W144

Completion & Well Intervention

Operations

Completion Equipment

COMPLETION EQUIPMENT
1

MATERIALS AND CORROSION.................................................................................. 1

COMPLETION DESIGNS ............................................................................................. 2

2.1

Open Hole Completions ......................................................................................... 2

2.2

Cased and Perforated Completions ....................................................................... 3

2.3

Horizontal and High Angle Well Completions ......................................................... 5

2.4

Multiple Completions .............................................................................................. 6

COMPLETION COMPONENTS.................................................................................... 7
3.1

Wellheads and Xmas Trees ................................................................................... 8

3.1.1 Xmas Trees ...............................................................................................................9
3.1.2 Wellheads................................................................................................................13

3.2

Casing and Tubing ............................................................................................... 18

3.2.1 Tubing Connections.................................................................................................19

3.3

Production Packers .............................................................................................. 21

3.3.1 Packer Types...........................................................................................................22
3.3.2 Expansion Devices and Anchoring Methods ...........................................................25

3.4

Sub-Surface Safety Valves .................................................................................. 28

3.4.1 Surface-Controlled Subsurface Safety Valve (SCSSSV) ........................................28
3.4.2 Subsurface-Controlled Subsurface Safety Valve (or Storm Choke) (SSCSSSV)....28
3.4.3 Closure Mechanisms ...............................................................................................28
3.4.4 Tubing Retrievable or Wireline Retrievable .............................................................30
3.4.5 Annulus safety valves (ASV) ...................................................................................32
3.4.6 Electrically operated valves .....................................................................................33
3.4.7 Equalising systems ..................................................................................................33
3.4.8 SCSSSV Setting Depth Requirements ....................................................................34

3.5

Landing Nipples.................................................................................................... 35

3.6

Circulation Devices............................................................................................... 36
3.6.1 Sliding Side Doors ...................................................................................................36
3.6.2 Side Pocket Mandrels (SPMS) ................................................................................38

3.7

Flow Couplings, Blast Joints and Tail Pipes ......................................................... 39

3.7.1 Flow Couplings ........................................................................................................39
3.7.2 Blast Joints ..............................................................................................................40
3.7.3 Perforated Joint .......................................................................................................40
3.7.4 Wireline Entry Guide................................................................................................40

3.8

Permanent Downhole Gauges ............................................................................. 40

