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1996 What Tourism Managers Need To Know - A Practical Guide To The Development and Use of Indicators of Sustainable Tourism
1996 What Tourism Managers Need To Know - A Practical Guide To The Development and Use of Indicators of Sustainable Tourism
1996 What Tourism Managers Need To Know - A Practical Guide To The Development and Use of Indicators of Sustainable Tourism
org
Georgios Drakopoulos (307-99-294)
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WHAT
TOURISM
MANAGERS
NEED
TO KNOW
A Practical
Guide
to the
Development
and
Use of
Indicators
of
Sustainable
Tourism
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Georgios Drakopoulos (307-99-294)
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Georgios Drakopoulos (307-99-294)
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All right reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information
storage and retrieval system without permission from the World Tourism Organization.
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the
expression of any opinions whatsover on the part of the Secretariat of the World Tourism
Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area of its authorities
or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
PAGE
FOREWORD
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APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
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.43
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FOREWORD
T
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here is a growing
recognition that at many
tourist destinations
traditional tourism management
practices have led to undesirable
social and environmental impacts.
Some of these impacts threaten to
undermine the economic viability
of the local tourism industry. This
threat, in turn, reduces the
prospects for the industrys
continued prosperity. Tourist
destinations that have sensitive
cultures or fragile ecosystems, and
in which local economies are
highly dependent on the tourism
industry, are particularly at risk.
The rapid growth rate of tourism
in many nations and regions has
made this situation more acute.
Recognizing the dependency of
tourism upon the environment, the
World Tourism Organization
(WTO) Environment Committee
has, through its Tourism and the
Environment Task Force, begun
developing a set of internationally
accepted indicators of
sustainability applicable to the
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ii
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OVERVIEW
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1.1
PURPOSE OF THIS
GUIDE
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supplementary ecosystem-specific
indicators (preliminary list in
Appendix I) for application to
particular ecosystems (e.g.,
coastal areas, parks and
protected areas, or mountainous
regions); and
site-specific indicators that are
developed uniquely for the
particular site. These indicators
reflect important factors of the
site, which may not be
adequately covered by the core
and supplementary ecosystemspecific indicator sets, but are
nonetheless needed for
management of the particular
site. [Note: As more case
applications are done, some of
these site-specific indicators may
be incorporated into the
international set of recommended
ecosystem-specific indicators.]
Focus of Indicators
of Sustainable
Tourism
measures of:
the general relationship between
tourism and the environment;
the effects of environmental
factors on tourism; and
the impacts of the tourism
industry on the environment.
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1.2
STRUCTURE OF
GUIDE
T
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Stress on Tourism
Destinations
1.3
CONTEXT
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1.4
WHAT ARE
INDICATORS?
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10
1.5
INDICATORS FOR
THE TOURISM
SECTOR
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set of indicators of
sustainable tourism at
given destinations or
regions can help the planners and
managers of tourism anticipate
and prevent (or modify) those
tourism activities which may
threaten key environmental
attributes. Indicators are, therefore,
both a tool for managers today
and an investment in the future,
since they reduce the risk of
inadvertent damage to the natural
resource base on which the
industry depends. This guide
addresses core indicators and
destination-specific indicators, the
latter of which is split into two
parts: ecosystem-specific and sitespecific management indicators.
Core Indicators
The identification of indicators and
the methods by which they may be
applied at different tourist destinations build upon work undertaken
by Canada, Mexico, the Netherlands and the United States, as part
of the WTOs initiative to develop
11
Table 1.
Core Indicators of Sustainable Tourism.
INDICATOR
1. Site Protection
2. Stress
3. Use Intensity
4. Social Impact
5. Development Control
6. Waste Management
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7. Planning Process
8. Critical Ecosystems
9. Consumer Satisfaction
10. Local Satisfaction
11. Tourism Contribution to
Local Economy
COMPOSITE INDICES
A. Carrying Capacity
B. Site Stress
C. Attractiveness
SPECIFIC MEASURES
Category of site protection according to IUCN[5] index
Tourist numbers visiting site (per annum/peak month)
Intensity of use in peak period (persons/hectare)
Ratio of tourists to locals (peak period and over time)
Existence of environmental review procedure or formal
controls over development of site and use densities
Percentage of sewage from site receiving treatment (additional indicators may include structural limits of other
infrastructural capacity on site, such as water supply)
Existence of organized regional plan for tourist destination region (including tourism component)
Number of rare/endangered species
Level of satisfaction by visitors (questionnaire-based)
Level of satisfaction by locals (questionnaire-based)
Proportion
of total economic activity
generated by tourism only
Composite early warning measure of key factors affecting the ability of the site to support different levels of
tourism
Composite measure of levels of impact on the site (its
natural and cultural attributes due to tourism and other
sector cumulative stresses)
Qualitative measure of those site attributes that make it
attractive to tourism and can change over time
12
Site Protection
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Category 1
Stress
Strict protection (i.e., strict nature
reserve or wilderness area)
This indicator measures the levels
Category 2
of stress on the site from tourists.
