Question: Stochastic and deterministic effects of Radiation?

Answer: When the ionizing electromagnetic radiation passes through a biological environment, they
induce ionization and excitation of the atoms and molecules located near their trajectory. Each ionizing
reaction causes 2 to 4 excitations. The particles with electric charge are able of direct ionization and
the electromagnetic radiation and neutrons cause indirect ionization.
The most important target for radiation in the cell is DNA in the nucleus. Biological effects result when
DNA damage is not repaired or is improperly repaired. Extensive damage to DNA can lead to cell
death. Large numbers of cells dying can lead to organ failure and death for the individual. Damaged
or improperly repaired DNA may develop into lymphoma and cancers in somatic cells. Two kinds of
effects may result:
Stochastic (or Delayed) effects of ionizing radiation are defined as a non-threshold function of the
dose. This means that even minimum dose of radiation is able to cause pathological changes in the
affected organism. The effects can be divided into two groups, somatic and hereditary. Somatic effects
affect the exposed individual, and hereditary effects affect the descendants of the exposed individual.
A very important somatic risk accompanying radiation exposure, even at low doses, is the origin of
malignancies. Generally it can be said that even minimum radiation dose can lead to the origin and
development of malignant tumors. The probability of developing a malignant tumour increases with
increasing radiation dose.
Stochastic effects are those that occur by chance and consist primarily of cancer and genetic effects.
Stochastic effects often show up years after exposure. As the dose to an individual increases, the
probability that cancer or a genetic effect will occur also increases. However, at no time, even for high
doses, is it certain that cancer or genetic damage will result. Similarly, for stochastic effects, there is no
threshold dose below which it is relatively certain that an adverse effect cannot occur. In addition,
because stochastic effects can occur in individuals that have not been exposed to radiation above
background levels, it can never be determined for certain that an occurrence of cancer or genetic
damage was due to a specific exposure. While it cannot be determined conclusively, it often possible
to estimate the probability that radiation exposure will cause a stochastic effect. The probability for
genetic defects is even less likely to increase for workers exposed to radiation. Radiation-induced
hereditary effects have not been observed in human populations, yet they have been demonstrated in
animals. If the germ cells that are present in the ovaries and testes and are responsible for
reproduction were modified by radiation, hereditary effects could occur in the progeny of the
individual. Exposure of the embryo or fetus to ionizing radiation could increase the risk of leukemia in
infants and, during certain periods in early pregnancy, may lead to mental retardation and congenital
malformations if the amount of radiation is sufficiently high

Deterministic effects: Unlike stochastic effects, nonstochastic effects are characterized by a threshold
dose below which they do not occur. In other words, nonstochastic effects have a clear relationship
between the exposure and the effect. In addition, the magnitude of the effect is directly proportional
to the size of the dose. Nonstochastic effects typically result when very large dosages of radiation are
received in a short amount of time. These effects will often be evident within hours or days. Examples
of nonstochastic effects include erythema (skin reddening), skin and tissue burns, cataract formation,
sterility, radiation sickness and death. Each of these effects differs from the others in that both its
threshold dose and the time over which the dose was received cause the effect (i.e. acute vs. chronic
exposure)
Deterministic (Early or non-stochastic or Acute) effects of ionizing radiation are represented by acute
radiation sickness. This usually develops as a result of a massive, external radiation exposure.
Chronic radiation sickness originates as a result of repeated irradiation by small doses, or as a result of
overcoming acute form of the disease.
Radiation sickness is a complex of pathological changes in the organism, caused by the effect
of large doses of ionizing radiation. The character of the disease depends on the penetrability of
the radiation, ionizing density, type of exposure, time factor, etc. Damage to different organ systems
depends on the dose and radio sensitivity of the cells/tissue. Generally the radio sensitivity is
very high in cells with low level of differentiation and with very high levels of mitotic activity.
Acute radiation sickness is characterized by a typical clinical course, which can be divided into
4 individual phases:

The period of initial symptoms is called the prodromal phase. This phase of the disease is very
short. Immediately or within in a couple of hours of exposure, the patients show signs of
general nausea, weakness, thirst and headaches. They also feel the urge to vomit and complain of
dry mouth. Body temperature starts to gradually increase, and in the case of large doses of
radiation there can be gastrointestinal disorders and diarrhoea present.