MATERIALS AND CORROSION

The components of a well completion, from the casing and tubing through to wellheads and even the
most specialised downhole devices, are of course made predominantly from various types of steel. Steel
is an iron alloy containing carbon and a possible variety of different elements added to improve its
properties. Alloying elements are used to increase the strength of the steel or to increase its corrosion
resistance.
The strength to weight ratio of steel is low compared with some other metals and it is used primarily
because iron is readily both available and cheap.
A large family of corrosion resistant or so-called stainless steels are available, but many of these
actually have very poor corrosion resistance and are unsuitable for use in wells. Small differences in the
composition of steel can have a dramatic effect on its properties, which can also be modified by
mechanical and heat treatments.
In addition to iron based corrosion resistant alloys, there are many other corrosion resistant alloys
available for use. These tend to be alloys of chromium and nickel, with relatively small quantities of iron.
Sometimes these materials are also referred to as stainless steel but more correctly the term corrosion
resistant alloy (CRA) is used to cover the entire range of alloys, from marginally to extremely corrosion
resistant.
Corrosion of casing, tubing or completion components reduces strength and may result in early failure
by buckling, collapse, leakage, or burst. In addition, corrosion may damage sand screens, prevent
operation of subsurface valves or other equipment and cause the string to part.
To prevent these types of failure, it is essential to consider corrosion at an early stage of completion
design. It is also necessary to ensure that corrosion is managed throughout the life of the well.
Operating pressures, temperatures, flow rates and produced fluid composition will all change with time.
In addition, there may be operations carried out during the producing life of the well which expose it to
dramatically different conditions. Stimulation fluids must be selected to be compatible with corrosionresistant alloys or stress corrosion cracking may occur; calliper runs and wireline operations may
damage internal coatings or films.
Various forms of corrosion are likely depending on the choice of material and the environment. Some
types of corrosion may be tolerated, or managed, provided that good engineering judgement has been
made and that all consequences of failure are clearly understood and accepted. However, it is obviously
important that design precludes corrosion that may result in sudden failure, such as cracking of the
casing or tubing.
The vast majority of wells use carbon steel tubulars procured to ISO 11960 (API 5CT) and, with the
exception of chrome L80 grades, these materials are steels that are not considered corrosion-resistant.
Despite this they perform satisfactorily in most wells and provide an excellent technical and economic
solution for most completion designs.
Most hydrocarbon recovery involves transporting fluid that will contain water at some point in the
lifetime of the well. In addition, many well fluids will contain corrosive elements, the most common
being carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and oxygen (O2). When liquid water and these
elements co-exist, corrosion of carbon steel tubulars is an issue and some form of mitigation is likely to
be required. However, the actions which are necessary will depend on the likely effect, the rate of
corrosion and the economics of the venture. For example, a solution that is acceptable for a low-cost
onshore well may not be suitable for an offshore well where the cost of intervention is much greater.
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Although oxygen is not usually present in oil and gas wells, it can exist in shallow aquifers and
injection water, and it can also occur in beam-pumped wells where it may enter through the stuffing
box.
With similar concentration, flow and temperature conditions, O2 corrosion tends to be much more
severe in terms of metal loss than corrosion caused by CO2 or H2S. Due to the aggressive nature of
oxygen, every effort should be made to ensure that it does not enter the system, but this is not always
possible. If oxygen is unavoidably present inside tubulars, then the use of a corrosion-resistant alloy is
an option, although consideration can also be given to internal coatings, the use of solid polymeric
materials or inhibition.
Carbon dioxide dissolved in water produces a mild acid, and it is this that causes corrosion through a
complex series of reactions. The rate of corrosion is strongly dependent on flow, temperature and the
partial pressure of CO2 in the gas phase, but can occur at very high rates. Provided that no significant
H2S is associated with CO2, and when a degree of chloride-induced pitting is not a concern, the accepted
method for preventing CO2 corrosion in well environments is to use a 13% Cr alloy. It is not advisable
to use this material with even small amounts of H2S in the environment (partial pressure of 0.05 psi or
more) because it may crack and fail rapidly.
Hydrogen sulphide may be present in the reservoir when the well is completed or may gradually appear
as it ages and sours. Although pitting and more general forms of corrosion are possible when steel is
exposed to an environment containing H2S, the more serious form of failure is cracking due to
hydrogen ingress. When hydrogen sulphide dissolves in water it also forms a weak acid. Reaction with
iron then liberates hydrogen atoms that migrate into the metal lattice where they cause cracks and,
often, rapid failure known as sulphide stress cracking (SSC). For this reason, it is important that all
materials which are likely to be exposed to a sour environment are resistant to SSC. Generally, highstrength (hardness) materials are more prone to cracking than are lower-strength materials with similar
chemistry, but SSC becomes less of a concern as service temperature increases.
Strictly speaking, chloride is not a corrosive species but when it is present in water it increases
conductivity and tends to accelerate anodic dissolution. In addition it interferes with the formation of
protective films, and this can cause pitting depending on pH, concentration and temperature. Brines are
often used in completion operations as packer fluids. When this is the case, corrosion is often
prevented by maintaining a high pH, typically pH>10. If the pH is allowed to fall, then severe
corrosion is likely.
2

