Part - Two

Chapter - 3
PHYSICAL SETTING OF THE STUDY AREA
A.
B.

Location and Extent of the Study Area

Geomorphic Features and their Characteristics
i) Aravallis mountain and offshoots
ii) Piedmonts and Pediments
iii) Ghaggar Plains and Alluvial Regions
iv) The Luni Basin
v) Sand Dunes and Sand Sheets
vi) Inter-dunal Plains
vii) Saline Depressions

C.

Soil Profiles Characteristics and Vulnerability to Erosion

D.

Drainage Network and Density

i) The Luni Drainage System
ii) The Ghaggar River System
iii) Ephemeral Streams

E.

Ground Water Depth and Chemistry

i) Regions of High and Secondary Water Table and Their
Chemistry
ii) Regions of Medium Water Depth
iii) Regions of Low and Permanent Water Levels and Chemistry

F.

Natural Vegetation Cover and Composition

i) Region of Tree Growth
ii) Scrubland Region
iii) Region of Shrubs and Grasses

83
A.

Location and Extent of the Study Area

Rajasthan, a state of the Indian Union, is situated in the northwest of

India. It is bounded on the west and north-west by Pakistan, on the north

and north east by the Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh and Madhya
Pradesh and on the south west by Gujarat. It has an area of 3,42,239
square kilometre and its population 5,64,73,122 persons (Census, 2001).
Whereas the hot, land locked Indian desert occupied an area of 2,08,751
square kilometre lying between the latitude of 2440' and 30 12' and
between 6930' and 760' E. It comprises twelve districts of Rajasthan viz.
Barmer, Bikaner, Churu, Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Jaisalmer, Jalore,
Jhunjhunu, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali and Sikar. These districts comprises
seventy three tehsils of western Rajasthan (Fig. 1). Name of the districts
with their tehsils are given in Table-1. These district cover sixty one per
cent of the area of the state and support over twenty million of its
population. The arid and semi-arid regions in Rajasthan are intersected by
the Aravallis mountain. Arid as well as semi-arid areas or desert areas
north-west of Aravallis are covered by aeolian or alluvial sand deposits.
The desert is a vast undulating plain of sand interspersed with hillocks.
The area has been subjected to marine transgression in the past and now
presents interesting geomorphic formations.
In the recent past (mid to late 3rd millennium B.C.) the area has
sustained a well developed civilization particularly in the Ghaggar and
Indus river basins.
A few aquifers detected within the regions, are extensive and highly
permeable and contain vast supplies of fresh water but there are hardly
any possibilities for their replenishment if used and in much of the area
many aquifers are saline.
Sail lakes, numerous are the sites of confluences of erstwhile
drainage system. When the system flowed freely the silt load they carried
was deposited at the confluences creating conditions of waterlogging
accretion took place and salts accumulated near these points.

84

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85

Table - 1 : Western Rajasthan Administrative Division

BARMER
1. Shiv
2. Baytu
3. Pachpadra
4. Banner
5. Chohtan
6. Gudhamalani
7. Siwana
BIKANER
8. Lunkaransar
9. Bikaner
10. Kolayat
11. Nokha

CHURU
12. Sardarshahar
13. Taranagar
14. Rajgarh
15. Chum
16. Sridungargarh
17. Ratangarh
18. Sujangarh
GANGANAGAR
19. Ganganagar
20. Karanpur
21. Sadulshahar
22. Padampur
23. Raisingh Nagar
24. Anupgarh
25. Gharsana
26. Vijainagar
27. Suratgarh
HANUMANGARH
28. Sangaria
29. Hunumangarh
30. Pilibanga
31. Rawatsar

32. Tibi
33. Nohar
34. Bhadra
JAISALMER
35. Jaisalmer
36. Pokaran
JALORE
37. Ahore
38. Jolore
39. Bhinmal
40. Sanchor
41. Raniwara
JODHPUR
42. Phalodi
43. Shergarh
44. Osian
45. Bhopalgarh
46. Jodhpur
47. Bilara
JHUNJHUNU
48. Jhunjhunu
49. Chirawa
50. Khetri
51. Nawalgarh
52. Udaipurwati
NAGAUR
53. Nagaur
54. Merta
55. Jayal
56. Ladnun
57. Didwana
58. Nawa
59. Parvatsar
60. Degana

PALI
61. Jaitaran
62. Raipur
63. Sojat
64. Pali
6 5. Marwar Junction
66. Bali
67. Desuri
SIKAR
68. Fatehpur
69. Lachclimangarh
70. Sikar
71. Danta Ramgarh
72. Sri Madhopur
73. Neem Ka Thana

86
Ghaggar plains

are confined

to the district

of

Ganganagar.

Geologically, they are formed of older alluvium covered with the

Pleistocene blown sand and represent the dry beds of an old gigantic river
system of Saraswati (Fig. 2).'
North-Eastern upland region are covered wth blown sand, is an
almost level land. It has a general slope from north-east to south and
south-west. The north-eastern upland area is comparatively less sandy,
covering the tehsils of eastern Jodhpur, Bilara, Jaitaran, Parvatsar, eastern
Merta and Degana.
Aravalli outcrops region covers the Shekhawati region of Rajasthan
and the tehsils of Nawa and Eastern Parvatsar of the district Naguar. The
Neem Ka Thana hilly tract, also a part of the Aravallis is responsible for
the development of a radial drainage pattern. Its main stream, the Kantli
is the longest river in the Shekhawati region of the Rajasthan desert
region. Throughout the year it is dry out with the rainy season.
The Godwar region in the south-east of the Rajasthan desert is
drained by the river Luni and its numerous trbutaries. The upper part of
the basin is an area of numerous tributaries flowing down the western
slopes of Aravalli ranges. After running for about 800 kms. Luni mixes
with the water of Rann of Kutch. The landscapes of the lower Luni
consists of sandy tracts and dunes.
Magra region forms a rock-floored plain, scored by wind blown sand.
Though comparatively free from dunes, it is more dreary and desolate than
Thar region. Magra is elongated as shape, stretching from the southern
boundary of Chohtan tehsil of Barmer district to the southern portion of
Bikaner tehsil. A characteristic feature is reg plains similar to those found
in desert of south west Algeria or the gravel plains (serir) of the Libyan
desert. The northern Magra area gives an impression of vast gravel plains
with small sandy patchess scattered throughout.
These dry beds of Saraswati came into existence somewhere in the early
centuaries A.D, or Mahabharata times. Before this these were the parts of great
river system of Sarawati, Drishadavati and Hakra.

87

Western Rajastliaii
Physiogi-apliic Regions

Ghaggar Plains ,.
Upbjid Region

Aravulli Oul Cwp Region

1. Upper L\mi B i t i n
2. Lower Liuii B i i i n
60
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80
I

120

l.Nort}vemMagR,gi
- i o u i h e m M a g r a Region

'-'

Source : Adopted from Sharma R.C., 1972.

Fig. 2

Greater TKar Detert

2. Little nuu-De.ert

88
The Thar desert, is the western most part is completely blanketed by
sand dunes. It extends from south to north along the border between India
and Pakistan. The solid geology is concealed by sand except in the
neighbourhood of Jaisalmer town where Parihar hills and Abur hills
standout. In the neighbourhood of Sawal and Amir villages large patches
of pebbles derived from conglomerate, support the fact that the region was
marine littoral even upto the sub-recent times. The main part of the Thar
is known as the Great Desert, covered by vast and thick sand and a
complex pattern of ridges. Between the sand ridges there are low lying
areas which act as ephemeral drainage basin during the sudden downpours
in rainy periods. These intermediate depressions, known as Marho, have
alluvium deposits which becomes cultivable when sufficient water is
available.
The northern parts of the Thar are called the little desert. It is only
due to the nature and magnitude of dunes. Here, the dunes are mostly
transverse in form and are smaller than their counterparts in the great
desert. Between the dunes, there are minor depressions (gassis) which
during the time of sufficient rains become shallow water basins.
B.

Geomorphic Features and Their Characteristic

i)

Aravallis Mountains and Offshoots

The physiographic personality of Western Rajasthan wears true

desertic features. The dominant hilly tracts of the Rajasthan desert are the
Aravalli mountain ranges which lie along its eastern rim and are composed
of compact and hard, metamorphic rocks such as quartzite, schists, slate
etc. Because these rock stratas are composed of rock of different degree
of coherence and hardness resultantly they produce features of differential
erosion. These hill ranges generally have narrow ridges with conical shape
and high relative relief.
The landform of Western Rajasthan is not the work of superficial or
biogenic agencies, but it is attributed to geological processes largely in the
nature of sheet movement leading to peneplanation, rapid changes in the

89
drainage system, deepening of water table and the consequent drying up
of the vegetation.
In the study area the relief features in generally demonstrate
mcreasing altitude from west to east and from south west to north east
(Fig. 3). In western Rajasthan the topography ranges from 30 metres to
350 metres above sea level. The general elevation is about 300 metres in
north eastern part but towards south, the elevation is about 150 metres
only except in Jalore-Siwana upland which rises above 300 metres. There
are several other small scattered hillocks making the western edge of the
Bagar region.'
General relief of the region is dominated by the Aravallis mountain
systems which are the most prominant feature of the relief which separate
Western Rajasthan from rest of the Rajasthan. These ranges run diagonally
due to north east to south west direction from near Delhi to Palampur in
Gujarat with a total length of 692 kilometers. The Aravallis being perhaps
the oldest mountain system of the world.-^
The Aravalli is an effective boundary between the arid region of
western part and fertile region of east Rajputana. The arid region of
western part is covered with sand dunes extending from the Great Rann of
Kutch along Pakistan border to Punjab.^
Aravallis from the water divide as well as the eastern limit of
Western Rajasthan. They have been thouroughly eroded and are remanants
of mountains which were of gigantic dimensions once upon a time.
Structurally, the Aravallis have synclinal folds and anticlinal valleys. The
relief of the areas west of the Aravalli system displays sandy, low watered
and sterile tracts. The Aravalli along the eastern boundry consist of the
oldest fold mountain structures of the world.
1.
2.
3.

Singh, R.L. India -A Regional Geography, Varanasi, 1971,pp. 53-59.

Heron, A.M. The Geology of Central Rajasthan, Memoiers Geological Survey of
India, Vol. 79, 1953, p. 35.
Singh, R.L. Op.Cit., p. 53-59

90

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91
Nevertheless, Aravallis are not a formidable barrier to the sand creep
towards the east. Moreover, at places there are as many as twelve Gaps in
the ranges through which the fertile alluvial plains are encroached upon
by the sand dunes. From the Aravalli foothills the terrain slopes, for the
greater part gradually to the west and south west. The area from Aravalli
plain to Jodhpur and Barmer is characterised by Undulating topography
with isolated Malani outcrops. Vindhyan sandstones and Aravalli Knolls.
However, this is less sandy with comparatively fewer dunes. Away from
the Aravallis towards the west the topography is punctuated with
numerous isolated knolls without any appreciable vegetative cover.'*
The region of malani lavas and Vindhyan sand-stone is a noticeable
plain in Aravalli region. There are small ranges which are parallel offshoots in the west in a north-east to south-west direction and also occur to
the south of the Luni river. The lofty and largest group which is a
continuous mass of rocks west of the Aravallis is found in Siwana area
and extends to about 27 kilometers south of the great bend of the Luni
river. They run in east-west direction attaining a height of over 900
metres. Their arrangement is not regular. They are very irregular isolated
peaks or ridges, separated by broad expanses of sand, which suggested
that the visible outcrops are remanent of a continuous system of hills
partly buried in sand.-^
Nagaur district is conspicuous in the absence of high hills. Dots of
hillocks, particularly in the south eastern sector, are

sporadically

scattered. At Jayal and Khatu, the hillocks are utilised for stone
extraction. There is no vegetation anywhere. Here, Tikli hills are situated
near Raisinghpura village in Didwana. Hills near Kuchaman and Nawa
attain some height. There are also numerous clusters of hillocks in
Parvastar tehsil.

4.
5.

Pandey, S. Some Aspect of Geomorphology of Indian Arid Zone. Symposium on

Arid Zone, Jodhpur, 1968, p. 28.
La-Touche, T.D. Geology of Western Rajputana Memoirs Geological Survey of
India, Vol. 35, p. 9.

92
Pali district almost resembles an irregular triangle with undulating
plains. Several eastern parts of the district may be called sub-mountainous
and have undulating plains with scattered hills. The district is surrounded
by high Aravalli ranges in the south-east. The general slope of the district
is from east to west direction. There is no perennial rivers in the district.
Four tributaries of the river Luni which rise in the Aravallis such as Sukri,
Lilri, Bandi and Jawai flew through the district.
District Jhunjhunu consists mass of rolling hills and the remaining
part nearer to the South-eastern border contains some offshoots of the
Aravalli ranges, running in South-Eastern direction. A range of Aravalli
hills enters the district in the extreme South of Udaipurwati tehsil and
extends upto Singhana and Khetri in the east. In general elevation above
mean sea level is between 300 to 400 metres. The highest peak 1,051
metres high is in the south of Lohagarh village.
The Aravalli hill ranges attain significant height at Chappan-ka-Pahar
near Siwana 975 metres and Roza hills at Jalore 730 metres.^ Aravalli
ranges attain the gradual height in Sirohi district outside the desert
boundary in Western Rajasthan.
Another important feature of Western part of the Aravallis is that
they give rise to nearly all streams which rush down the steep slopes
including the Luni system. Luni is the only cognisable river in the
Rajasthan desert and its run-off depends upon the intensity of rainfall in
the Aravalli catchment. The streams are filled with sand dunes to different
erosional activity which have produced relief features along the foot hills
of the Aravallis. The resultant landform is known as Godwar plains. These
plains are fertile mostly in the district of Pali, Jalore and Nagaur.^
ii)

Piedmonts and Pediments

In the Central Luni basin around Jalore, Siwana, Bujawar and the

vicinity, the hills are flanked at their bases by piedmont plains. These are
6.
7.

Jaisalmer to Kara, The Imperical Gazetteer of India, Oxford, Vol. 14, 1908, p. 108.
Ahmad, A. Human Geography of Indian Desert. (Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis),
A.M.U., Aligarh, 1962, p. 38.

93
composed of thick colluvial coarse debris derived from the adjoining hills.
The total thickness of the sediments varies from 10 m to 25 m in the upper
part and 3 to 5 m in the lower part.^ In the upper part, large boulder and
angular rock fragments of 2 to 3 m in diameter are dominant and the lower
part is covered with small pebbles, gravels and grity sand particles of 2 to
3 mm, along with some silt. At certain places, obstacle dunes and whole
back featuring are formed on the colluvial sediments of the piedmont
plains. The drainage patterns in this unit vary from dendritic to subparallel. These plains are affected by severe wind and by slight to severe
water hazards.^
The prolonged sub-aerial decomposition and denudation of the land
surfaces produced or accentuated the formation of extensive rocky/
gravelly pediments at the base of the hills and mountains.'*^ Parts of these
pediments were later on covered with colluvial sediments transported by
the fluvial processes and are now termed as flat buried pediments. The
rocky or gravelly pediments occur along the base of the rhyolite, sand
stone and limestone hills. The rhyolite pediments occur mainly around
Jodhpur, Thob, Agolai, Barmer and Bhadrajan."
There are also undulating buried pediments which occur around
Ramgarh, Mohangarh and to the east of Sikar district. These pediments
affected by intense aeolian activities which created sand sheet and sand
dunes.
iii) Ghaggar Plains and Alluvial Region
The Himalayan drainage system constituting the former mighty rivers
like the legendry Saraswati and the Drishadvati and their tributaries, and
8.
9.
10.

11.

Ghose, et al. Geomorphology of the Central Luni basin. Western Rajasthan,

Annals of Arid Zone, CAZRI, Jodhpur, Vol. 5, No. 1, 1966, pp. 10-25.
Ghose, B., Singh, S. and Amal Kar Geomorphology of the Rajasthan Desert, Desertification
and its Control (ed.) Jaisalwal, P.L., I.C.A.R., New Delhi, 1977, p. 71.
Singh, S. et al. Landforms of the Arid Ecosystem of Western India, In
Desertification Control in the Arid Ecosystem of India for Sustainable
Development Eds. Surendra Singh and Amal Kar, Agro-Botanical Publisher,
Bikaner, 1947, p. 36.
Op.cit. p. 71.

94
the shifting courses of the Sutlej known as the Satadru in the Vedic
literature, had also significantly contributed in the formation of extensive
alluvial plains in Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan '^
Ihe whole of the district Ganga Nagar is a plain, covered with a
thick layer of alluvium and wind blown sand. It displays a general gradual
slope towards the west. Generally the sand dunes are 4 to 5 metres high
except in south-western part where they are more intensely developed
being sometimes 10 to 15 metres in height. No important hills exist in the
district, however, on the banks of the dried up saraswati and Drishadvati
rivers, ridges rise above the ground level. Comparatively the northern
portion of the district is well wooded as compared to the southern and
south-eastern portion. The height of the district varies between 168 and
227 metres above the mean sea level. Ghaggar river locally known as nali
is an ephemeral though large in size and has north-east to south-west
courses near Hanumangarh. It sometimes gets flooded

during the

monsoon. The two main Irrigation Canals viz. the Gang Canal and the
Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area have handsomely placed the district
on the agricultural map of India.
Eastern part of the desert is dominated by flat aggraded and older
alluvial plains. The main region of this older alluvial plains is Sojat in the
east to Pachpadra in the west, Bali and Bhinmal in the south. Another
zone is Bikaner in the north to Bainsara in the South. Third major zone of
this plain is around Ganganagar in the north-west. The alluvial sediments
of these plains have been deposited by well integrated drainage system
which were active during the past humid phases.'-'
The nature of the sediment varies from loamy sand to sandy loam and
also loam but at certain places loam to clay loam are found. Surface
drainage channels are almost absent except in the eastern fringe. But the
12

13

Ghose, B Kar, A. and Hussain, Z. The Lost Courses of Saraswati river in the
Great Indian Desert, New Evidence from Land Sat Imagery, Geographical
.lournal, Vol. 145, 1979, pp. 446-451.
Ghose, B The genesis of desert plains in the Central Liini basin of Western Rajasthan
Proc Symp. Prob. Indian Arid Zone, CAZRI, Jodhpur, 1965, pp. 79-87.

95
courses of the prior drinage channels have good potential of ground water
at 6 to 15 metre depth.''*
There are also occurrence of saline flat aggraded older alluvial plains
around

Bijasni,

Dhori

Manna,

in Jodhpur

around

Hemawas

and

Raghunathgarh in the Pali, around Suayali and Burad in Banner district

and certain places of Ganganagar and Nagaur '^
iv)

The Luni Basin

Luni is the only river which flows in the south and south eastern part

of the district, comprising the area of Jodhpur and Bilara tehsils. The Luni
basin comprises the older alluvial plains. It rises near Pushkar in Ajmer
district after flowing through the portion of Nagaur and Pali districts. This
river enters the district near village Jhak (Bilara tehsil). Mithri is the Chief
tributary of this river which joins Luni near village Khejarii Khurd
(Jodhpur tehsil) to ultimately form a huge artificial lake known as Jaswant
Sagar.
The geomorphology of this region is the product of both fluvial and
aeolian agencies. The drainage pattern of this region is linear, subparallel, sub dendritic and radial which is testimony to the differential
erosion. The largest concentration of the streams is in the piedmont zone
and lowest in Pachpadra salt basin.'^ The soils of the basin consist of
mainly gray brown desert, alluvial and sandy particles.
In the central Luni basin around Jalore, Siwana, Bujawar the hills are
flanked at their bases by piedmont plain and are composed of thick
coUuvial debris derived from the adjoining hills. These plains are affected
by severe wind and by slight to severe water hazards.'^

14
15
16
17

Ghose, B. el al. Geomorphology of (he Rajaslhan Desert Desertification and its

Control Ed Jaisalwal, P.L. I.C.A.R. New Delhi, 197, p 72
Ghose et al Some geomorphic aspect of salinity hazard in Rajasthan desert
Woikshop on problem of desert in India, Jaipur, 1975
Singh, S. et al Geomorphology of the middle Luni Basin of Western Rajasthan
India Annals of Arid Zone, CAZRI, Jodhpur, Vol. 10, No 2, 1975, p. 2
Ghose et al Geomorphology of the Central Luni basin, Western Rajasthan
Annals of Arid Zone, CAZRI Jodhpur, 1968, pp. 54-57.

96
v)

Sand dunes and sand sheet

The whole distriet of Jaisahner is ahnost sandy, dry land ill-watered

and form part of the Great Indian Desert of 'Thar'. However, in the
neighbourhood of Jaisalmer town within a radius of about 64 km. the soil
is stony containing numerous rocky ridges and hard undulating plains with
this exception the general nature of land in the district look like a limitless
sea of sand dunes of different shapes and varying size towards Sam area.
The biggest sand-dunes are found in Ramgarh and Sam sub-tehsils. Most
of these are deeply stablized and look like sand-hills. It is however,
surprising to note that even a little rain turns the waste area into greenery
and becomes a seasonal pasture land. In the area near Deda in Sam subtehsil and almost in half the area of Pokaran tehsil the land is gravel, stone
and is locally known as 'Magra'. There are also a few low lying hills in
Pokaran tehsil. The height of these varies between 61 to 107 metres above
sea level and are usually covered with Bardi and Khajra trees.
Apart from a small offshoot of the Aravalli hills in the east of
Barmer, the area is a vast sand covered tract with sub-stratus of gneiss,
hornblende and quartz which occasionally rise up through the sand, in
some instances to a height of about 243 to 304 metres. In the extreme
north and west the sandy plain is broken by sand hills called 'tibas' which
sometimes rise to a height of 91 to 122 metres. This area is dry and
inhospitable and forms part of Thar Desert,
The landform of Marusthali, the aeolian deposit and topographic
undulation are due to underlying geology, other wise it is almost a level
plain studded with dunes and ridges complexes.'^
The major part of the Bikaner district is comprised of desolate and
dry regions which form part of the great Indian desert of Thar. There are
two natural divisions of the district namely (i) North and Western desert
and (ii) South and eastern semi-desert. At many places one finds shifting

8.

Misra, V.C. Geography of Raj as than. National Book Trust of hidia, New Delhi,
1968, p. 65.

97
sand dunes of varying heights ranging from 6 to 30 metres. Kolayat is a
beautiful oasis amidst the vast expanse of arid desert, construction of
canals in its western part has led to activation of the stable dune-fields to
a large extent. The migrating sand is however, threatening the canals and
roads, besides spreading eastwards, salinity hazards and undesirable rise
of water table are also developing in the canal command area.
District Churu is a part of the Thar desert and is characterised by 6
to 30 metre high longitudinal dunes treading north-east to south-west. The
ground level in the desert is about 400 metres above mean sea level. There
is no perennial stream in the district. River Kantli which rises in the hills
near Khandela in Sikar district gets lost in the sands on the borders of this
district. The spread of sand is extensive, sometimes encroaching on the
cultivated tracts and metalled roads. Desert area consists of Sardarshahar
and Dungargarh tehsils and major parts of Churu and Ratangarh tehsils.
The occurrence of sandy undulating aggraded older alluvial plain can
be seen around Pilani and Jhunjhunu around Amarpura, Phalodi and
Bhinmal in the south. This area is affected by intense aeolian activities
which have created moderate to severe wind depositional hazards in the
form of sand sheets and longitudinal and transverse duens of 90 cm to 5
m height and sandy hummock and ridges are almost absent in this region
and rainwater flows along the courses of buried channels where ground
water has been found at 20 to 40 m depth.'^
In district Nagaur the topography generally is fairly even. A part of
district falls in the category of 'desert' as the north-western region is
covered with large sand-dunes. Extending sometimes in an continuous
series. The district has its general slope towards the west. Its elevation is
about 300 metres ranging between 250 metres in the south to 640 metres
in the north.
District Sikar is divisible into two main topographic areas. The
western region is characterised by sand-dunes and the eastern half by hill
ranges in the proximity of the Aravallis.
19.

Ghose, B. et al. Geomorphology of the Rajaslhan Desert. Desertification and its

Control ed. Jaisalwal, P.L. I.C.A.R. New Delhi, 1977, p. 73.

98
The obstacle dunes have been formed by deposition of sand against
the windward or leeward slopes. These dunes generally 10 to 50 m in
height. The parabolic and coalesced parabolic dunes are most dominant
and are found almost in all parts of the tracts with dunes. This is also 10
to 50 metres in height.
The longitudinal dunes occur mainly in the western and southern part
of .laisalmer district and the eastern parts of Barmen They are also found
in the south-west of Jalore, in the north of Phalodi, in Jodhpur and in the
north-east of Nagaur district. The height varies from 10 to 80 metres.
The transverse dunes are mainly concentrated in the western part of
Bikaner district and the eastern parts of the Nagaur district and arc
scattered in the churu, Jhunjhunu, Jodhpur and Barmer districts. The
dunes are of 5 to 40 metres in height.
Barchan and Shrub-Coppice dunes constitute the non-calcareous sand
and being devoid of vegetation, are active and they belong to the dunes of
new system. The majority of the barchan dunes are formed to the west of
250 m.m. Isohyet in Barmer and Jaisalmer districts and in the western part
of .lodhpur, Jhunjhunu, Churu and Bikaner districts. The barchan dunes
are generally 3 to 10 metres of height.
vi)

Inter-dunal Plains
Sand dunes are the most spectacular landforms of the Rajasthan

desert and cover 58 per cent of the total desert area. There are two major
zones of sand dunes. The western most zones lies in western part of
Barmer, Jaisalmer and Bikaner districts and is covered with high dunes
with much reactivation along their crest and flanks. To the east, another
zone of high sand-dunes runs through the eastern parts of the Bikaner and
Churu districts. Both the zones are separated by the vast rocky tract of
Jaisalmer, Pokaran, Bikaner, Bap sector, but they meet in the north of
Bikaner

district

and

extend

into

Ganganagar

district.

Another

discontinuous belt of patches runs from Sanchor through Saila, Didwana

and Lachmangarh and meets at Ratangarh Churu area. Between these arms
of sand dunes are a series of discontinuous inter-dunal plains of varying

99
size. These three zones comprise six types of sand dunes namely obstacle,
parabolic and coalesced parabolic, longitudinal, transverse, barchan and
shrub coppice.2^ Among the sand dunes the obstacle, parabolic,
longitudinal and tranvcrse dunes arc well stabliscd, as evidenced by the
presence of vegetation on them, presently, many of these dunes are
degradaded and reactivated due to increasing biotic stress. As a result,
mobile bedforms are found on their slopes and crests.^'
As a consequence of the reactivation of dunes the inter-dunal plains
are threatened with degradation. These inter-dunal plains are very
precious agricultural land. However, they are the most vulnerable land to
degradation and desertification due to intensive land use pressures of
cropping and overgrazing.
vii) Saline Depressions and Playas
The saline depressions of different shapes and sizes are scattered in
several parts of desert. They mostly occur at Sambhar, Kuchaman,
Didwana, Lunkaransar, Jamsar, Bap, Thob, Pachpadra, Sanwarla and
around Pokaran and Jaisalmer.^^
Saline depressions of large and small size are found scattered through
out the western parts of this region. Some of them are enclosed by sand
hills and sand-dune tracts. They are rendered in summer months but
during the rainy season they are filled up by the run-off of the surrounding
slopes. The topography of western Rajasthan is the result of rapid changes
in the drainage system, enormous accumulation of loose rocky material

20.
21.

22.

Ghose, B., Singh, S. and Kar, A. Geomorphology of the Rajasthan Desert,

Desertification and its Control ed. Jaisalwal, P.L. ICAR, New Delhi, 1977, p. 73.
Singh, S., Kar, A. and Vatsa, P.C. Landforms of the Arid Ecosystem of Western
India Desertification Control in the Arid Ecosystem of India for Sustainable
Development, Eds. Surendra Singh and Amalkar, Agro-Botanical Publisher
(India), Bikaner, 1997, p. 37.
Ghose, B. and Singh, S. Geomorphological Control on the distribution for
evaporites in the Arid Zone of Rajasthan India, Proc. Symp. Arid Zone, Jodhpur,
1968, pp. 54-57.