The period without apparent clinical symptoms is called the latent phase. This phase varies in
length. Usually the length increases with decreasing absorbed radiation dose. Following the
short period of initial symptoms, there is a period without any apparent symptoms. The reason
for the temporary improvement is the maximum activity of all available protective mechanisms.
The period of full sickness development is called the clinical phase. This third period is initiated
following the latent phase and it is characterized by a complex of disorders like hemorrhagic
symptoms, signs of damage to gastrointestinal tract, cardiovascular malfunctions, intensified
vomiting and diarrhea accompanied by fevers lasting up to several weeks, disorders. This period
lasts 2-3 weeks and death can be caused by any of the previously mentioned changes.
The period of convalescence: Patients who have not been exposed to lethal dose of radiation
can gradually recuperate and reach partial recovery. In the case of exposure to very small doses
of radiation, complete recovery is possible.The experienced state of the exposed individual
slowly improves, and objective symptoms start to subside. The temperature decreases; the
appetite returns; and normal sleeping patterns are established. The production of new blood
cells gradually adjusts to normal values.

Patients who have survived acute radiation sickness show higher incidence of leukaemia and other
malignancies. Most the women become infertile, while pregnant women display higher probability of
miscarriages. There is also a higher incidence of giving birth to physically or mentally disabled
children.

Question: Biological effects of Radiation?

Answer: When the ionizing electromagnetic radiation passes through a biological environment, they
induce ionization and excitation of the atoms and molecules located near their trajectory. Each ionizing
reaction causes 2 to 4 excitations. The particles with electric charge are able of direct ionization and
the electromagnetic radiation and neutrons cause indirect ionization.
The effect of ionizing radiation can be either direct or indirect:
Direct Effect
The direct effect theory or target theory proposes that ionizing radiation acts by direct hits on target
atoms. All atoms or molecules within the cells, such as enzymatic and structural proteins and RNA, are
vulnerable to radiation injury. DNA, however, is the principal target, in which ionizing radiation
produces single- or double-stranded chromosomal breaks.
Indirect Effect
The indirect theory proposes that ionizing radiation exerts its effect via radiolysis of cellular water,
forming free radicals. These free radicals interact with atoms and molecules within the cells,
particularly DNA, to produce chemical modifications and consequently harmful effects. During
radiolysis of water, production of free radicals such as H. and OH occurs. The resultant radicals can
interact with DNA molecules and cause single- or double-strand DNA breaks. This may have lethal
consequences. Other products of this reaction are so called molecular products of radiolysis (H2, O2,
H2O2).
Biological effects result when DNA damage is not repaired or is improperly repaired. Extensive
damage to DNA can lead to cell death. Large numbers of cells dying can lead to organ failure and
death for the individual. Damaged or improperly repaired DNA may develop into lymphoma and
cancers in somatic cells. Two kinds of effects may result.
Stochastic effects of ionizing radiation are defined as a non-threshold function of the dose. This means
that even minimum dose of radiation is able to cause pathological changes in the affected organism.
The effects can be divided into two groups, somatic and hereditary.
Deterministic effects of ionizing radiation are represented by acute radiation sickness. This usually
develops as a result of a massive, external radiation exposure. Chronic radiation sickness originates as
a result of repeated irradiation by small doses, or as a result of overcoming acute form of the disease.
Question: Principle and Constrution of TLD?
Answer: Thermoluminescent dosimetry is based on imperfections in crystal lattice structures and their
ability to capture electrons released by ionising radiation. The most commonly used crystal lattice for
dosimetry is lithium flouride, doped with magnesium and titanium. This is written as LiF:Mg,Ti.
Personal radiation monitoring devices typically use calcium sulfate crystals which are more sensitive
to lower doses. When the crystal is exposed to ionising radiation, electrons may be liberated from the
structure. These electrons are 'trapped' by the first impurity (magnesium). The electron may remain
trapped for a long period of time (years). The number of electrons trapped in this way is proportional
to the amount of ionising radiation absorbed by the crystal. When the crystal is heated, the electrons
are freed from the impurity but recaptured by the second impurity (titanium). As they are captured by
the titanium, they release their excess energy as a light photon. This light photon is captured by a
photoamplifying tube, which is able to amplify the energy in the light photon to readable levels (in an
electrometer). The TLD reading device is able to calculate the amount of light released during heating,
which can then be correlated with known values to determine the absorbed dose the TLD received.