COMPLETION DESIGNS

The general purpose of the design of modern completions is, of course, to produce hydrocarbons in a
manner which is safe, efficient and satisfies the economics of the project. Completions are designed for
an anticipated lifetime and future operating costs (including workovers and interventions) will be
considered during the initial designs. The ideal is a design that is simple and low cost, but with the
flexibility to allow for changing conditions over its design life (e.g. rising watercut, scale precipitation,
corrosion, etc.).
2.1 Open Hole Completions
In this style of completion the production casing shoe would be set just above the reservoir section.
The casing string is cemented in place and the reservoir section is drilled with non-damaging drilling
fluid. The reservoir section has no liner or screen deployed across it, drilling fluid is left in the hole and
the tubing is run and set (on a packer) near the base of the casing. The well is brought on production by
reducing the drilling fluid hydrostatic head, for instance by nitrogen lift via coiled tubing. No
perforation operations are required. This arrangement might be used where it is essential to expose all
zones to maximize inflow or where well costs must be kept to a minimum (i.e. land well or
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exploration/appraisal testing). Leaving a well open

hole obviously requires the reservoir rock to be of
sufficient strength (under drawdown) to avoid
collapse.
The possible advantages of this type of
completion are:
Low cost and simple (especially for long
intervals)
Entire reservoir section can be left open.
No perforation expense
Maximum diameter across reservoir section
Easy to deepen well
Easy to convert well to another completion
style (e.g. cased & perforated)
Radial flow into well through 360
Good access to fractures
No formation damage from cement
The significant disadvantages, however, are:
Mud filter cake will reduce productivity
unless it cleans up
Production has to pass through any
damaged zone
No protection against wellbore collapse of
the production interval
Open Hole Completion
Limited zonal isolation possible
Excessive gas or water production would
affect tubing lift performance
Separate zones within the section are difficult to stimulate selectively
Unable to produce reservoirs with different pressures and/or incompatible fluids
The ability to manage the reservoir through field life is a critical part of hydrocarbon asset
management and the above completion style will severely limit options for reservoir management.
2.2 Cased and Perforated Completions
Although wells with open hole or barefoot designs are still used for certain applications (for example
in some horizontal well sections), the majority of well completions are designed with a cemented
production casing string which is then perforated to establish communication with the formation. A
smaller diameter liner may be used across the producing intervals, hung off on the inside of the
bottom section of the main casing string by using a Liner Hanger system. The perforations penetrate
the cement and damaged regions around the near wellbore area.
The key advantages of cased and perforated completions are:

No need to clean up filter cake

Perforations by-pass the damaged zone (if engineered correctly)
Good zonal isolation
Formation can be selectively stimulated
Multiple/selective completions possible
Good well integrity - if properly cemented
Protection against hole collapse

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Some possible disadvantages are:

Possible in-flow restriction due to lack of 360 perforation coverage
Permeability impairment due to crushed zone and perforation debris (can be minimised by
perforating underbalance)
Reduced wellbore diameter through reservoir
Liner cementation can be difficult at high angles
Cementing, perforating and additional rig time can be costly for offshore operations.

Cased and Perforated Completion

The tubing diameter is designed to allow for the most efficient flow regime from reservoir to wellhead.
Larger tubing sizes will obviously produce more but this also requires much more energy (pressure)
from the reservoir in order to lift the fluids.
A balance has to be achieved between a desired lift rate and the anticipated lifetime of the Field/Well.
There is little point in deploying larger diameter tubing for high rate production if the reservoir energy
is lost in a short space of time. A workover would then be required to replace the large diameter
tubing with smaller diameter pipe, which would be costly in terms of rig time and possibly also
reservoir damage.
Tubing sizes commonly used are: 7, 5.5, 5, 4.5, 3.5, 2.875 and 2.375 OD.
A typical high rate North Sea completion might use 5.5 tubing and a 7 liner (approx. 10,000 barrels
per day). A low rate onshore well in the USA might use 2.375 tubing with 5 liner (approx. 100 barrels
per day).