100
deepening of the water-table and consequent depletion of vegetation and
tlnereby accentuation of desertic conditions.^-*
C.

Soil Profiles, Characteristics and Vulnerability to Erosion

Soil cover of the arid zone in western Rajasthan comprise an area of

about 175,000 sq. kilometers west and north-west of the Aravallis.^'^

Originally drifting the soils of Indian desert were made by the IndoGangctic drainage system during the fluvial periods. They were generally
alluvial and particularly loamy soils. The soils of this region are very
different in their nature, and characteristics. Subsequently, the soils of
Indian desert developed mainly under high temperature and scanty and
erratic rainfall. The soil fertility gradually improves from west and northwest to north-east in Sikar and Jhunjhunu. In many parts of this region,
the soils are saline or alkaline with unfavourable physical properties and
high pH value.^^
These soils fall under the category of pedocals and are known by
their characteristics such as low content of organic matter, usually alkaline
in nature, poor permeability and usually high content of soluble salts. The
other chief features of the soils in the arid zone are their succeptibility to
wind erosion and the consequent occurrence of sand dunes.^^ Soils of this
region are generally immature structureless or very course in texture. As a
result of it, the sub-surface percolation rates are higher and the water
holding capacity of the soil profiles is low. The microbial activity in the
sandy soils is meagre because of the poor moisture retentivity. Such soils
are generally unproductive.

23

24.
25.
26.

Raheja, P.C. Report on the symposium on problems of Indian And Zone,

Proceeding of the Symposium on Problems of hidian Arid Zone, Jodhpur, 1964,
p. XVIll.
Final Report of the All India Soil Survey Scheme 1953, Bulletin, No. 73, ICAR,
New Delhi.
Roychaudhry, S.P. Classification and Fertility of Soils of Desert and Semi-Desert
Regions, Proc. of the Symp. on Prob. of Indian Arid Zone, Jodhpur, 1964,p. 101.
Satya Narayan, K.V.S. Land Classification and Land Use in the Arid Zone of
India, Proc. of the Symp. on Prob. of Indian Arid Zone, Jodhpur, 1964, p. 129.

101
The soils of western Rajasthan consist of 2.0-6.0 per cent clay from
west to east, 1.5-4.0 per cent silt, 10.0-30.0 per cent coarse sand and 65.080.5 per cent fine sand from the western frontier in Barmer and Jaisalmer
to the northeastern parts.^^
The dominant soils of the Indian Arid zone are light textured and
devoid of any significant structure development. These are prone to severe
wind erosion unless properly protected by a varied and reasonable
vegetation cover. They have very low water retention capacity. However,
these possess high infiltration rate and low hydraulic conductivity in an
unsaturated state. This permits quick soaking of the rain and its
conservation against strong atmospheric moisture deficit. Although the
coarse, loose sandy soils permit easy proliferation of the plant roots, still
however, their low water retaining capacity does not support a good
vegetation cover. Therefore, the optimum use of the soil mositure is
possible only through a combination of shallow and deep rooted
vegetation. In the arid Rajasthan duny soils are dominant formation in
about 33 per cent area and sub-dominant associates is another 25 per cent
area and occur in almost all the arid districts.
The sand dunes are of different type viz. parabolic, coalesced
parabolic, transverse and barchan. Among these dunes, parabolic and
coalesced parabolic are dominant varying in height from 10-40 m.^^ The
duny soil profile is uniformly fine sandy throughout the depth, single
grain and pale-brown. These soils have very low water retention capacity
of only 40 to 50 mm per metre of the soil profile depth. The associated
interdunal soils have significantly more silt, clay and CaCo^ content.
Light brown sandy soils, having scattered dunes and sandy hummocks,
cover 32 per cent area and they extensively occur in all the districts. The
surface is covered with loose sand sheets. These soils have 50 to 70 mm
water retention capacity per metre depth. The light loam soils are deep
27.
28.

Qureshi, S. Regional Perspective on Dry Fanning, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis,

A.M.U. Aligarh, 1988, p. 107.
Kolarkar, A.S. Soils of Indian Arid Zone - A Research Perspective (Eds. R.P.
Singh and Singh S.) Scientific Publisher, Jodhpur, 1994, pp. 25-31.

102
and have good moisture retention capacity 60 to 120 mm/metre profile
depth.29

In the southern part of arid Rajasthan covering the southern part of

Nagaur, south-eastern part of Jodhpur and entire Pali district the soils
have developed on alluvium and fme grained rock. These are dark brown
and greyish brown and very dark greyish brown loam to clay loam. The
soils are generally moderately deep to deep and below 60 to 90 cm, a lime
concretionary horizon occurs. The water retention capacity of these soils
is very high 150-200 mm/metre depth.^
The salt affected soils occur scattered in the arid region of Rajasthan.
But their large area of occurrence in the south-eastern part of arid
Rajasthan and in the Ghaggar flood area of Bikaner, Hanumangarh and
Ganganagar districts. In Pali, Jalore, Barmer and south-eastern part of
Jodhpur and Nagaur districts, vast stretches of naturally saline soils are
encountered. The soils are sandy loam, loam caly loam, dark greyish
brown to very dark greyish brown having angular blocky structure. These
soils are generally 50 to 80 cm deep, underlain by lime concretionary
horizon.-^'
In the flood plain of Ghaggar in northern Rajasthan, large salt
affected

lands with medium to fine textured soils occur. With the

availability of irrigation water from canal these lands are being reclaimed.
The anthropogenically salt and water-logged affected soils have developed
due to irrigation with highly saline/sodic ground water, seepage from
embarkments on the streams and water table rise in the Indira Gandhi
Canal Command Area.-'^
Another characteristics of the soils in this region is their calcarious
nature having a sub-soil concretionary layer of lime and are very poor in
organic matter (0.02-0.2 per cent). The soils are generally very deficient
in plant nutrients except potash (806 mg/10 gm) and pH is about 8.5. The
29.
30.
31.
32.

Ibid, pp. 25-31.

Ibid, p. 50.
Ibid, p. 50.
Ibid, p. 50.

103
light textured soils have 285 ppm of total phosphorous. The organic
carbon ranges from 0.50-0.75 per cent and above is low, medium and
heavy textured soils.'^
Soils of western Rajasthan are generally low in fertility status. The
fertility status of the soils has been assessed on the basis of available
nitrogen, phosphorus and potash in the soil for crop production. These
soils generally low in nitrogen, low to medium in available phosphate and
medium to high in available potash.-^''
All the districts which constitute this region are low in nitrogen
content. The available phosphorus generally ranges from 7 to 20 kg/ha in
the coarse textured soils. In medium textured soils particularly on the
younger alluvium, the available potash status is generally medium to high
being 150-350 kg/ha.^^
Jaisalmer is low in phosphorus while other districts have medium
status. Jaisalmer is also low in potash content while Bikaner and Jodhpur
are medium and Jalore and Barmer are high.
Many parts of stablised areas (as at .lodhpur and Jaipur) calcium
oxide content increases downwards in the soil profile resulting in calcium
carbonate accumulation or Kankar bed formation. It is due to rain water
which had sufficient time to leach the calcium content in the sub-soil is
nearly ten times that of the top soil. In most of the desert soils.
Diphosphorous penta oxide ranges from 0.05 to 0.1 per cent. This
deficiency is however, made upto a certain extent by the presence of high
available Nitrogen in the form of Nitrates. Thus phosphates together with
nitrates go a long way to make these desert sands fertile for agricultural
crops and other plants whenever, nitrates is not deficient. The pH of the

33.
34.
35.

Faroda, A.S. el al. Management of Indian Arid Range Land, Technical Bullclin
CAZRl, Jodhpur, Vol. No. 4, 1980, p. 6.
Chauhan, T.S. Integrated Area Development of Indian Desert, Geo-Environ
Academica and Divyajyoti Prakashan, Jodhpur, 1988, p. 64.
Abichandani, C.T. Genesis Morphology and Management of Arid Zone Soils,
Proceeding of the Symposium on Problem of Indian Arid Zone, Jodhpur, New
Delhi, 1964, p. 126.

104
soils and sand varies between 7.2 and 9.2 with majority falling within the
range of 8.1 to 8.8.^^
The soil of western Rajasthan vary in their nature and composition.
The soil in north eastern part is composed of fine silt. They are
predominantly sandy in nature, with poor moisture holding capacity and
good permeability.^'' The soils of Ganganagar district are yellowish grey
in colour and gritly with friable lumps and fewer kankar nodules.-^^^ In the
central part of western Rajasthan, the soil varies from sand, sandy loam to
rock gravel. Further the western most district of Barmer and Jaisalmer are
mostly covered with sand. These soils contain a high percentage of
soluble salt and have high pH value.
Though the soil of western Rajasthan are generally sandy in nature,
but the areal differentiation reveals considerable variation in their colour,
texture, structure, aeration, compaction and microbial environment water
holding capacity and fertility status. The soils of western Rajasthan have
been divided into different groups (Fig. 4).
1.

Soils of the Sand Dunes

The arid region of western Rajasthan is covered with 58 per cent of

sand dunes of different form, magnitude and orientation. They are usually
in chains of longitudinal dunes, but transverse and barchan dunes are also
common in this region.^^ These dunes are distributed beyond the Luni
basin to the Rann of Kutch. In arid Rajasthan, Kolarkar (1994) reported
tha dune soils are dominant formations in about 33 per cent area and subdominant associated in another 25 per cent area and occur in almost all

36.

37.
38.
39.

Roy Chaudhary, S.P. Classification and Fertility of Soils of Desert and SemiDeserl Regions, Proceeding of the Symposium on Problem of hidian Arid Zone,
Jodhpur, 1964, p. 105.
Ahmad, A. Human Geography of Indian Desert, Ph.D. Thesis (Unpublished),
A.M.U., Aligarh 1963, pp. 125-126.
Fi>w! Report of All India Soil Survey Scheme, Bulletin No. 73, 1975, pp. 212214, New Delhi.
Mann, H.S. et al. A study of the moisture availaiblity and other conditions of instablised
dune in the context of present landuse andfurther prospects of desertification, In Annals
of Arid Zone, CAZRI, Jodhpur, Vol. 15(4), 1976, p. 270.

105

Fig. 4

106
the arid districts. The sand dunes are of different type viz. parabolic,
coalesced parabolic, transverse and barchan. Among these dunes parabolic
and coalesced parabolic are dominant, varying in height from 10-40 m.'"^
The dune soils are fine sands, single grained, porous, and have a
poor water holding capacity. It contains 95 per cent fine to medium
textured sand and rest of the 5 per cent clay. The pH value of these duens
ranges from 8.3 to 8.8. These soils are generally considered unfit for
cultivation but in some favourable regions the crops are cultivated once in
three or four years.
Sand dunes occur throughout western Rajasthan in a varying degree.
But the soils of this class are mainly relegated to the west of 25 cm
Isohyet.'" The dunes are both stablised and active. However, the stablised
dunes dominate, dunes include very deep, weakly structured, yellowish
brown, calcareous fine sands to loamy sand which may have an
overburden of recently deposited, slightly calcareous sand at varying
depth. In some cases lime nodules also occur at varying depths within 150
cm depth of stablised dunes,
2.

Desert Soil
The desert soils of western Rajasthan extend considerably over the

district of Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Churu, Barmer and parts of Pali, Jalore,

Ganganagar and Nagaur which are mostly confined in the interdunial
areas. This region consists of wind blown sand being typical desert. Most
of this area consist of wind blown sands with yellowish to yellowish
brown, sandy to sandy loam soils.''^ These soils are loose, structureless
and well drained with rapid permeability. The fertility status of the soils
is poor, organic matter on an average varies from 0.2 per cent to 0.3 per

40.

Kolarkar, A.S. Soils of Indian Arid Zone, Sustainable Development of the Indian
Arid Zone - A Research Perspective (Eds. R.P. Singh and Singh, S.) Scientific
Publishers, Jodhpur, 1994, pp. 25-31.
4 1. Roychaudhry, S.P. Classification and Fertility of Soils of Desert and Semi-Desert
Regions, Proc. Symp. Probl. hid. Arid Zone, Jodhpur, 1964, pp. 101-106.
42. Gupta, R.K. and Ishwar Prakash. Environmental Analysis of the Thar Desert,
Dehradun, 1975, p. 101.

107
cent nitrogen and available phosphorous is less than 0.22 per cent and
0.004 per cent."^-^ The Kankar (hard pan) layer which inhibits the root
growth is present below 75 cm and wind erosion is severe because of
scanty vegetation cover.'''*
In the extreme west the soil is light and sandy. In the neighbourhood
of .Jaisalmer within a radius of 65 km. the soil is very stony and numerous
low rocky ridge and hard undulating plains occur. Generally, there is an
interminable sea of sand hills some of which rise to 50 metre. Further
north in Bikaner region the southern, central and western parts form plain
of the highest class of sandy soil, broken at short intervals by ridges of
almost pure sand. In the north, towards Ganganagar the soil is more level
and consists of light loam, improving east ward in quality. In the eastern
parts the soil is sandy loam while in the south-east it is less loamy and
sand hills are more frequently encountered.''^ The cultivation is strictly
limited due to climatic hazards and moisture deficiency.
3.

Red Desertic Soil

These soils are found in the districts of Nagaur, Jodhpur, Pali, Jalore

parts of Churu and Jhunjhunu. They are reddish pale brown to dark brown
loose and structureless. Iron contents have been throughly oxidized to
give them a red appearance, poorly developed horizons and fragments of
parent rocks occur. Their texture varies from sandy loam to sandy clay
loam and Kankar layer is present at 50 to 100 cm depth. The soil is
suitable for cultivation but adverse climatic limitations do not permit
landuse at ease.
4.

Sierozems :
These soils have developed from the sediments deposited by the river

Ghaggar and its tributaries. These type of soils are found in Nagaur and
43.
44.
45.

Randhawa, M.S. et al. Farmers of India, Vol. IV (M.P., Rajasthan, Gujarat and
Maharashtra), ICAR, New Delhi, 1968, p. 86.
Roy Chaudhry, S.R Classification and Fertility of Soils of Desert and SemiDesert Regions, Prob, Symp. on Arid Zone, Jodhpur, 1964, pp. 101-106.
Ibid, p. 105.

108
Pali districts. The soils are brown to light brownish grey, yellowish
brown, moderate calcareous. Sandy loam and sandy clay loam soils with
different structue and fairly rapid permeability. The silt content of these
soils quite significant. The water retention capacity of these soils is 100
to 130 mm per metre depth.''^ In this region soil are alkaline, low in
organic matter and lime concentration layers is present at 100-150 cm
depth. This type of soil is suitable for cultivation, but suffers from climate
hazards.'^''
5.

LethosoJ and Regosol

This soil type is mostly found in isolated hills along the slopes.
These soils are shallow light textured having low infilterates and are
poorly drained.
6.

Red and Yellow Soils of the Foothills

These soils are found along the foothills of Aravallis in Pali and
Nagaur districts. They are yellowish brown sandy to sandy loam and
sandy clay soils.
7.

Old Alluvium
The old alluvium in western Rajasthan are extended mostly in Sikar

district, although these soils have been derived from alluvium the soils
consist of medium to coarse sand, silt and clay. Texture of soils is loamy
sand to sandy loam and mostly non-calcareous. The alluvium is well
drained and occupy gently sloping terrain. The soils are good for
agriculture.
8.

Yellowish Brown Soil of Foothills

These soils are found on the foot hills of Aravallis. The texture of

soils varies from loam to clay loam with moderate to good drainage. The
colour of the soil mostly yellowish brown.
46.

47.

Kolarkar, A.S. et al. Soils of Indian Arid Ecosystems, Desertification Control in

the Arid Ecosystem of India for Sustainable Developments. Eds. Singh, S. and
Amalkar, Agro-Botanical Publisher, Bikaner, 1997, p. 5 1.
Roy, B.B. and Sen, A.K. Soil Map of Rajasthan, Annals of Arid Zone, CAZRI,
Jodhpur, Vol. 7, No. 1, 1968, p. 4.

109
9.

Saline Soils of Depressions

In the plains of western Rajasthan saline soils are found in the

depressions or the 'Rann' of Banner, Jaisalmer, Bikaner and Nagaur

distrits and include several salt basins like Bap, Pachpadra, Sambhar,
Didwana to Rann of Kutch. The colour of the soils are dark grey to pale
brown the water table is very close to surface. Agriculture in this region
is not possible due to high degree of salinity and also impeded drain the
only vegetation which grows on these soils is salt resistant grasses.
The soils of the Indian desert are coarse grained, loose, structureless.
They are sandy to loam sand. These soils have very low organic matter
contents to keep them together. Their nitrogen levels are low to very low
due to intense heat which dissipates nitrogen from the soil. They are not
cohesive soils. Their erodibility levels are high. As a result of it these
soils are highly vulnerable to desertification except in some favourable
locations such as alluvial plains and the paleo-river beds.
Drainage Network and Density :
The drainage pattern in western Rajasthan owes much to geological
formations and climatic oscillations.'*^ Arising out of paucity of rainfall,
the water resources of the region are scarce. The entire region, with the
exception of some favourable situations, is devoid of an organised
drainage system.'*^ From the rocky and gravelly surfaces, a number
runnels originate, which run for a few kilometers before disappearing. In
the dominant sandy tract even these are absent. The streams are mostly
misfit and soon die out in the desert area due to alluvial suffocation. It is
only in the east that a good network of drainage lines exist (Fig. 5). The
precipitation is the principle source of groundwater, which is often erratic
and scanty. With all the associated ill effects, such as frequent droughts,
crop failures, acute shortage of drinking water and famine conditions.

48.
49.

Ahmad, A. Human Geography of Indian Desert (Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis),

A.M.U., Aligarh, 1962, p. 163.
Mehra, T.N. Ground-water Resources of the Arid Zone of India, Desertification
and its Control, ed. P.L.^Jaisawal, ICAR, New Delhi, 1977, p. 156.
1

no

WESTERN RAJASTHAN
DRAINAGE SYSTEM

^
/
/

KHARIA

RJINN

/
V.

32

11 64 96

128

Source Agricultural atlas of Rajasthan I.CA-R-1972

New Delhi Plate no-3 P:21
Fig. 5

in
i)

The Luni Drainage System

Luni is the only important river of some consequence in western

Rajasthan. Luni rises in the northwest of Ajmer at an elevation of 550

metres abaove mean sea level. It is first known as Sagarmati and after
passing Govindgarh in Ajmer district it is joined by Sarsute (Saraswati)
which has its source near sacred lake of Pushkar and from this point it is
called Luni.^ It is the only visible drainage system which make its way
through the desert to the Rann of Kutch. Most of the tributaries of Luni
join it on the left bank for physiographic reasons. Among the tributaries
of Luni which deserve mention are the Lilri, Raipur Luni, Mithri, Sukri,
Guhiya, Bandi, Jawai, Bandi nadi, Sukri nadi and Sagi nadi on the left
Bank and the Jogri on the right but none of them is perennial.^'
The Luni river has a length of 482 kms. and the catchment area of
62,500 sq.km.^^ The average depth is estimated to be 8 feet and width
3800 feet. The nature of river is most changeable and erratic. As far as
Balotra the water is generally sweet but lower down it becomes more and
more saline in character till on the edge of the Rann of Kutch.
The fairly recognisable drainage system constitute the river Luni and
its tributaries which come into their own only during the short monsoon
period. Rest of the time their channels are dry. River Luni during heavy
floods only drains water into the Rann of Kutch.
The Luni river system drains only a small area in the southern part
of the desert and its catchment is not so vast as to account for the alluvial
deposit in the northern part of the desert. Infact, the role of any
Himalayan river in the alluviation process between Luni and the Ghaggar
has never been thought of except for the northern fringe of the desert

50.
51.
52.

Tod, James, Annals of Antiquities of Rajasthan, Calcutta, Vol. 1, 1957, p. 13.

Chauhan, T.S. Integrated Area Development of Indian Desert, Geo. Environ.
Academia, Jaipur, 1988, p. 26.
Srivastava, K.K. et al. Potential Evapotranspiration loss and ground water
recharge in Luni Basin, Current Trend in Arid Zone Hydrlogy. Ed. Gupta, S.K.
and Sharma, P., New Delhi, 1979, p. 302.

112
where several authors have mentioned the existence of dry valley of the
Saraswati of the Vedic period.^^
The Luni river coming from the western slopes of Aravalli, flowing
towards the south-west direction from its source turns to southwards
direction near Gol and then flowing more or less straight till it enters the
Rann of Kutch.
After flowing through Nagaur, Pali and Jodhpur district the river
Luni enters district Barmer near village Flampura in Pachpadra tehsil, and
flows westward till just beyond. Tilwara, where it alters courses to southwest. In the years of heavy rains which, however, are rare, the river
overflows (known as Rel) when crops of wheat, gram and barley become
possible. After flowing into Jalore district it finally loses itself in marshy
ground at the head of the Rann of Kutch. Another river the Sukri has its
source in Aravalli hills, south of Desuri and flows along the north-western
part of that town eventually it joins the Luni just above Samadri. Another
rivers of the district are Mitri and Sukri no. 2 among streams mention may
be made of the Lik Nadi in Pachpadra tehsil. Ranigaon Nala near Barmer
town, and Kavas and Kehoraryal Nalas in Shiv tehsil. In real sense, there
is no lake in the district. However, there are numerous small ponds called
'pars' which are used for bed cultivation of wheat during the years of
heavy rains. Most of the ponds are dry by early summer but the ponds of
Rewana in Pachpadra and Shiv tehsil usually retain some water throughout
the year.
Guhiya has its source in the lower ranges of hills south of Bilara, and
after flowing south-west for nearly 32 kilometers it is joined by Sukri.
Luni is the only, river which flows in the south and south-eastern
parts of the Jodhpur district, comprising the area of Jodhpur and Bilara
tchsils. After flowing through the portions of Nagaur and Pali district this
river enters the district near village Jhak (Bilara tehsil). Mithri is the chief

53.

All, S.M. The Problem of Desiccation of the Ghaggar Plains, hidian Geog. Jour.
VoL 1, XVI, No. 2, 1942, pp. 166-178.

113
tributary of this river in the district which joins Luni near village Khejarli
Khurd (Jodhpur tehsil) to ultimately form a huge artificial lake known as
Jaswant Sagar. The total length of the river in the district is 122
kilometers. The seasonal streams in the district are Jojri, Golasmi and
Gunaimata, besides a rivulet Bastua.
The drainage of Jhunjhunu district is inland and is related to the
Kantli river system which is a non-perennial river and flows in the
district. This river covers a large area of the district and flows in south to
north direction. It originates in the Kiandera block hills of Sikar district
and enters this district from the south-western portion of Udaipurwali
tehsil. After passing through the area of all the tehsils of the district, it
ultimately enters Churu district. Besides, there are four major streams,
namely Dohan, Chandravati, Udaipur Lohagarh-ki-Nadi and Sukh Nadi.
There is no lake in the district.
A segment of the great Indian Desert covers the north, northwest and
north-cast parts of the Nagaur district. No river has its source in the
district. Luni is a non-perennial river. Its flow depending upon the volume
of rainfall it receives during the monsoon season. The river Luni, after
passing over the western slopes of the Aravalli crosses Nagaur district in
the south and flows through it towards the west for nearly 37 kilometers
before entering into Pali district. Lungiya, Rohisa, Rohisi, Jasnagar and
Surpura villages of the district are situated on the banks of this river.
A big salt lake exists at about 3 km to the south-Avest of Deedwana.
A part of the famous Sambhar lake in Jaipur district belong to Nagaur
district.
There is no perennial river in the Pali district. Four tributaries of
river Luni viz. Sukri, Lilri, Bandi and Jawai flow in the district. There is
no lake or natural spring in the district. For Irrigation purposes a number
of big and small tanks have been constructed. Among them, Jawai dam in
Bali tehsil has the largest capacity while the smallest is water tanks.
The district Sikar has no perennial river but there are five steams in
the western region namely Mendha, Kantli, Dohan, Krishnawati and Sabi.

114
Jawai rises in the soutli east corner of the region, it flows north close
to Nawa and Berai, then northwest along Jodhpur-Sirohi border.
There are numerous salt lakes are common in the desert of which
Pachpadra, Sambhar, Didwana, Bap, Pokhran and Rann of Jaisalmer are
most important. In the western most part of the great desert in Jaisalmer
there are numerous rivulets, which depend for their volume and extent on
rains, Lathi-ki-Nadi rivulet formerly entered Jaisalmer from Jodhpur near
Lathi on the east and flowed northwest as far as Mohangarh. However, its
bed has contained no water since 1885.^^*
ii)

The Ghaggar River System

The Ghaggar river once flowed through the Ganganagar district and

drained into the Arabian sea, after joining the Indus, and is now a 'dry
bed' except druing the rains. The Ghaggar upto 1000 B.C. was known by
its more prominent tributary, Saraswati.^^
The Ghaggar, war, Saraswati, Niwal and Drishadvati originate from
the Himalayan foot hills and drain the northern part of the arid tracts in
Ganganagar district and ultimately dieout in the Ghaggar alluvial plains
near Hanumangarh district.^^
Ghaggar river locally known as 'Nali' is an ephemeral one and has
north-cast to south-west courses near Hanumangarh district. It sometimes
gets flooded during the monsoon. The two main irrigation canals viz. the
Gang Canal have put the district on the agricultural map of India. An
artificial lake known as Talwara Jhil lies in Hanumangarh tehsil which has
come into existence by formation of a depression in the bed of Ghaggar
river where water is accumulated.
While going through our scriptures and epics like the Rigveda, the
Mahabharata, the Bhagavat Purana, etc. we find some references to
ancient rivers of India, some of which are now lost, one such river in the
54.
55.
56.

Rajputana Gazetter, Vol. IIIA. The Western Rajpulana Stales Residency and the
Bikaner, Allahabad, 1909, p. 24.
Mehra, T.N. and Amal K.S. Ground water Resourses of (he And Zone of India,
Desertification and its Control, ed. P.L. Jaisawal, ICAR, New Delhi, 1977, p. 156.
Op.cit., p. 23.

115
western part of India was the Saraswati which used to flow through this
desert.^^ In yet another account during the proto-historic (3000 B.C. to
500 B.C.) and early historic (500 B.C. to A.D. 400) periods western
Rajasthan in Ganganagar district was the cradle of a such river valley
culture of the ancient Saraswati until it drifted westwards and disappeared
with the change of river course.^^
The shifting and drying of the Saraswati-Drishadvati river system
were due to the aridity and advancing sand and also due to the shifting of
the Sutlej which left these rivers more erratic in flow and later dry out.^*^
Along with the Saraswati one of its major Himalayan tributaries, the
Drishadvati (or the Chautang), also flows through the Rajasthan desert.
Formerly it is used to meet the Saraswati perhaps around the present site
of Surjansar and helped much in the quaternary alluviation of this part of
the desert. But as and when the Saraswati began to swing westward, the
Drishadvati also turned westward and finally left the arena of desert.''"
iii)

Ephemeral Streams
There are also innumerable minor streams and streamlets, confined

to piedmont plains. These streams are ephemerals and flow only during
above rainfall years. The course of these river and streams are shallow and
wide, it is therefore, natural that the surface water resources are generally
limited.'''
Towards the west, as the aridity intensifies, the drainage becomes
sparse and ephemerals in the extreme west.
57,

58,

59,
60,
61,

Ghose, B. and Amalkar, The former streams courses in the Indian Desert and
their effect on natural Resources, Proc. hido-US workshop on Arid Zone
Research, CAZRl, Jodhpur, DST Government of hidia, New Delhi, 9-14 Jan.
1984, p. 141.
Adyalkar, P.G., Palaeogeography, Sedimentological Framework and Ground
water Potentiality of Arid Zone of Western India, Proc. Symp. Probl. hidian Arid
Zone, Jodhpur, 1964, p. 15.
Op.cit. p. 143.
Op.cit. p. 143.
Chauhan, T.S. Integrated Area Development of Indian Desert, Geo-Environ
Acadeinia, Jodhpur, Divyajyoti Prakashan, Jodhpur, 1988, p. 90.

