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MeasurementofIndividualElements(Metrology)

15.7.

15.7.1.Measurementoftooththickness.
Thepermissibleerrororthetoleranceonthicknessoftoothisthevariationofactualthicknessoftoothfromits
theoreticalvalue.Thetooththicknessisgenerallymeasuredatpitchcircleandistherefore,thepitchline
thicknessoftooth.Itmaybementionedthatthetooththicknessisdefinedasthelengthofanarc,whichis
difficulttomeasuredirectly.Inmostofthecases,itissufficienttomeasurethechordalthicknessi.e.,thechord
joiningtheintersectionofthetoothprofilewiththepitchcircle.Alsothedifferencebetweenchordaltooth
thicknessandcirculartooththicknessisverysmallforgearofsmallpitch.Thethicknessmeasurementisthe
mostimportantmeasurementbecausemostofthegearsmanufacturedmaynotundergocheckingofallother
parameters,butthicknessmeasurementisamustforallgears.Therearevariousmethodsofmeasuringthegear
tooththickness.
(i)Measurementoftooththicknessbygeartoothverniercalliper,(ii)Constantchordmethod.(iii)Base
tangentmethod,(iv)Measurementbydimensionoverpins.
Thetooththicknesscanbeveryconvenientlymeasuredbyageartoothvernier.Sincethegeartooththickness
variesfromthetipofthebasecircleofthetooth,theinstrumentmustbecapableofmeasuringthetooth
thicknessataspecifiedpositiononthetooth.Furtherthisispossibleonlywhenthereissomearrangementtofix
thatpositionwherethemeasurementistobetaken.Thetooththicknessisgenerallymeasuredatpitchcircleand
is,therefore,referredtoaspitchlinethicknessoftooth.Thegeartoothvernierhastwovernierscalesandthey
aresetforthewidth(w)ofthetoothandthedepth(d)fromthetop,atwhichwoccurs.
Consideringonegeartooth,thetheoreticalvaluesofwanddcanbefoundoutwhichmaybeverifiedbythe
instrument.InFig.15.14,itmaybenotedthatwisachordADB,buttooththicknessisspecifiedasanarc
distanceAEB.AlsothedistancedadjustedoninstrumentisslightlygreaterthantheaddendumCE,wis
thereforecalledchordalthicknessanddiscalledthechordaladdendum.
InFig.15.14,w=AB=2AD
Now,AdD=8=36074N,whereNisthenumberofteeth,

Fig.15.14

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Anyerrorintheoutsidediameterofthegearmustbeallowedforwhenmeasuringtooththickness.
Inthecaseofhelicalgears,theaboveexpressionshavetobemodifiedtotakeintoaccountthechangein
curvaturealongthepitchline.ThevirtualnumberofteethNvforhelicalgear=Mcos3a(a=helixangle)
Theseformulaeapplywhenbacklashisignored.Onmatinggearshavingequaltooththicknessandwithout
addendummodifications,thecirculartooththicknessequalshalfthecircularpitchminushalfthebacklash.

GearToothCalliper.
(ReferFig.15.15).Itisusedtomeasurethethicknessofgearteethatthepitchlineorchordalthicknessofteeth
andthedistancefromthetopofatoothtothechord.Thethicknessofatoothatpitchlineandtheaddendumis
measuredbyanadjustabletongue,eachofwhichisadjustedindependentlybyadjustingscrewongraduated
bars.Theeffectofzeroerrorsshouldbetakenintoconsideration.
Thismethodissimpleandinexpensive.Howeveritneedsdifferentsettingforavariationinnumberofteethfor
agivenpitchandaccuracyislimitedbytheleastcountofinstrument.Sincethewearduringuseisconcentrated
onthetwojaws,thecalliperhastobecalibratedatregularintervalstomaintaintheaccuracyofmeasurement.

Fig.15.15.GearToothVernierCalliper.