Ecosystem conservation and
Information is obtained through
recreation (i.e.,
monitoring
national park)
of tourist
Category 3
numbers. For
At Villa Gesell, Argentina,
Conservation of
managed
the population of 16,000
natural features
sites, such as
swells to over 120,000 in
(i.e., natural
national
January and February.
monument)
parks and
This growth produces
Category 4
wildlife
a tourist to local ratio of
Conservation
reserves,
nearly 10:1. A ratio of
through active
these
this magnitude
management (i.e.,
numbers are
can have serious social
habitat or species
obtained
impacts and can place severe
management
through
stress upon a destinations
area)
entrance
infrastructure (e.g., sewage
Category 5
statistics. For
treatment capacity,
Landscape or
areas not
water availability).
13
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Use Intensity
The measurement of use intensity
indicates potential levels of
overuse of resources. For
managed sites, the numbers can
be readily obtained as in the
indicator for stress above. The
indicator is a simple mathematical
ratio of the number of persons on
the site divided by its area. For
areas in which statistics are not
directly collected for sites, it is first
necessary to clearly identify the
boundaries of the destination (See
Section 2.1). Statistics on numbers
of tourists come from transportation statistics (which involves
sampling of origins and
destinations or from tourist counts,
such as crowded beaches).
Social Impact
This indicator is important because,
without including the social and
cultural effects of tourism development in tourism management
processes, the notion of sustainable
tourism would be incomplete. The
Development Control
This indicator is used simply to
determine whether or not projects
receive prior environmental review
14
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Planning Process
As with Development Control, this
indicator is based on a ranking of
1-5; the assignment of a 1 indicates
no formal planning process
governing tourism development and
activity, while successively higher
rankings indicate the increased
usage and efficacy of such a
process. It is based on the assumption that most of the resources used
by tourists are managed by other
sectors. It is only through the
existence of a comprehensive
planning process that the values
central to successful and sustainable
tourism can be identified and
protected. Managers may wish to
identify clearly the degree to which
the regional planning process
respects the full range of values
important to tourism.
Waste Management
The key indicator for waste
management is the percentage of
sewage that receives treatment. It
is calculated by dividing the
amount of sewage treated by the
total amount produced at the site.
For intensively managed sites, this
information is estimated often
through sewage and water
authority records. For many sites,
the amount receiving treatment
may be near zero. Treatment also
includes effective septic and
cesspool systems. For sites with
Critical Ecosystems
This indicator is based on the
understanding that the rarer the
species, the more interesting it is
likely to be to tourists and, hence,
15
Excellent
10 9 8
2 1
Consumer Satisfaction
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Satisfactory Unsatisfactory
16
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Local Satisfaction
17
Carrying Capacity
This indicator measures the fragility
of the site and identifies changes in
its robustness to support a variety of
tourism activities. It will normally be
a composite measurement of the
quality, quantity and sensitivity of
the sites environmental assets (e.g.,
area of forest cover, quantity of
natural areas, etc.) and capacity of
built structures. The objective of this
indicator is to estimate the safe
limits of tourist numbers doing the
most common range of activities on
the site. This number can often be
enhanced or raised through sound
management, or lowered through
degradation from mismanagement.
(More detailed discussions of
carrying capacity are available
elsewhere{7}).
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Composite Indices
These indices are a composite of
the core indicators and the
ecosystem-specific indicators,
which are combined to yield a
single measure that can be
monitored over time. One
objective of the ongoing pilot
study program has been to
experiment in the development of
the three composite indices
described below. At this stage in
the work, each index will be
uniquely developed for each new
site and will respond to the
particular characteristics of the site
and its use. In future work by the
WTO Environment Committee, it is
expected that more standard
formulae for the use of these
indices will be developed. As an
initial test, in the two Argentine
pilot projects,attempts were made
to identify the components of the
indices for each site. In the case of
site stress and carrying capacity
some positive results were
obtained. For site attractiveness,
results were less promising.