116
The district Bikaner has no hill and no rivulets or streams of any
significance small ephemeral streams flow in the vicinity of Kolayat,
Gajner and Gura. Natural inland depressions which retain some water
during the summer are located near Lunkaransar, Kolayat, Jampur and
Nal. Construction of Canals in its western parts has led to activation of
the stable dune field to a large extent. The migrating sand is, however,
threatening the Canals and roads, besides spreading eastwards. Salinity
hazards and undesirable rise of water table are also developing in the
canal command area.
The district Jaisalmer has no perennial river. However, among the
few streams which flow around Jaisalmer, one is called 'kakni' which
rises near village Kotri about 22 kms. south of Jaisalmer. It flows first
towards the north and then turns west. Near Rupsi village it forms a lake
known as 'Bhuj' Jhil. There are no natural lakes in the district.^^
On the whole in western Rajasthan, there is no perennial river. All
rivers, stream and rivulets entirely depend upon the amount and incidence
of rainfall.
Ground Water Depth and Chemistry
Water demand in desert is mainly met from ground water resource.
Unconsolidated or semi-consolidated aquifers are potential sources of
water in the desert region of Rajasthan. These often lie adjacent to saline
aquifers and receive insignificant replenishment due to water deficit
climatic conditions, low and erratic rainfall, coefficient of variability
exceeding 50 per cent (Krishnan and Thanvi,

1974) and evapo-

transpiration more than ten times the annual rainfall. The conditions rarely
leave surplus water available for recharge aquifers.^-^

62.
63.

Spate, O.H.K., India and Pakistan, Methuen, London, 1954, p. 485.

Krishnan and Thanvi (1974). Trend of Ground water level and their impact on
Arid Ecosystem of Rajasthan by Paliwal, S.C. and Sharma, D.C. in
Desertification Control in the Arid Ecosystem of India for Sustainable
Development, ed. Surendra Singh and Amalkar, Agro-Botanical Publisher,
Bikaner, 1997, p. 159.

117
Ground water exploitation without adequate recharge has affected
desert ecosystem. Water levels are depleting and deterioration of chemical
quality of groundwater by ingression of saline water and reduction of
yield of wells have become common/'''
The requirements of water for drinking for livestock and for
irrigation are met either from the ground water resources or from a
network of canals from the neighbouring sub-humid region as from the
local tanks.
In most arid parts of western Rajasthan the amount of rainfall is very
low and the absorption rates of the soil are high, the consequent run-off
potential is less. Besides, the high percolation rates are suggestive of good
ground water potential. But one should not loose sight of the fact that
there are extensive sub-soil moisture barriers of lime, Kankar, and salt
commonly known as hard pans at varying depth. These hard pans
generally inhibit the gravity induced downward movement of soil water
through them. The soil water, in the zone of aeration, is lost into the
atmosphere by induced evaporation. Nevertheless, ground-water is not
merely an attribute of the climatic and physiographic features but to a
great extent, it conforms to the underlying geological formation and
bedding planes.^^
It is reported that over 75 per cent of the area of western Rajasthan
is occupied by semi-consolidated and consolidated bedrock formations of
Eocene and older geological ages, and except for Bikaner region, the
formation have poor capacity to hold and transmit water.'^''
The ground water in the arid zone occurs in rock ranging in age from
Pre-cambrian to the quaternary system. In hard crystalline rocks such as
64.

65.
66.

Paliwal, S.C. and Sharma, D.C. Trend of Ground Water Levels and Their Impact
on Arid Ecosystem of Rajasthan, Desertification Control in the Arid Ecosystem
of India for Sustainable Development. Eds. Surendra Singh and Amalkar, AgroBotanical Publisher (India), Bikaner, 1997, p. 159.
Quereshi, S. Regional Perspective on Dry Farming, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis,
A.M.U., Aligarh, 1988, p. 58.
Taylor, G.C., Proc. Symp.on Rajputana Desert, Bulletin, No. I, 1952.

118
gneisses, schist, phyilites and quartzites, the ground-water occurs and
moves through the joints, fractures, foliatics planes and weathered zones,
whereas, in the sedimentary rocks, like sand stones, the ground-water
occurs and moves through the pore spaces and interstitial opening of
granular sediments.^''
Ground water in western Rajasthan generally occurs under low
water-table conditions (unconfmed) in hard crystalline and alluvial
formations. In sandstones of the tertiary and older ages, ground water also
occurs under semi-confined to confined conditions owing to the presence
of overylying impermeable horizons. The depth upto which water is
available in the arid zone ranges from less than 10 metre to as high as 70
metre below the land surface. At some places, however, ground water may
be at depth more than 100 metres. The lowest water-table has been
observed in the area of south of Bikaner in Rajasthan (Fig. 24).^*^
The following category has been made in order to assess the spatial
variation in ground water depth and their chemistry.
i)

Regions of High and Secondary Water Table and their Chemistry

It is important to bear in mind that there is no organised or perennial

drainage system in western Rajasthan Ganganagar is the only exception

where Rajasthan canal network has led to a secondary water-table.
The perched

water table becomes shallower

southwards

and

westwards. Ratangarh, Taragarh and Churu tehsils of the same district

show shallow water, Rajgarh tehsil of Churu district has preponderence of
brackish water.
The nature and depth of ground water in Churu is one of the major
reasons of minimum percentage of vegetation cover in the district.
Another reason of ground water scarcity in Churu may be the vast extent
of sand dunes. Churu receives twice as much of mean annual rainfall as
67.
68.

Mehra, T.N. and Sen, A.K. Ground-water Resources of the Arid Zone of India,
la Desertification and its Control, ed. P.L. Jaisawal, ICAR, New Delhi, pp. 156-159.
Ibid, p. 157.

119
Jaisalmer and considerably higher rainfall than Banner and Bikaner. Still,
it has most scanty vegetation cover largely due to the non-availability of
the surface water and poor availability of perched water. It has been
observed that perched water levels do vary with rainfall, physiography and
agro-climatic environment.^^ Rainfall is high with low co-efficient of
variation in the foothills and the related water levels are shallow. In Jalore
shallow wells are found along the Jawai and Sukri streams and 6 to 9
metre deep wells on the entirely hill, rocky outcrops appear a contribution
of catchment area seepage. In Jodhpur 9 metre deep wells on Golabar ki
nadi an ephemeral stream and at Bhenaniyan ki Dhani appear to be related
with a shallow water horizon. In the Pali region the ground water occurs
along the bedding planes and through fracture and cleavage plane and is
confined to an average depth of 45 metre, however, the water-table in
about 90 per cent of the wells in this region lies at a depth of about 20
metres. In individual cases the table may be as high as 4 metre, from the
surface.""^
In Jaisalmer district the perched water table is associated with the
rocky and gravelly wastes. There is a maximum fluctuation of water table
in these areas in response to the annual co-efficient of rainfall. A few
perennial wells along the extreme western border of Jaisalmer at Dharmu
Khu, Ghantial and Gotaru villages provide evidence in support of the
earlier course of Saraswati. The brackish wells have insufficient water and
arc generally away from the old course of Saraswati.^'
In Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area there has been a regular rise
of water level at an annual rate of 0.75 m in Suratgarh, 0.62 m
Hanumangarh, 0.58 m Sadulshahar, 0.35 m nohar and 0.30 m in Bhadra

69.

70.
71.

Paliwal, S.C. and Sharma, D.C. Trend of Ground water Levels and their Impact
on Arid Ecosystem in Desertification Control in the Arid Eco-syslem of India for
Sustainable Development, Eds. Singh, S. and Kar, Agro-Botanical Publisher,
Bikaner, 1997, pp. 159-173.
Taylor, G.C. et al. Bulletin Geol. Surv India, Series B, No. 6, 1955, pp. 36-37.
Quereshi, S. Water Table Heterogeneity and (he Ecosystem Diversity, Resource
Management Ed. Abhaiakshmi Singh, B.R. Publishing Company, 1999, p. 376.

120
Block. In Churu district tiiere is a trend of depletion in groundwater level
in Ratangarh, Sujangarh and Taranagar blocks at the rate of 0.32 m to 0.68
m per year since 1984.^^ In Ganganagar and Hanumangarh area of rising
water table the ecosystem has experienced problems of drainage,
waterlogging, loss of agricultural land and malaria intensification. In the
areas of lowering water table in Churu the ecosystems are facing problems
of vegetation depletion and degeneration and the induced erosion is
leading to degradation of land.
The quality of ground water in western Rajasthan

generally

deteriorates along with the decrease in precipitation towards north-west.

The saline water in the arid zone is dominated by sodium and chloride
ions. The less saline waters are rich in bicarbonate, sulphate and divalent
cations.''-^
Ground water in western Rajasthan is inherited by diversity of
quality problems (Gupta and Vijeya, 1983). Quality of ground water varies
widely. It deteriorate with distance from drainage courses in Jalore district
and with depth in Ganganagar district.^'' The district

Ganganagar,

Jhunjhunu, Sikar, Pali, Jalore comes under medium Sodium Adsorption

Ratio (SAR). Whereas, distribution

of sulphate

recorded

low in

Ganganagar, Jhunjhunu and Sikar. The main reason for high SAR in
ground waters is their sodium dominating character. Ground water in
Sikar, Jhunjhunu, Nagaur, Barmer and Jaisalmer have also significant
concentration of Residual Sodium Carbonate.
(ii) Regions of Medium Water Depth :
There are various tehsils which lie under this category. In Jhunjhunu
district most of the medium depth wells found in Jhunjhunu, Chirawa and
72.

73.
74.

Paliwal, S.C. and Sharma, D.C. Trend of Ground water Levels and their Impact
on Arid Ecosystem of Rajasthan, Desertification Control in the Arid Ecosystem
of India for Sustainable Development, Eds. Surendra Singh and Amalkar, AgroBotanical Publisher, Bikaner, 1997, pp. 158-173.
Paliwal, K.V. Quality of Irrigation Waters and their Effect on Soil Properties in
Rajasthan, A Review Annals of Arid Zone, Vol. 10, No. 4, 1977, pp. 266-278.
Ground Water Atlas, Department of Ground Water Board and Irrigation
Department of Rajasthan, Jaipur.

121
Khetri tehsils at the average depth of 50 metre, whereas Fatehpur tehsil in
Sikar district have 60 metre depth. In Nagaur district Nagaur, Merta and
Jayal have medium water depth at an average of 65-70 metre. Shergarh,
Jodhpur, Bilara and Bhopalgarh tehsils of district Jodhpur have recorded
55, 60, 45 and 85 metre depth. In Banner district Baytu and Pachpadra
have medium water table at an average depth of 60 metres. In Nagaur
district the static water level is more than 50 m deep towards the western
and northwestern parts of Nagaur tehsil but it is restricted to 20 m in
linear belt running north-south in Nagaur tehsil. In the rest of the area,
ground water is between 20 to 50 m.''^
The average effect of high Sodium Adsorbtion Ratio and Residual
Sodium Carbonate in Irrigation water is well known. Joshi and Dhir
(1989) have observed that continuous use of waters having RSC on sandy
loam soils. In Barmer district have turned the soils completely barren.^^
Based on the data obtained from Rajasthan Ground Water Board it is
revealed that 60 per cent area of western Rajasthan is dominated by saline
water. It is evident that the districts having very low rainfall like Churu
have 82.02 per cent, Bikaner 80.44 per cent, Ganganagar 94.89 per cent
and Barmer 75.89 per cent of Saline waters. But increased salinity in
Ganganagar is due to uneconomic and extensive use of Canal Irrigation.
Therefore, risk of desertification is imminent in these districts. Similarly
Jaisalmer 69.84 per cent, Jalore 69.64 per cent, have high saline water
infested

areas.

These

saline

waters

are

a potential

hazards

to

intensification of desert like conditions in future.

Regions of Low and Permanent Water Levels and their Chemistry
Deep wells of permanent water table at an average depth of more
than 115 metre are found in Bikaner, Kolayat and Nokha tehsils of
Bikaner district. The occurrence of brackish water is high in Nokha
75.
76.

Chatterji, P.C. and Kar A. (Eds.) Natural and Human Resources of Nagaur
District, CAZRI, Jodhpur, 1992, p. 142.
Joshi, D.C. and Dhir, R.P. International Symposium on Managing Sandy Soils
Abstract, 1989, pp. 474-475.

122
lehsil.^'' The water table in the extreme western zone in Barmer, Jaisalmer
and Bikaner lies at depths of more than 70 metres from the surface.''^ In
Jodhpur district most of the deep wells are in Phalodi and Osian tehsils.
Shiv tehsil of Barmer, Sardarshahar and Sri Dungargarh in Churu and
Nagaur tehsil of the same district have low water table at an average depth
of 100 metres. In Jaisalmer district also deep well are at great depths in
Toga, Sangar, Bhilani, Devika, Somliyas and Kapuri villages. In the Lathi
series of Jaisalmer the water level ranges from 30 to 105 metre below
ground level. The lathi sand stones have come to be recognised as
potential ground water reservoirs of great promise. The water-table in the
Jaisalmer limestone ranges from 69 to 107 metre. These limestones series
bear water through their joints, while sand stones support wells due to
their porous nature. In Jaisalmer where the water-table is reported to vary
from 200 to 300 feet water seldom occurs at only 25 feet of depth in the
alluvium.^^ The ground water in Jaisalmer district occurs in almost all
formations but the quality and quantity vary considerably in different rock
types. In Jaisalmer limestone and Crystalline Igneous formation ground
water occurs in limited quantity under water table conditions.^ In Churu
district the water table is at great depth southward. In the Sangar village
of Jaisalmer district it is interesting to note a 19 metre deep well within 3
kilometres of 128 metres deep well. The shallow well is on the perched
water table at the edge of the gravelly waste. In none of the locations of
deep water wells there was any appreciable cover of natural vegetation.^'
It has been observed that the occurrence of brakish water is relatively
higher on shallower well nearly 26 per cent as compared to medium depth
77.
78.
79.

80.
81.

Qiiereshi, S. Water Table Heterogeneity and the Ecosystem Diversity, Resource

Management ed. A.L. Singh, B.R. Publishing Corporation, Delhi, 1999, p. 376.
Jaisalmer Gazetteer, p. 168.
Adyalkar, P.G. Palaeo-geography, sedimentological framework and ground water
potentiality of the Arid zone of western India, Proc. Symp. Probl. Ind. Arid Zone,
Jodhpur, 1964, p. 15.
Chatterji, P.C. and Kar, A. Integrated Natural and Human Resources Appraisal
of Jaisalmer district, CAZRI, Jodhpur, 1989, p. 156.
Quereshi, S. Water table Heterogeneity and the Ecosystem Diversity, Resource
Management ed. A.L. Singh, B.R. Publishing Corporation, Delhi, 1999, p. 376.

123
wells 14 per cent. Deeper wells showed only 5 per cent of brackish water
occurrence.^^ The deterioration is quality of ground water is widespread
and nearly 68.4 per cent samples show increase in salinity. The change in
water levels, leaching of chemical fertilizers and effluents from textiles
and other industries have influenced mineralization of ground water under
different hydrogeomorphic regions. The deepening of wells due to
increase in depth of water level have also facilitated release of salts from
clay and argillaceous sediments.^^
Natural Vegetation Cover and Composition :
The general appearance of the vegetation in Rajasthan desert is poor,
scanty, xerophytic widely dispersed leaving large areas barren. Vegetation
is a part of complex ecosystem which includes the plant cover, the
landform and the features of its surface deposits. Limitations of climate
and soil conditions permit a relatively poor and sparse vegetation at
different habitats in the Indian arid ecosystem.^"^ In a desert, a close
relationship exists between the habitat, the vegetation and its environment.
Thus relationship of an arid zone is always in a dynamic equilibrium as
the minor changes in the physical environment entail dynamic changes in
plant life. The vegetation of the desert regions shows examples of
adjustment to natural environment, which displays the typical desert
character with its extremely poor and discontinuous vegetation consisting
of a few widely spaced herbs grasses shrublets, dwarf shrubs and
occasional solitary stunted trees scattered over land with patches devoid
of any trace of plant life.^^

82.
83.

84.

85.

ibid, P. 376.
Paiiwal, S.C. and Sharma D.C. Trend of Ground water Levels and their Impact
on Arid Ecosystem of Rajathan, Desertifiction Control in the Arid Ecosystem of
India for Sustainable Development. Eds. Surendra Singh and Amalkar, AgroBotanical Publisher, Bikaner, 1997, p. 173.
Kumar, S. Vegetation of the Indian Arid Ecosystem, Desertification Control of the
Arid Ecosystem of India for Sustainable Development (eds.) Surendra Singh and
Amalkar, Agro-Botanical Publisher, Bikaner, 1997, p. 71.
E.G., Pichi-Sermali, The Arid Vegetation Types of Tropical Countries and their
Classification, Proceeding of the Montpellies Symposium on Plant Ecology, Paris,
UNESCO, 1955, p. 30.

124
The flora of the arid region includes many species which although
found in various parts of the country, resemble with the Egyptian origin.
A smaller number of plants may be of tropical African genesis also.
Natural vegetation of Indian arid zone is diminishing continuously
owing to reckless land use practices e.g. overgrazing, over-cultivation,
deforestation and the like. Thus vegetation degradation and removal
become potential cause of desertification.
Inspite of the hazardous climate, unproductive soils and intense
biotic pressure vegetation inherently covers a lot of land surface of
Rajasthan. The life forms are a xerophytic shrub flora which is seen in
discontinuous patches of plant communities consisting of an open
assemblage of ephemerals, grasses, perennial herbs, undershrubs, shrubs
and dwarf trees and sometimes badly mutilated trees.^^
The vegetation differs in the sequence of species as one passes from
the extremely arid region (100-200 mm) of rainfall of the western part of
.laisalmer district to the eastern part of Rajasthan (500-700 mm) and
beyond. Within the similar environmental set up there are sharp changes
in topographical features which work a distinct variation in plant
communities.^^ The gradual east to west decrease of rainfall is reflected
in the poor representation of natural flora. A comparatively thick
vegetation cover of the eastern part becomes scarce in the west.
On the basis of water source the vegetation of Rajasthan can be
ecologically characterised into the following :
ephemeral plants dependent on rain water
perennial drought evading plants and
perennial drought resisting plants
The plants of the first category depend upon the rain, while the plant
of third category depend upon the sub-terranean water retained in the
depth of the soil. The plants of second category are intermediate ones.
86.
87.

Mulay, B.N. A Study of the Problem of Rajasthan Desert, Proceeding of the

Symposium on Problem of Indian Arid Zone, Jodhpur, 1964, p. 43.
Saxena, S.K. Vegetation and its Succession in the Indian Desert, In
Desertification and its Control, ed. Jaisalwal, P.L., ICAR, New Delhi, 1977, p. 176.

125
The vegetation occurs in small clumps. Some plants of the desert
region have extra-ordinary power to resist high temperature and a
remarkable ability to withstand dessication. Most of the plants escape the
injurious effect of high temperature and low humidity by having green
scaly twigs instead of leaves. Some species also develop epidermal
protective structures such as hair, thorns and spines. In certain cases (such
as Capparis aphylla) the leaves disappear altogether. Through these
modifications

the plants manage to resist the loss of water by

transpiration.
Generally, the plants of desert region fall into two main groups.
(a)

The annuals which depends upon the annual supply of rain, and

(b) The perennial which depend upon the subterranean water retained in
the deep layers of the soil.
The annuals include plants which appear shortly after the rains. In
years of good rainfall they cover practically the entire available land area.
They are short lived and complete their life cycle with the cessation of the
rains. Among the annuals most common plants are bharut (Cenchrus
biflorus) and bakkar (Indigofera cordifolis).
The perennials have deep roots through which they draw sub-soil
water for their existence during the dry period. They have rather tough
and leathery leaves. Perennials include plant such as 'bui' (Aerva
tomentosa), 'kair' (Capparis decidua), land (Halosylon salicornian),
'khcjra' (Prosopis spicigcra), and 'Phog' (Calligonum polygonoides).
(i)

Region of Tree Growth :

The region of voluminous tree growth corresponds to the Aravallis

mountains in the eastern parts of Pali-Jalore and Sikar-Jhunjhunu districts

in areas with 500 mm and above rainfall. Moist deciduous to semievergreen forests are found in areas above 400 feet of elevation in the
Aravallis. Moist deciduous are found on the windward slopes and semievergreen forests on the leeward slopes at corresponding heights of Desuri
and Bali tehsils (Fig. 6).

!26

70

WESTERN RAJA5THAN
FORESTS AND GRASSLANDS

. .

50
J

7f

0
.

50
I

Kms

JL
Fig. 6

30.

2^U
Forest Cover
Scurb l a n d s and
secondary forest
Perennial grasses
I Annual grasses

127
The flora of the southern and south eastern zone includes desert as
well as semi-desert types. On the higher slopes of Aravallis in Pali district
chief species are Dhokra (Anogeissus pendula), Salar mixed with godal
(Odina wodies), Karaya (Sterculia arcns) and 'dho' (Anogeissus latifolia),
Khair (Acacia catechu), however, commonly occur on the lower slopes on
the plains of Bali, Desuri tehsils 'anwal' (Cassia aureculata), babool
(Acacia arabica) and Nim (Melia Indica) are found.^^ Common trees in the
hilly tracts of Shekhawati are bamboo and 'dho' (Ano-geissus latifolia and
A. pendula) on the sandy plains in Shekawati and parts of Nagaur Khair,
babool, kikar, her, jal, Khejra, Rohira and Kakera abound. Areas located
on the south-east including a part of the northern tehsils of Ladnun and
Didwana are much green than the north-west region of the district. In
more favoured tracts pipal, Shisham, Neem and Seras also occur. Jhao
(Tamarix dioca, T. articulata, T. gallia), a gregarious tree is confined to
the banks of saline depressions and sandy beds of dry rivers. Other
common plants in the saline tracts are lana, slasola, foetida and Artiplex
cressifolia. These plants have especially adopted themselves to the saline
soils. They have fleshy leaves and axes, thick walled epidermis well
protected stomata and extensive aqueous tissues. Their gland excrete
salt.89
The vegetation in the central and the western zones of Indian desert
is characteristically xerophytic. Rohira, Khejra, Neem and babool are,
however, common trees in the central zone. Other trees include mahua, the
dhak or palas and the dho. In the rocky areas ber, dhao or dhokri and thor
are characteristic species.^"^
(ii) Scrubland Region :
The central zone of Indian arid zone more or less co-existent with the
little desert where dunes have stablized themselves under a growth of the
xerophytic plants and scrublands. In the western and northern parts the

88. Ahmad, A. Human Geography of Indian Desert, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis,

A.M.U., Aligarh, 1963, p. 120.
89. Ibid, p. 120.
90. Ibid, p. 122.

128
vegetation is represented by the scrub Jungle. The main species of shrubs
are C. zizyphus Tamarix, Grewa etc. With plant such as 'rohira' and small
acasia, hingota and thor, Among the common indigenous trees are Khejra,
.Ihal and Chooti Jhal, ariya, Khair and Khumatia, bcr and Nccm.
(iii) Region of Shrubs and Grasses :
Western zone of 'Thar' spreads over the true desert, to the extreme
west and north, where vegetation is very poor and is interspersed with vast
barren areas. Most conspicous shrub of the sandy part in the giant munj or
sirkania grass. The smaller bushes, include species like Khimp has straight
leafless stem of bright green colour springing in clusters from the ground
and elongated conical green fruit. The phug, like Khimp, is leafless but
has crooked stemps and is eaten by camels other shrubs are okra and lana.
The grasses are represented by 'bharut' known for much root, energy
'murant' or murath, 'phalis' and siwan or tantia. Another grass dhamanes
considered to be one of the best foods for cattle and horses. The grass
'Birs' which are met with in the Sadri and Desuri ranges are composed of
sparsely grown trees mixed with grass like eragrostis species, Lasirus
indicus etc.^'
The increasing human and livestock population resulting in extreme
biotic intervention has degraded the pristine vegetation.^^ Present day
vegetation is highly degraded in both community grazing lands and
croplands. The tree cover in the cropped area is also getting sparser so
there is an urgent need to arrest the desertification process in the western
Rajasthan.

91.
92.

Census of Rajasthan, Series No. 21, Part XII, A and B, 1991.

Shankar Narayan, K.A. Impact of Over-grazing on grasslands, Annals of Arid
Zone, CAZRI, Jodhpur, Vol. 16, 1977, pp. 349-359.

Chapter - IV
CLIMATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
INDIAN DESERT
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)

Distribution and Variability of Rainfall

Thermal Regime
Relative Humidity
Wind Velocity
Evaporation Conditions
Drought Patterns and Flash Floods

129
Climatic Characteristics of the Indian Desert
West Rajasthan, the major portion of Indian Desert, lias a tropical
arid climate (Bwh) and semi-arid, hot (Bsh)' type. This vast tract of the
Indian

arid zone is characterised

by scanty and

highly

variable

precipitation, extreme variation of diurual and annual temperature, low

relative humidity, high wind velocity and high evaporation rate.
The year may be divided into four seasons. The winter season from
November to March is followed by hot dry summer season from April to
June. The period from July to middle of September constitute the south
west monsoon season and the period from the latter half of September to
October from the post monsoon transitional period.
The period from November to March is generally very unpleasant
due to biting cold over the entire state when a series of severe cold waves
associated with western disturbances affect the entire region. The summer
month from April to June are very hot, dry and uncomfortable. Weather
lend to be oppressive during July due to high humidity and temperature.
After the break of the monsoon the weather becomes slightly comfortable
due to reduced day temperatures, although humidity continues to be high
makes conditions sultry.
The seasonal variation of atmospheric pressure over the state takes
place in a systematic manner with a maximum in the winter (January) and
a minimum in the monsoon season in July.-^ The pressure gradient over the
state generally remains weak except during the late summer and monsoon
season. During winter, the higher pressure is to the north. In April, the
pressure decreases from west to east Rajasthan. Accordingly the winds are
light and mainly from north west to north over northern part of the land
north to north east over southern parts. In January, winds turn gradually
anticlock wise and are replaced by light north westerly to westerly winds
in April. With the advance of the summer the pressrue gradient increases.
1. Based on Koppen's classification of climate.
2. Krishnan, A. 'AClimatic Analysis ofthe Arid Zone ofNorth-Western India, Desertification
and its Control (ed.), Jaisalwal, P.L. I.C.A.R., New Delhi, 1977, p. 45.

130
correspondingly the winds from soutin to south west also strengthen
reaching their maximum velocity in July. October is the month of
transition with weakest pressure gradient. From October onwards, the
change over the pressure and wind pattern commences.
The average annual rainfall in western Rajasthan is 314.4 mm while
eastern Rajasthan receives more than twice as much 704.2 mm of this
mean annual rainfall about 90 per cent comes during the southwest
monsoon season, and about 5 per cent during the cold weather period in
association with western disturbances.^
The hot weather season starts from March to June with temperature
varying from 40 C to 42 C. The diurnal range of temperature is large.
May is generally the hottest month as compare to June (Fig. 7).
Monsoon effect and the consequent humidity buildup in the records.
Half of June lowering the average June temperatures otherwise early June
experiences the highest temperature of the year.
The mean monthly maximum temperature in May varies from 40C
to 44C over most parts of western Rajasthan while the mean minimum
temperatures as recorded 24C to 26C. The annual range of temperatures
is between 14C to 17C. The temperatures attain highest level due to
intense heat radiation from the earth which lower down the temperature
rapidly during the night. Due to strong heat waves many places have
recorded maximum temperature like Ganganagar 50C and Pachpadra
51C. The dust storm is the peculier feature during the month of May and
June.
The mean maximum temperature of July record 38C in Ganganagar,
Churu, Bikaner and Jaisalmer and 35C have been recorded in Jhunjhunu,
Sikar, Nagaur, Jodhpur, Barmer and Jalore whereas, Pali has recorded
slightly lower than the above mentioned temperatures.

