systems: opportunities in the minerals
industry. Minerals Engineering 5 (1012), 13071323.
Benaskeur, A.R., Desbiens, A., 1999. Lyapunov-based decentralised control of a rougher
otation phenomenological simulator. In: Hodouin, D., Bazin, C., Desbiens, A. (Eds.),
Control and Optimisation in Minerals, Metals and Materials Processing, pp. 323332.
Benford, P.M., Meech, J.A., 1992. An advisory package for otation operators using a
real-time expert system. Mineral Engineering 5 (1012), 13251331.
Bennett, M.A., West, R.M., Luke, S.P., Williams, R.A., 2002. The investigation of bubble
column and foam processes using electrical capacitance tomography. Minerals
Engineering 15, 225234.
Bergh, L.G., Yianatos, J.B., Acua, C.P., 1995. Hierarchical control strategy for otation
columns. Minerals Engineering 8 (12), 15831591.
Bergh, L.G., Yianatos, J.B., Cartes, F., 1996. Hierarchical control strategy in columns at El
Teniente. In: Gomez, C.O., Finch, J.A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the International
Symposium on Column Flotation, Column '96. CIM, Montreal, pp. 369380.
Bergh, L.G., Yianatos, J.B., Leiva, C.A., 1998. Fuzzy supervisory control of otation
columns. Minerals Engineering 11 (8), 739748.
Bergh, L.G., Yianatos, J.B., Acua, C.A., Prez, H., Lpez, F., 1999. Supervisory control at
Salvador otation columns. Minerals Engineering 12 (7), 733744.
Bergh, L.G., Yianatos, J.B., 1999. Supervisory control experience on large industrial
otation columns. In: Hodouin, D., Bazin, C., Desbiens, A. (Eds.), Control and
Optimisation in Minerals, Metals and Materials Processing, pp. 299310.
Bergh, L.G., Yianatos, J.B., 2011. The long way toward multivariate predictive control of
otation processes. Journal of Process Control 21, 226234.
Berglund, G., 1991. Pulp chemistry in sulphide mineral otation. International Journal
of Mineral Processing 33, 2131.
Bezuidenhout, M., Van Deventer, J.S.J., Moolman, D.W., 1997. The identication of
perturbations in a base metal otation plant using computer vision of the froth
surface. Minerals Engineering 10 (10), 10571073.
Bonifazi, G., Massicci, P., Meloni, A., 2000. Prediction of complex sulde otation
performances by a combined 3D fractal and colour analysis of the froths. Minerals
Engineering 13 (7), 737746.
Bonifazi, G., Giacontieri, V., Serranti, S., Volpe, F., 2005a. A full color digital imaging
based approach to characterize otation froth: an experience in Pyhaslami and
70
B.J. Shean, J.J. Cilliers / International Journal of Mineral Processing 100 (2011) 5771
Forbes, G., De Jager, G., Bradshaw, D.J., 2006. Effective use of bubble size distribution
measurements. XXIII International Mineral Processing Congress, pp. 554559.
Istanbul, Turkey.
Forbes, G., de Jager, G., 2007. Unsupervised classication of dynamic froths. SAIEE Africa
Research Journal 98 (2), 3844.
Garrido, C., Toledo, H., San Martin, P., Villanueva, A., 2008. Calibration methodology and
calibration maintenance in courier analyzers for copper molybdenum otation
process. In: Kuyvenhoven, R., Gomez, C., Casali, A. (Eds.), Procemin2008, V
International Mineral Processing Seminar, pp. 339345. Chapter 6.
Gaudin, A.M., 1957. Flotation. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Gaulocher, S., Gallestey, E., Lindvall, H., 2008. Advanced process control of a froth
otation circuit. In: Kuyvenhoven, R., Gomez, C., Casali, A. (Eds.), Procemin2008, V
International Mineral Processing Seminar, pp. 327337. Chapter 6.
Gebhardt, J.E., Tolley, W.K., Ahn, J.H., 1993. Color measurements of minerals and
mineralized froths. Minerals and Metallurgical Processing 10 (2), 9699.
Glembotskii, V.A., 1972. Flotation. Primary Sources, New York.
Gomez, C.O., Finch, J.A., 2007. Gas dispersion measurements in otation cells.
International Journal of Mineral Processing 84, 5158.
Gomez, C.O., Cortes-Lopez, F., Finch, J.A., 2003. Industrial testing of a gas holdup sensor
for otation systems. Minerals Engineering 16, 493501.
Green, D.W., Perry, R.H., 2007. Perry's chemical engineers' handbook, 8th edition. McGraw Hill. Section 8 Process Control.