15.7.2.ConstantChordMethod.
Intheabovemethod,itisseenthatboththechordalthicknessandchordaladdendumaredependentuponthe
numberofteeth.Henceformeasuringalargenumberofgearsforset,eachhavingdifferentnumberofteeth
wouldinvolve
separatecalculations,inustneproceaureDecomeslaboriousandtimeconsumingone.
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Theconstantchordmethoddoesawaywiththesedifficulties.Constantchordofagearismeasuredwherethe
toothflankstouchtheflanksofthebasicrack.Theteethoftherackarestraightandinclinedtotheircentrelines
atthepressureangleasshowninFig.15.16.
Alsothepitchlineoftherackistangentialtothepitchcircleofthegearand,bydefinition,thetooththickness
oftherackalongthislineisequaltothearctooththicknessofthegearrounditspitchcircle.Now,sincethe
geartoothandrackspaceareincontactinthesymmetricalpositionatthepointsofcontactoftheflanks,the
chordisconstantatthispositionirrespectiveofthegearofthesysteminmeshwiththerack.

Fig.15.16
Thisisthepropertyutilisedintheconstantchordmethodofthegearmeasurement.
Themeasurementoftooththicknessatconstantchordsimplifiedtheproblemforallnumberofteeth.Ifan
involutetoothisconsideredsymmetricallyinclosemeshwithabasicrackform,thenitwillbeobservedthat
regardlessofthenumberofteethforagivensizeoftooth(samemodule),thecontactalwaysoccursattwofixed
pointAandB.ABisknownasconstantchord.Theconstantchordisdefinedasthechordjoiningthosepoints,
onoppositefacesofthetooth,whichmakecontactwiththematingteethwhenthecentrelineofthetoothlies
onthelineofthegearcentres.ThevalueofABanditsdepthfromthetip,whereitoccurscanbecalculated
mathematicallyandthenverifiedbyaninstrument.Theadvantageoftheconstantchordmethodisthatforall
numberofteeth(ofsamemodule)valueofconstantchordissame.Inotherwords,thevalueofconstantchord
isconstantforallgearsofameshingsystem.Secondlyitreadilylendsitselftoaformofcomparatorwhichis
moresensitivethanthegeartoothvernier.

15.7.3.BasePitch.
Thisisdefinedasthecircularpitchoftheteethmeasuredonthebasecircle.InFig.15.17,ABrepresentsthe
portionofagearbasecircle,CDandEFthesides
oftwoteeth,FDbeingthebasepitch.Fromthepropertyofinvolute,ifanylineasGHisdrawntocutthe
involutesandtangentialtothebasecircle,theGH=FD.
Thusbasepitchcouldalsobedefinedasequaltothelineardistancebetweenapairofinvolutesmeasuredalong
acommongenerator.
Basecircumference=2kRb
..Basepitch=2kRb/N
Ifisthepressureangle,then
RB=P.C.R.xcos<t>=(P.C.D./2)cos<J>..Basepitch=(2nlN)x(P.C.D./2)xcos(j)=nmcos(|>
Thisisthedistancebetweentangentstothecurvedportionsofanytwoadjacentteethandcanbemeasured
eitherwithaheightgaugeoronanenlargedprojectedimageoftheteeth.ThisprincipleisutilisedinDavid
Borwntangentcomparatoranditisthemostcommonlyusedmethod.

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Fig.15.17

15.7.4.BasePitchMeasuringInstrument.
Thisinstrumenthasthreetips.Oneisthefixedmeasuringtip,otheroneisthesensitivetipwhosepositioncan
beadjustedbyascrewandthefurthermovementofitistransmittedthroughaleveragesystemtothedial
indicator
andthethirdtipisthesupplementaryadjustablestopwhichismeantforthestabilityoftheinstrumentandits
positioncanalsobeadjustedbyascrew.Thedistancebetweenthefixedandsensitivetipissettobeequivalent
tothebasepitchofthegearwiththehelpofslipgauges.Theproperlysetupinstrumentisappliedtothegearso
thatallthethreetipscontactthetoothprofile.Thereadingondialindicatoristheerrorinthebasepitch.