3. Krishnan, A. and Shankaranarayana, K.A. Criteria for the delimitation of the arid
zone of Rajasthan, Proc. Symp. on Problems of hidian Arid Zone, Jodhpur, 1964,
pp. 380-387.

131

^p
'
7i
7^*
WESTERN RAJA5THAN
MEAN MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (C)

-30

MAY

30-

/
0

-28

28-

U
/'
'^ ^ Z^"^'

..-^

f 1

^257'

\
^

^^0
25-

A2/

V.
-2A

\
\

LJ
0
50
^, Kms
1

/ /

A'

2A-

^0

SourceJndia

Meteorological Department PuneJ998

7f

Fig.7

76

132
The lowest mean annual rainfall, June to September of 100 mm
occurs in the area covering western parts of Jaisalmer district while the
other parts of western Rajasthan recieve rainfall varying from 100 mm to
450 mm (Fig. 10). The north eastern portion of Jhunjhunu, northern
portion of Sikar and south-eastern part of Nagaur, interior parts of Jalore
and Pali district receive high rainfall as compared to the western parts of
the region.
Season of general rains
In this arid tract of Rajasthan rains come in the third or the fourth
week of June and a marked lowering of temperature sometimes it is also
delayed until July or even August on the average west Rajasthan receives
about 300 mm of rains in the year of which 90 per cent falls during the
monsoon season. The number of effective rainy days in the year is less
than 5 at some stations in Jaisalmer district increasing to 25 towards the
Aravalli hills and to over 45 in the east of Rajasthan.''
The movement of monsoon coming across the Indian ocean is
divided into two branches namely Bay of Bengal and the Arabian sea
branch. The Indian desert region due to its location experiences both the
monsoon currents, though their effect is feeble.
Inspite of these monsoon currents towards the Indian desert region,
there is considerable decrease in rainfall. This is mainly due to the fact
that air current from the south east enters the west Rajasthan after having
already given up their moisture on their passage up the Ganga plains. The
currents coming from south west after crossing warm sea, come over an
intensely heated Kathiawar peninsula and thus relative humidity decreases
from 90 per cent to 50 per cent, ordinarily even this percentage of relative
humidity would cause rainfall if the air current rises to about 920 metres
but due to the existence of an upper current of hot dry air from further
west most of the moisture is evaporated by the dry westerly winds and

4. .lagannathan, P. and Raghavendra, V.K. Wet spell in Rajasthan, Proceedings of A!

India symposium on Problem of Indian Arid Zone, Jodhpur, 1964, p. 363.

!33

_-~

Vv'ESTERN RAJA5THAN
HEAt< ANNUAL

hO

RAlNFALL(mm)
1901-&0

kO

80

1 1 1

KM
SOURCE-INDIA METEOROLOGICAL DEPTT. PUNE 1988

Fig. 10

134
skies become cloudless. Ultimately "the clear cloudless skies and the
scorching rays of vertical sun on sandy desert conspire to maintain that
dryness of the air which makes rainfall almost an impossibility.^
i)

Distribution and Variability of Rainfall

Climatic conditions, particularly the amount of rainfall and its

variability are very crucial features to ascertain the

desertification

vulnerability of the semi-arid and arid lands.

The distribution of mean annual rainfall decreases from east to west
while the co-efficient of variation increases westwards (Fig. 11 & 13). It
means that not only the amount of soil moisture decreases westwards the
paucity of water gets compounded by increased uncertainity.
Eighty one unit areas have been taken to assess the rainfall condition
in the region. The lowest mean annual rainfall of 100 m.m. or even lesser
occurs in the extreme western area, covering parts of Jaisalmer district.
Buili in .Jaisalmer recorded an average 89 m.m. rainfall which is lowest in
the region. The rest of the areas in this tract receive an average rainfall
ranging from

100 m.m. to 500 m.m. The north eastern portion of

.Ihunjhunu, South eastern parts of Nagaur, Sikar and the interior hilly parts
of Jalore and Pali districts in the Aravallis receive higher rainfall (Fig. 11).
There are five tehsils of western Rajasthan

such as Khetri,

Udaipurwati, Bali, Desuri and Neem Ka Thana which experience very

high amount of rainfall. They cover an area of 7263.26 square kilometre
which represents only 3.49 per cent of total Geographical area. However,
this meagre area supports 8.62 per cent of total population of Western
Rajasthan. There are eleven more tehsils of the region which come under
the category of high rainfall i.e. Bhinmal, Bilara, Chirawa, Didwana,
Raipur, Sojat, Pali, Marwar Junction, Sikar, Danta Ramgarh and Sri
Madhopur covering an area of 19345.01 square kilometre which represents
9.30 per cent of total area and support 17.84 per cent of the total
5. ChoLihan, T.S. Integrated Area Development of Indian Desert, Geo-Environ
Academia, Jodhpur, 1988,p. 41.

135
population of the region. This area comes under the high rainfall category.
Twenty four tehsils of western Rajasthan lie under medium rainfall
category. Moderate rainfall receiving areas cover an area of 47,555.94
square kilometre which represent 22.87 per cent of total Geographical area
and support 33.98 per cent of total population of western Rajasthan. These
tehsils are Siwana, Rajgarh, Churu, Ratangarh, Sujangarh, Bhadra, Ahore,
Jalore, Sanchor, Raniwara, Bhopalgarh, Jodhpur, Jhunjhunu, Nawalgarh,
Nagaur, Merta, Jayal, Ladnun, Nawa, Parvatsar, Degana, Jaitaran,
Fatehpur and Lachchmangarh.
Twenty seven tehsils come under the category of low rainfall areas
covering 90,480.49 square kilometre. They represent 43.51 per cent of
total Geographical area and support 34.42 per cent of total population of
western Rajasthan. These unit areas comprise Shiv Baytu, Pachpadra,
Barmer, Chohtan, Gudhamalani, Lunkaransar, Taranagar, Sri Dungargarh,
Ganganagar, Karanpur, Sadulshahar, Padampur, Suratgarh,

Sangaria,

Hanumangarh, Pilibanga, Rawatsar, Tibi, Nohar, Phalodi, Shergarh and

Osian. The other fourteen tehsils of western Rajasthan fall under very low
rainfall category. These fourteen tehsils occupy an area of 43,272.44
square kilometre which represent 20.81 per cent of total geographical area.
However, they support only 5.11 per cent of total population of western
Rajasthan. This unevenness is largely due to fragility of the ecosystem
(Table-2).
Rainfall Characteristics
Rainfall of this arid tract is highly uncertain and erratic in nature.
Monsoon rains are associated with the rare depressions in the plains in the
north and also with the easterly winds. Part of its occurs due to local
thunderstorms (Appendix-I).
These thunderstorms are more frequent in the eastern and central
semi-arid parts than in the western arid areas. They occur during May to
September, particularly in June and July. July and August receive most of
the rainfall. The percentage contribution of south-west monsoon to the
annual rainfall of Barmer, Jaisalmer, Ganganagar, Jodhpur and Churu is 80

136
Table-2 : Mean Annual Rainfall and Co-efficient of Variation (1901-1980)
Districts/Tehsils

Banner
Shiv
Ba>tii

Pachpadra
Banner
Chohtan
Gudhamalani
Siwana
Bikaner
Lunkaransar
Bikaner
Kolayat
Nokha
Cliuru
Sardarshaliar
Taranagar
Rajgarh
Churu
SriDungargarh
Ratangarh
Sujangarh
Ganganagar
Ganganagar
Karanpur
Sadulshahai
Padampur
Raisinghnagar
Aiiupgarh
Gliaisana
Vijai Nagar
Siiiatgarh
Hanumangarli
Sangaria
Hanumangarh
Pilibanga
Rawatsar
Tibi

Nohar
Bhadra
Jaisalmer
Buili
Devikot
Dewa
falehgarh
Jaisalmer
Khaba

Mean Annual
Rainfall
(in mm)

Co-efficient
of variation
(in %)

Potential
EvapoTranspiration
(in mm)

Index of
of
Aridity
(in %)

261.4
207 4
260 0
257 3
267 7
228 0
265 7
343 7
261.7
237 1
293 7
246 0
270 3
361.6
290 6
299 4
349 2
366 3
259 6
360 8
374 4
239.3
261 6
240 0
243 5
202 4
195 1
194 3
181 4
194 2
207 9
277.3
272 0
265 6
237 0
281 3
232 5
296 7
357 0
148.2
89 0
151 8
121 3
173 2
185 0
155 3

60
67
60
61
58
62
57
58
54
49
55
59
53
69
49
59
44
40
48
41
49
52
46
47
47
54
56
57
58
56
52
47
48
49
51
47
49
44
43
69
80
73
76
61
64
71

1857
1945
1910
1890
1857
1780
1790
1827
1790
1810
1790
1795
1750
1570
1610
1590
1565
1570
1610
1540
1505
1565
1540
1530
1560
1535
1590
1570
1610
1570
1542
1555
1565
1578
1580
1560
1540
1565
1490
2085
2300
2120
2110
1970
2065
2025

85.92
89 33
86 38
86 38
85 58
87 19
85 15
81 18
85.41
86 90
83 59
86 62
84 55
76.96
81 95
81 16
77 69
76 66
83 87
76 57
75 12
84.70
83 01
84 21
84 39
86 81
87 72
87 62
88 73
87 63
86 51
82.16
82 61
83 16
85 00
81 96
84 90
81 04
76 04
92.89
96 13
92 87
94 25
91 20
91 04
92 33

Contd

137
Districts/Tehsils

Ldthi
Naukh
Pokaran
Ramgarh
Jalore
Ahore
Jaloie
Bhinmal
Sanchor
F-laniwaia
Jodhpur
Phalodi
Shergarh
Osian
Bhopalgarh
Jodhpur
Bilara
Jhunjhuiiu
Jhun]hunu
Chirawa
Khetri
Nawdlgdih
Udaipurvvati
Nagaur
Nagaur
Merta
Ja}al
Ladnun
Didwana
Nawa
Pai vatsai
Degana
Pall
Jaitaran
Raipur
Sojat
Pall
Marwar Junction
Ball
Desuri
Sikar
Fatehpur
Lachchmangarh
Sikar
Danta Ramgarh
Sri Madhopur
Neem Ka Thana

Mean Annual
Rainfall

Co-efficicnt
ofvaiiation

Potential
Evapo-

(in m m )

(in %)

Transpiration
(in m m )

of
Aridity
(in %)

144 5
184 2
147 5
130 5
361.3
302 6
369 1
413 1
382 3
339 4
315.1
263 0
252 3
270 2
330 4
351 4
423 6
469.9
404 4
408 6
547 6
401 0
588 0
364.2
3153
406 7
330 0
342 7
359 6
468 4
389 0
302 0
476.3
368 7
437 3
454 3
4195
483 1
552 4
619 1
441.1
347 5
386 0
429 9
454 0
501 5
52S2

61
64
61
76
54
54
51
51
61
56
52
53
51
52
51
53
53
36
37
46
32
37
30
48
53
46
52
51
43
45
45
47
47
47
53
55
45
42
44
45
39
42
41
40
39
36
34

2100
2070
2025
2055
1565
1590
1558
1520
1605
1555
1852
1895
1920
1945
1835
1810
1712
1670
1690
1705
1650
1715
1585
1635
1680
1590
1665
1650
1658
1520
1610
1707
1625
1710
1650
1665
1680
1610
1550
1510
1510
1570
1610
1535
1495
1495
\490

93 11
91 10
92 71
93 64
76.91
80 96
76 30
72 82
76 18
78 17
82.98
86 12
86 85
86 10
81 99
80 58
75 29
71.86
76 07
76 03
66 81
76 61
62 90
77.72
81 23
74 42
80 18
79 23
78 31
69 18
75 83
82 30
70.68
78 43
73 49
72 71
75 02
69 99
64 36
69 00
70.78
70 86
76 02
71 99
69 63
66 45
64 55

Source : India Meteorological Department Pune

Index of

138
to 90 per cent. The aridity index defined as the ratio of the annual
moisture deficiency to annual water need exceed 80 per cent in Bikaner,
Ganganagar, Jaisalmer and Barmer districts and slightly lower in other
parts of the western Rajasthan.
Cold Weather Season
The cold weather season has been further divided into two subdivision (a) The season of retreating monsoon (October to December) and
(b) The cold weather season (January and February).
(a) In the season of retreating monsoon (October to December), the
weather is more in transition. There is a slight increase in temperature for
sometimes and then there is gradual decrease to the winter minimum. In
the months of October and November in the arid regions, which has less
than 250 mm. of rainfall, weather conditions are fairly pleasant.
The temperatures in October over the entire tract are fairly uniform
varying from 35C to 38"C. The diurnal range of temperature during this
season is considerably high varying from 17 C to 20 C. During these
months due to the withdrawl of the monsoon the winds settle down and
are very light and highly variable and relative humidity is quite low.
(b)

The cold weather season (January to February) : During the

second half of the winter the weather conditions are more stable, wind
velocity is high, temperature are much lower and even frost occurrence is
noticeable. During the winter clear skies, fine weather, low humidity and
large diurnal range of temperature are the cognisable features of the
weather. These features change only when western disturbances pass over
the region and cloudy conditions coupled with rains may occur. Indian
arid zone receives only 3 to 6 per cent of rainfal during the winter
season.^
The mean daily maximurn temperature in January varies from 20C
at Ganganagar to 22C at Bikaner, 25C at Jaisalmer and 26C at Jodhpur
6. Krishnan, A. A Climatic Analysis of (he Arid Zone of North Western India,
Desertification and its control (ed) Jaisawal, P.L. I.C.A.R., New Delhi, 1977, p. 45.

139
and Banner. The mean minimum temperature at these places are 3C, 8"C,
9''C and 11C respectively (Fig. 8). Some western disturbances bring in
their wake the cold waves, so that frost conditions frequently occur in the
northern portion of the Indian arid zone. Frost is frequent in the month of
December to January roughly one frost year in three years. In the severest
winter forty consecutive days of frost have occured.^
The lowest maximum temperature ever recorded have been -2.2C at
Ganganagar and Jodhpur -4.4C at Jaisalmer and Pachpadra -1.6C at
Barmer and Sikar and -1.1C at Bikaner. All these temperatures were
recorded in the month of January 1967.
As a result, the January mean monthly range of temperature at
different stations in between 15C to 18C and the mean diurnal range of
temperature is largely due to low relative humidity which is generally 50
to 60 per cent in the morning and 25 to 30 per cent in the afternoon.
Rainfall Variability
Co-efficient of variation of amount of rainfall is comparatively lesser
in eastern districts of the Indian desert, where rainfall is higher (Fig. 13).
There are eighty one data base unit areas in western Rajasthan which
reveals the co-efficient of rainfall in the study region. There are five unit
areas of very high rainfall variability in district Jaisalmer i.e. Buili,
Devikot, Dewa, Khaba and Ramgarh. They cover an area of 23,797.98
square kilometre which represent 11.44 per cent of western Rajasthan and
support only 0.55 per cent of population of the study area. Beside this the
areas of high rainfall variability are Jaisalmer, Fatehgarh, Lathi, Naukh,
Pokaran, Shiv, Pachpadra, Chohtan and Sanchor. They cover an area of
32,349.83 square kilometre i.e. 15.55 per cent of total geographical area
of western Rajasthan. These unit areas support 7.34 per cent of total
population of western Rajasthan. Medium co-efficient of variation of rains
is recorded in thirty unit areas. They cover an area of 86,579.90 square
kilometre which occupies 41.64 per cent of total geographical area of
7.

Ibid. p. 45

uo

WESTERN
-30

TU'
RAJA5THAN

iW

'MEAN M I N I M U M TEMPERATURE (C)

30-

JANUARY

50
L_i

i(f

50

Kms

Source:

2f

India

Meteorological Deportment Pune,1998

]l
Fig. 8

76

141
study region, it supports 37.09 per cent of the population of western
Rajasthan. These are Baytu, Banner, Gudhamalani, Siwana, Bikaner,
Kolayat, Nokha, Taranagar, Padampur, Raisingh Nagar,

Anupgarh,

Gharsana, Vijai Nagar, Suratgarh, Pilibanga, Ahorc, Jalorc, Bhinmal,

Raniwara, Phalodi, Shergarh, Osian, Bhopalgarh, Jodhpur, Bilara, Nagaur,
Jayal, Ladnun, Raipur and Sojat. The low rainfall

variability is

experienced in twenty eight tehsils of western Rajasthan. They cover an

area of 53443.92 square kilometre i.e. 25.70 per cent of western
Rajasthan. It supports 37.09 per cent of total population of western
Rajasthan. These are Lunkaransar, Sardarshahar, Rajgarh, SriDungargarh,
Ratangarh, Sujangarh, Ganganagar, Karanpur, Sadulshahar, Sangaria,
Hanumangarh, Rawatsar, Tibi, Nohar, Bhadra, Chirawa, Merta, Didwana,
Nawa, Parvatsar, Degana, Pali, Jaitaran, Marwar Junction, Bali, Desuri,
Lachchmangarh and Fatehpur.
Nine tehsils of study area lie under the category of very low coefficient of variation in rainfall. These cover an area of 11745.01 square
kilometre which represents 5.64 per cent of total geographical area of
western Rajasthan. This area understandably supports 17.06 per cent of
total population of the study area. These tehsils are Churu, Jhunjhunu,
Khetri, Nawalgarh, Udaipurwati, Sikar, Danta Ramgarh, Sri Madhopur
and Neem Ka Thana.
Aridity Indices
The aridity index defined as the ratio of the annual moisture
dcficieny to annual water need is expressed in percentage. PET is a
theoretical water need where P is the water availability and PET-P
(Potential Evapo-transpiration-Precipitation)

is equal to mean water

deficiency (WD). Eighty one unit areas of western Rajasthan have been
analysed to show the severity of fragile ecosystem. Twelve unit areas of
Western Rajasthan recorded very high percentage of aridity. These are
Shiv, Gharsana, Buili, Devikot, Dewa, Fatehgarh, Jaisalmer, Khaba, Lathi,
Naukh, Pokharan and Ramgarh, covering an area of 46,603.21 sq.
kilometre which represent 22.41 per cent of total geographical area of

142
western Rajasthan which supports only 3.61 per cent of total population
of the area (Table-2).
Another twenty nine tehsils of western Rajasthan come under the
category of high aridity. They cover an area of 87,249 square kilometre
which is 41.95 per cent of total reported area of western Rajasthan and
consist 36.67 per cent of total population of the study area. These tehsils
are Baytu, Pachpadra, Barmer, Chohtan, Gudhamalani, Lunkaransar,
Bikaner, Kolayat, Nokha, Sardarshahar, Sri Dungargarh, Ganganagar,
Karanpur, Sadulshahar, Padampur, Raisingh Nagar, Anupgarh, Vijai
Nagar, Suratgarh, Sangaria, Hanumangarh, Pilibanga, Rawatsar, Tibi,
Phalodi, Shergarh, Osian, Bhopalgarh and Degana.
Another twenty six study units lie under the category of medium
index of aridity. These are Siwana, Taranagar, Rajgarh, Churu, Ratangarh,
Sanchor, Raniwara, Jodhpur, Bilara, Jhunjhunu, Chirawa, Nawalgarh,
Nagaur, Merta Jayal, Ladnun, Didwana, Parvatsar, Jaitaran, Pali and
Lachchmangarh. These tehsils cover an area of 25.27 per cent of total area
of western Rajasthan and supports 37.59 per cent of total population of
the study area. There are only ten tehsils of western Rajasthan under low
aridity and cover an area of 15,748.90 square kilometre which represent
7.57 per cent of the total area. They comprise 15.92 per cent of total
population. These are Bhinmal, Khetri, Nawa, Raipur, Sojat, Marwar
Junction, Fatehpur, Sikar, Danta Ramgarh and Sri Madhopur. The
remaining four tehsils of the study area are fall under the category of very
low aridity. These are Udaipurwati, Bali, Desuri and Neem Ka Thana.
These encompass 5793.06 square kilometre of area which is 2.78 per cent
of total reported area and sustain 6.18 per cent of total population of the
western Rajasthan (Fig. 14).
ii)

Thermal Regime
Because of its tropical, continental location the Indian arid zone is

characterised by highest annual range of temperature which is around

]8C to 20C. The heat of the summer is intense and scorching.
Temperatures starts rising from March onwards while May and June are

143
the hottest months with the average maximum temperature varying from
40C to 42C and minimum temperatures between 24C and 29C.
Occasional temperatures have been recorded around 50C at various
meteorological stations like Ganganagar and Churu recorded temperatures
as high as 50C while some other stations recorded just a couple of
degrees below this value (Fig. 9). Sometimes, in association with western
disturbances during December to March, many places in west Rajasthan
experience

temperature

below

freezing

point

resulting

into

frost

conditions in various parts of the region. The diurnal range of temperature

from the early morning cold to the afternoon heat in on an average about
15C-18C. Cold season covers December to February. January being the
coldest month, varying between 20C and 25C over the arid tract (Fig.
8). The lowest minimum temperature recorded over the great Indian desert
during winter was at Jaisalmer (-5.7C) in .January 1967 while the values
recorded at other stations ranges between -1.7C and 3.3C.^ With the
arrival of monsoon around 1st of July the maximum day temperature
decreases sharply and remain between 35C and 38C during July, August
and September. The night temperature begins to decrease as winter sets in.
The characteristics of seasonal variation of the mean monthly maximum
and mean monthly minimum is given in the Appendix-II.
iii) Relative Humidity
The mean monthly realtive humidity at 0830 and 1730 hrs I.ST at
various districts of western Rajasthan is given in the (Appendix). The
relative humidity is obviously high during the Monsoon season from June
to September. In April, however, the relative humidity is the lowest. In
July and August it is recorded higher ranging from an average 75 to 80
per cent. During winter in the months of December to Februrary it is
generally moderate from 50 to 60 per cent in the morning and 25 to 35
per cent in the afternoon hours.
8. Chauhan, T.S. Integrated Area Development of Indian Desert,
Academia and Divyajyoti Prakashan, Jodhpur, 1988, p. 47.

Geo-Environ

144

70

WESTERN RAJA5THAN
MEAN MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (c)
JUNE

-3 0

50

50

Jl

Kms

Source: India

JL
Fi".9

30-

Meteorological Departmenl Pune,1998

IL

145
During the hot dry summer months the humidity is generally low
ranging from 35 to 57 per cent in the morning and 10 to 30 per cent in the
afternoon hours excluding the later part of June. Data shows that except
during the short south-west monsoon season the relative humidity is
generally very low, because of low relative humidity the evapotranspiration demand is high in the desert (Appendix-Ill).
iv)

Wind Velocity
The wind speed in the Indian desert is generally recorded as very

high at almost all the stations during the hot dry summer and the moist
monsoon seasons. These conditions also lead to very high evaporation,
rendering the soil parched dry and vulnerable to wind erosion. Movement
and deposition of sand is most important reason for degradation. Out of
175 million ha area estimated to be degraded in the country, 60 million
hactares is reported to be due to wind erosion alone.^
Wind erosion is doubly harmful as both areas, from where the soil is
removed and where it is deposited, loose their productivity. Moreover,
sand transported and deposited by aeolian process do not remain
stationary but move further along the wind direction causing damages to
crop, trees, fences, building, highways etc. Degradation of land through
wind erosion is a major threat to agriculture and allied activities.' The
initiation of soil movement thus depends upon the force of turbulent wind,
the surface roughness and the size of soil grains. The quantity moved is
influenced by particle size, gradation of particles, wind velocity and the
distance across the eroded area." Wind erosion is the major component of
desertification process in the arid region of western Rajasthan affecting
9. Yadav, J.S.P. Degradation and Crop Production Problems of Soil and Water
Resources in India, J. hidian Soc. Soil. Sci. Vol. 36, 1986, pp. 660-672.
10. Gupta, J.P.; Sharma, B.M. and Raina, P. Wind Erosion and its Control in Indian
Arid Ecosystem, Desertification Control in the Arid Ecosystem of India for
Sustainable Development. (Eds.) Surendra Singh & Amalkar, Agro-Botanical
Publisher (India) Bikaner 1997, p. 138.
11. Ibid. p. 138.

146
68.3 per cent of the area.'^ Wind erosion manifestation depends not only
on the soil type, texture and moisture content, but also on the presence of
vegetation cover, soil structure and the character of land use as well as on
the location and topography of the field.
In western Rajasthan, the highest wind speeds are recorded in the
Jaisalmer district. But the decrease is sharper towards the northern side as
compared to the southern side. Jodhpur, Barmer and Jhunjhunu also comes
in high category of wind velocity. Whereas Bikaner and Ganganagar
district of the study area recorded comparatively low wind velocity. The
lowest wind speeds are recorded during the post monsoon season. The
winds in the Indian desert are fairly strong. The winds are strongest in
June and lightest in November, During the cold season, the winds are
generally light and variable but north-westerly and northerly winds are
more frequent. The winds from April onwards and are strongest during the
month of June and July. In hot weather season and during monsoon, winds
are generally

between

south-westerlies

or west

south

westerlies.

Interestingly, a strong wind regime belt prevails in summer across

Jaisalmer-Phalodi-Jaipur tract, and winds both north and south of this
region are comparatively less.'^ In western Rajasthan mean daily wind
speed of more than 20 to 30 kmph are recorded during April to June.
During dust storm activity in these months wind speeds offen reach 60 to
110 kmph.'"
The districtwise condition of wind velocity in different month reveals
that the maximum wind speed have been recorded during the period of
April to October with a pronounced maximum corresponding to June. The
wind speeds are higher over the region of Jaisalmer and Jodhpur during
June and July. During May to September, wind directions are extremely
steady in the desert region and are mainly south-westerly, whereas during
12. Ramkrishna, Y.S. Climatic Features of the Indian Arid Zone, Desertification Cntrol
in the Arid Ecosystem of India for Sustainable Development Eds. Surendra Singh &
Amal Kar. Agro Botanical Publisher, Bikaner 1997, p. 33.
13. Ibid. p. 3 3 .
14.Ibid. p. 3 3 .

147
the remaining part they are variable. The north-easterly winds in winter
are steady only in South-west desert region. The winds on the whole have
a desiccating effect except in July and August when they are charged with
moisture.'^ The district wise condition of wind velocity in different month
is given in Appendix-IV.
v)

Evaporation Conditions
Evaporation losses from the soils constitute a major problem in the

Indian desert. High evaporation rates render the land vulnerable to

desertification. Evaporation closely follows the month of March, When
the winds are slight in nature and temperatures are low. Evaporation seems
also low. As temperature rises and wind velocity increases, evaporation
also increases. The higher evaporation has been recorded during the
month of April and May. With the advent of the moisture laden monsoon
winds and sporadic precipitation, there is a marked fall in evaporation
rates. Appendix-VII shows that evaporation during May and June is
highest and lowest during December and January. Due to this high
evaporation from the surface water and later from the soil the possibilities
of successful farming are highly limited.
vi)

Drought Patterns and Flash Floods

Meteorologically drought over an area may be defined, as a situation

when annual rainfall is less than 75 per cent of the normal. It is further
classified as moderate drought if rainfall deficit is between 25 and 50 per
cent and 'severe drought' when it is more than 50 per cent deficit.
Areas where frequency of drought, as defined above, is 20 per cent
of the years are classified as drought prone areas. The areas experiencing
drought conditions for more than 40 per cent of the years represents
chronically drought affected areas. The severity of drought not only
depends upon the amount of rainfall deficiency in a single year, but also
upon continued occurrence of deficient rain in successive years, even
IS.Chauhan, T.S. Integrated Area Development
Academia, Jodhpur, 1988, p. 55.

of Indian Desert,

Geo-Environ.