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The tubing string can either be deployed and set inside the liner (with a packer) or set above the liner
hanger in the casing string as shown on the previous page. The advantage of setting the tubing above
the liner is that it allows for the use of a larger diameter tubing string and also isolates the annulus from
possible leaks across the liner hanger. This arrangement can also help to achieve what is termed a
monobore style completion which has a similar internal diameter all the way from surface to the
bottom of the liner, with minimal restrictions.
Options for Sand Control, Artificial Lift, etc., are available for all the above well styles. Wells can be
either producers (oil or gas) or injectors (water or gas) and there can be a variation on hole angle
through the reservoir section (except truly horizontal wells).
2.3 Horizontal and High Angle Well Completions
Horizontal wells are typically used to exploit reserves where:

Reservoir heterogeneity has prevented efficient development using vertical wells

Efficient exploitation of reservoirs with fractures is required
Water or gas coning problems would occur in vertical wells
Fewer wells are required due to cost or facilities restrictions
In long , thin reservoirs

Horizontal wells are typically grouped in three categories referred to as short, medium and long-radius
wells, depending on deviation build rate and radii produced. Short and medium radius wells can be
completed open hole or with slotted liners. Long-radius wells are typically completed with slotted liners
or cased and cemented to total depth. Horizontal wells have proved to give much better production

Horizontal Single Tubing Completion

than un-stimulated vertical wells, due mainly to the extra length of reservoir section that is exposed.
Completion problems are generally more complex than in vertical wells, however, and debris in a long
horizontal section is a major issue. Deploying intervention tools into horizontal sections is also more
difficult, requiring coiled tubing or wireline tractors for instance. Most regular completion equipment
will generally work in horizontal wells.

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2.4 Multiple Completions

A multiple completion is a single wellbore having tubulars and equipment that enable segregated
production from two or more reservoir zones. In most cases, at least two tubing strings will be used
to provide the necessary level of control and safety for production fluids. The wellhead and surface
flow-control facilities required for multiple completions can be complex and costly, but these
completion designs are common in many parts of the world.

Dual Tubing String Multiple Completion

The key advantages of multiple completions are the ability to produce from two or more zones
(possibly zones of different pressures or fluids) or to produce from one zone and inject into another, all
in the same well. An obvious potential disadvantage is the cost and operational complexity.

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COMPLETION COMPONENTS

The variations in actual well completion designs are, therefore, many and various, as are the detailed
design options for components available to the designer from competing suppliers and for specific
purposes. Some fundamentals are, however, relatively constant and for the purposes of discussion the
following illustration of a typical single well completion will be used to identify the nature and
purpose of the most commonly applied items.

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3.1 Wellheads and Xmas Trees

The Wellhead is usually defined as the assembly of spools and housings which provide:
- the means to suspend and seal the various strings of casing and production tubing within the well
bore,
- access to the annular space between successive strings of casing, including the annulus between
casing and tubing, and
- the connection for a BOP or Xmas tree.
The Xmas tree is then the series of valves and related instrumentation above the wellhead which
becomes a cross-over between the wellhead and the flowline, comprising all the equipment from the
wellhead connection through to the downstream flange of the flow control choke. It is the Xmas Tree
which provides the means of isolating the reservoir from the environment during both normal
operations and emergency shut downs.
In reality it can be difficult to determine exactly where the Wellhead ends and the Xmas tree starts,
particularly in the more sophisticated designs developed for offshore platforms, sub-sea wells or other
situations where space is limited.

Xmas Tree

Wellhead

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3.1.1

Xmas Trees

There are two basic types of Xmas tree, solid and composite. Solid Block Trees are machined from
single blocks of material while Composite trees consist of standard valves bolted together about a
central body.
Solid Block trees

Solid Block Xmas Trees

The main advantages of using trees constructed from a single block of material are the reduction in
potential leak paths, their higher pressure rating and smaller size. Although Solid Block Trees use
forged bodies they are still designed to use standard valve components such as the actuator, gate and
seats. Top and bottom connections may be either flanged or clamp type. On high rate wells, models

Examples of Single String Solid Block Xmas Tree configurations

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with Y-shaped block forgings may be used to

reduce flow turbulence. Otherwise right angle
outlets may be used for the side arms, which also
make internal inspection easier.
The configuration of valves, fittings and shape
within these trees can be varied to meet the
specific requirements of particular applications.
In some designs the wing valves (Production and
Wing) are attached by a bolted connection to the
main body of the assembly.
The compactness of the solid type tree is very
well suited to dual completion wellheads.