Site Stress
A Site Stress Indicator can be
derived from several measures of
levels of use intensity pertaining to
specific, identified priority sites or
hot spots. It is a function of the
following factors: number of
tourists, type of activity, frequency
of activity, intensity/concentration
of use. The number of measures
18
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Site Attraction
This indicator is based on such
measures as landscape variety,
cultural variety, uniqueness, level
of maintenance, level of
unrest/political stability/security,
ease of access, cleanliness, etc.
Such an index can be derived
from the criteria used to identify
UNESCO sites, for example with
an aggregate weighted index
produced. The objective of this
indicator is to measure changes in
the desirability of a destination
from a tourist perspective.
Significant degradation of
aesthetic interest or appeal, for
example would negatively affect
this index. If one or more key
attributes are degraded, the index
may fall; conversely, through good
management and site
rehabilitation, the indicator may
rise. It is not expected that this
indicator will be useful for
comparison purposes between
Ecosystem-Specific Indicators
In the work by the WTO
Environment Committee and the
19
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Coastal zones
Mountain regions
Managed wildlife parks
Unique ecological sites
Urban environments
Cultural sites (heritage)
Cultural sites (traditional
communities)
Small islands
Site-specific management
indicators
In addition to the core and
supplementary ecosystem-specific
indicator sets, tourism managers
are encouraged, where necessary,
to develop additional indicators
that respond to the unique
conditions of a specific site. This
20
1.6
INDICATORS:
Only Part of Managing
Sustainable Tourism
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he indicators of
sustainability are a useful
tool when coupled with
other tools and approaches to
managing tourism in a sustainable
fashion. Managers need clear
knowledge of the particular
attributes that make a destination
a success (i.e., what draws
tourists). Against these attributes,
indicators of sustainable tourism
enable the identification,
measurement, and tracking of key
changes and potential risks.
Similarly, the values of the host
community are important as a
framework within which tourism
must operate.
21
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22
1.7
WHAT TOURISM
MANAGERS NEED
TO KNOW
2. Measures of pressures or
stresses.
These measure key external factors
or trends of concern which must be
considered in any management
response. Examples are population
growth, changing expectations or
demands, and increased pressures
on shared resources. How do
changes in these stresses or
externalities relate to the fortunes of
the industry and its components?
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hile theoretical
foundations on
which to measure
sustainable resource management
are valuable, for practical
applications one must begin with
the decision-maker and ask what
he or she needs to know to make
better decisions. Initial steps have
been taken to define and classify
indicators, based on their role in
supporting the types of decisions
that governments and the tourism
industry encounter in planning and
managing tourism nationally and
locally. The general types (based
on what the decision-maker needs
to know) include:
1. Warning indicators.
These indicators sensitize decisionmakers to areas of possible concern and to the need to anticipate
and prevent problems. Examples
of commonly used warning indicators include the loss of repeat
visitors, reduced numbers of visits,
reduction in investment. What are
the early warning signs of risk to
4. Measures of
impacts/consequences.
These allow decision-makers to
include known impacts in their
business plans, and to target the
actions of others that they may
wish to influence. Examples of
23
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24
1.8
USE OF
INDICATORS
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Use of Standards
Indicators can be used along with
standards that govern tourism
activities. In fact, changes in key
indicators which may signal
unacceptable levels of impact or
stress may lead to the development
of standards designed to limit or
control these impacts or stresses.
By measuring important changes,
appropriate indicators can
stimulate the establishment of
standards. For example,
increasing levels of pollution
(measured in coliform counts or
levels of heavy metals in water)
have been the stimuli for
establishing standards for
contaminant levels in both drinking
and beach water quality in many
countries. The water quality
standards embodied in the Blue
Flag program have become wellknown benchmarks important to
25
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Comparative Use
Indicators often and ideally permit
comparison between or among
sites or regions. It may be
possible, for example, to show that
the percentage of sites indicating
a nations improvement in levels of
protection has risen 10 percent
over five years, while another
countrys levels have remained
stable. Similarly, site managers
may be able to identify other sites
in their country or elsewhere with
similar levels of use intensity or
contamination and begin to
communicate with the site
managers to exchange information
26
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How to
Conduct
Indicators
Studies
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Jurisdictional management
authority. Is it clear where the
physical and administrative lines
of jurisdictional authority exist,
who these authorities are and
what is the scope of their
administrative mandate?