148
though the deficiency in each such successive year may not be as high as
in a single year.
When rainfall is sufficient in excess of the normal it is a predominant
factor for the occurrence of floods, particularly in higher rainfall regions.
Even with a co-efficient variation of rainfall of 20 per cent these regions
are prone to frequent floods. When the annual rainfall of 125 per cent or
more of the normal is considered as excessive rain.
Rainfall in western Rajasthan is very erratic in nature. Rainfall
deficiency and surplus upto 50 per cent of normal is graded as moderate
which has occurred several times. Western Rajasthan has experienced 18
moderate and 10 severe types of droughts during the period of 1871 to
1981 and in the case of excessive rainfall 16 moderate floods and 8 severe
floods have been recorded during hundred years of time (Appendix-VI). "^
It is seen that the frequency of drought years increases from less than 10
per cent in Jhunjhunu district and parts of Pali, Sikar, Churu and
Ganganagar district to more than 20 per cent in Jaisalmer and western
parts of Bikaner, Jodhpur, Barmer and Jalore districts. In the extreme arid
zone, both the flood and drought year frequencies are high. Sikar,
Jhunjhunu and eastern Churu gets less of both the type of extreme years.'''
An incidence of severe flash floods was noted during the monsoon of
1996 in parts of Jaisalmer and Jodhpur districts. This had a considerable
influence of land degradation particularly in areas of Jaisalmer district
rendering the land severally vulnerable to desertification.

16. Ramchandra, K. and Ramana Rao. B.V. Rainfall Abnormality in India,

Geographical Review of India, Calcutta, Vol. 54, No. 2, p. 26, 1992.
17. Krishnan, A. and Thanvi, J.R Quantification of rainfall in Different Regions of Western
Rajasthan, Annals of Arid Zone CAZRI, Jodhpur, 16(2) 94, 1977, pp. 185-194.

Chapter - 5
BIO-PHYSICAL RESOURCE BASE
A.

Natural Resources
i) Grasslands, Scrubs and Forests
ii) Barren and Uncultivated lands
iii) Range lands

B.

Livestock Resources
i) Livestock Population
ii) Density of Livestock Population
iii) Variation in Livestock Population
iv) Livestock Mobility and Pressure on Rangelands

C.

Human Resources
i) Distribution of Population
ii) Population Density
iii) Population Growth
iv) Literacy Rates
v) Sex Composition
vi) Rural-Urban Composition
vii)Occupational Structure
viii) Work Participation

149
A. Natural Resources
i)

Grasslands, Scrubs and Forests

The arid region coincides with the areas mostly receiving less than

350 m.m. of annual rainfall. The sandy and hot desert conditions prevail
almost throughout the region.' Forest cover shows a decrease with the
areas of lower and erratic rainfall. In the Indian Arid ecosystem pasture
grasses are predominantly found in the state of Rajasthan where vast
stretches of natural grass lands dominated by Cenchrus ciliaris, cenchrus
stigerus, Lasiurum Sindicus, Dichanthim annulatum, sehima nervosum,
chrysopgon fulvus and heteropogou contortus occur on sandy, sandy loam,
clay, silty or stony soils.
The pasture grasses are cheaper but less nutritive source of fodder for
livestock of the arid region. About 62 percent of the desert area is
available for grazing of cattle. The grasses assume importance not only as
livestock feed, but also as soil builder and

binder and therefore, a

necessity for soil conservation.^

One of the main causes of desertification in arid ecosystem of
Rajasthan is the over-use of grasslands by nomadic population. In the
Indian desert it has been noted that forests and Grass lands cover shows a
decrease with the areas of higher rainfall variability. Grasses are naturally
adopted to soil and climatic conditions of arid ecosystem. Grasses provide
permanent cover to the land surface and thereby result in a substantial
reduction in the wind erosion hazard. Equally important is their role in
providing a permanent source of forage which is always in short supply in
the scarcity region. However, due to low carrying capacity and increased
pressure of livestock on existing grasslands, these lands have reached the

Sen, A.K. Land use pattern and over exploitation in Indian arid zone, AgroForestry in Arid and Semi-arid zones CAZRI, Published by I.C.A.R., New Delhi
1984, p.81.
Yadav, M.S. Improvement of Grasses for Desertification Control, Desertification
Control in the Arid Ecosystem of India for sustainable Development (eds.)
Surendra, Singh and Amal Kar, Agro-Botanical Publisher, Bikaner 1997 p.254.

150
last stage of degradation. The productivity of the grasslands has, however,
been depleting due to heavy pressure of animals, frequent droughts and
desertification. The population of livestock on the other hand, in the arid
region of Rajasthan has increased 13.72 million in 1961 to 23.18 million
in 1992. However, during the period of 1987-88 due to the severe drought,
fodder, shortage and high rate of mortality, the livestock population
declined to 17.77 million. On the other hand, the extent of grasslands has
decreased from 11.89 million hactares in 1961 to 10.20 million hactares
in 1983 and 7.83 million hactares in 1989.^ These are clear indications of
increased pressure on grazing lands and reduction in the area of marginal
lands. The life forms in western Rajasthan are a xerophytic scrub flora
which is seen in discontinuous patches of plant communities consisting of
an open assemblage of ephemerals, grasses, perennial herbs, undershrubs,
shrubs and dwarf trees and sometimes badly mutilated trees.
The vegetation differs in the sequence of species as one passes form
the extremely arid region (100-200 m.m.) of rainfall of the western part of
-laisalmer district to the eastern part of Rajasthan (500-700 m.m.)'* and
beyond, within the broadly same environmental set up there are sharp
changes in topographical features which mark a district delimitation of
plant communities.^ The gradual east to west decrease of rainfall is
reflected in the poor representation of natural flora. The comparatively
thick cover of the eastern part becomes scarce in the west.
The data of seventy three units of Western Rajasthan have been
analysed (Table-3).
There are only one tehsil of Indian desert reported very high
percentage of forest cover while another two tehsils of the study area
Singh, K.C. and Sharma, S.K. Management of degraded Grasslands in the Indian
and Ecosystem, Desertification Control in the Arid Ecosystem of India for
sustainable Development. Eds. Surendra Singh and Amal Kar Agro-Botanical
Publisher. Bikaner. 1997. P. 243.
Mulay, B.N. A study in the problem of Rajasthan Desert, Proceeding of the
Symposium on problem of Indian Arid zone Jodhpur 1964, p.43.
Saxena, S.K. Vegetation and its succession in the Indian Desert, Desertification
and its Control, Ed. Jaisalwal, P.L. I.C.A.R., New Delhi, 1977 p.176.

151

Table - 3 : Forest Cover in Western Rajasthan (1995)

No. of
Tchsils

Area in
Sq. Km.

Percentage
of the total
area

Very High

01

1,378.07

0.66

Neem ka Thana

High

02

2,286.55

1.09

Udaipurwati, Bali

Medium

06

10,122.24

4.84

Anupgarh,
Khetri,
Desuri,
Lachmangarh, Sikar, Nawalgarh

Low

09

19,952.67

9.55

Bikaner, Ganganagar, Karanpur,

Sadulshahar,
Gharsana,
Suratgarh,
Raipur,
Marwar
Junction and Sri Madhopur

Very low

55

1,75,011.47

83.83

Shiv, Baytu, Pachpadra, Banner,

Chohtan, Gudhamalani, Siwana,
Lunkaransar, Kolayat, Nokha,
Sardarshahar,
Tara
Nagar,
Rajgarh, Churu, Sri-Dungargarh,
Ratangarh,
Sujangarh,
Padampur, Rai Singh Nagar,
Vijai
Nagar,
Sangaria,
Hanumangarh,
Pilibanga,
Rawatsar, Tibi, Nohar, Bhadra,
Jaisalmer,
Pokaran,
Ahore,
Jalore,
Bhinnaal,
Sanchor,
Raniwara, Phalodi,
Shergarh,
Osian,
Bhopalgarh,
Jodhpur,
Bilara,
Jhunjhunu,
Chirawa,
Nagaur,
Merta,
Ladnun,
Didwana,
Nawa,
Parvatsar,
Degana, Jayal, Jaitaran, Sojat,
Pali and Danta Ramgarh.

73

208,751

100.0

Intensity

Source

Unit Areas

: Districts Handbooks, Department of Economics and Statistics, Jaipur, Government

of Rajasthan.

152
comes in high category of forest cover. These high to very high percentage
of forest cover shows good meteorological set up in the study area and
these unit areas are less vulnerable to desertification hazards. Six another
tehsils of Western Rajasthan lie under moderate risk to vulnerability to
desertification hazards.
There are nine tehsils in the study area reported low percentage of
forest cover. Whereas the remaining fifty five unit areas reported very low
percentage of forest cover. These unit areas are having high to very high
risk of vulnerability to desertification hazards. There is An inverse
relationship between plant cover and the desertification vulnerability. The
depletion of vegetation cover and plant varieties indicates higher
susceptibility to degradation.
ii)

Barren and Uncultivated Lands

It includes the extent of land where cultivation can not be done such

as dune infested areas, saline beds, hills, rocky outcrops, rivers beds,
gravels, sandy plains etc. The maximum percentage under this category
shows higher vulnerability of the land. The high percentage in this
category shows the incapability of the land for cultivation. The data of
seventy three study units reveals the vulnerability of desertification
hazards at varying degree (Table-4). Only one tehsil of the study area
reported very high percentage of Barren and uncultivated land. While
another two unit areas comes in high category. There are only two tehsils
lie in moderate category. Whereas twenty other tehsils reported low
percentage of Barren and uncultivated lands the remaining forty six unit
areas falls in the category of very low percentage of Barren and
uncultivated lands. There is a positive relationship between Barren and
uncultivated land and risk of vulnerability to desertification hazards.
Hi) Range Lands
This category comprises the land under miscellaneous tree crops and
groves. The maximum hectarage under this category provides more
opportunity to animals for grazing the lands. The maximum coverage

153

Table-4 : Barren and Uncultivated Land in Western Rajasthan (1995)

Intensity

No. of
Tchsils

Area in
Sq. Km.

Percentage
of the total
area

Very High

01

1,082 22

051

Raipur

High

02

7,818 5

3 75

Lunkaransar, Bali

Medium

02

3,053 75

1 46

Jaitaran, Sojat

Low

20

69,544 59

33 31

Siwana, Hanumangarh, Jaisaimer,

Ahore, Jalore, Bhinmal, Sanchor,
Raniwara, Osian, Bhopalgarh,
Jodhpur, Bilara, Khetn, Udaipurwati,
Nagaur, Merta, Nawa, Marwar
Junction, Desuri and Neem Ka
Thana

Very Low

46

1,27,251 94

60 95

Shiv, Baytu, Pachpadra, Barmer,

Chohtan, Gudhamaiani, Bikaner,
Kolayat, Nokha, Sardarshahar,
Taranagar, Rajgarh, Churu, Sri
Dungargarh, Ratangarh, Sujangarh,
Ganganagar, Karanpur, Sadulshahar,
Padampur,
Raisingh
Nagar,
Anupgarh, Gharsana, Vijainagar,
Suratgarh, Sangaria, Pilibanga,
Rawatsar, Tibi, Nohar, Bhadra,
Pokaran, Phalodi,
Shergarh,
Jhunjhunu, Chirawa, Nawalgarh,
Ladnun, Didwana, Degana, Jayal,
Fatehpur, Lachchmangarh, Sikar,
Danta Ramgarh and Sri Madhopur

73

2,08,751

100 00

Source

Unit Areas

: District Hand Books, Department of Economics and Statistics, Jaipur, Govt

of Rajasthan

154
shows that the economy of the area is largely pastoralism oriented and risk
of vulnerability to desertification would be higher. The data of 1995 has
been analysed for the seventy three units of western Rajasthan in order to
assess the percentage of area under the pasture and grazing lands
(Table-5). There are only one tehsil comes in very high category of
percentage of grazing and pastureland whereas, eight another unit areas
reported high percentage of grazing and pasture land. There are twenty
nine unit areas reported low percentage under this category. The
remaining thirtyfive unit areas lie in very low percentage of grazing and
pasture land. Low percentage in grazing and pasture land is a clear sign of
biotic pressure. In these areas also desertification would be severe in
intensity and deterioration of land would be higher. Similarly, the
maximum percentage under grazing and pasture land provides more
opportunity for grazing and covers larger area so there is also a positive
correlation with vulnerability to desertification hazards.
B. Livestock Resources
i) Livestock Population
Livestock plays a vital role in the economy as well as the ecology of
an arid region. It provides employment to a very sizeable proportion of the
population of the region. A socio-economic survey conducted by the
Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, indicates that about twothirds of population in this region practiced animal husbandry as their
main occupation.^ Despite this, the livestock sector in Rajasthan accounts
for 12 per cent of the total income of the state.^ In this sector, a sizeable
population of the region is engaged in the handicraft industry, utilising
animal products, such as wool, skins, hides, hair and marketing the milk
products and livestock. The contribution of this region to meat, milk and
other animal products in the country is quite substantial.
6.

7.

CZARI Socio-Economic survey of livestock breeders, in Anupgarh-Pugal region

of the Rajasthan, Human factors studies division, Report No 65/2, CAZRl,
Jodhpur 1965.
State Planning Commission Report, 1973.

155

TabIe-5 : Range Lands

No. of
Tehsils

Area in
Sq. Km.

Percentage
of the total
area

Vtiy High

01

6,616 32

3 16

Shiv

High

08

13,637 94

6 53

Jodhpur, Jhunjhunu, Chirawa,

Jaitaran, Pali, Marwar Junction,
Ball and Desuri

Medium

Nil

Nil

Nil

Low

29

70,190 82

33 62

Pachpadra, Barmer, Chohtan,

Rajgarh, Ratangarh, Pokaran, Ahore,
Bhinmal, Sanchor, Shergarh, Osian,
Bhopalgarh,
Bilara,
Khetri,
Nawalgarh, Nagaur, Merta, Jayal,
Parvatser, Degana, Raipur, Pali,
Fatehpur, Lachchmangarh, Sikar,
Danta Ramgarh, Sri Madhopur and
Neem Ka Thana

Veiy low

35

1,18,305 92

56 67

Baytu, Gudhamalani, Siwana,

Lunkaransar, Bikaner, Kolayat,
Nokha, Sardarshahar, Taranagar,
Churu, Sri Dungargarh, Ganganagar,
Karanpur, Sadulshahar, Padampur,
Raisinghnagar,
Vijainagar,
Suratgarh, Sangana, Hanumangarh,
Pilibanga, Rawatsar, Tibi, Nohar,
Bhadra, Jaisalmer, Jalore, Raniwara,
Udaipurwati, Ladnun, Didwana and
Nawa

73

2,08,751

100.00

Intensity

Source

Unit Areas

: District Hand Books, Department of Economics and Statistics, Jaipur, Govt

of Rajasthan

156
In India, nearly 41.4 per cent of the country's total landmass of 3.28
million square kilometers fall in this category of arid (11.8%) and semiarid (29.6%) zones. High agricultural risks, resulting from scarcity and
variability of rainfall, and various attendant edaphic factors characterise
these pockets of infertile lands. However, despite the inherent drawbacks
of these areas, the human and livestock population of the world's arid and
semi-arid zones increased by 75 per cent and 79 per cent respectively
during the 25 years from 1949 to 1974 (FAO 1982)1 In Rajasthan deserts
corresponding rise in livestock population is 129 per cent (Goat 194.3%,
Sheep 138.5%, Cattle 47.9%, Buffalo 163.4%, Camel 169.3%, Horse and
Donkey 32.8%).^
This has naturally resulted in increasing encroachments on the
available grazing areas and almost irreversible deterioration of the land
besides causing frequent conflicts between the pastoralists and the
cultivators for the reason that the fodder deficit is over 40 to 50 per cent.'
Cattle, sheep, goats and camel are the important livestock species
contributing to the economy of the region. According to (Abidi, 1970 and
Wahid, 1975) on the comparative economics of sheep and goats under
range management conditions indicate that goats are 40 to 160 per cent
more economical than sheep." Knoss (1969) has also indicated that goats
are more economical than sheep and two species by virtue of their
different dietry habits do not compete with each other in utilising the
scantily available vegetation resources.'^

8.

11.

FAO Production year Book, Food and Agricultural organization of the united
Nations. Rome 1983.
Jain, A.P. Rana, B.D. and Khan, M.S. Livestock and wildlife of Indian Arid
Ecosystem, Desertification control in the Arid Ecosystem of India for Surtinable
Development Eds. Surendra Singh & Amalkar Agro-Batonical Publisher Bikaner,
1997. R93.
Ahuja, L.D. Livestock production on rangelands in the Indian Arid zone,
sustainable Development of the Indian Arid Zone A. Research perspective (Eds.
R.R Singh and Surendra Singh) Scientific Publisher, Jodhpur, 1947, pp. 179-190.
R.M. Acharya, et. al Livestock Production Problem and Prospects, Desertification

12.

and its control, edited RS. Jaisalwal I.C.A.R., New Delhi, 1977 p. 275
Ibid. p. 275

9.

10.

157
It is estimated that the contribution of livestock to desertification is
relatively small as compared with the climatic and human factors. For
example, the utilization of marginal and sub-marginal lands for crop
farming, the felling of trees for fuels and timber and mis-management of
the soil. However, the utilization of the large grazing lands for crop
farming, has resulted to the shrinkage of range lands and the related
serious problems of over-grazing, thus adding to the forces causing to
desertification.'^
Among the species of livestock in the arid region, sheep would
perhaps contribute the maximum to soil erosion because of their close
grazing habits. Goats prefer browsing and will graze only under
conditions when nothing is available for browsing. They are not so
selective as sheep and would consume a wide variety of vegetation,
especially weeds, shrubs, bushes and young trees. It has been seen that
goat population is higher than other species.
The data reveals that buffaloes, goats, sheep and other livestock
constitute 4.54,1.75,7.39,8.73 and 1.44 million respectively of the total
23.23 million livestock population whereas the total livestock population
in the state is 44.50 million (Appendix-X). The livestock population
exceeds the human population. The ratio being 133 head of livestock per
100 persons. The density of livestock which indicate pressure on the
grazing lands is much higher in the region. The livestock population of
arid zone has increased from 10.27 millions in 1951 to 23.23 millions in
1983. These high pressure of livestock on the grazing lands in view of
their low carrying capactiy results in the overuse of these lands resulting
in depletion of the natural vegetation resources.''*
As data reveals the total livestock pressure on land seems extremely
high in the district of Banner 3.157 million heads whereas, Jodhpur and
Nagaur districts recorded 2.777 million 2.803 million heads respectively.
13.

Ibid. p. 275

14.

Mann, H.S. et.al. Land and Resource Utilisation in the arid zone, Desertification
and its control, (ed) Jaisalwal, P.L. I.C.A.R. New Delhi, 1977, p.99.

158
The districts Biicaner and Pali come under medium category having 2.06
million and 2.06 million population. Churu and Jalore fall under low
category having 1.678 and 1.689 million. There are five districts which lie
under very low category of livestock population these are Ganganagar
1.239 million, Hanumangarh, 1.125 million, Jaisalmer 1.365 million.
Jhunjhunu 1.178 million and Sikar 1.501 million (Appendix-IX).
ii) Density of Livestock Population
The Indian arid tract shows great disparity in livestock population
density. The density of livestock population decreases from east and
South-east towards west and northwest along with the decrease of rainfall
and thus with degenerating rangelands potentials. After the analysis of
data it was found that there are only three tehsils comes in very high
category of density of livestock population whereas, twelve another tehsils
come in high category of density of live stock population. There are
sixteen unit areas lie in moderate category of density of population. While
thirty four unit areas reported low density of livestock population. The
remaining eight other unit areas fall in the category of very low density of
livestock population (Table-6).
The pressure of livestock population on weak and fragile ecosystem
in the study area is considerably high. The result has been overgrazing and
deterioration of the surface vegetation on the other hand, lower density of
livestock population in western margin of the study area does not mean
the lower vulnerability but risk is higher in the larger area which provides
more land for grazing.
iii) Variation in Livestock Population
The livestock population of Indian arid zone has increased from 13.4
million in 1956 to 23.2 million in 1983, which shows a rise of 73.38 per
cent in 27 years. This is much higher than the state average which rose by
52.6S per cent during the same period. The data of 1977 to 1995 have
been analysed (Appendix-IX). Only one tehsil of the study area reported
very high variation in livestock population (Table-7). There are twenty

159

Tabie-6 : Density of Livestock Population (1995)

Intensity

No. of
Tehsils

Area in
Sq. Km.

Percentage
of the total
area

Unit Areas

Very High

03

2,972

1 42

Nawalgarh, Udaipurwati, Bali

High

12

17,352 03

831

Chirawa, Nawa, Parvatsar, Jaitaran,

Raipur, Pall, Marwar Junction,
Desun, Sikar, Danta Ramgarh, Sri
Madhopur and Neem Ka Thana

Medium

16

33,403 07

160

Chohtan, Ganganagar, Karanpur,

Ahore, Jaiore, Bhinmal, Raniwara,
Shergarh, Bhopaigarh, Jodhpur,
Bilara, Jhunjhunu, Khetn, Merta,
Ladnun and Didwana

Low

34

88215 34

42 25

Baytu,
Pachpadra,
Barmer,
Gundhamalani, Siwana, Bikaner,
Nokha, Taranagar, Rajgarh, Churu,
SriDungargarh,
Ratangarh,
Sujangarh, Sadulshahar, Padampur,
Raisingh
Nagar,
Anupgarh,
Gharsana, Vijainagar, Suratgarh,
Sangaria, Hanumangarh, Pilibanga,
Tibi, Nohar, Sanchor, Phalodi, Osian,
Nagaur, Jayal, Degana, Sojat,
Fatehpur and Lachchmangarh

Veiy low

08

66,808 56

32 0

Shiv,
Lunkaransar,
Kolayat
Sardarshahar, Rawatsar, Bhadra,
Jaisalmer and Pokaran

73

2,08,751

100.00

Source : Districts Handbooks, Department of Economic and Statistics, Jaipur, Govt of

Rajasthan

160

Table-7 : Variation in Livestock Population (1977-1995)

No. of
Tehsils

Area in
Sq. Km.

Percentage
of the total
area

Very High

01

9,306 21

4 45

High

Nil

Nil

Medium

21

54,279 95

26 0

Chohtan,
Lunkaransar,
Sri
Dungargarh, Sadulshahar, Raisingh
Nagar, Gharsana, Vijainagar,
Hanumangarh, Nohar, Pokaran,
Ahore, Jalore, Sanchor, Jodhpur,
Khetri, Merta, Parvatsar, Degana,
Jaitaran, Neem Ka Thana, Chirawa

Low

45

1,35,653 37

64 98

Shiv,
Baytu,
Pachpadra,
Gudhamalani, Siwana, Kolayat,
Nokha, Sardarshahar, Taranagar,
Churu, Ratangarh, Sujangarh,
Suratgarh, Sangaria, Pilibanga,
Rawatsar, Tibi, Bhadra, Jaisalmer,
Bhinmal, Raniwara, Phalodi,
Shergarh, Osian, Bhopaigarh,
Jhunjhunu, Nawalgarh, Nagaur,
Jayal, Ladnun, Didwana, Raipur,
Sural Pall, Bali, Desuri, fatehpur,
Lachmangarh,
Sikar,
Danta
Ramgarh, Sri Madhopur

Vciy low

06

9511 47

4 55

Banner,
Anupgarh,
Bilara,
Udaipurwati, Nawa and Pah

73

208,751

100.00

Intensity

Source

Unit Areas
Bikaner
-

: District Hand Books, Department of Economic and

Government of Rajasthan

Statistics, Jaipur,

161
one tehsils in the study area lie in moderate category. Whereas forty six
unit areas reported low variation in livestock population. The remaining
six tehsils fall in the category of very low variation in livestock
population. It has been observed that eastern part of the study area are
slightly better as compared to western margin. These areas are having low
risk to vulnerability to desertification hazards as compared to western
front of the study area.
iv) Livestock Mobility and Pressure on Range Lands
It has been generally noted that in the very high rainfall areas
livestock population is low whereas, in the low rainfall areas the livestock
population is high. However, it does not mean that there is a causal
relationship between the amount of rainfall and the size of livestock.
Infact, it would be wise to explain that because in the high rainfall areas
crop husbandry is more stable therefore, livestock rearing occupies a
secondary position and thus, the livestock population is low. On the other
hand, because in the low rainfall areas crop husbandry is not stablised and
agricultural fortunes are not favourable livestock husbandry aquires a
prominent position in the land use. In this way, large size of livestock is
explainable in low rainfall areas.
There are sixteen tehsils of the Indian desert recorded very high to
high rainfall. These are Khetri, Udaipurwati, Bali, Desuri, Neem Ka
Thana, Bhinmal, Bilara, Chirawa, Didwana, Raipur, Sojat, Pali, Marwar
Junction, Sikar, Danta Ramgarh and Sri Madhopur. Out of these sixteen
tehsils Udaipurwati and Raipur have very low livestock Population and
Bilara, Chirawa Khetri, Sojat, Pali, Marwar Junction, Bali, Desuri, Sikar,
Danta Ramgarh and Neem Ka Thana lie under the category of low size of
livestock population whereas Bhinmal tehsils of the Indian desert reported
relatively higher livestock population.
There are twenty four tehsils of Indian deserts which come under the
category of medium rainfall. These are Siwana, Rajgarh,

Churu,

Ratangarh, Sujangarh, Bhadra, Jodhpur, Jhunjhunu, Nawalgarh, Nagaur,

Merta, Jayal, Ladnun, Nawa, Parvatsar, Degana, Jaitaran, Fetehpur and

162
Lachchmangarh. Out of these twenty four tehsils of medium rainfall areas
ten tehsils lie under the category of very low livestock population. These
are Rajgarh, Churu, Ratangarh, Bhadra, Raniwara, Jhunjhunu, Nawalgarh,
Ladnun, Fatehpur and Lachchmangarh. Another eleven unit areas of
medium rainfall areas have low population of livestock these are Siwana,
Sujangarh, Ahore Jalore, Sanchor, Bhopalgarh, Merta, Jayal, Nawa,
Degana and Jaitaran whereas two tehsils of medium rainfall areas are
having high livestock population these are Jodhpur and Parvatsar. The
remaining Nagaur tehsil of medium rainfall area are having relatively
higher size of livestock population in the study area.
There are twenty seven tehsils of western Rajasthan which come
under the category of low rainfall areas. These are Shiv, Barmer, Baytu,
Pachpadra,

Chohtan,

Gudhamalani,

Lunkaransar,

Bikaner,

|Colayat,

Nokha, Sardarshahar, Tara Nagar, Sri Dungargarh, Ganganagar, Karampur,

Sadulshahar, Padampur, Suratgarh, Sangaria, Hanumangarh, Pilibanga,
Rawatsar, Tibi, Nohar, Phalodi, Shergarh and Osian. Out of these, Bikaner
tehsil reported very high livestock population in the study area. Whereas,
Chohtan and Phalodi come under the category of high

livestock

population. Besides this, six tehsils of western Rajasthan reported medium

population

of

livestock.

These

are

Shiv,

Barmer,

Gudhamalani,

Lunkaransar, Shergarh and Osian, Another eight tehsils of low rainfall

area have relatively low size of population. These are Baytu, Pachpadra,
Kolayat, Nokha, Sardarshahar, Shri Dungargarh, Suratgarh and Nohar. The
remaining ten tehsils of low rainfall areas in Indian desert are Tara Nagar,
Ganganagar, Karanpur, Sadulshar, Padampur, Sangaria, Hanumangarh,
Pilibanga, Rawatsar and Tibi. These lie under the category of very low
livestock population. There are six tehsils of western Rajasthan under the
category of very low rainfall. These are Raisinghnagar, Anupgarh,
Gharsana, Vijai Nagar, Jaisalmer and Pokaran. Out of six tehsils Jaisalmer
and Pokaran are having high livestock population. Whereas remaining four
tehsils i.e. Raisinghnagar, Anupgarh, Gharsana and Vijai Nagar, are
having very low livestock population in the region.