Dual Solid Block Xmas Tree

Composite Trees

When the individual valves and fittings are flanged or clamped together, the Tree is referred to as a
Composite Tree. This allows a wide and flexible variety of arrangements of valves and fittings but is

Composite Xmas Trees

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recommended for use only on low pressure and low risk applications. Composite Trees offer more
leak paths due to the number of flanges and are generally physically larger. The advantages of using
composite trees are that they utilise standard components and, in the event of damage, individual
items can be replaced at relatively low cost. They are also readily adapted for special applications or
changed circumstances.
Spool Type (Horizontal) Xmas Trees

Horizontal Surface Trees are an economic

alternative to other conventional Xmas trees.
These proven systems reduce overall wellhead and
tree height and eliminate flowline manipulation
during Workovers. Horizontal trees in the surface
application are mainly selected if it is known that
frequent Workovers will be required. This type of
tree design is available for both oil and gas wells,
for natural drive and artificial lift applications. The
inherent weakness of this design, especially if used
in subsea applications, is that if the Xmas Tree
needs to be removed for repair then the
completion must be pulled to allow operations to
progress.
This design has no valves in the vertical bore of
the tree but uses two wireline-set plugs to provide
environmental barriers above the production
offtake in the tree. The monobore tubing hanger
is landed within the tree spool and the
completion can be run and pulled through the tree
Spool Type (Horizontal) Xmas Tree
without removing it. Well control during the well
intervention is maintained by the BOP on top of
the spool tree. These trees can provide a business advantage for completions in underbalanced
reservoirs where frequent downhole intervention may be necessary, e.g. electrical submersible
pumping systems
Xmas Tree Valves

Xmas Tree valves are normally all gate valves of identical design. The actuated valves on a tree differ
in their mode of operation from the manual valves in that they are reverse acting. This means that the
valve is closed when the gate is in the fully out position. All the valves fitted to the tree and Aannulus should be capable of withstanding the same pressure as the tree.
The valve configuration of a Xmas tree should conform to the wellhead safety principle of always
providing an ultimate safety barrier. Group policy gives preference to complying with international
standards such as ISO, and API, etc., over national standards such as BS and DIN. In some operating
environments it may be necessary to exceed existing standards.
All tree valves should preferably have forged bodies and flanges with a minimum number of
penetrations. The recommended design is the true floating single slab and double seat arrangement,
with a (preferably selective) back-seating capability. It is recommended that manual valves have nonrising stems, whereas actuated valves must have a rising stem. Ideally the stem packing should be
metal-to-metal although, in some cases, elastomeric seals could be allowed.

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Manual Gate Valve and Actuated Valve

Valve Functions

Typically, from bottom to top, a Xmas tree contains the following valves;
Lower Master Valve (LMV)

The LMV is the valve of last resort, used to shut off well flow in the event of an uncontrollable leak
across the Upper Master Valve (UMV) or the connection between them. It can also be used as a barrier
in well isolation work or repair in downstream equipment but it should never be used as a working
valve. The LMV is normally a manually operated valve, although in higher pressure wells it may be
furnished with a hydraulically operated actuator enabling remote operation. This may be a regulatory
requirement.
Upper Master Valve (UMV)

The UMV is a general purpose working valve and, on moderate to high pressure wells, may be
activated hydraulically or pneumatically and used as part of an emergency shut-down (ESD) system.
Local policy may also require it to have wire-cutting capability, for up to 7/32 braided wireline for
example.
Flow Wing Valve (FWV) / Production Wing Valve (PWV)

The FWV permits the passage of well fluids to the production gathering system. It may be operated
manually or remotely depending on whether it is to be included in the ESD system. On moderate to
high pressure wells two FWVs may be are installed, one manual and one actuated.
Kill Wing Valve (KWV)

The KWV permits entry of kill fluid into the completion string and may also be used for pressure
equalisation across tree valves, e.g. during wireline operations. It is usually operated manually.
Swab Valve (SV)

The SV permits vertical entry into the well for well servicing operations such as wireline and coiled
tubing. Often referred to as the lubricator valve, it is operated manually and is the uppermost valve on
the Xmas tree.