2.1
SETTING THE
BOUNDARIES OF
THE STUDY SITE
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2.2
IDENTIFYING SITE
ATTRIBUTES
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31
2.3
IDENTIFYING
CURRENT KEY
ISSUES
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32
2.4
SELECTING
INDICATORS FOR
USE
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33
2.5
DETERMINING DATA
SOURCES
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34
2.6
DATA COLLECTION
AND ANALYSIS
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35
2.7
EVALUATION OF
THE RESULTS
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s emphasized in Part
1.6, it is useful to identify
whether benchmarks
(i.e., thresholds of sustainability in
the study area) have been
established against which
indicator measurements can be
compared. Significant changes in
indicator measurements can then
be used to show potential risk and
measurable improvement. Where
clear trends are evident, it is likely
that users of the indicators will
wish to identify measures of
tourism carrying capacity
thresholds and limits.
36
2.8
REVISITING KEY
ISSUES
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37
2.9
SITE SPECIFIC INDICATOR SELECTION
CRITERIA
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40
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Table 2.
Sample Indicator Valuation
INDICATOR: Fecal coliform count in waters off a resort beach
CRITERION
RANKING
(H/M/L)
Obtainability
Understandability
and Credibility
Temporality and
Comparability
Predictive of
Sustainability
Threshold Value
41
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APPENDIX 1
Supplementary
Indicators
of Sustainable
Tourism
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Coastal Zones
ISSUE
INDICATORS
SUGGESTED MEASURES
ecological destruction
beach degradation
fish stocks depletion
amount degraded
levels of erosion
reduction in catch
% in degraded condition
% of beach eroded
effort to catch fish
fish counts for key species
overcrowding
use intensity*
disruption of fauna
(e.g., whales)
species counts
number of species
change in species mix
number of key species
sightings
pollution levels
lack of safety
# of crimes reported
(theft, assault)
water related accidents
as a % of tourist population
44
Mountains
ISSUE
INDICATORS
SUGGESTED MEASURES
reproductive success
of indicator species
continuing presence of
wildlife at traditionally
occupied sites
erosion
extent of erosion
caused by tourists
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% of surface in
eroded state
visual inspection and
photographic record
lack of solitude
consumer satisfaction*
number of people at
peak period (accessible
area only)
questionnaire on whether
solitude objectives met
site attraction*
visibility of human
presence (e.g., litter counts)
pollution counts
measures of fecal
coliform, heavy metals
**Local wildlife/biodiversity management offices may provide long-term records for some
species.
45
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INDICATORS
SUGGESTED MEASURES
reproductive rate of
key species
species diversity
change in mix of animal
species
monitoring of numbers
for animal groups
species counts
key species population
counts
overcrowding
use intensity*
number of visitors
ratio of people/game
animals (peak period)
human encroachment
poaching
number of incidents of
poaching reported
reduction of affected flora
and fauna assets
lack of safety
human/animal interaction
number of human/animal
contacts reported involving
human injury**
crimes against tourists
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Urban Environments
ISSUE
INDICATORS
SUGGESTED MEASURES
lack of safety
crime levels
types of crime committed
traffic safety
number of crimes
reported (e.g., theft and
assault)**
traffic injuries as a % of
population
uncleanliness
site attraction*
use intensity*
traffic congestion
length of wait
health threats
availability of clean
water (e.g., can tap
water be consumed on site)
statistics on disease
prevalence
noise levels
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INDICATORS
SUGGESTED MEASURES
site degradation
restoration costs
levels of pollutants
affecting site
acidity of precipitation
measures of behaviour
disruptive to site
traffic vibration
(ambient level)
number of incidents of
vandalism reported
use intensity*
lack of safety
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INDICATORS
SUGGESTED MEASURES
ecosystem degradation
species count
count of members of key
species
number of tourist sightings
of key species
areas of species occupation
(flora and fauna)**
primary flora species as a %
of total plant cover
number of outfitters/guides
using site
number of boats using site
% of area negatively affected
**Local wildlife/biodiversity management offices may provide long-term records for some
species.
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INDICATORS
SUGGESTED MEASURES
languages spoken by
locals
% of community speaking a
non-local language
displacement of members
of local population
social impact*
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local satisfaction*
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Small Islands
ISSUE
INDICATORS
SUGGESTED MEASURES
currency leakage
% of foreign ownership of
tourism establishments
overcrowding
% of jobs supported by
tourism
% of seasonal jobs
electricity shortage
electricity availability
# of brown outs
restrictions on use
changes in cost for electricity
use
sewage disposal
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APPENDIX 2
Summaries
of
Pilot Studies
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55
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57
THE NETHERLANDS
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Secondary and poor indicators were also compiled. The report concludes
that the carrying capacity of natural resources for tourism development is
unique to each site. To establish benchmarks for sustainable tourism, it
may therefore be necessary to develop criteria that incorporate the
fragility of these resources.