Fig.15.18

15.7.5.TheBaseTangentMethod.(DavidBrowntangentcomparator).
Inthismethod,thespanofaconvenientnumberofteethismeasuredwiththehelpofthetangentcomparator.
Thisusesasingleverniercalliperandhas,therefore,thefollowingadvantagesovergeartoothvernierwhich
usedtwovernierscales:
(i)themeasurementsdonotdependontwovernierreadings,eachbeingfunctionofthe
other.
(ii)themeasurementisnotmadewithanedgeofthemeasuringjawwiththeface.Considerastraightgenerator
(edge)ABCbeingrolledbackandforthalongabasecircle
(Fig.15.19).ItsendsthussweepoutopposedinvolutesA2AA^andC2CCirespectively.Thusthe
measurementsmadeacrosstheseopposedinvolutesbyspangaugingwillbeconstant(i.e.AC=AiCi=A2C2=
A0Cq)andequaltothearclengthofthebasecirclebetweentheoriginsofinvolutes.
Furtherthepositionofthemeasuringfacesisunimportantaslongastheyareparallel\andonanopposedpair
ofthetrueinvolutes.Asthetoothformismostlikelytoconformtoatrueinvoluteatthepitchpointofthegear,
itisalwayspreferabletochooseanumberofteethsuchthatthemeasurementismadeapproximatelyatthe
pitchcircleofthegear.
Thevalueofthedistancebetweentwoopposedinvolutes,orthedimensionoverparallelfacesisequaltothe
distanceroundthebasecirclebetweenthepointswherethecorrespondingtoothflankscuti.e.,ABCinFig.
15.19.Itcanbederivedmathematicallyasfollows:

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Fig.15.19.Generationofpairofinvolutesbyacommongenerator.
TheanglebetweenthepointsAandConthepitchcirclewheretheflanksoftheopposedinvoluteteethofthe
gearcutthiscirclecanbeeasilycalculated.
LetussaythatthegearhasgotWnumberofteethandAConpitchcirclecorrespondstoSnumberofteeth.
(Fig.15.20)..DistanceAC=(S1/2)pitches
..AnglesubtendedbyAC=(S1/2)x2rc/A7radians.
AnglesofarcsBEandBD

Itmaybenotedthatwhenbacklashallowanceisspecifiednormaltothetoothflanks,thismustbesimply
subtractedfromthisderivedvalue.
TablesarealsoavailablewhichdirectlygivethisvalueforthegivenvaluesofS,Nandm.
ThisdistanceisfirstcalculatedandthensetintheDavidBrowntangentcomparator(Fig.15.21)withthehelp
ofslipgauges.Theinstrumentessentiallyconsistsofafixedanvilandamovableanvil.Thereisamicrometer
onthemovinganvilsideandthishasaverylimitedmovementoneithersideofthesetting.Thedistanceis
adjustedbysettingthefixedanvilatdesiredplacewiththehelpoflookingringandsettingtubes.

15.7.6.TangentialGearToothCalliper.
Itisutilisedformeasuringvariationsonthebasictoothprofilefromtheoutsidediameterofspurandhelical
gears.Theinstrumentconsistsofbody,ontheundersideofwhichtherearetwoslideshavingthetipsactinglike
measuringcontacts.TheextendedspindleofadialindicatorwiththecontactpointA

Fig.15.20
passesbetweenthetwotipsalongtheverticalaxisofsymmetryoftheinstrument.Themeasuringtipsare
spreadapartorbroughttogethersimultaneouslyandsymmetricallyinreferencetothecentralaxisbyascrew
whichhasarighthandandalefthandthread.Thecontactfacesofthemeasuringtipsareflatandarrangedat
anglesof