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Tree Cap

This provides the connection above the swab valve for the vertical well servicing equipment such as a
wireline lubricator system, injector head or rod BPV lubricator. The Tree Cap normally has a quick
union type connection and is capable of supporting the lubricator stresses encountered in well
servicing operations. The inside diameter of the cap is compatible with the tree bore and tubing in
order to accommodate the largest size tool-strings that can be run.
During normal production, the cap has a plug in situ with a threaded part to accommodate a needle
valve and pressure gauge. This gauge is used for periodic monitoring of trapped pressure above the
swab valve and, hence, swab valve integrity. The needle valve is used to bleed off trapped pressure
above the swab before removing the plug.
3.1.2

Wellheads

The major components of wellheads are casing/tubing head housings and spools with the functions of
providing
- a connection to each casing string in turn as the well progresses
- the facility to suspend the subsequent casing strings, and
- communication with the annulus between any two strings via side outlet valves.
Two types of wellhead are used for surface
applications, called spool type and compact
type. Other names used for the compact type
wellhead are speed head, unitised head,
bowl head, multibowl head and unihead.
Spool Type Wellhead

In a spool type wellhead, the casing head

housing is attached to the first string of
casing, the second string of casing is
suspended in it, and a casing head spool is
installed for each successive string of casing
that has to be suspended. Finally a tubing
head spool is installed, with a Xmas tree
above that. A typical low to medium pressure
(5,000 psi) wellhead of this type is shown.
Wellheads have historically been of the spool
type due to the flexibility offered by the
possibility of adding or omitting casing strings
to the well programme if circumstances
change during drilling and the relative
simplicity of the suspension and sealing
systems. Their disadvantages are that their use
requires the removal and the reinstallation/testing of the BOPs for the
installation of each casing head spool. Also,
when used on deep wells with multiple
strings, the wellhead very quickly becomes
very tall, which has led in turn to a
requirement for deep cellars and rigs with a
very high sub-structure. Furthermore, they

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have more connections (one for each spool). Worldwide, spool type wellheads are still the most
popular type because of their low cost and ease of installation, without special running tools.
Compact Wellhead

The compact wellhead is a modern system based

on sub-sea wellhead design, which was driven by
the desirability of being able to drill and case
wells without handling the BOP stack. Stack
handling, in deep water, is a time consuming
operation under the best of conditions, and is
very sensitive to the weather. An compact
wellhead system features a single body within
which all the casing hangers, and possibly the
tubing hanger, can be landed. The hangers can be
run through the BOP stack, which therefore does
not have to be rigged-down and up again each
time, and are stacked in sequence. The wellhead
body pressure rating will be selected to match the
pressure rating of the final production casing or
tubing string.
When using surface wellheads it is customary to
commence drilling with a large diameter, low
pressure BOP stack and to replace it at some
stage by a smaller diameter, higher pressure unit.
The design of compact heads has therefore
developed to give the possibility of adding a new
body element when the BOP is being changed.
The elements of compact heads are thus also
casing head housings and spools. However
various designs of each are available in which up
to three strings of casing/tubing can be hung so
that only two body elements are required. A
typical compact well head consists of one casing
head housing and one casing head spool (plus
possibly a tubing head spool), as shown.
Compact Wellhead

A disadvantage of the compact system is the

complication, and therefore vulnerability to
technical failure, of the seal systems and running
tools.