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Based on the results of the first pilot studies, and the testing of both core
and ecosystem- specific indicators at this site, it was possible to assign a
five star valuation to prioritize these indicators in the context of the above
issues. It is recommended that:
1. An indicators program be established, tied to the status of the
peninsula as an ecological reserve, based on the core indicators.
2. Steps be taken to obtain international recognition (possibly UNESCO
world heritage status) for the peninsula, the adjacent Golfo Nuevo, and
its unique fauna.
3. An investigation be undertaken regarding the possibility of establishing
higher fees for entry to the peninsula and/or to highly used sites, as a
means to raise funds.
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During the study, data were collected or sources of data identified for all
of the specific indicators, most of which centre on the planning and
management of the environment on and close to the beach. It was
confirmed that data in some form exist for nearly all of the core
indicators. Most data could be readily calculated or assessed. However,
some data required to calculate ecosystem-specific indicators, particularly
biophysical data, were not readily obtainable. Based on the results of the
first pilot studies, it was possible to assign a five star valuation to
prioritize the application of different indicators at this site in the context of
the above issues. It is recommended that:
1. A regular program to support the recommended indicators set be put
in place using data from a variety of sources, likely coordinated by the
Provincial tourism authorities.
2. Steps be taken to provide some level of protection for parts of the
dune and adjacent natural beach areas.
3. A greater level of site protection be afforded the Gesell estate and its
unique mix of introduced vegetation.
4. The Blue Flag program, or equivalent be considered for this important
beach resort.
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APPENDIX 3
Key Barriers
to Sustainable
Tourism
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Access
Entry documents
Border procedures
Language/ communication
Transportation access
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Conditions
Security
Banking/$$
Harassment
Regional access/travel
Accommodation
Condition of hotels
Level of service
Food
Access, quality
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Attractions
Variety
Maintenance
Accessibility
Accountability
Management Barriers
Finance
Economic stability
Training
Information
Standards
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APPENDIX 4
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here are various kinds of indicators that managers can use to help
them decide how to allocate their efforts and resources. These are
as follows:
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ENDNOTES
{1} WTO, 1993. Indicators for the Sustainable Management of Tourism. Report of the International
Working Group on Indicators of Sustainable Tourism to the Environment Committee of the World
Tourism Organization. Copublished by the World Tourism Organization and Industry, Science and
Technology Canada. Report available from the International Institute for Sustainable Development,
Winnipeg, MN, Canada.
{2} WTO, 1993. Recommendations on Tourism Statistics. World Tourism Organization, Madrid, Spain.
{3} For perspective, the global economic GDP in 1992 was approximately US $18.5 trillion.
{4} For example, an indicator is currently being developed in the Netherlands by the Netherlands
Bureau of Statistics, which attempts to express environmental problems in numeric form. It takes as a
starting point the cost of eliminating environmental pollution. There are still many methodological
problems to be resolved, so it will be some time before this indicator can be widely applied.
[5] International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
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{6} IUCN, 1992. Guidelines for Protected Areas Management Categories. International Union for the
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland.
{7} Manning, E.W., 1993. Carrying Capacity and Sustainable Tourism. Paper presented at the World
Tourism Organization International Seminar on Planning for Sustainable Tourism Development in
South Asian Countries, Maldives, April 1993.
{8} Key data sources may include: local municipalities, census data, management data collected by site,
scientific data collected by resource agencies, specific studies that can provide baseline data for
future monitoring, industry statistics (e.g., hotel occupancy rates).
{9} Crime may have a direct affect on public health and safety, particularly in crowded and/or high
transit tourism destinations. As such, crime may be regarded as a key indicator for measuring
changes in the human environment of a destination.
{10} EIA means environmental impact assessment.
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T H E W O R L D T O U R I S M O R G A N I Z AT I O N
is the only intergovernmental organization that
serves as a global forum for tourism policy
and issues.Its Members include 134 countries and
territories as well as over 300 Affiliate Members
from the public and private sectors. WTO's
mission is to promote and develop tourism as
a significant means of fostering international
peace and understanding, economic
development and international trade.