Guo, H., Yen, W.-T., 2005. Selective otation of enargite from chalcopyrite by
electrochemical control. Minerals Engineering 18, 605612.
Gupta, A., Yan, D.S., 2006. Mineral processing design and operation, First edition.
pp. 622671. Chapter 18.
Haavisto, O., Kaartinen, J., Hytyniemi, H., 2008. Optical spectrum based measurement
of otation slurry contents. International Journal of Mineral Processing 88, 8088.
Hadler, K., Cilliers, J.J., 2009. The relationship between the peak in air recovery and
otation bank performance. Minerals Engineering 22, 451455.
Hadler, K., Smith, C.D., Cilliers, J.J., 2010. Recovery vs. mass pull: the link to air recovery.
Minerals Engineering 22, 9941002.
Hamilton, J.A., Guy, P.J., 2000. Pulp level control for otation options and a CSIRO
laboratory perspective. Minerals Engineering 14 (1), 7786.
Hargrave, J.M., Miles, N.J., Hall, S.T., 1996. The use of grey level measurement in
predicting coal otation performance. Minerals Engineering 9 (6), 667674.
Hargrave, J.M., Hall, S.T., 1997. Diagnosis of concentrate grade and mass owrate in tin
otation from colour and surface texture analysis. Minerals Engineering 10 (6),
613621.
Hargrave, J.M., Brown, G.J., Hall, S.T., 1998. A fractal characterisation of the structure of
coal froths. Coal Preparation 19 (12), 6982.
Harris, C.C., Chakravarti, A., 1970. Semi-batch otation kinetics: species distribution
analysis. Transactions AIME 247, 162176.
Hayes, R.A., Ralston, J., 1988. The collectorless otation and separation of sulphide
minerals by Eh control. International Journal of Mineral Processing 23, 5584.
Henning, R.G.D., Schubert, J.H., Atasoy, Y., 1998. Improved otation performance at
Fimiston plant through better level control. Presented at International Symposium
on Gold Recovery, Montreal.
Hicyilmaz, C., Emre Altun, N., Ekmekci, Z., Gokagac, G., 2004. Quantifying hydrophobicity of pyrite after copper activation and DTPI addition under electrochemically
controlled conditions. Minerals Engineering 17, 879890.
Hintikka, V.V., Leppinen, J.O., 1995. Potential control in the otation of sulphide
minerals and precious metals. Minerals Engineering 8 (10), 11511158.
Hirajima, T., Takamori, T., Tsunekawa, M., Matsubara, T., Oshima, K., Imai, T., Sawaki, K.,
Kubo, S., 1991. The application of fuzzy logic to control concentrate grade in column
otation at Toyoha mines. Proceedings of international conference on column
otation '91, Sudbury, Canada, Vol. 2, pp. 375389.
Hodouin, D., Flament, F., Bazin, C., 1993. Predictive control of otation plants.
Emerging Computer Techniques for the Minerals Industry. SME, Littleton,
Colarado, pp. 312.
Hodouin, D., Bazin, C., Gagnon, E., Flament, F., 2000. Feedforwardfeedback predictive
control of a simulated otation bank. Powder Technology 108, 173179.
Hodouin, D., Jms-Jounela, S.-L., Carvalho, M.T., Bergh, L., 2001. State of the art and
challenges in mineral processing control. Control Engineering Practise 9, 9951005.
Holtham, P.N., Nguyen, K.K., 2002. On-line analysis of froth surface in coal and mineral
otation using JKFrothCam. International Journal of Mineral Processing 64 (23),
163180.
Hulbert, D.G., 1995. Multivariable control of pulp levels in otation circuits. Automation
in Mining, Mineral and Metal Processing, Proceedings of an IFAC Symposium.
Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 309314.
Hytyniemi, H., Ylinen, R., 2000. Modelling of visual otation froth data. Control
Engineering Practice 8 (3), 313318.
Imaizumi, T., Inoue, T., 1963. Kinetic consideration of froth otation as a rate process.
Proc. VI Int. Min. Proc. Congr., Cannes, p. 581.
Jameson, G.J., Nam, S., Moo Young, M., 1977. Physical factors affecting recovery rates in
otation. Mineral Science and Engineering 9, 103108.
Jms-Jounela, S.-L., 1992. Simulation study of self-tuning adaptive control for rougher
otation. Powder Technology 69, 3346.
Jms-Jounela, S.-L., Karesvuori, J., Laurila, H., 2000. Flotation process neural data analysis
and on-line monitoring. In: Tagami, M. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 32nd Annual
Operator's Conference of the Canadian Mineral Processors, pp. 441457. Ottawa.
Jeanmeure, L.F.C., Zimmerman, W.B.J., 1998. CNN video based control system for a coal
froth otation. Proceedings of the IEEE International Workshop on Cellular Neural
Networks and Their Applications, pp. 192197.