Tubing Hanger Assemblies

A tubing hanger assembly is installed on top of the uppermost casing head spool of a spool-type
wellhead and may also be used on compact wellheads that do not have integral tubing hanger
systems and safety valve control-line penetrations. The main functions of this unit are to:

suspend the tubing,

seal the annular space between tubing and casing,
lock the tubing hanger in place,
provide a base for the Xmas tree, and
provide access to the 'A' annulus.

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The systems most commonly used on flowing oil/gas wells are:

Bowl tubing head/mandrel hanger type systems
Ram type tubing head
Multiple string tubing head/hangers
Bowl Tubing Head

The bowl tubing head consists of a spool type housing where the internal profile of the top section is
a cylindrical or conical receptacle termed a bowl. Into this a mandrel or boll weevil tubing hanger
is landed, suspending the tubing and sealing off the annulus between tubing and casing.
Hold-down
set-screws
Hanger seal area
Landing shoulder

Side outlet

Seal bushing
recess
Test port
Sealant
injection point

Bowl Tubing Head

The important features of the bowl type tubing head spool are;

the upper and lower connections

the upper and lower bowl seal areas
hold down set screws
side outlets and test port

The lower seal area will contain a seal bushing to seal on the final casing hanger neck and the upper seal
area and set screws accommodate the tubing hanger. The side outlets provide access to the annulus
through two ports which are mounted with double valves on each side. The test port allows pressure
testing of the hanger, hold down screws and secondary seal. The bowl, like any casing head spool,
should have a protector installed during all operations conducted in the well.
The important features of a tubing hanger are the upper (landing) and lower thread connections and its
seals. The landing and lower threads must be designed to support the entire tubing string weight. The
body hanger seals are usually compression-type seals which seal between the outside of the hanger body
and the inside of the tubing head bowl. Sealing is accomplished by the application of tubing weight on
the load bearing surfaces. Where applicable, the neck seals engage the tubing hanger bonnet.
The tubing hanger may have a wireline landing nipple profile that can be used to accommodate a plug
installed by wireline or, alternatively, an internal ACME type thread for installation of a plug by

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polished rods. A plug is usually installed

as barrier before removal of a BOP
stack or production tree in conjunction
with other barriers.
The tubing hanger can also be provided
with a control line outlet that is
required for the hydraulic control of a
surface controlled sub-surface safety
valve (SCSSSV) in the production
tubing. To accommodate the SCSSSV
port, an extended neck and extra set of
seals may be incorporated. Control line
outlets on tubing hangers incorporate a
sealed hydraulic passageway from the
surface, through the hanger and via a
pressure control line to the location of
the SCSSSV. Additional lines may be
made available for additional downhole
equipment such as valves, chemical
injection, pump power supplies or data
gathering gauges.

Landing
connection
SCSSSV
control-line port
ACME thread for
wellhead plug
Tubing hanger
Tubing
connection

Mandrel Tubing Hanger

A tubing-head adapter is mounted

above the tubing head, fitting over the top of the hanger to provide the secondary seal and also access
to the control line.
Ram Type Tubing Head

Ram type tubing heads have an application in completions where it is necessary to place the production
tubing in tension, usually after setting a tubing installed packer or latching into a permanent packer
which had previously been
installed by a work string or
on wireline. This type of
system is used in
completion designs when it
is desirable to maintain
tension to counteract
tubing elongation due to
temperature increase or to
prevent packer seal
movement. Normal
mandrel type hangers
cannot be used to place the
tubing in tension due to the
positive shoulder method
of suspension.
The single ram tubing head
comprises a housing with
two retractable slip-type
rams. When closed the
rams support the hanger

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nipple which is screwed on to the top of the tubing string. The seal between the annulus and tubing is
provided by a seal assembly located around the hanger nipple above the rams.
With the tubing head installed on the wellhead, the production tubing is run to depth and the length of
tubing needed to position the hanger nipple across the rams is calculated (including the stretch required
to place the correct tension in the tubing). The tubing is then adjusted to the calculated length by a
combination of removing a joint(s) and adding pup joints. The tubing is then run back to depth,
latched into a permanent packer (or a retrievable packer is set) and tension is applied until the hanger
nipple is just above its final hang-off point. Thereafter the rams are closed, the tubing weight set down
on the rams and the running string is removed.
Like mandrel type hangers, the hanger nipple is provided with an upper thread for a landing joint, an
internal left hand thread (or wireline nipple profile) for the installation of a plug or back pressure valve
and can be supplied with extended necks to facilitate secondary sealing. These hangers also are
available with control line outlets to facilitate the installation of a SCSSSV in the tubing.
Multiple String Tubing Heads