Fig.15.21.DavidBrownBaseTangentComparator.
14.5or20withthecentralaxis.Thecalliperissetupbymeansofacylindricalmastergaugeofproper
diameterbasedonthemoduleofthegearbeingchecked.Afteradjustingthetipsbythescrew,thesearelocked
inpositionbylockingnuts.Theproperlysetupinstrumentisappliedtothegeartoothandthedialindicator
readingshowshowmuchthepositionofthebasictoothprofiledeviatesinreferencetotheoutsidediameterof
thegear.
15.7.7.TestPlugMethodforCheckingPitchDiameterandToothSpacing.Measurementovertherollersplaced
inthespacebetweenapairofgearteethgivesaconvenientmethodforcheckingtoothspacingandthepitch
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diameter.Thespecialcaseoftherollerwithitscentreonthepitchcirclesimplifiestheproblem.Itis,therefore,
considereddesirabletofindthediameterontherollerwhosecentrewilllieonthepitchcircleandtoderivean
expressionforthedistanceovertherollersplacedinoppositeteethspaceswiththecentresofrollerslyingon
thepitchcircle.

Fig.15.22

Fig.15.23
InFig.15.23aracktoothisshownsymmetricallyinmeshwithageartoothspace,thecurvedsidesofthegear
toothtouchingthestraightracksidesatAandBonthelineofaction.Letusassumethatthecentreoftheroller
liesonthepitchpointO.Now,iftheracktoothbeconsideredasanemptyspaceboundedbyitsoutline,acircle
withcentreOandradiusOBwouldfitandtouchtherackspaceatAandBsinceOAandOBareperpendicular
tothesidesoftheracktooth.ThusthecirclewouldtouchthegearteethatAandB.
InAOBD,OBistheradiusofroller
OD=Circularpitch/2=(7t/4)m
OBD=90,BdD=<|>=pressureangle,..OB=ODcos<j>=(re/4)mcos<(>
Dia.ofroller=2xOB=2x(ron/4)cos<|)=(rc/4)mcos<|>.
Thisisthediameterofarollerwhichwillrestintoothspaceandliewithitscentreonthepitchcircle.This
valueisconstantforallgearsofsamepitchandpressureangle.
Forgearswithevennumberofteeth,adirectmeasurementbyplacingtworollersinexactlyoppositetooth
spacesispossible.Inthiscase,thegaugingdiameterovertherollers
Ifthegearhasanoldnumberofteeth,aradialmeasurementwiththegearbetweencentrescanbecarriedout,
usingacomparatorwiththegear.Theaccuracyofthespacingoveranynumberofteethmaybecheckedby
findingtheanglessubtendedatthecentreandcomparingthiswiththatobtainedfromachordalcheckofthe
plugs.
Asalreadyindicated,precisiongearsandothergearsaregenerallycheckedfortooththicknessbydimension
overpins,asthedimensionsoverpinsreadingismathematicallyrelatedtothetooththickness.Thisalsoverifies
thecorrectnessofprofileandotherelementsofgear.Underthismethodtwopinsofequaldiameterareplacedin
twooppositetoothspaces
forgearshavingoddnumberofteeth.
whereM=Requiredsizeoverthewires,m=Module,(j)=Pressureangle,d=Diameterofwire=1.728xm,
m=Pressureangleatcentreofpinandisgivenbytherelation
Usingtheaboveequations,thesizeAToverwirescanbecalculated.Incaseofhelicalgearstheformulaeused
areasbelow:

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Thehelicalgearswithoddnumberofteethshouldnotbemeasuredwithtwowires,becauseinthiscasethe
correctionfactorcos(90/iV)isnotvalidandcanresultinseriouserrors.Insuchcasesthegearcanbemounted
onanarbourandaradialmeasurementmadefromthetopofthewiretotheaxisofgear.
Sizeoverwires/ballsforhelicalgears

15.7.8.CheckingofProfileofInvoluteShapeofGear.
Profileistheportionoftoothflankbetweentheoutsidecircleorstartoftoothtipandthespecifiedformcircle
ofdiameterapproximatelyequaltopitchcirclediameterminustwicethemodule.
Profileerroristhedeviationoftheactualtoothfromthetheoreticalprofileinthedesignedreferenceplaneof
rotation.Fortestingprofile,tipreliefandanyportionofthetoothsurfacebelowtheactiveprofileisnottobe
considered.Thetoleranceontheprofileerrorispermittedasperthefollowingtable.