163
In good rainfall areas such as Khetri, Udaipurwati, Bali, Desuri,
Neem Ka Thana, Bhinmal, Bilara, Chriawa, Didwana, Raipur, Sojat, Pali,
Marvvar Junction, Sikar, Danta Ramgarh

and Sri Madhopur are having

very low to low livestock population. There is short range migration and
mobility of the livestock in these areas which is largely at Intra-block
level.
In areas of relatively lower rainfall and a little higher livestock
population size such as Siwana, Rajgarh, Churu, Ratangarh, Sujangarh,
Bhadra,

Ahore,

Jalore,

Sonchor,

Raniwara.

Bhopalgarh,

Jodhpur,

Jhunjhunu, Nawalgarh, Nagaur, Merta, Jayal, Ladnun, Nawa, Parvatsar,

Degana, Jaitaran, Fatehpur and Lachmangarh. The reares mobility is
generally at inter-block level.
In the areas of still lower rainfall with lower bio-mass potential and
still higher livestock population such as Shiv, Barmer, Pachpadra,
Chohtan,

Gudhamalani,

Sardarshahar,

Taranagar,

Lunkaransar,

Bikaner,

SriDungargarh,

Kolayat,

Ganganagar,

Nokha,
Karanpur,

Sadulshahar, Padampur, Suratgarh, Sangaria, Hanumangarh, Pilibanga,

Rawatsar, Tibi, Nohar, Phalodi, Shergarh, Raisinghnagar, Anupgarh,
Gharsana and Vijai Nagar. The reares mobility may encompass a larger
area i.e. Inter tehsil level.
In the areas of very scanty and erratic rainfall such as Jaisalmer and
Pokaran where biomass potential is meagre with higher

livestock

population the livestock migration is long range upto an inter-district or

even inter-state level particularly during the years of droughts. The yearly
varying intensity of the droughts would also affects the livestock rearing
mobility area. The western Rajasthan is having very large number of
livestock on weak and fragile ecosystem, the grazing land availability for
these animals has already become limited and is shrinking fast. This has
naturally resulted in increasing encroachments on the available grazing
areas and almost irreversible deterioration of the land which leads to
desertification hazards. It has been observed that along the western
districts of Rajasthan such as Barmer, Jaisalmer and Bikaner the mobility

164
of livestock is long distance because the rangelands are nucleated under
the impact of environmental exigencies. Towards the eastern and north
eastern districts such as Jhunjhunu and sikar the mobility of livestock is
short distance between the rangelands arc scattered due to comparatively
better environmental conditions.
C.

Human Resources
Human resource base is of crucial significance in harnessing the

natural resources, economic prospects and the environmental fortunes in

the scarcity striken arid regions. Human capability is an essential resource
in a region to determine the economic pattern of resource utilization and
to provide the required labour and skill to make best utilization of the
natural means. Population of western Rajasthan is increasing at a faster
rate. This explosion of population further deteriorated the already week
and depleted natural ecosystems of the region. Over exploitation of water,
plant and land resources by man has disturbed the delicate ecological
balance. Overgrazed rangelands, shrinking forest and eroded agricultural
fields are posing a serious danger to our coming generations.
The land and water resources are finite our ability to feed the
increasing population will depend on how efficiently we use these
resources without reducing their potential to meet the growing demand of
future. The study of population is necessary to assess the potential
capacity of each region for supporting the population.
i) Distribution of Population
The distribution of population in the region is highly sparse and
uneven mainly because of the region's arid and variable environmental
conditions Indian desert receives very less amount of rainfall, which
decreases from east to west. There are various factors which are
responsible for this uneven distribution of population like insufficient
supply of water for irrigation, poor soil fertility, prevalence of dunes high
temperatures etc. Besides this, there are various cultural factors and the
economy of the region is rural based. Most of the population depends
mainly upon agriculture and livestock. The settlements can also be seen in

165
clustered form around the water points. So water seems to be the main
factor to shape the region's habitable pattern. It is due to absence of
perennial rivers which remain dry over a long period of the year. The
static water level generally increases from region. The depth upto which
water is available in the arid zone ranges from less than 10 metres to as
much as 140 m below the surface.'^ The water table normally ranges
between 50-60 m below the surface and its utility also minimised due to
presence of large amount of salinity in it.'^ The soil of the region is sandy
in nature. There are vast stretches of inhospitable land turned towards
barren and uncultivable by sand dunes. The dunes further pose a serious
problem to settlement and communication. So the distribution oi'
population is concentrated only in areas where land, water and climate is
better than the areas which are barren, waterless and inhospitable.
According to 1995, district handbook reports. Government of
Rajasthan the total population of the Indian desert is 1,62,04671 which
was 36.82 per cent of the population of state. Indian arid zone covering
an area of 2,08,751 square kilometer occupies is as high as 61:03 per cent
of total area of Rajasthan and supports only 36.82 per cent of its total
population. Most of the population is concentrated in some favoured
stretches mainly in the piedmont zone of the steppe desert, leaving vast
tracts of land nearly destitute in the more arid western sector. The largest
population concentration is the steppe desert around luni-basin, the canal
zone of the north and north eastern part of the region where rainfall and
water availability conditions are better than the western districts. It is also
seen that due to the availability of water even a smaller district like
Jhunjhunu accounts population equal to Barmer and Jaisalmer put
together. Jodhpur has nearly triple the population of Bikaner. This shows
that population is sparse and highly uneven in distribution in western
Rajasthan.
.5.

Mann, H.S. (ed.) Static ground water Level in Ground water Atlas of Rajasthan,
I.C.A.R. New Delhi, 1982, p. 21.
16. Ahmad, A. Human Geography of Indian desert (Unpublished, Ph.D Thesis)
A.M.U., Aligarh. 1963. P.165.

166
ii) Population Density
Population distribution and density furnish important insighits in
understanding the man-land ratio and the human resource availability.
Comparative to other deserts, Rajasthan desert is one of the most thickly
populated deserts of the world and has an average density of 78 persons
per square kilometre as compared with 5 person per square kilometre in
most other regions of the world. Though the variations in the densities of
population do accur on account of topography, soils, the occurrence of
minerals, accessibility and other Socio-economic factors among which
water is the most important factor determining the distribution and density
of population in western Rajasthan where agriculture is a predominant
occupation and mining is undeveloped. The density of arid tract is very
low except in Ganganagar and Hunumangarh districts. As against this, the
state population density is 129 persons per square kilometre. The
population density in the district of Ganganagar and Hanumangarh is
higher owing to the availability of surface water through canal irrigation,
stabilization and commercialization of agriculture and the related heavy
immigration from Punjab and Haryana. Similarly, the districts such as
Jhunjhunu, Nagaur, Jodhpur, Sikar and Pali have greater facilities of well
and tank irrigation, show a higher density of Ganganagar and Jhunjhunu
has different

genesis. The high population

density

of

Jhunjhunu

historically built up by the socio-econonmic conditions whereas the rising

density of Ganganagar and Hanumagarh is an over night spurt of
population in the wake of Gang Canal and Indira Gandhi Canal network.
The density of population declines from the foothills of the Aravalli's
towards the narrow belt between sultej and the dry bed of the Ghaggar and
the thirsty sands of the deserts.'^
The vast arid tract comprises twelve districts of Rajasthan that is
Barmer, Bikaner, Churu, Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Jaisalmer, Jalore,
Jhunjhunu, Jodhpur Nagaur, Pali and Sikar. It comprises seventy three
17.

Chauhan, T.S. Integrated Area Development of Indian Desert. Geo-Environ

Acadeinia and Divyajyoti Prakshan Jaipur, 1989, p. 164.

167
tehsils. Out of the twelve districts four largest are in the west only Jalore,
Sikar and Jhunjhunu are small. Ganganagar, Hunumangarh, Jodhpur and
Nagaur have large populations, and the rest are very low in populations
rank. Only Sikar and Jhunjhunu have above the state average density of
129 person per square kilometer. Sikar has 238 persons per square
Kilometre whereas Jhunjhunu records 267 persons per square kilometer
which is the most thickly populated. Jaisalmer has 9 persons per square
kilometer records the lowest density. However, Jaisalmer has recently
registered a significant increase in its density (Appendix-XI).
The density of population is divided into five convenient grops.
Areas of very low Density of Population
These areas are characterised by densities below 75 persons per
square kilometer. These areas are confined to the extreme western part of
the region covering Shiv, Baytu, Pachpadra, Barmer, Chohtan and
Gudhamalani of district of Barmer. Lunkaransar, Bikaner, Kolayat and
Nokha tehsils of districts of Bikaner SardarShahar, TaraNagar, Sri
Dungargarh, Ratangarh and Sujangarh tehsils of district Churu. Gharsana
and Suratgarh tehsils of distict Ganganagar. Rawatsar tehsil of district
Hanumangarh, Jaisalmer, Phalodi, Shergarh and Osian covering an area of
1,25,937.45 square kilometer which inhibit only 46,62,228 persons with
an average 37 persons per square kilometer. Population of these tehsils are
very sparse which is attributed to dry climate, less amount of

rainfall

barren land, unproductive soils, sand dunes, no-availability of agricultural

land, absence of water and serveral other inhospitable conditions are
responsible for this very low density of the population in the region.
Areas of Low Density of Population
There are twenty seven tehsils of western Rajasthan under the
category of low density of population. These are siwana tehsil of district
Barmer. Rajgarh and Churu tehsils of district Churu. Raisingh Nagar,
Anupgarh and Vijai Nagar tehsils of district Ganganagar. Pilibanga, Nohar
and Bhadra tehsils of district Hanumangarh. Ahore, Jalore, Bhinmal,

168
Sanchor and Raniwara tehsils of district Jalore. Bhopalgarh, Jodhpur and
Bilara tehsils of district Jodhpur. Nagaur Merta, Jayal, Ladnun tehsils of
district Nagaur. Jaitaran, Sojat, Pali, Marwar Junction, Bali and Desuri
tehsils of district Pali covering an area of 54,904.34 square kilometer
which supports 56,29,075 population of western Rajasthan having an
average density of 103 persons per square kilometer (Table-8). This area
has slightly better conditions, because of the agro-based economy which
is entirely rural oriented in nature. Agriculture is based on well irrigation,
water table is slightly higher, rainfall is also relatively higher, dunes
infestation is less severe as compared to extreme west in Jaisalmer and
Bikaner.
Areas of Moderate Population Density
There are thirteen tehsils in western Rajasthan lie in moderate
category of density of population. These are Karanpur, Sadulshahar,
Pandampur tehsils of district Hunumangarh. Didwana, Nawa, Parvatiar
and Degana tehsils of district Nagaur. Raipur tehsil of district

Pali.

Fatehpur, Lachmangarh and Danta Ramgarh tehsils of district Sikar

covering an area of 15,705.38 Square Kilometere and supports 25,94,790
population which has an average density of 165 persons per square
kilometer. This belt is comparatively wetter part of the region except
Ganganagar which has been thoroughly Irrigated. There are occurrence of
numerous streams which rise from the western slopes of the Aravallis and
drain into the Southern tract. Introduction of Indira Gandhi Canal in
Ganganagar district and the population attracted from different areas and
settled in the region results in higher density of population. The water
table density of population. The water table is quite high. Comparatively
good rainfall, permanent water supply either from the running streams as
the subterranean source and a fertile sandy loam provide optimum
agricultural condition which attract the large concentration of the people.
Areas of High Population Density
This covers Hanumangarh tehsil of district Hanumangarh. Jhunjhunu,
Chirawa, Khetri and Udaipurwati tehsils of district Jhunjhunu. Sikar and

169

Table-8 : Population Density (1995)

Category

No. of
Tchsils

Area in
Sq. Km

%agc of
the total
area

Affected
population

% of the
total
population

Very low

23

125937 45

60 32

46,62,228

26 77

(37 Person/sq km)

Shiv,
Baytu,
Pachpadra,
Banner,
Chohtan,
Gudhanialani,
Lunkaransar,
Bikaner,
Kolayar,
Nokha,
Sardarshahar,
Taranagar,
SriDungdgarh,
Ralangarh
Sujangarh,
Rawatsar,
Jaisalmer, Pokaran, Phalodi,
Shergarh, Osian

Low

27

54,904 34

26 30

5629075

34 73

(103 person/sq km)

Siwana,
Rajgarh,
Churu,
Raisingh Nagar, Anupgarh,
Vijai Nagar, Piiibanga, Nohar,
Bhadra,
Ahore,
lalore,
Bhinmal, Sanchor, Raniwara,
Bhopalgarh, lodhpur, Bilara,
Nagaur, Merta, Jayal Ladnun,
Jaitaran, Sojat, Pali, Marwar
Junction, Ball and Desuri

Medium

13

15,70,538

7 52

25,94,790

1601

(165person/Sq km)
Karanpur,
Sadulshahar,
Padampur,
Sangaria,
Tibi,
Didwana, Nawa, Parvatsar,
Degana, Raipur,
Fatehpur,
Lachchmangarh,
Danta
Ramgarh

High

07

9111 06

4 36

23,19,789

1431

(255person/Sq km)
Hanumangarh,
Jhunjhunu,
Chirawa, Khclri, Udaipurwati,
Sikar and Neem kd Thana

Veiy High

03

3092 77

1 48

9,98,789

6 16

(323 ppsqkm)
Ganganagar, Nawalgarh,
Madhopur

73

Source

208751

100.00

1,74,20,280

Unit Areas

Sri

99.98

: District Hand Books, Department of Economics and Statistics, Jaipur. Govt of

Rajastinan.

170
Neem Ka Thana tehsils of district Sikar, comprising an area of 9,111.06
Square Kilometre and supports 23,19,789 persons. It has an average
density of 255 persons per square kilometer. The high density of
population in this area is due to good rainfall, fertile land, high water
table, improved irrigation facilities and intensification of agriculture.
Areas of Very High Density
This covers only 3092.77 square kilometer of an area and supports
9,98,789 persons. It comprises Ganganagar tehsil of district Jhunjhunu
and Sri Madhopur tehsil of district Sikar. It has an average density of 322
persons per Square kilometer. This very high density of population dwells
upon good rainfall, fertile land, high-water table, improved Irrigation
facilities and intensification of agriculture.
ill) Population Growth
According to the census of 1901 the population of arid zone of
Rajasthan was 3.567 millions which has increased to 1,74,20,280 in 1991
i.e. the population of the region registered an increase of nearly

five

times to its size in a period of ninety years. Existing evidence shows that
the population in the arid zone during the late medieval period had
remained static or increased only slightly.'^ The trend continued even
during the first two decades of the present century. However, a
phenomenal increase set in thereafter. The population almost doubled in
the four decades from the year 1921 and a further increase of over 75 per
cent has occurred in the succeeding two decades upto 1981. Another
increase of nearly 3.5 million persons during 1981-1991. The growth rate
in the Indian arid zone all along has been substantially higher than for the
country as a whole.'^ As a result of this continues increase of population
the density in the arid tract has increased from 17 persons per square

18.

19,

Dhir, R.P The human factors in ecological history. Desertification and

Development. Dryland Ecology in social Perspective. Academic press New York,
1982, pp.311-31
Malhotra, S.P Socio-demographic factors and nomadism in the Arid zone.
Desertification and its control. I.C.A.R. New Delhi 1977. pp 310-323

171
kilometer to 30 pp sq km in 1961 and 68 pp sq. by the year 1981 and 86
per square km by 1991. This render the Indian arid zone most densely
populated among the regions of similar aridity indices elsewhere.
Rajasthan State continues to register high growth rate even higher
than the all India average whereas Arid west of Rajasthan has always
shown larger than the corresponding increase as compared to the semi-arid
and sub-humid Regions. The western arid tract registered a decadal
increase of over 39.03 per cent in 1981 and 33.82 per cent in 1991
(Appendix-XI).
The growth of population in the Arid zone has been very high
(Table-9). On the basis of 1981-1991 census there are only three tehsils of
western Rajasthan come under the category of very high growth rate of the
population i.e. Bikaner, Suratgarh and Phalodi covering an area of
19,640.79 square kilometre which is 9.44 per cent of the Indian arid zone.
The are twelve tehsils which come under the category of high population
growth i.e. Nokha, Rajgarh, Pilibanga, Nohar, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur,
.Ihunjhunu, Nagaur, Merta, Nawa and Neem ka Thana covering an area of
52,740.65 square kilometre which cover 25.35 per cent of the western
Rajasthan. There are twenty four tehsils of the Indian desert having
medium growth of population these are Shiv, Pachpadra, Kolayat, Tara
Nagar,

Churu,

Hunumangarh
Udaipurwati,

Ganganagar
Tibi,

Pokaran,

Sadulshahar,
Shergarh,

Anupgarh,
Osian,

Sangaria,

Bilara,

Landnun, Didwana, Parvatsar, Lachchmangarh,

Khetri,
Sikar,

DantaRamgarh and Sri Madhopur which cover and area of 59,162.39

Square kilometre of western Rajasthan and encompass 28.44 per cent of
Indian desert. There are twenty two tehsils under the category of Low
population growth. These are Barmer, Chohtan, Lunkaransar, Sardanshahr,
SriDungargarh, Ratangarh, Sujangarh, Karanpur, Padampur, Raisingh
Nagar, Vijainagar, Bhadra, Ahore, Jalore, Bhinmal, Sanchor, Bhopalgarh,
Chirawa, Degana, Sojat, Pali and Sikar covering an area of 53,937.53
square kilometer which is 25.92 per cent of the western Rajasthan.
Another thirteen tehsils of western Rajasthan fall under the category of

172

Table-9 : Population Growth in Western Rajasthan (1981-1991)

No. of
Tehsils

Area in
Sq. Km.

Percentage
of the total
area

Very High

03

19,640.79

9.44

Bikaner, Suratgarh and Phalodi

High

12

51,740.16

25.35

Nokha, Rajgarh, Pilibanga, Nohar,

Jaisaimer, Jodhpur, Jhunjhunu,
Nagaur, Merta, Nawa and Neem ka
Thana.

Medium

24

59,162.39

28.44

Shiv, Pachpadra, Kolayat, Taranagar,

Churu, Ganganagar, Saduishahar,
Anupgarh, Sangaria, Hanumangarh,
Tibi, Pokaran, Shergarh, Osian,
Bilara, Khetri, Udaipurwati, Ladnun,
Didwana, Parvatsar, Lachchmangarh, Sikar, Danta Ramgarh and Sri
Madhopur.

Low

22

53,937.53

25.92

Barmer, Chohtan, Lunkaransar,

Sardarshahar,
SriDungargarh,
Ratngarh, Sujangarh, Karanpur,
Padampur, Raisinghnagar, Vijai
Nagar, Bhadra, Ahore, Jaiore,
Bhinmai, Sanchor, Bhopaigarh,
Chirawa Degana, Sojat, Pali and
Sikar.

Verylow

13

22,539.86

10.83

Baytu, Gudhamaiani, Siwana,

Gharsana, Rawatsar, Raniwara,
Nawalgarh, Jayai, Jaitaran, Raipur,
Marwar Junction, Bali and Desuri.

73

2,08,751

100.00

Intensity

Unit Areas

Source : District Hand Books, Department of Economics and Statistics, Jaipur Govt of
Rajasthan.

173
very low population growth. These are Baytu, Gudhamalani, Siwana,
Gharsana, Rawatsar, Raniwara, Nawalgarh, Jayal, Jaitaran, Raipur,
Marwar Junction Bali and Desuri covers an area of only 22,539.86 square
kilometre which is 10.83 per cent of the western Rajasthan.
Spatial Variation of Population Growth Gap
After the analysis of the data of 1971-1981 and 1981-1991 it has
been fouud that there are fifty five tehsils in western Rajasthan showing
decreasing growth Gap of the population during the decade (Table-10).
Out of fifty five tehsils of western Rajasthan three tehsils come under the
category of very high negative growth gap of the population. Another
three tehsils come under the category of high category of negative growth
gap of the population. These are Gudhamalani, Hanumangarh, and Pali.
Besides this twenty five other tehsils of western Rajasthan lie under the
category of moderate negative growth gap. These are Shiv, Baytu, Banner,
Chohtan,

Kolayat,

Padampur,

Raisinghnagar,

Anupgarh,

Rawatsar,

Bhadra, Ahore, Jalore, Bhinmal, Raniwara, Jayal, Jaitaran, Raipur, Sojat

Marwar Junction, Bali and Desuri. There are seventeen tehsils under the
category of low negative growth gap. These are Pachpadra, Lunkaransar,
Nokha,

Rajgarh,

Ganganagar,

Sudulshahar,

Gharsans,

Vijainagar,

Suratgarh, Sagaria, Pilibanga, Phalodi, Bhopalgarh and Fatehpur.

There are seven other tehsils with very low negative growth gap in
the Indian desert. These are Jaisalmer, Pokaran, Sanchor, Shergarh, Osian,
Jodhpur and Bilara.
On the otherhand there are eighteen tehsils of western Rajasthan
showing high increase in positive growth gap of the population. These are
Bikaner, Tibi, Nohar, Parvatsar, Degana, Lachchmangarh, Sikar, Danta
Ramgarh, Sri Madhopur and Neem Ka Thana.
The major factors which are responsible for the surprising growth
rate ave the widening gap between birth and death rates (Natural Growth)
and the migration. Immigration seems very less due to the absence of large
scale industries and mineral production. Inspite of heavy push factor,

174

TabIe-10 : Spatial Variation of Population Growth Gap (1981-1991)

Category

No. of
Tehsils

Area in
Sq. Km.

Percentage
of the total
area

Unit Areas

Negative
Growth
Siwana, Nawalgarh

Very High

03

High

03

Medium

25

Shiv, Baytu, Barmer, Chohtan,

Kolayat, Sardarshahar, Taranagar,
Sujangarh, Karanpur, Padampur,
Raisingh
Nagar,
Anupgarh,
Rawatsar, Bhadra, Ahore, Jalore,
Bhinmal, Raniwara, Jayal, Jaitaran,
Raipur, Sojat, Marwar Junction, Bali,
Desuri

Low

17

Pachpadra, Lunkaransar, Nokha,

Rajgarh, Ganganagar, Sadulshahur,
Gharsana, Vijai Nagar, Suratgarh,
Sangaria, Pilibanga, Phalodi,
Bhopalgarh, Fatehpur

Very low

07

55

1,73,850.79

83.28

Gudhamalani, Hanumangarh Pali

Jaisalmer, Pokaran, Sanchor,

Shergarh, Osian, Jodhpur, Bilara

Positive
Growth
Bikaner, Tibi, Nohar, Jhunjhunu,
Chirawa, Udaipurwati, Nawa,
Parvatsar, Degana, Lachchamangarh, Sikar, Domtaramgarh, Sri
Madhopur and Neem Ka Thana

18

73

34,170.43

16.36

2,08,751

100.00

Source : District Handbooks, Department of Economics and Statistics, Jaipur, Govt, of Rajasthan.

175
overcrowding is occurring on the already over-saturated lands. Areas of
crop husbandry seem to show a rising growth rate. These are in north and
north-eastern part of western Rajasthan population growth gap is generally
high in sedentary groups as compared to migratory groups. The western
Rajasthan recorded very high negative growth gap. It is only due to
agricultural base and presence of migratory society in the study area.
There are also various other factors like backwardness, poor means of
communication lack of social institutions such as joint family system,
caste system early marriage and illiteracy among the people. Improved
medical care in recent times has greatly minimised mortality at birth and
has increased population growth.
iv)

Literacy Rates
Literacy plays a vital role in the socio-economic development of a

region and it is also supposed to change the fertility pattern of the region.
The literacy scene in Rajasthan as compared to other states is not
satisfactory. The literacy rate in Rajasthan was only 3.5 per cent in 1901,
now it has increased to 38.55 per cent of the total population (aged 7
years and above). In rural areas this proportion is about 30 per cent while
in urban areas it works out to be 65 per cent. During the 1981-91 decade,
53.33 lakh person were added to the ranks of the literates. Within the state
desert districts during 1981-1995 have also recorded improvement in the
ratio of literates to total population in case of both male and female. The
gap in the literacy ratio's for males has narrowed down between the
districts. While this has increased in the case of females. The increase in
percentage for both males and females are higher in Jhunjhunu, Pali and
Sikar districts than that of the Rajasthan average. The best performance in
terms of improvement in the ratio of literates to population is in the
district Jhunjhunu. The highest ratio has been in Jaisalmer. The highest
increase in the literacy ratio for females was in Ganganagar 11.92 per cent
and Jhunjhunu 11.65 per cent. The most dismal picture regarding the
increase in the female literacy ratio comes from Jalore district 2.5 per

176
cent.^^^ Although Jalore has risen above the Rajasthan, average with regard
to male literacy ratio, its position pertaining to the females is surprisingly
the lowest, it is a matter of serious concern that except for Jhunjhunu and
Ganganagar districts, the gender gap has increased in all the districts.
Thus the female literacy percentage for Rajasthan and its arid zone had
been much lower for 1981 as well as for 1991.^'
The district Jhunjhunu reported very high literacy rate i.e. 47.60 per
cent as compared to Sikar 42.49 per cent Ganganagar 41.52 per cent,
Bikaner 41.73 per cent and Jodhpur 40.69 per cent, all are above the state
average where as Pali 35.96 per cent and Churu 34.78 per cent lie under
moderate category followed by Jalore 31.94 per cent, Nagaur 31.80 per
cent fall under low category. The Barmer reported very low literacy rate
i.e 22.98 per cent (Appendix-XI).
The data of the year 1995 for the seventy three unit areas of the
western Rajasthan have been analyzed in order to assess the literacy level
in the area. Only one tehsil reported very high literacy level. This
prestigious tehsil is Karanpur nine another tehsils reported high literacy
rate.

These

are

Churu,

Ganganagar,

Sadulshahar,

Padampur,

Raisinghnagar, Vijai Nagar, Jodhpur, Chirawa, Pali, Sikar, Sri Madhopur

and Neem Ka Thana. There are Twenty nine tehsils lie in moderate
category of lateracy rates these tehsils are Barmer, Sardarshahar, Rajgarh,
Ratangarh, Sujangarh, Anupgarh, Suratgarh, Sangaria, Hanumangarh,
Pilibanga, Nohar, Pokaran, Jhunjhunu, Khetri, Nowalgarh, Udaipurwati,
Merta, Ladnun, Didwana, Nawa, Parvatsar, Jaitaran, Raipur, Sojat,
Marwar Junction, Bali, Fatehpur, Lachchmangarh and Danta Ramgarh.
Another eighteen unit areas comes under the category of low literacy rate.
These are Shiv, Baytu, Pachpadra, Bikaner, Tara Nagar, SriDungargarh,
Gharsana, Rawatsar, Tibi, Bhadra, Jaisalmer, Ahore, Bhinmal, Bilara,
Jaisalmer, Nagaur, Jayal, Degana and Desuri. The remaining thirteen
20.

Bharara, L.P. Human Resources of Indian Arid zone, Desertification Control in tiie
Arid Ecosystem of India for sustainable Development Eds Sureiidia Singh &
Amalkar, Agra. Botanical Publisher Bikaner. 1997.

21.

ibid. p. 114.