Jowett, A., Safvi, S.M., 1960. Renement in methods of determining otation rates.
Transactions AIME 217, 351357.
B.J. Shean, J.J. Cilliers / International Journal of Mineral Processing 100 (2011) 5771
Niemi, A., Paakkinen, U., 1969. Simulation and control of otation circuits. Automatica
5, 551561.
Niemi, A.J., Ylinen, R., Hytyniemi, H., 1997. On characterization of pulp and froth in
cells of otation plant. International Journal of Mineral Processing 51 (14), 5165.
Nez, F., Tapia, L., Cipriano, A., 2010. Hierarchical hybrid fuzzy strategy for column
otation control. Minerals Engineering 23, 117124.
Nguyen, K.K., Holtham, P., 1997. The application of pixel tracing techniques in the otation
process. Proceedings of the First Joint Australian and New Zealand Biennial Conference
on Digital Imaging and Vision Computing and Applications, pp. 207212.
Oestreich, J.M., Tolley, W.K., Rice, D.A., 1995. Development of a color sensor system to
measure mineral compositions. Minerals Engineering 8 (12), 3139.
Osorio, D., Prez-correa, J.R., Cipriano, A., 1999. Assessment of expert fuzzy controllers
for conventional otation plants. Minerals Engineering 12 (11), 13271338.
Prez-correa, R., Gonzlez, G., Casali, A., Cipriano, A., Barrera, R., Zavala, E., 1998.
Dynamic modelling and advanced multivariable control of conventional otation
circuits. Minerals Engineering 11 (4), 333346.
Polat, M., Chander, S., 2000. First-order otation kinetics models and methods for
estimation of the true distribution of otation rate constants. International Journal
of Mineral Processing 58, 145166.
Pulkkinen, K., Ylinen, R., J.ams.a-Jounela, S.L., J.arvensivu, M., 1993. Integrated expert
control system for grinding and otation. Proceedings of the XVIIIth IMPC
Congress; The Australasian Institute of Minerals and Metals, Sydney, Australia,
pp. 325334.
Qing, W.-Q., He, M.-F., Chen, Y.-P., 2008. Improvement of otation behaviour of Mengzi
leadsilverzinc ore by pulp potential control otation. Transactions of Nonferrous
Metals Society of China 18, 949954.
Rastogi, R.C., Aplan, F.F., 1985. Coal otation as a rate process. Minerals and
Metallurgical Processing 137145 (Aug.).
Remes, A., Saloheimo, K., Jms-Jounela, S.-L., 2007. Effect of speed and accuracy of online elemental analysis on otation control performance. Minerals Engineering 20,
10551066.
Roesch, M., Ragot, J., Degoul, P., 1976. Modeling and control in the mineral processing
industries. International Journal of Mineral Processing 3, 219246.
Roos, J.R., Celis, J.P., Sudarsono, A.S., 1990a. Electrochemical control of chalcocite and
covellite-xanthate otation. International Journal of Mineral Processing 29, 1730.
Roos, J.R., Celis, J.P., Sudarsono, A.S., 1990b. Electrochemical control of metallic copper
and chalcopyrite-xanthate otation. International Journal of Mineral Processing 28,
231245.
Ruonala, M., 1995. The use of electrochemical mixed potential measurements for the
process control and expert system development at the Hitura mine. Proceedings of
Automation in Mining, Mineral and Metal Processing.
Ruonala, M., Heimala, S., Jounela, S., 1997. Different aspects of using electrochemical
potential measurements in mineral processing. International Journal of Mineral
Processing 51, 97110.
Sadr-Kazemi, N., Cilliers, J.J., 1997. An image processing algorithm for measurement of
otation froth bubble size and shape distributions. Minerals Engineering 10 (10),
10751083.
Sbarbaro, D., 1999. Adaptive non-linear predictive control of a simulated otation
cell. In: Hodouin, D., Bazin, C., Desbiens, A. (Eds.), Control and Optimization in
Minerals, Metals, and Materials Processing. Metallurgical Society of the CIM,
Montral, pp. 311321.
Shen, W.Z., Fornasiero, D., Ralston, J., 1997. Effect of collectors, conditioning pH and
gases in the separation of sphalerite from pyrite. Minerals Engineering 11 (2),
145158.
Siren, A.K., 1999. The characterization of otation by colour information and selecting
the proper equipment. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on
Intelligent Processing and Manufacturing of Materials, vol. 1, pp. 471476.
Smith, C., Neethling, S., Cilliers, J.J., 2008. Air-rate prole optimisation: from simulation
to bank improvement. Minerals Engineering 21, 973981.