Table
AccuracyClassorGradeofGear ProfileToleranceinMicrons
1
2.0+0.06x*
2
2.5+0.10xk
3
3.0+0.16xA
4
4.0+0.25xh
5
5.0+0.40xk
6
6.3+0.63xk
7
8.0+1.0xk
8
10+1.6xk
9
16+2.5xk
10
25+4.0xk
11
40+6.3xk
12
63+10xA

Wheremismodule,andDisthepitchcirclediameterinmm.
(a)Inspectionofprofileusingdividingheadandheightgauge.
ThismethodhasbeenderivedfromthepropertyoftheinvoluteasshowninFig.15.24.Thedistancebetween
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pointsAandBmeasuredonthegeneratixtangenttothebasecircleisequaltothearcfromthetangentpointB
totheoriginPoftheinvoluteonthebasecircle,i.e.arcBP=AB=(Dbji/360)xez
S.No. DividingHeadReading ezvalues DbxnABvalues=.xe,obu
1
ez
2
ez+10
CO
ez+20
4

6
ez10
7
e,20
CO

10

Wheninvoluteprofileisrotatedondividingheadbysmallrollangles,thentheconsecutiveprofilepointsAfall
ontotheverticaltangentline.ItispossibletocomputesuitablerollanglesforanydiameterDzfromthe
correspondingpressureanglebyequations:DJDb=sec<j>z,ez=(180/rc)xtan
Initiallyforanyknowndiametersaypitchdiameter,thevalueofezandsoABisfound.Thehighestgaugeis
settozeroatthisheightabovethegearcentrebymeansofslipgauges,thenthecorrespondingpositionofgear
profileisobtainedbyrotatingthegeartoothtowardsindicatingstylusuntilzeroisobtained.Numberofangles
isincreasedordecreasedinstepsof10orhalfdegreeasisconvenientandforthesevaluesofezthevaluesof
ABarecalculated,andtheheightgaugeissettothisheightbymeansofslipsandthenthedialreadingoverthe
toothiscompared.Thedeviationofdialreadinggivestheerrorofprofileatthesepoints.
Thisisaverytimeconsumingmethodbutbestsuitedforcalibrationofmasterinvolute.Itisthereforeuseful
onlyforveryprecisioncomponentsandinvolutemastercams.
(b)Gearinvolutemeasuringmachine.Thismachineisdesignedforcheckingtheinvoluteprofilesofthespur
andothergears.Themachineissuitableforinspectionofgearhavingmodulefrom1to10mmhaving
maximumoutsidediameterupto300mm.Themachineisprovidedwithameasuringstylus.Thekinematic
designofthemachineissuchthatwhenjobisrotatedthemeasuringstyluswhichisinitiallysetatbasecircle
radiusofthegearbymeansofslipgauge,isalsoslidedalongtheinvolutecurve.Thedeviationofthetooth
profilefromthecorrectinvoluteisindicatedbyadialindicatorofaccuracy0.001mmconnectedbylever
mechanismwiththestylus.Amasterinvolutetemplateisalsoprovidedwiththemachineforsettingand
calibrationofthemachine.
(c)Checkingofinvoluteshapeofgear.AstheinvolutecurveistracedbytheendAofastraightedgewhich
rollswithoutslippingonabasecirclediametercylinder,anypointConthecurvewillcorrespondtothe
positionCEofthestraightedge,which,therefore,alwaysremainstangentialtothebasecircle.Converselyif
thebasecirclecylinderweretorollonafixedstraightedge,anyfixedpointe.g.,Cwouldmoveinaninvolute
path,suchasCA,asthecylinderrollsalongthestraightedgeCE.
Astraightedgerolledontheedgeofadiscwillbeseentobetheequivalentofthisarrangement,andprovides
theprincipleonwhichtheinvolutetesteroperates.Thegeartobetestedisheldonthemandrelm,whichcarries
agrounddiscdhavingexactlythesamediameterasthebasecircleofthegearundertest(Fig.15.25).Astraight
edgeeismountedonaslideonthebodyoftheinstrumentandincontactwithbasecircledisc,sothatasthe
straightedgemovesalongtheslide,thebasecirclediscandgeararerotatedwithoutslip.Apointonstraight
edgethusdescribesthetrueinvolutecorrespondingtothebasecircle,andifthetopofanindicatorofsomekind
is
mountedexactlyintheplaneoftheedgeofthestraightedgeandincontactwiththetoothflankitwillregister
byitsmovementsanydepartureofthetoothprofilefromthetheoreticalinvoluteresultingeitherfromerrorsor
fromdeliberatemodificationoftheprofile.Theindicatorcanalsobereplacedbythesensingelementofa
recordersothatpermanentrecordsofthegearteethprofilescanbemade.