177
tehsils of the Indian desert which reported very low literacy rates in the
study area. These are Chohtan, Gudhamalani, Siwana, Lunkaransar,
Kolayat, Nokha, Jalore, Sanchor, Raniwara, Phalodi, Shergarh, Osian and
Bhopalgarh. The perentrage of literacy and the percentage area under each
category are given in the Table-11.
As far as urban literacy level is concerned the Karanpur tehsils lies
in the category of very high literacy rate in urban area also in western
Rajasthan. Chirawa reported high percentage of literacy in urban area.
vv'hereas twenty nine tehsils lie in moderate level of literacy in urban area.
These

are

Pachpadra,

Barmer,

Sadulshahar,

Rajgarh,

Churu,

Sri

Dungargarh, Ratangarh, Sujangarh, Ganganagar, Raisinghnagar, Sangaria,

Hanumangarh, Jaisalmer, Pokaran, Ahore, Jalore, Bhinmal, Jodhpur,
Jhunjhunu, Khetri, Nawalgarh, Udaipurwati, Nagaur, Merta, Didwana,
Nawa, Degana, Marwar Junction and

Neem Ka Thana. Twenty seven

tehsils come under the category of low literacy rate. These are Bikaner,
Taranagar, Sadulshahar, Padampur, Anupgarh, Vijainagar,

Suratgarh,

Pilibanga, Rawatsar, Nohar, Bhadra, Jalore, Bhinmal, Sanchor, Raniwara,

Phalodi, Osian, Bhopalgarh, Jayal, Parvatsar, Jaitaran, Sojat, Pali, Bali,
Fatehpur, Lachchmangarh and Sikar. The remaining fifteen tehsils have
reported very low literacy level in urban area. These are Shiv, Baytu,
Chohtan, Gudhamalani, Siwana, Lunkaransar, Kolayat, Nokha, Gharsana,
Shergarh, Bilara, Raipur, Desuri, Danta Ramgarh and Sri Madhopur
(Appendix-XI).
The literacy of male population is reported higher as compared to
female population. There are six districts which have higher literacy rate
among male population as compared to another districts of the region.
They are Jhunjhunu with 68.32 per cent followed by Sikar 64.13 per cent,
Jodhpur 56.74 per cent followed by Sikar 64.13 per cent, Jodhpur 56.74
per cent. Ganganagar 55.29 per cent, Bikaner 54.63 per cent, Pali 54.42
per cent, Churu 51.30 per cent, Jaisalmer 44.99 per cent, Jalore 39.97 per
cent and Bikaner 36.56 per cent.

178

Table-11 : Literacy Rates in Western Rajasthan (1995)

Intensity

No. of
Tehsils

Area in
Sq. Km.

Percentage
of the total
area

Veiy High

01

8,18 87

0 39

Karanpur

High

09

16,923 54

8 10

Churu, Ganganagar, Sadulshahar,

Padampur Raisinghnagar, Vijai
Nagar, Jodhpur, Chirawa, Pah Sikar,
Sri Madhopur and Neem Ka Thana

Medium

29

60,024 61

28 75

Barmer, Sardarshaher, Rajgarh,

Ratangarh, Sujangarh, Anupgarh,
Suratgarh, Sangana, Hanumangarh,
Pilibanga
Nohar,
Pokaran,
Jhunjhunu, Khetri, Nawalgarh,
Udaipurwati, Merta, Ladnun,
Didwana, Nawa, Parvatsar, Jaitaran,
Raipur, Sojat, Marwar Junction, Bah,
Fatehpur, Lachmangarh and Danta
Ramgarh

1 ow

18

77,834 93

37 28

Shiv, Baytu, Pachpadra, Bikaner,

Taranagar,
Sri
Dungargarh,
Gharsana, Rawatsar, Tibi, Bhadra,
Jaisalmer, Ahore, Bhinmal, Bilara,
Nagaur, Jayal, Degana and Desun

Veiy Low

13

53,149 05

25 46

Chohtan, Gudhamalani, Siwana,

Lunkaransar, Koloyat, Nokha, Jalore,
Sanchor, Raniwara, Phalodi,
Shergarh, osian Bhopalgarh

73

208,751

100.00

Unit Areas

Soui ce : District Hand Books, Department of Economics and Statistics, Jaipur, Govt of Rajasthan

179
The highest female literacy rate was recorded in district Bikaner with
27.03 per cent followed by Ganganagar 26.39 per cent, Jhunjhunu 25.54
per cent, Jodhpur 22.68 per cent, Sikar 19.88 per cent, Churu 17.32 per
cent, Pali 16.97 per cent Nagaur 13.24 per cent, Jaisalmer 11.88 per cent,
Jalore 7.75 per cent and Banner reported lowest literacy rate among
female that is 7.68 per cent.
v) Sex Composition
The sex ratio is an important indicator of population structure. It
signifies the status of women in the society. It indicates whether woman is
considered as an asset or otherwise in a social group. The sex ratio in a
population is normally expressed as the number of females per thousand
of males. Closer is the number of female to male population better is the
social equilibrium and women status. The sex-ratio in Rajasthan state has
been over the decades, adverse to women i.e. the number of women per
thousand men has generally been much lower. The average sex ratio in
Rajasthan state is 910 women per 1000 males.
The sex ratio in arid zone, is found to be 913 per 1000 males which
is slightly higher than the state average figures. This is partly because the
male migration level is very high in Rajasthan.
The sex ratio in arid zone varies from district to district.

The

maximum number of females are reported in Churu, 973 followed by Pali,

956 Sikar, 946 Jalore 944, Nagaur 942, and Jhunjhunu 931, whereas
western districts of arid zone reported very low sex ratio i.e. Barmer 891
followed by Jodhpur 891, Bikaner 885, Ganganagar 877 and Jaisalmer 807
(Appendix-XI). The western arid districts have high female

infant

mortality rates as well as high female mortality during Births due to

isolation and lack of infrastructural facilities.
After the analysis of the year 1995 for the seventy three units of the
study area it has been found that only Jaisalmer district comes under the
category of very low sex ratio in the region and eleven tehsils of the
region fall under the category of low sex ratio these are Shiv, Barmer,

180
Siwana,

Lunkaransar,

Nokha,

Ganganagar,

Sadulshahar,

Anupgarh,

Suratgarh, Pokaran and Jodhpur. Another twenty four units of the study
area are having medium sex composition. These are Baytu, Chohtan,
Gudhamalani, Bikaner, Kolayat, Karanpur, Padampur, Raisinghnagar,
Gharsana, Vijainagar, Sangaria, Hanumangarh, Pilibanga, Rawatsar, Tibi,
Nohar, Bhadra, Phalodi, Shergarh, Chirawa, Khetri, Pali and Neem Ka
Thana.

There are twenty seven tehsils which reported high sex

composition these are Sardarshahar, Taranagar, Rajgarh, Churu, Sri

Dungargarh, Ratangarh, Sujangarh, Jalore, Sanchor, Bhinmal, Raniwara,
Osian, Bhopalgarh, Bilara, Jhunjhunu, Nawaigarh, Nagaur, Merta, Jayal,
Nawa, Parvatsar, Degana, Jaitaran, Sikar, Danta Ramgarh and Sri
Madhopur and Udaipurwati. The remaining ten tehsils reported very high
sex composition in the Indian desert these are Ahore, Ladnun, Didwana,
Raipur,

Sojat,

Marwar

Junction,

Bali,

Desuri,

Fatehpur

and

Lachchmangarh.
This low sex composition in the study area indicate the region is
economically under developed because most of the male population
emigrate to the more advanced urbanised areas and hence the ratiodecreases. The western part of Indian desert are having low sex
composition as compared to the eastern part of the study area.
vi)

Rural-Urban Composition
Rural and urban population is an important indicator of man-

environment relationship. It shows a peculiar feature with respect to

population density, degree of ethnic and cultural homogeneity and
occupational and social stability. Nature of social group is totally different
in the rural and urban areas of the study region.
According to data of 1991 Rajasthan state has registered about 77.12
per cent of total population to live in the villages, whereas urban areas
contain 22.88 per cent of total population of the state.
Western Rajasthan is predominantly rural in its dwelling. According
to 1991, Barmer recorded 89.96 per cent of its population as rural

181
followed by Jaisalmer 84.44 per cent, Nagaur 84.02 per cent, Sikar 79.97
per cent, Jhunjhunu 79.95 per cent, Ganganagar 79.95, Pali 79.25 per
cent, Churu 71.10 per cent, .lodhpur 64.50 per cent and Bikaner 60.27 per
cent (Appendix-XI).
The growing urban population in the Indian desert in the result of
wide opportunity of jobs and amenties. There is an occurrence of rapid
migration from rural to urban areas. As census of 1991 reveals that the
highest urban population in the Indian desert recorded in Bikaner 39.73
per cent followed by Jodhpur 35.50 per cent, Churu 28.90 per cent, Pali
21.75 per cent, Ganganagar 21.05 per cent, Sikar 21.03 per cent and
Jhunjhunu 20.54 per cent, Nagaur 15.98 per cent, Jaisalmer 15.56 per cent
and Barmer is lowest one i.e. 10.04 per cent of total population. The
lowest urban percentages indicate that region is highly under-developed,
there is scarcity of job, lack of infrastructural facilities and resources.
Out of the seventy three tehsils of the western Rajasthan, there are
three tehsils reported very high rural population these are Khetri, Nagaur
and Sri Madhopur whereas thirteen tehsils of the study area reported high
percentage of rural population. These tehsils are Chohtan, Bhinmal,
Sanchor, Phalodi, Osian, Jodhpur, Jhunjhunu, Parvatsar, Bali, Sikar, Danta
Ramgarh, Neem Ka Thana and Chirawa. There are fourteen other unit
areas lie in medium category of percentage of rural population, These are
Barmer, Gudhamalani, Siwana, Bikaner, Nokha, Rajgarh, Hanumangarh,
.lalore, Shergarh, Bhopalgarh, Merta, Didwana, Nawa and Degana. There
are sixteen tehsils fall under the category of low rural population areas are
Pachpadra, Lunkaransar, Sardarshahar, Sujangarh, Ganganagar, Suratgarh,
Nohar, Bhadra, Jaisalmer, Ahore, Nawalgarh, Udaipurwati, Jayal, Pali,
Marwar Junction and Desuri. Whereas twenty six units of the study area
come under the category of very low percentage of rural population. These
are Shiv, Baytu, Kolayat, Taranagar, Churu, Ratangarh,

Karanpur,

Sadulshahar, Padampur, Raisingnagar, Anupgarh, Gharsana, Vijainagar,

Sangaria, Pilibanga, Rawatsar, Tibi, Pokaran, Raniwara, Bilara, Ladnun,
Jaitaran, Raipur and Lachchmangarh.

182
On the otherhand, there are only two tehsils reported very high
percentage of urban population. These are Jodhpur and Bilara, whereas,
Bikaner and Bhopalgarh reported high percentage of urban population
only Osian tehsil lie in moderate category. Another, seven tehsils reported
low percentage

of urban population. These are Nokha,

Kolayat,

Ganganagar, Sojat, Pali, Sikar and Danta Ramgarh. The remaining fifty
nine unit areas reported very low percentage of urban population. These
are Baytu, Barmer, Chohtan, Shiv, Gudhamalani, Siwana, Sardarshahar,
Taranagar, Rajgarh,
Karanpur,

Churu, Sri Dungargarh, Ratangarh,

Sadulshahar,

Padampur,

Raisinghnagar,

Sujangarh,
Sangaria,

Hanumangarh, Pilibanga, Rawatsar, Tibi, Nohar, Bhadra, Jaisalmer,

Pokaran, Ahore, Jalor, Bhinmal, Sanchor, Raniwara, Phalodi, Shergarh,
Jhunjhunu, Chirawa, Khetri, Nawalgarh, Udaipurwati, Nagaur, Merta,
.layal, Ladnun, Didwana, Nawa, Parvatsar, Degana, Jaitaran, Raipur,
Marwar Junction, Bali, Desuri, Fatehpur, Lachchmangarh, Sri Madhopur
and Neem Ka Thana.
vii) Occupational Structure
Occupational stucture is an important tool to measure the economic
sustainability of the region. The occupation in the region have been
divided into three groups Primary, which employ about 69.9 per cent of
total working population in the Indian arid zone which indicates that the
region's economy is rural oriented and deals with agriculture and
postoralism etc.
The workers engaged in primary sector are in different occupations
such as cultivators, agricultural labourers and livestock reares. The
variation in percentage of population which are involved in primary sector
is dependent upon availability of water resources irrigational facilities and
other related factors.
Pastoralism is the main activity in places where the land is not
available for farming and water scaricity prevails in the region. The higher
percentage of population shows the backwardness of a region and is an
indicator of under developed economy.

183
District Barmer lias registered very high proportion of population i.e.
84,15 per cent in primary activity. Nagaur and Churu come under high
category reported 77.59 per cent and 76.95 per cent. Two districts of
western Rajasthan lie in moderate category which are Ganganagar 72.27
and Pali 71.07 per cent. The remaining five districts falls under the
category of very low proportion of population in primary sector. These are
.Ihunjhunu 65.02 per cent followed by Sikar 63.37 per cent, Bikaner 63.35
per cent, Jaisalmer 62.74 per cent and Jodhpur 61.0 per cent.
Cultivators
The proportion of population engaged in cultivation has been
analysed. There are seventy three tehsils in western Rajasthan, Out of
seventy three tehsils, only Nagaur reported very high population of
cultivators. Five other tehsils reported high number of cultivators. These
tehsils are Gudhamalani, Bikaner, Sanchor, Jodhpur and Parvatsar. There
are twenty one tehsils in western Rajasthan reported moderate population
o[ cultivators these are Pachpadra, Barmer, Chohtan, Nokha, Rajgarh,
Sujangarh, Bhadra, Bhinmal, Phalodi, Shergarh, Osian, Bhopalgarh,
Jhunjhunu, Chirawa, Khetri, Merta, Jayai, Didwana, Degana, Sikar and Sri
Madhopur. Twenty five tehsils fall under the category of low population
of cultivators. These are Shiv, Baytu, Siwana, Lunkaransar, Sardarshahar,
Taranagar, Churu, Sri Dungargarh, Ratangarh, Suratgarh, Hanumangarh,
Rawatsar, Nohar, Ahore, Bali, Desuri, Fetehpur, Lachchmangarh, Danta
Ramgarh and Neem Ka Thana. The remaining twenty one tehsils having
very low size of cultivators. These are Kolayat, Ganganagar Karanpur,
Sadulshahar, Padampur, Raisinghnagar, Anupgarh, Gharsana, Vijainagar,
Sangaria, Pilibanga, Tibi, Jaisalmer, Pokaran, Raniwara, Nawalgarh,
Udaipurwati, Raipur, Sojat, Pali and Marwar Junction.
Agricultural Labourers
The data of the year 1995 shows that there are four tehsils of the
study area reported very high population of agricultural labourers. These
are Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Jolare and Bali. Whereas Tibi, Ahore,
Merta and Desuri reported high population of Agricultural labourers.

184
Another twelve tehsils of Indian desert lie in moderate category. Tiiese are
Bikaner, Padampur, Raisinghnagar, Pilibanga, Bhinmal, Jodhpur, Bilara,
Jhunjhunu, Parvatsar, Jaitaran, Sojat and Marwar Junction. Similarly,
thirty tehsils fall under the category of low population of agricultural
labourer. These are Siwana, Sujangarh, Sadulshahar, Anupgarh, Gharsana,
Vijainagar, Suratgarh, Sangaria, Rawatsar, Jaisalmer, Pokaran, Sanchor,
Raniwara, Phalodi, Shergarh, Osian, Bhopalgarh,

Chirawa, Khetri,

Nawaigarh, Udaipurwati, Nagaur, Nawa, Degana, Raipur, Pali, Sikar,

Dantaramgarh, Sri Madhopur and Neem Ka Thana. Similarly, twenty three
tehsils reported very low population of agricultural labourers. These are
Shiv, Baytu, Pachpadra, Barmer, Chohtan, Gudhamalani, Lunkarnsar,
Kolayat,

Nokha,

Dungargarh,

Sardarshahar,

Ratangarh,

Karanpur,

Taranagar,
Nohar,

Rajgarh,
Bhadra,

Churu,

Jayal,

Sri

Ladnun,

Didwana, Fatehpur and Lachchmangarh.

The proportion of the population which are involved in mining,
quarrying, manufacturing, processing, servicing, repairing in household,
industry, otherthan household and construction in secondary occupation.
The six districts of western Rajasthan registered very high proportion of
population which are involved in this sector. These are Jodhpur 13.38 per
cent followed by Bikaner 13.23 per cent, Pali 13.07 per cent, Sikar 12.98
per cent, Jaisalmer 12.70 per cent and Jhunjhunu 12.61 per cent. Only two
districts lie under low category i.e. Nagaur 8.84 per cent and Ganganagar
7.74 per cent, whereas Churu and Barmer reported very low proportion of
population i.e. 6.62 per cent and 5.94 per cent.
The proportion of population in tertiary sector reported very high,
only on those places where all the infrastructural facilities are available
and having good administrative set up. There are only three districts in
western Rajasthan reported very high proportion of population in tertiary
sector. These are Bikaner 12.06 per cent, Jodhpur 10.87 per cent and Sikar
10.86 per cent. Ganganagar reported 9.87 per cent. Three districts come
under moderate category. These are Churu 8.67 per cent, Pali 8.54 per
cent and Jhunjhunu 7.91 per cent. The remaining three districts of western

185
Rajasthan are reported very low proportion of population in tertiary
sector.

These are Jaisalmer 7.01 per cent, Nagaur 6.82 per cent and

Barmer 4.84 per cent (Appendix-XII).

viii) Work Participation
Work may be defined as participation in any economically productive
activity. Such participation may be physical or mental in nature, work
involves not only actual work but also effective supervision and direction
of work.
According to census of India classification, the worker's fall into
following groups (1) Main workers (2) Marginal workers and (3) Nonworkers.
Main Workers
The activity of main workers is classified into following categories
(1) Cultivators (2) Agricultural labourer (3) Livestock forestry, fishing
hunting and plantation, orchards and allied activities, (4) Mining and
quarrying (5) Manufacturing processing, servicing and repairs (5.a) House
hold industry (5.b) other than house hold Industry (6) Construction (7)
Trade and commerce (8) Transport, storage and communication (9) Other
services.
Marginal Workers
Marginal workers are those who have worked any time in the year
proceeding the enumeration but have not worked for major part of the
year. In other words those who have worked for a major part of that year
i.e. for 183 days or more are categorised as main workers. Thus, other
worker's can be either main workers or marginal workers.
Non Workers
To distinguish between other workers and non-workers a reference to
the definition of work would be relevant while the other workers
participated in an economically productive activity and thus did work, a
non-workers has never worked in connection with an economically

186
productive activity any time at all in the year preceeding the enumeration.
No workers can belong to one of the following of seven categories (1)
House hold duties (2) Students (3) Dependents (4) Retired Person (5)
Beggars (6) Others. The working population of a region involves in the
production of economic goods and services.
According to data of 1995, there are eight tehsils reported very high
percentage of population as Main workers. These are Baytu, Chohtan.
Gudhamalani, Sri Dungargarh, Ahore, Merta, .layal and Degana. Anolhcr
eight reported high percentage of population in this category. These are
Shiv, Lunkaransar, Bhopalgarh, Bilara, Ladnun, Jaitaran, Raipur and
Sojat. Whereas twenty seven tehsils of western Rajasthan lie in, moderate,
percetnage of population as main workers. These are Pachpadra, Banner,
Siwana, Bikaner, Kolayat, Rajgarh, S'ujangarh, Ganganagar, Karanpur,
Sadulshahar, Vijainagar, Suratgarh, Bhadra, Jaisalmer, Jalore, Bhinmal,
Sanchor, Shergarh, Osian, Nagaur, Didwana, Nawa, Parvatsar and Desuri.
There are eighteen tehsils of Indian desert registered low percentage of
population as 'Main worker'. These are Nokha, Sardarshahar, Taranagar,
Ratangarh, Padampur, Sangaria, Hanumangarh, Pilibanga, Rawatsar, Tibi,
Nohar, Pokaran, Phalodi, Jodhpur, Pali, Marwar .Junction, Bali and
Fatehpur. The remaning twelve tehsils come in very low percentage of
population. These are Churu, Raniwara, Jhunjhunu, Chirawa, Khetri,
Nawalgarh, Udaipurwati, Lachmangarh, Sikar, Danta Ramgarh, Sri
Madhopur and Neem Ka Thana (Appendix-XII).
The low percentage of work participation leads higher dependency
over the region. There are various factors which are responsible for this
low rate of work participation e.g. lack of female participation due to
social restriction, high number of population between 0-19 years of age
groups, illiteracy, low economic development policy etc. It has been
marked that work participation among female is high in urban areas as
compared to rural area of the region.
The available data of marginal workers in seventy three units of the
Indian desert shows a high variation over the region. The Raniwara tehsil

187
registered very high percentage of marginal workers. There are seven
tehsils in the study area reported moderate percentage of marginal
Taranagar, Karanpur, Nohar, Ahore and Fatehpur. Another thirty nine unit
areas reported low percentage of marginal workers. These are Shiv,
Pachpadra, Barmer, Chohtan, Siwana, Lunkaransar, Kolayat, Nokha,
Sardarshahar, Rajgarh, Churu, Sri Dungargarh, Ratangarh, Sujangarh,
Raisingh Nagar, Anupgarh, Rawatsar, Tibi, Bhadra, Pokaran, .lolore,
Bhinmal, Sanchor, Phalodi, Shergarh, Bhopalgarh, Bilara, Jhunjhunu,
Nagaur, Ladnun, Parvatsar, Degana, Jaitaran, Sojat, Marwar Junction and
Lachchmangarh. There are twenty five units of Indian deserts come under
the category of very low per cent of population as 'Marginal workers'
these are Bikaner, Ganganagar,
Vijainagar,

Sadulshahar,

Padampur,

Gharsana.

Suratgarh, Sangaria, Hanumangarh, Pilibanga, Jaisalmer,

Osian, Jodhpur, Nawalgarh, Merta, Jayal, Didwana, Nawa, Raipur, Pali,

Bali, Desuri, Sikar, Danta Ramgarh and Neem ka Thana. These variation
are showing the dependency ratio at varying degree in the study area.
Similarly, in the category of Non workers there are three tehsils
reported very high percentage of non workers these are Nawalgarh,
DantaRamgarh and Neem Ka Thana. Another twenty two tehsils reported
high percentage of Non workers. These are Sardarshahar,

Churu,

Ratangarh, GangaNagar, Padampus, Gharsana, VijaiNagar, Suratgarh,

Sangaria, Hanumangarh, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Jhujhunu, Chirawa, Khetri,
Udaipurwati, Pali, Bali, Desuri, Lachchmangarh, Sikar and Sri Madhopur
whereas thiry two unit areas lie in moderate category. These are Shiv,
Pachpadra, Siwana, Lunkaransar, Kolayat, Nokha, Sri Dungargarh,
Sujangarh, Sadulshahar, Anupgarh, Parvatsar, Tibi, Nohor, Bhadra,
Pokaran, Jalore, Bhadra, Pokaran, Jalore, Bhinmal, Sanchor, Phalodi,
Shergarh, Osian, Bilara, Nagaur, Ladnun, Didwana, Nawa, Parvatsar,
Jaitaran, Raipur, Sojat, Marwar Junction and Fatehpur. Another ten tehsils
reported low percent of populattion as 'Non-workers. These are Chohtan,
Gudhamalani, Talanagar, Rajgarh, Karanpur, Raisinghnagar, Bhopalgarh,
Merta, Jayal and Degana.

188
The remaining five tehsils registered very low percentage of
population of 'Non workers'. These are Baytu, Banner, Bikaner, Ahore
and Raniwara. (Appendix-XI).

Chapter - 6
LAND USE SCENARIO
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)

Net Sown Area

Area Sown more than once
Dryland Farming Area
Fallow Lands
Culturable waste Lands
Rainfed and Irrigated Lands

189
Land Use Scenario
The land use capability classification forms an important criteria for
assessing the resource potential of the area. The limitations, which
primarily determine the land use capability classes in the arid zone arc the
arid climate, the coarse sandy texture of soil with very low water retention
capacity, proneness to severe wind erosion, thin effective soil depth and a
high salinity hazard. The diverse problems imposed by aridity and the
excessive biotic interferences in this region have often been highlighted
as thwarting any development measures in the region. Land use survey
and mapping results reveal agriculture as dominant land use constituting
about 62.94 per cent of the total 2,08,751 square kilometres geographical
area of Western Rajasthan. Wastelands of various categories constitute
28.15 per cent, permanent pastures 4.56 per cent, forest 1.32 per cent,
settlement and water bodies 2.85 per cent, mining 0.2 per cent. The
western part of the region below 200 mm. rainfall is dominated by sandy
water and grazing/grass lands, 200-300 mm. rainfall zone with rainfed
cropping, while irrigated farming is mainly concentrated in the eastern
part of the region having more than 300 mm. of rainfall.
The landuse data of 1995 reveals the respective percentage of
Netsown Area, Fallow lands, culturable waste lands, Rainfed and Irrigated
lands and Grazing lands. Beside this, other category like forest and grass
cover and barren and uncultivated lands have been analysed in previous
Chapter-V. It has been considered in the category of land cover.
The indicators of land use/cover have been taken to show the total
percentage of land of the region distributed on different category, which
indicates that land in this region is, by and large, unsuitable for crop
culture. More than half of the land is accounted for current fallow, old
fallow, culturable wastes and uncultivable barren lands by taking these
indicators attempt has been made to measure the health of the soil
environment. Tehsil-wise breakup of the land use figures reveals the
regional disparties and vulnerabilities within the desert.

190
i) Net Sown Area
This indicator has been taken to evaluate the availability of land for
cultivation. The maximum area under this category indicates good
textured soil, better irrigation facilities and better infrastructural facilities.
The pattern and the intensity of the land utilization is influenced by
physical and cultural factors which have played their significant role in
distribution of land in the region. The distribution of cultivated land
therefore, is highly variable in all the districts. The reasons for the low
hectarage are severe sand dunes, barren and uncultivated land, and
infertile soils.
The data of Net Sown Area during 1981-1995 reveals that there are
sixty one tehsils in western Rajasthan reported increase in the Net Sown
Area. The remaining twelve tehsils are showing a decrease in hectarage of
Net Sown Area (Table-12).
The Bikaner tehsil registered +79,267 hectares increased area under
the category of very high positive growth of Netsown Area during the
year of 1981-1995. The Bikaner tehsil reported 7.78 per cent of total
increased area in the Indian Desert. Whereas the western Rajasthan
reported an increased area of+10,18,474 hectares. It is only due to an
improvement in irrigational facilities. Barmer and Kolayat reported
+ 104,220 hectares of land under Net Sown area i.e. 10.23 per cent of total
increased area. These tehsils come under the high category of positive
growth. Another seven tehsils lie in moderate category of increased area
in Netsown area. These tehsils are Shiv, Nokha, Sri Dungargarh.
Anupgarh, Jaisalmer, Phalodi and Bilara. These unit areas reported an
increase of +2,73,034 hectares of land i.e. 26.80 per cent of the total
positive growth of Net Sown Area. Another thirteen tehsils reported an
increase of+2,48,646 hectares i.e. 24.41 per cent of the total increased
area. These tehsils are Baytu, Lunkaransar, Sardarshahar, Sujangarh,
Raisingh Nagar, Hanumangarh, Ahore, Jalore, Bhopalgarh, Nagaur, Merta,
Sajat and Marwar Junction. These unit areas come in low category of
positive growth of Net Sown Area., There are thirty eight tehsils of Indian

191
Table-12 : Hectarage Change in iNet Sown Area (1981-1995)
Intensity

No. of
Tehsils

Area in
Sq. Km.

Percentage
of the total
area

Very High

01

(+)79,267

7.78

Bikaner

High

02

(+) 1,04,220

10.23

Banner, Kolayat

Medium

07

(+)273034

26.80

Shiv, Nokha, Sri Dungargarh,

Anupgarh, Jaisalmer, Phalodi and
Bilara.

Low

13

(+)2,48646

24.41

Baytu, Lunkaransar, Sardarshahar,

Sujangarh,
Raisingh
Nagar,
Hanuinangarh, Ahore, Jalore,
Bhopaigarh, Nagaur, Merta, Sojat,
and Marwar Junction.

Very Low

38

(+)3,13,307

30.76

Pachpadra, Chohtan, Gudhamaiani,

Siwana,
Churu,
Ratangarh,
Sadulshahar, Padampur, Gharsana,
Vijai Nagar, Sangaria, Pilibanga,
Rawatsar, Tibi, Nohar, Bhadra
Pokaran, Sanchor, Raniwara,
Jodhpur, Jhunjhunu, Chirawa,
Nawalgarh, Udaipurwati, Jayal,
Didwana, Nawa, Parvatsar, Degana,
Jaitaran, Raipur, Desun, Fatehpur,
Lachchmangarh, Sikar, Danta
Ramgarh, Sri Madhopur and Neem
Ka Thana.