Smith, C.D., Hadler, K., Cilliers, J.J., 2010. Flotation bank air addition and distribution for
optimal performance. Minerals Engineering 23, 10231029.
71
Sosa-Blanco, C., Hodouin, D., Bazin, C., Lara-Valenzuela, C., Salazar, J., 2000. Economic
optimisation of a grinding and otation plant. Minerals Engineering 13 (1011),
9991018.
Stenlund, B., Medvedev, A., 2000. Level control of cascade coupled otation tanks.
Control Engineering Practice 10, 443448.
Suichies, M., Leroux, D., Dechert, C., 1998. An implementation of generalised predictive
control in a otation plant. Automation in Mining, Mineral and Metal Processing,
Proceedings of an IFAC Symposium, pp. 425442.
Suichies, M., Leroux, D., Dechert, C., Trusiak, A., 2000. An implementation of generalised
predictive control in a otation plant. Control Engineering Practise 8, 319325.
Supomo, A., Yap, E., Zheng, X., Banini, G., Mosher, J., Partanen, A., 2008. PT Freeport
Indonesia's mass-pull control strategy for rougher otation. Mineral Engineering
21, 808816.
Thornton, A.J., 1991. Cautious adaptive control of an industrial otation circuit.
Minerals Engineering 412, 12271242.
Thwaites, P., 2007. Process control in metallurgical plants. Annual Reviews in Control
31, 221239.
Tomlinson, H.S., Flemming, M.G., 1963. Flotation rate studies. Proc. VI Int. Min. Proc.
Congr., Cannes, p. 563.
Torrealba-Vargas, J.A., Finch, J.A., 2006. Continuous air rate measurement in otation
cells: some fundamental considerations. International Journal of Mineral Processing 81, 8592.
Uribe-Salas, A., Martnez-Cavazos, T.E., Nava-Alonso, F.C., Mndez-Nonell, J., LaraValenzuela, C., 2000. Metallurgical improvement of a lead/copper otation stage by
pulp potential control. International Journal of Mineral Processing 59, 6983.
Vathavooran, A., Batchelor, A., Miles, N.J., Kingman, S.W., 2006. Applying froth imaging
techniques to assess ne coal dewatering behaviour. Coal Preparation 26 (2), 103121.
Ventura-Medina, E., 2000. Flotation froth structure and performance. PhD Thesis,
Chemical Engineering Department, University of Manchester.
Ventura-Medina, E., Cilliers, J.J., 2000. Calculation of the specic surface area in
otation. Minerals Engineering 13 (3), 265275.
Walker, G.W., Stout, J.V., Richardson, P.E., 1984. Electrochemical otation of sulphides:
reactions of chalcocite in aqueous solution. International Journal of Mineral
Processing 12, 5572.
Wang, W., Bergholm, F., Yang, B., 2003. Froth delineation based on image classication.
Minerals Engineering 16 (11), 11831192.
Wang, M., Cilliers, J.J., 1999. Detecting non-uniform foam density using electrical
resistance tomography. Chemical Engineering Science 54, 707712.
Wang, Y.A., Neethling, S.J., 2009. The relationship between the surface and internal
structure of dry foam. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering
Aspects 339, 7381.
Wang, W.X., Stephansson, O., 1999. A robust bubble delineation algorithm for froth
images. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Intelligent Processing
and Manufacturing of Materials, vol. 1, pp. 471476.
Wills, B.A., Napier-Munn, T.J., 2006. Wills' Mineral Processing Technology, 7th edition.
Elsevier, pp. 267344. Chapter 12.
Woodburn, E.T., Austin, L.G., Stockton, J.B., 1994. Froth based otation kinetic model.
Chemical Engineering Research and Design 72 (A2), 211226.
Woods, R., 2003. Electrochemical potential controlling otation. International Journal
of Mineral Processing 72, 151162.
Yianatos, J.B., Hendrquez, F.D., 2006. Short-cut method for otation rates modelling of
industrial otation banks. Minerals Engineering 19, 13361340.
Yuan, X.-M., Plsson, B.I., Forssberg, K.S.E., 1996. Flotation of a complex sulphide ore I.
Cu/Zn selectivity control by adjusting pulp potential with different gases.
International Journal of Mineral Processing 46, 155179.
Zanin, M., Wightman, E., Grano, S.R., Franzidis, J.-P., 2008. Quantifying contributions to
froth stability in porphyry copper plants. International Journal of Mineral
Processing 91, 1927.
Zeng, X., Franzidis, J.-P., Manlapig, E., 2004. Modelling of froth transportation in
industrial otation cells Part I. Development of froth transportation models for
attached particles. Minerals Engineering 17, 981988.