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Fig.15.25.PrincipleofInvoluteTester.
(d)Involuteprofiletestingmachine.Suchmachinescanbesettodesiredbasecircleradiusvalues,thusdoing
awaythenecessityofhavingbasediscforeachgearofdifferentdimensions.Thisfacilityisprovidedbya
masterbase,discorinvolutecam,builtintothemachine,andcoupledtoalinkagesystemwhichenablesthe
baseradiusofthegeneratedcurvetobevariedbyadjustmentofthelinkagebarpositions.
Thesemachinesgeneratetherequiredinvoluteshape,measurethedeparturesfromitthatexistontheactual
toothflanksofthegear.Theprincipleofoperationisthatofabasecirclerollingwithoutslipalongastraight
edge,orviceversa.Astylusdetectsthedeviationsinthemetalconditionofthetoothflankfromthetrue
involuteintheformofacontinuoustraceonastripchartrecorder.Aperfectprofilewillresultinastraighttrace
paralleltothelongitudinalaxisofthechartpaper.

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15.7.9.MeasurementofGearPitch.Gearpitchcanbemeasuredinthefollowing
ways:
(i)Cumulativecircularpitcherroroveraspanofteeth.
(ii)Adjacentpitcherrororpitchvariation.(iii)Basepitchvariation.
HereL=Knm2,whereIfisthesectorofpitchesoverwhichpitcherroristobechecked.
Thepitcherrorofgearcanbeeasilydeterminedbycomparingthespanlengthoveraspecifiednumberofteeth
i.e.,thecumulativeerroronasectorofpredeterminedpitchesismeasured.
Thepitchvariationisthedifferencebetweenthelongestandshortestcircularpitchinthewholegear.
Themeasurementofcumulativeerroroveraspanofteethandalsothepitchvariationscanbeconveniently
measuredusingadividingheadandheightgaugefittedwithdialindicator.Thebasicmethodofmeasurement
involvesindexingthegearthroughsingleormultipletoothanglesanddeterminingflankposition
circumferentiallybymeansofaprecisionindicatormountedonaradiallydisposedslide.Bymeansofthe
dividinghead,rotationtothegearisgivenbytheamountoftheoreticalangularpitch,thevariationinthe
positionoftoothismeasuredbythedialindicator.Forlargergears,theangularaccuracyofthedividingtable
mustbehigherinorderthatpitcherrorisdeterminedaccurately.Thoughdividingtableswith10secondsof
arcresolutionarecommon,dividingtablesareavailablewhichcanbereadtothenearestsecondofarc.Of
course,thesehavetobecalibratedusingprecisionpolygonandphotoelectricautocollimator.Theindicatorunit
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shouldbecapableofmeasuringreliablyupto0.001mmoverarangeof0.025mm.Forgearshavinglarger
cumulativepitcherrors,indicatorsoflowersensitivityhavetobeused.