60

(+)10,18,474

100.00

Very High

1,76,059

17.28

Tara Nagar, Rajgarh, Ganga

Nagar, Karanpur, Suratgarh

High

54,035

5.30

Bhinmai, Shergarh, Khetri,

Didwana, Pali and Bali

(-)2,30,094

22.59

+7,88,380

(+)77.40

Unit Areas

Positive
Grow til

Negative
Growth

13

Source : District Hand Books, Department of Economics and Statistics, Jaipur, Govt, of Rajasthan.

192
desert are reported very low increase of hectarage in Net Sown Area.
These tehsiis are reported +3,13,307 hectares of land i.e. 30.76 per cent
of total increased area. These unit area are Pachpadra, Chohtan,
Cjundhmalani,

Siwana,

Churu,

Ratangarh,

Sardarshahar,

Padampur,

Gharsana, Vijai Nagar, Sangaria, Pilibanga, Rawatsar, Tibi, Nohar,

Bhadra, Pokaran, Sanchor, Raniwara, Jodhpur, Jhunjhunu,

Chirawa,

Nawalgarh,

Fatehpur,

Udaipurwati,

Jaitaran,

Raipur.

Desuri,

Lachchmangarh, Sikar, Danta Ramgarh, and Neem Ka Thana.

Similarly, there are eleven unit areas in western Rajsthan are showing
decrease in the hectarage of Net Sown Area. These unit areas are Tara
Nagar, Rajgarh, Ganga Nagar, Karanpur, Suratgarh, Bhinmal, Shergarh,
Khetri, Didwana, Pali and Bali. There is a decrease of -2,30,094 hectares
of land i.e. 22.59 per cent of total positive growth of Net Sown Area. The
decreased are under Net Sown Area could be attributed to the widespread
waterlogging in Tara Nagar, Rajgarh, Ganga Nagar, Karanpur and
Suratgarh. The decrease in hectarage of

Net Sown Area in Bhinmal,

Shergarh, Khetri, Pidwana, Pali and Bali is due to marginalisation. The

Rajgarh, Ganganagar, Karanpur, Bhinmal, Shergarh, Khetri, Didwana
reported high decrease in hectarage of Netsown Area whereas Tara Nagar,
Suratgarh, Pali and Bali registered very high decreased area in Net sown
Area.
ii)

Area Sown More Than Once

Area sown more than once and total cropped area includes the land

where irrigational facilities as well as other factors are favourable like the
use of fertilizers and improved agricultural implements and cultural and
technological development have been made.
It have been observed that in double cropped irrigated areas, human
control is of higher order, the areas are scarcely left unattended to the
vagaries of nature. Therefore, the vulnerability to desertification would be
marginal in such areas. In double cropped areas the size of land holdings.
Very little land is left unattended or fallow. Thus, the land is more actively
under human control. This situation makes the land scarcely liable to
desertification.

193
The data of Area Sown more than once during the year 1981-1995
have been analysed (Table-13). In the entire study area there is an increase
of+3,62,796 hectares of land under the category of Area Sown more than
once. Nagaur tehsil of the district Nagaur reported +27,488 hectares of
land i.e. 7.57 per cent of total increased area. This tehsils registered very
high increase of hectarage under area sown more than once. Whereas,
Bikaner, Ganganagar and Hanumangarh tehsils of the study area registered
under high category of positive growlh in Area sown more than once.
These unit areas are reported +55,592 hectares of land i.e. 15.32 per cent
of total increased area. Another four tehsils of the study area reported
+48,353 hectares of land i.e. 13.32 per cent of total increased area. These
unit areas are Shiv, Lunkaransar, Raisingh Nagar and Bhopalgarh. These
areas lie in moderate category. Similarly, there are eighteen tehsils of
Western Rajasthan registered a positive growth of +1,50,711 hectares of
land i.e. 41.54 per cent of total increased area . These tehsils come in low
category of hectarage change under Area Sown more than once. These are
Chohtan,

Gudhamalani,

Siwana,

Kolayat,

Karanpur,

Sadulshahar,

Padampur, Tibi, Ahore, Jalore, Sanchor, Nawa, Marwar .lunction, Desuri,

Sikar, Danta Ramgarh, Sri Madhopur and Neem Ka Thana.
There are thirty five unit areas reported +80,652 hectares of land i.e.
22.23 per cent of total positive growth under the category of Area Sown
More than once. These unit areas lie in very low category of positive
growth. These tehsils are Baytu, Pachpadra, Barmer, Nokha, Sardarshahar,
Tara Nagar, Rajgarh, Sri Dungargarh, Ratangarh, Sujangarh, Sangaria,
Pilibanga, Rawatsar, Jaisalmer, Pokaran, Bhinmal, Raniwara, Phalodi,
Shergarh, Osian, Jodhpur, Bilara, Jhunjhunu, Chirawa, Khetri, Nawalgarh,
Udaipurwati, Didwana, Parvatsar, Degana, Jaitaran, Pali, Bali, Fatehpur
and Lachchamangarh.
Similarly, there are eleven tehsils of the study area reported a
decrease of-1,68,118 hectares of land under Area Sown more than once.
Nohar and Bhadra tehsils of the western Rajasthan reported a decrease of
-55.682 hectares whereas another nine tehsils reported a decrease of -

194

Table-13

Intensity

: Western Rajasthan : Hectarage Change in Area Sown

More Than Once (1981-1995)
No. of
Tehsils

Area in
Sq. Km.

Percentage
of the total
area

Veiy High

01

+27,488

(+)7 57

Nagaur

High

03

+55,592

(+)15 32

Bikaner, Ganga
Hanumangarh

Medium

04

+48,353

(+)13 32

Shiv, Lunkaransar, Raisingh Nagar

and Bhopalgarh

Low

18

+ 1,50,711

(+)41 54

Chohtan, Gudhamalani, Siwana,

Koiayat, Karanpur, Sadulshahar,
Padampur, Tibi, Ahore, Jalore,
Sancnor, Nawa, Marwar Junction,
Desuri, Sikar, Danta Ramgarh, Sn
madhopur and Neem Ka Thana

Very Low

35

+80,652

(+)22 30

Baytu, Pachpadra, Barmer, Nokha,

Sardarshahar, Tara Nagar, Rajgarh,
Sn
Dungargarh,
Ratangarh,
Sujangarh, Sangana, Pilibanga,
Rawatsar, Jaisalmer, Pokaran,
Bhinmal, Raniwara, Phalodi,
Shergarh, Osian, Jodhpur, Bilara,
Jhunjhunu, Chirawa, Khetri,
Nawalgarh, Udaipurwati, Didwana,
Parvatsar, Degana, Jaitaran, Pali,
Ball, Fatehpur and Lachmangarh

61

+3,62,796

100.00

Very High

02

-55,682

15 34

Nohai and Bhadra

High

09

-12,436

3 42

Anupgarh, Gharsana, Vijainagar

72

-68,118

(-)18 775

(+)2,94678

+81.22

Source

Unit Areas

Nagar

and

Suratgarh, Merta, Jayal, Ladnun,

Raipur and Sojat

: District Hand Books, Department of Economics and Statistics, Jaipur, Govt of Rajasthan

195
12,436 hectares of land. These unit areas are Anupgarh, Gharsana, Vijai
Nagar, Suratgarh, Merta, Jayal, Ladnun, Raipur and Sojat.
iii) Dry Land Farming Area
Dry Land Farming Area includes an increase or decrease of hectarage
of Net Sown Area (minus) increase or decrease of hectarage of land under
Area Sown more than once.
In the dryland farming areas there is monoculture, human control is
less, desertification vulnerability is more. Single cropped areas are left
unattended to the vagaries of nature for a longer period of time. In Dry
farming areas the size of land holdings are bigger than the operational
land holdings. In the large size of land holdings, the land would be
frequently be left unattended, uncropped or fallow. This situation would
again render the land more vulnerable to desertification.
After the analysis of the data. It has been observed that there is a
positive growth of +8,88,517 hectares of land under dry farming
(Table-14). Tara Nagar tehsil of district Churu registered an increase of
+86,233 hectares of land i.e. 9.70 per cent of total increased area. This
tehsil comes under very high category of positive gorwth in dryland
farming area. Banner, Bikaner and Rajgarh tehsils reported an increase of
+ 1,71,718 hectares of land farming area. Six another tehsils lie in
moderate category of positive growth. These tehsils are Kolayat, Nokha,
Sri Dungargarh, Anupgarh, Phalodi and Bilara. These are reported
+2,70,009 hectares of land i.e. 30.38 per cent of total increased area.
There are seven tehsils come in low category of increased area in dryland
farming. These tehsils are Shiv, Sardarshahar, Sujangarh, Jaisalmer,
Nawalgarh, Merta and Sojat. These are reported a positive growth of
+ 1,74,071 hectares i.e. 19.59 per cent of total increased area. Another
twenty nine tehsils fall in the category of very low positive growth of
hectarage in dryland farming area. These areas reported +186,486 i.e.
20.98 per cent of total increased area. These

unit areas are Baytu,

Pachpadra, Chohtan, Lunkaransar, Churu, Ratangarh, Raisinghnagar,

Gharsana, VijaiNagar, Pilibanga, Rawatsar, Pokaran, Ahore, Jalore,

196

Table-14 : Western Rajasthan : Dryland Farming Area (1981-1995)

Intensity

No. of
Tehsils

Area in
Sq. Km.

Percentage
of the total
area

Veiy high

01

+86,233

9 70

TaraNagar

High

03

+ 1,71,718

19 32

Barmer, Bikaner and Rajgarh

Medium

06

+2,70,009

30 38

Kolayat, Nokha, Sri Dungargarh,

Anupgarh, Phalodi and Bilara

Low

07

+ 1,74,071

19 39

Shiv, Sardarshahar, Sujangarh,

Jaisalmer, Nawalgarh, Merta and
Sojat

Very Low

29

+ 1,86,486

20 98

Baytu, Pachpadra,
Chohtan,
Lunkaransar, Churu, Ratangarh,
RaisinghNagar,
Gharsana,
Vijainagar, Piiibanga, Rawatsar,
Pokaran, Ahore, Jolore, Bhopalgarh,
Jodhpur, Jhunjhunu, Nagaur, Jayal,
Ladnun, Nawa, Parvatsar, Degana,
Raipur, DantaRamgarh, Fatehpur,
Sangaria and Hanumangarh

Unit Areas

Positive
Growth

(+) 8,88,517
Negative
Growth
Very High

04

-1,41,186

-15 89

Bhinmal, Pali, Bali and Suratgarh

High

22

-2,60,855

-29 358

Gudhamalani, Siwana, Ganganagar,

Karanpur, Sadulshahar, Suratgarh

-4,02,041
DFA

Source

+4,86,776

Tibi, Nohar, Bhadra, Sanchor,

Raniwara, Shergarh, osian, Chirawa,
Khetri, Didwana, Marwar Junction,
Desun, Lachchmangarh, Sikar, Sri
Madhopur and Neem ka Thana

: District Handbooks, Department of Economics and Statistics, Jaipur, Government of

Rajasthan

197
Bhopalgarh, Jodhpur, Jhunjhunu, Nagaur, Jalor, Bhopalgarh, Jodhpur,
Jhunjhunu, Nagaur, Jayal, Ladnun, Nawa, Parvatsar, Degana, Raipur,
Danta Ramgarh, Fatehpur, Sangaria and Hanumangarh.
Similarly, twenty six unit areas of the western Rajasthan reported a
decrease of (-) 4,02,041 hectares of land under dry land farming area.
Bhinmal, Pali, Bali and Suratgarh reported a decrease of - 1,41,186
hectares i.e. 15.89 per cent of total increased area. These unit area come
in very high category of negative growth of dry land farming area. The
remaining twenty unit areas fall in high category of decreased area. These
tehsils are reported a decrease of 2, 60,855 hectares of land i.e. 29.35 per
cent of total increased area. These unit areas are Gudhamalani, Siwana,
Ganganagar, Karanpur, Sadulshahar, Suratgarh, I'ibi, Nohar, Bhadra,
Sanchor, Raniwara, Shergarh, Osian, Chirawa, Khetri, Didwana, Marwar
.Junction, Desuri, Lachchmangarh, Sikar, Sri Madhopur and Neem ka
Thana.
iv)

Fallow Lands
Land put under the fallow category in the arid region is an effective

measure of land management. During the fallowing period the cultivated

and arable land is left uncultivted for recoupment of the lost of
productivity of the land. But sometimes due to adverse conditions the land
has to be left uncultivated particularly in the areas where rainfall is erratic
and uncertain.
The practice of fallowing in the arid land is largely associated with
the rainfull uncertainity and the dry farming practices. The negative
growth in the fallow land is a some sign of marginalisation and land
degrodation. This is a useful measure of the extent of desertification. An
element of margianatisotion and consequent land degradation could be
observed through a change in the areal extent of the fallow land.
The data of 1981-1995 have been analysed. The fallow land growth
in the study area is negative upto an extent of nearly - 7,58,009 hectares
(Table-15). There is only Barmer tehsil of the district Barmer reported a
decrease of -1,94,592 hectares of fallow land i.e. 17.89 per cent of total

198
Table-15 : Hectarage Change in Fallow Lands (1981-1995)
Intensity

No. of
Tchsils

Area in
Sq. Km.

Percentage
of the total
area

Vci) High

01

1,94,592

17 89

High

Nil

Medium

Nil

Low

06

-3,58,005

32 92

Anupgarh, Gharsana, Suratgarh,

Bhinmal, Bilara and Pah

Very Low

44

5,34,602

49 172

Baytu, Pachpadra,
Chohtan,
Gudhamalani, Kolayat, Nokha,
Sardarshahar,
Churu,
Sri
Dungargarh, Ratangarh, Sujangarh,
Saduishahar, Padampur, Raisingh
Nagar, VijaiNagar, Sangaria,
Hanumangarh, Nohar, Ahore,
Sanchor, Bhopalgarh, Jodhpur,
Chirawa, Nawalgarh, Udaipurwati,
Naguar, Merta, Jayal, Ladnun, Nawa,
Parvatsar Degana, Desun, Jaitaran,
Raipur, Sojat, Marwar Junction, Bah,
Lachchmangarh, Sikar, Danta
Ramgarh, Sri Madhopur and Neem
Ka Thana

51

(-) 10,87,199

100.00

Vei7 High

01

+169135

1555

Medium

Nil

Low

21

+ 1,60,055

14 72

+329190

+30.27

Unit Areas

Positive
Giowtli
Banner

Nagative
Growth

73

Source :

Phalodi
Shiv, Siwana, Lunkaransar, Bikaner,
Taranagar, Rajgarh, Ganganagar,
Karanpur, Pilibanga, Rawatsar, Tibi,
Bhadra, Jaisalmer,
Pokaran,
Raniwara, Shergarh, Bhopalgarh,
Jhunjhunu, Khetri and Didwana

-758009

District Handbooks, Department of Economics and Statistics, Jaipur Goverment of

Rajasthan

199
decreased area. This tehsil comes in very high category of decreased area
in fallow land. No tehsils are lie in high and medium category of
hectarage change in fallow land. There are six unit areas come in low
category of decreased area in fallow land. These areas are Anupgarh,
Gharsana, Suratgarh, Bhinmal, Bilara and Pali. These are reported 3,58,005 hectares i.e. 32.92 per cent of total decreased area. Another
fourty four unit areas of Western Rajasthan reported a negative growth of
- 5,34,602 hectares of land i.e. 49.17 per cent of the total decreased area
in fallow land. These unit areas fall in very low category. These unit areas
are

Baytu,

Pachpadra,

Chohtan,

Gundhamalani,

Kolayat,

Nokha,

Sardashahar, Churu, Sri Dngargarh, Ratangarh, Sunjangarh, Sadulshahar,

Padampur, Raisingh Nagar, Vijai Nagar, Sangaria, Hanumagarh, Nohar,
Ahore, Nowalgarh, Udaipurwati Nagaur, Merta, Jayal, Ladnun, Nawa,
Parvatsar Degana, Desuri, Jaitaran, Raipur, Sojat, Marwar Junction, Bali,
Fatehpur,

Lachchmangarh,

Sikar,

Danta

Ramgarh,

Sri

Madhopur

Lachchmangarh, Sikar, Danta Ramgarh, Sri Madhopur and Neem ka

Thana.
Similarly, twenty two tehsils of Indian desert reported a postive
growth of + 3,29,187 hectares of land i.e. 30.277 percent of total negative
grov/th of fallow land. There is only Phalodi tehsil of district Jodhpur
reported an increase of+1,69,132 hectares of land i.e. 15.55 percent of
total fallow land growth in Western Rajasthan. The remaining twenty one
tehsils fall in very low category of increased area under the category of
fallow land. These area reported +160,055 hectares of fallow land i.e.
14.72 per cent of the total growth. These tehsils are Shiv, Siwana,
Lunkaransar,
Pilibanga,

Bikaner,

Rawatsar,

Taranagar,

Rajgarh,

Tibi, Bhadra,

Ganganagar,

Jaisalmer,

Pokaran,

Karanpur,
Raniwara,

Shergarh, Bhopalgarh, Jhunjhunu, Khetri and Didwana. It has

been

hypothesised that a regular growth of fallow land suggest, marginalisation

and therefore, it is an indication of land degradation. Fallowing is largely
assosicated with dry farming practices, a decrease in fallow land is a
reflection of adverse land management.

200
v)

Culturable Waste Lands

Culturable waste is an important aspect of land use in western

Rajasthan.

This

situation

prevails

only due to

adverse

physical,

climatological human land use system of the resources. Land under this
cultivated due to Physical, Socio-economic, demographic and agro-nomic
hinderences such as deep rooted grasses, needs, salinity and Alkalinity are
responsible for rendering these lands as culturable waste.
The hypothesis is that if the extent of culturable waste has decreased
it suggests the corresponding sign of marginalization. It means the land
use pressure is encroaching towards the less suitable or vulnerable lands
which again is an indicator of desertification.

Another

important

realization is that a decrease in culturable waste is also due to they are

largely gone to expanding irrigation farming

particularly in the Indira

Gandhi Canal Command Area. Thus a decrease in culturable waste is both

a sign of amelioration as well as deterioration of the environment.
In the entire study area the total decrease in culturable waste during
1981-1995 has been registered -7,62,133 hectares of land (Table-16).
There are only two tehsils of the western Rajasthan are reported -3,46,859
hectares of nagative growth i.e. 45.51 per cent of total decreased area.
These tehsils are Bikaner and Lunkaransar. These tehsils are registered in
the category of very high negative growth of culturable waste lands.
Another four tehsils of the Western Rajasthan are reported a decrease
of-2,34,321 hectares of land i.e. 30.74 per cent of the total decreased area
in the category of culturable waste lands. These tehsils are Shiv, Banner,
Kolayat and Jaisalmer. These Unit areas come in the low category of
negative growth. Whereas forty three tehsils of the study area

are

registered in very low category of decreased area in culturable waste

lands. These areas are reported -1,80,953 hectares of land i.e. 23.74 per
cent of total decreased area. These tehsils are Pachpadra, Nokha,
Sardarshahar, Taranagar, Sri Dungargarh, Churu, Ratangarh, Sujangarh,
Ganganagar,

Karanpur,

Padampur,

Raisinghnagar,

Anupgarh,

Tibi,

201

Table-16

: Hectarage Change in Culturable Waste Lands in Western

Rajasthan (1981-1995)
No. of
Tehsils

Area in
Sq. Km.

Percentage
of the total
area

Very High

02

-3,46,859

-45 51

High

Nil

Nil

Medium

Nil

Nil

Low

04

-2,34,321

-30 74

Shiv, Barmer,
Jaisalmer

Very Low

43

-1,80,953

-23 74

Pachpadra, Nokha, Sardarshahar,

Tara Nagar, Sri Dungargarh,
Churu, Ratangarh,
Sujangarh,
Ganganagar, Karanpur, Fadampur, Raipur, Sojat, Pali, Marwar
Junction, Ball, Desuri, Fatehpur,
Lachchmangarh, Sikar, Danta
Ramgarh

49

-7,62,213

100.00

24

+39,869

+5 23

73

-7,22,344

Intensity

Unit Areas

I'oiitivc

Growth
Lunkaransar, Bikaner

Kolayat

and

Positive
Growth

Source

Baytu, Chohtan, Gudhamalani,

Siwana, Rajgarh, Sadulshahar,
Gharsana, Suratgarh, Vijainagar,
Sangaria, Hanumangarh, Palibanga, Rawatsar, Nohar, Bhadra,
Ahore, Jalore, Bhinmal Phalodi,
Shergarh, Bhopalgarh, Bilara,
Nawalgarh and Udaipurwati

. District Handbooks, Department of Economics and Statistics, Jaipur, Govt of

Rajasthan

202
Pokaran, Raniwara, Bhopalgarh, Bilara, Jodhpur, Jhunjhunu, Chirawa,
Khelri, Nagaur, Merta, Jayal, Ladnun, Didwana, Nawa, Parvatsar, Degana,
Jaitaran, Raipur, Sojat, Pali, Marwar Junction, Bali, Desuri, Fatehpur,
Lachmangarh, Sikar, Danta Ramgarh, Sri Madhopur and Neem ka Thana.
Similarly, another twenty four tehsiis of western Rajasthan are
reported a positive growth of +39,869 hectares of land. These unit areas
are Baytu,

Chohtan,

Gudhamalani,

Siwana,

Rajgarh,

Sadulshahar,

Gharsana, Vijai Nagar, Sangaria, Hanumangarh, Pilibanga, Rawatsar,

Nohar, Bhadra, Ahore, Jalore, Bhinmal, Raniwara, Phalodi, Shergarh,
Bhopalgarh, Bilara, Nawalgarh and Udaipurwati,
However, the increase of culturable waste land in a few unit area is
suggestive of the situation where some dry farming areas have become
economically redundant due to rising costs and uncertaninities in
competition with the reumenarative irrigated areas and more stable areas
in Iheir vicinity. Such redundant dry farming areas may have been reduced
to culturable waste lands.
vi)

Rainfed and Irrigated Lands

The requirements of water for drinking for livestock and for

irrigation are met either from the ground water resources or from a
network of canals from the neighbouring sub-humid regions, or from the
local tanks.
A study of the rainfall map of the north-western Indian arid zone
(Sen, 1972) indicates that the region has three rainfall belts viz (a) 500
m.m. to 300 mm. from the foothills of the Aravallis in the east to the
desert plains in the west. The zone has typical steppe desert conditions,
(b) 300 m.m. to 100 m.m., the hot sandy desert and (c) below 100 m.m.
the extremely, and desert with dunes. The orientation of the Isohyets is
from north east to South West. The drainage system is an indicator of the
water resources.'
Mehra, T.N. and Sen, A.K. Ground-water Resources of the Arid Zone of India,
Desertification and its control ed. P.L. Jaisalwal, I.C.A.R. New Delhi, 1977, pp.
156-159

203
The area is devoid of any well-defined drainage system, except the
Luni-River, which has a flood cycle of sixteeen years. The rest of the
drainage lines mostly internal and ephemeral and carry water only during
short cloud burst and die-out soon owing to the alluvial suffocation or
excessive evaporation. The general slope of the area is towards the southwest owing to the internal drainage (Sen, 1972), salt lakes or saline
depressions, locally known as Rann are common, particularly in the
Rajasthan desert. Pachpadra, Sambhar, Deedwana and Bap are salt lakes.
The depressions exist in Sanswarla Ka Rann, Thob, Khatu, Lankaransar,
Pokhran, Kaparda and in the Jaisalmer area of Rajasthan.
The data of irrigated area in western Rajasthan during 1981-1995
reveals that there is a positive growth of+7,94,683 hectares of land in the
study area (Table-17). Bikaner tehsil reported very high growth in
irrigation which is +67,866 hectares i.e. 8.54 per cent of total increased
area. Nine tehsils of the study area lie in moderate category of growth
reported (+)2,47,154 hectares of land i.e. 31.10 of the total increased area.
These tehsils are Jalore, Nagaur, Merta, Pali, Marwar Junction, Desuri,
Danta Ramgarh, Sri Madhopur and Bali. Another fourteen units of the
study area are reported +2,89,948 hectares of land i.e. 36.48 per cent of
the total increased area in irrigation. These unit areas are Kolayat,
Ganganagar, Raisinghnagar, Tibi, Bhinmal, Chirawa, Nawa, Parvatsar,
Degana, Jaitaran, Raipur, Sojat, Bali and Sikar. Another forty three unit
areas of the western Rajasthan are reported +1,89,715 hectares of land i.e.
23.87 per cent of total increased area in Rainfed and irrigated lands. These
areas lie in very low category of growth. These are Shiv, Baytu,
Pachpadra, Banner, Chohtan, Gudhamalani, Siwana, Lunkaransar, Nokha,
Sardarshahar, Tara Nagar, Churu, Sri Dungargarh, Ratangarh, Sujangarh,
Karanpur,

Padampur,

Anupgarh,

Gharsana,

Vijai

Nagar,

Sangaria,

Hanumangarh, Pilibanga, Rawatsar, Jaisalmer, Pokaran, Ahore, Raniwara,

Phalodi, Shergarh, Osian, Bhopalgarh, Jodhpur, Bilara, Jhunjhunu, Khetri,
Nawalgarh, Jayal, Ladnun, Didwana, Fatehpur, Lachchmangarh and Neem
Ka Thana.

204
Table-17

Intensity

Hectarage Change in Rainfed and Irrigated Lands in

Western Rajasthan (1981-1995)

Tehsils

No. of

Area in
Sq. Km.

Percentage
of the total
area

Very High

01

(+)67,866

(+)8 54

High

Nil

Nil

Medium

09

(+)2,47154

(+)31 10

Jalore, Nagaur, Merta, Pah,

Marwar Junction, Desuri, Danta
Ramgarh, Sri Madhopur and Bali

Low

14

+2,89,948

36 48

Kolayat, Ganganagar, Raisingh

Nagar, Tibi, Bhinmal, Chirawa,
Nawa,
Parvatsar,
Degana,
Jaitaran, Raipur, Sojat, Bali and
Sikar

Very Low

43

+ 1,89,715

23 87

Shiv, Baytu, Pachpadra, Bikaner,

Chohtan, Gudhamalani, Siwana,
Lunkaransar,
Nokha,
Sardarshahar, Taranagar, Churu,
Sri
Dungargarh,
Ratangarh,
Sujangarh, Karanpur, Padampur,
Anupgarh,
Gharsana,
Vijai
Nagar, Sangaria, Hanumangarh,
Pilibanga, Rawatsar, Jaisalmer,
Pokaran,
Ahore,
Raniwara,
Phalodi,
Shergarh,
Osian,
Bhopalgarh,
Jodhpur,
Bilara,
Jhunjhunu, Khetri, Nawalgarh,
Jayal,
Ladnun,
Didwana,
Fatehpur, Lachchmangarh and
Neem Ka Thana

66

+794683

100.00

Very High

02

-80,194

-10 09

High

01

-15923

-2 0

-96,117

-12.09

+6,98,566

+87.90

Unit Areas

Positive
Growth
Bikaner
-

Negative
Growth
Suratgarh, Nohar
Udaipurwati

205
Similarly, there are three unit areas in western Rajasthan are reported
a decrease of -96,117 hectares of land i.e. 12.90 per cent of total hectarage
change in Rainfed and irrigated Area Growth. These tehsils are Suratgarh,
Nohar and Udaipurwati.
After the analysis of the data, it has been observed that The Thar
desert is facing an accute water deficiency to maintain the Natural
Ecosystems. Most of the tehsils in western Rajasthan are reported very
low positive growth in irrigated area. Negative growth of an area shows
vulnerability to desertification hazards.