TolerancesonpitcherrorsA.ToleranceoverasectorofKPitches
GradeofAccuracyClassofgear PermissibleErrorinMicrons
1
0.25<L+0.6
2
0.4a/L+1.0
3
0.63VZT+1.6
4
1.0+2.5
5
1.6<L+4.0
6
2.5VT+6.0
7
3.55^+8.0
8
5.0<L+12
9
7.1VT+17
10
10+28
11
144L+33
12
20VT+83

B.ToleranceonPitchVariations
Class PermissibleErrorinMicrons
1
0.80+0.06F
2
1.25+0.1F
3
2.0+0.16F
4
3.2+0.25F
5
5.0+0.40F
6
8.0+0.63F
7
11+0.90F
8
16+1.25F
9
22+1.80F
10 32+2.50F
11 45+3.55F
12 63+5.0F
Thebasepitchisthecircularpitchoftheteethmeasuredonthebasecircle,asweknowthatthebasepitch=px
cos.Thisisalsothedistancebetweenthetangenttothecurvedpositionsofanytwoadjacentteeth.Thebase
pitchcanbeveryconvenientlymeasuredusingordinarybasepitchmeasuringinstrumentswhichmeasurethe
straightdistancebetweentangentstotheadjacentteeth.
Basepitchcanbeaccuratelymeasuredusingtoolmakersoruniversalmicroscope.
HereF=m+0.25H5whereDisthepitchcirclediameterinmm.
Toothtotoothpitcherrorscanbeeasilydeterminedbyuseoftwodialgaugesbymeasuringthepositionofa
suitablepointonatoothafterthegearhasbeenindexedthroughasuitableangle.
Thegearismountedinthecentrewithindexingarrangement.TwodialgaugesaremountedasshowninFig.
15.26.Thereisaspindlebelowthedialgaugehavingasmallsphereattheendandtouchingthegeartoothat
thepitchcircle.ThegearisthenindexedthroughsuccessivepitchestogiveaconstantreadingondialgaugeA.
AnychangesinthereadingondialgaugeBindicatethatpitcherrorsarepresent.Theactualerrorcanbe
determinedbydeductingtheindividualreadingondialBfromthemeanofthereadings.
Thepitchofthegearteethcanalsobemeasuredbymeasuringthedistancefromapointononetoothtoa
suitablepointonthenexttooth.

CircularPitchMeasuringMachine.

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Thisinstru

Fig.15.26
mentisusedlorcheckingthecircularpitcholgeartooth.Thetwomeasuringcontacttipsareappliedonthe
samesidesofadjacentteethofthegear.Thelefthandtipisfirstsetuptotherequiredmodulebymeansof
somesuitablearrangement.Therighthandtipisatwoarmedleverwhoseonecontactsthegeartoothandthe
otheroneactuatesthecontactpointofthedialindicator.Twoguidepointsarealsoprovidedforthestabilityof
theinstrument.
ThepitchvariationscanalsobemeasuredbytheinstrumentshowninFig.15.27.Itemploysafixedfingerand
stopforconsistentpositioningonsuccessivepairsofteeth,andamovablefingerwhosemovementcanbe
sensedbyadialindicator.
Itmaybenotedthatreadingsobtainedbyaboveinstrumentwillbeaffectedbyprofilevariationsandrunoutof
thegear.
Inthecaseofhelicalgears,measurementsmaybemadeinthenormalplaneoftheconjugaterackanddivided
bythecosineofhelixangleforcomparisonwithstandardtolerances.
Itmaybementionedthattheabovemethodofmeasuringpitcherrorcanbeappliedtomediumsizedgears
measuringfromafewcmsuptoaboutametrediameter.Smallgearsasusedinwatchesandclockareinspected
byopticalprojectioninwhichtheenlargedimagesofsomeoftheteetharecompared

Fig.15.27.Schematicarrangementofapitchcheckinginstrument.
againstamasterdiameteratthescreenoftheprojector,borthickgearsconvergentilluminationisusedto
enableopticalfocussingataselectedsectionacrossthefacewidth.EffectofEccentricityofPitchError
Itmaybeemphasizedthatgearpitcherrorandtootheccentricityareinseparablebecausepresenceofoneaffects
theother.Sinceeccentricitycantakeanypositionwithreferencetothetoothunderconsideration,theeffective
eccentricityforvariouspositionsofgearrotationatangle6isexpressedasequaltoesecsin(cj)+8),wheree
=eccentricityand<|>=pressureangle.
Thusifagearhasbeenmeasuredfortoothspacingerror,theeffectofitsmountingeccentricallyonpitcherror
canbetakencareofbyapplyingcorrectionsprogressivelytotheobservederrorvaluesbycalculatingthe
correctionapplicabletoeachtoothfromtheaboveequation.

15.7.10.Runout.Runoutmeanstheeccentricityinthereferenceorpitchcircle.
Gearsthatareeccentrictendtohaveavibrationperrevolution.Abadlyeccentrictoothmaycauseanabrupt
gearfailure.Therunoutinthegearsismeasuredbyemployinggeareccentricitytesters.Thegearisheldona
mandrelinthecentresandthedialindicatorofthetesterpossessesthespecialtipdependinguponthemoduleof
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gearbeingchecked.Thetipisinsertedinbetweenthetoothspaces.Thegearisrotatedtoothbytooth.The
maximumvariationisnotedfromthedialindicatorreadinganditgivestherunoutofthegear.Therunoutis
twicetheeccentricity.Theadjoiningtableindicatesthepermissiblerunouts.
ClassorGrade PermissibleRunout
inMicrons
1
0.224F+3.0
2
0.335F+4.5
3
0.560F+7.0
4
0.900F+11
5
1AF+18
6
2.24F+28
7
3.15^+40
8
4.0F+50
9
5.CF+63
10
6.3F+80
11
8.0+100
12
10.0F+125

15.7.11.Lead.
Itistheaxialadvanceofthehelixorthewormthreadperturn.Thecontrolofthreadleadisnecessarytoensure
adequatecontactacrossthefacewidth.Therelationshiptothehelixanglehasalreadybeenexplainedearlier.
Theinstrumentwhichcheckstheleadconsistsofaprobebeingadvancedalongatoothsurface,paralleltothe
axis.Theprobeisasuitabledialindicatortipfixedinasuitabledevice.
Whenthegearisrotated,thedisplacementoftheprobeinonecompleterevolutionofgearisfoundwhichisthe
lead.
Inthecaseofwormthread,theaxialpitchofthethreadisfirstmeasuredwhichmultipliedbythenumberof
threadsinthewormgivesthelead.

15.7.12.Backlash.
Backlashinthegearsistheplaybetweenthematingtoothsurfaces.Forthepurposesofmeasurementand
calculations,backlashisdefinedastheamountbywhichatoothspaceexceedsthethicknessonanengaging
tooth.Backlashinthegearteethresultsonaccountoferrorsinprofile,pitchthicknessofteethetc.Itis
measuredbymountingthegearsinspecifiedposition.Backlashshouldbemeasuredatthetightestpointofthe
mesh.Thepinionisheldsolidlyagainstrotationandarigidlymounteddialindicatorisplacedagainstthetooth
attheextremeheelperpendiculartothesurface.Thebacklashisdeterminedbymovingthegearbackandforth.
Thebacklashvariationismeasuredbylocatingthepointsofmaximumandminimumbacklashinthepairand
obtainingthedifference.Forprecisiongearsthevariationshouldnotexceed0.02to0.03mm.

15.7.13.LeadMeasurement.
Inorderthattoothloadbeuniformlydistributedacrossthefacewidthofthegears,itisessentialthatleadper
toothofmatinggearsshouldbecloselymatched.Errorsinthehelixofeithergearwouldresultinnonuniform
loadconcentration,resultinginnoisyoperationanddamage.Irregularitiesinleadcouldoccurduetoeitherpoor
manufactureorfromthepresenceoftoothundulations.
Itisimportanttonotethatwhilethehelixangleofpinionandgearissamebuttheirleadisdifferentdepending
ontheirdiameters.Alsothehelixanglevalueincreasesfromtherootstothetipsoftheteeth.
Leadcanbemeasuredeitheronapointtopointbasis,orbymeansofcontinuousgenerationusingspecial
purposemeasuringmachines.Onetypeofgeneratingmachineincorporatesasinebarmechanismtogetherwith
ameansofconvertingaderivedlinearmotionintoarotarymotion.

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