In dual completions two segments are used to form a hanger assembly which, when assembled
together, resembles a single mandrel type hanger. This is installed in the appropriate tubing head.
Likewise, the dual tubing head spool is very similar to a single completion tubing head spool, but with
the addition of alignment pins just below the load-bearing shoulder.
Dual hangers mate together with a profile that fits over the alignment pins. Note also the extended seal
necks. Segmented systems must have the same shaped seals as the hanger segments and fit together to
seal both against the tubing bowl and each other. They are usually locked in place with the tie-down
screws. Segmented hangers are available with a preparation to accommodate a plug or back pressure
valve and/or with control line outlets to allow SCSSSVs to be installed in the production tubing string.
The challenge of multiple completion systems is the alignment of the segmented hanger bores to the
Xmas tree production bores when the Xmas tree is to be oriented in a specified direction to installed
production flow lines, etc. This is normally achieved by ensuring that the casing head and tubing bowl
have been correctly aligned at the time of their installation.
Seal necks
Load-bearing
shoulder

Alignment
pins

Alignment
profile

Dual Tubing Hanger Spool and Dual Hangers

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Special care has to be taken when landing segmented hangers to ensure they do not tilt or rotate and
complicate the landing of the other hanger(s). Any fixture used to help align the hangers must be
positioned high enough over the landing shoulder to have sufficient leverage to counteract the
eccentric loading of the installed tubing. The intent of segmented hangers, termed D shaped hangers
in dual systems, is not only to allow them to be run separately but to facilitate workover on one side
only.
3.2 Casing and Tubing
Various forms of steel tubulars in have been used since the turn of the century, but it was not until
1923 that standardisation by the American Petroleum Institute (API) brought about uniformity of sizes,
strengths and connections for widespread manufacture. Additionally, API recommended practices and
bulletins are used in the care, handling and running of these tubulars. Many advances have been made
in designs and materials, including the development of many non-API (proprietary) types. The number
of possible combinations of sizes, grades, weights and connection types runs into many thousands.
Tubular goods in the form of casing or tubing are run in every well that is drilled, from rank wildcats to
final development wells. They form part of the tangible well costs and are usually the largest single
equipment cost item in a well. Typically, a North Sea well may have one million dollars worth of
tubulars, or more. The primary reasons for using oil country tubular goods (OCTG) are for safety and
efficiency and many branches of the oilfield service industry are involved in the manufacture, handling,
running and maintenance of OCTG.

Typical Casing
Configurations

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Casing and tubing are best differentiated by purpose rather than size since casing sizes can be used for
production tubing and vice-versa.
a)

Casing is the steel lining run into the wellbore and cemented in place to give permanent
protection from contaminating fluids, provide pressure tightness and prevent well-bore
collapse.

b)

Tubing is the temporary, replaceable pipeline used to convey produced fluids from the
reservoir to the surface, or injected fluids in the reverse direction.

After drilling to a specified depth, the casing is lowered into the well and cemented in place. This is
done with successively smaller casing until the total depth (TD) is reached and the entire hole is casedoff. The casing must be backed up by a solid sheath of cement for maximum strength and to prevent
migration of fluids such as saltwater or gas from behind the casing, to prevent damage by corrosion to
the outside of the casing and to reduce thermal expansion of the casing.
Tubing is run from the wellhead to near the top of the producing zones to provide a controlled
passageway for produced or injected fluids. The important functions of tubing are:
a)

To act as a pressure-tight competent pipe line for the production of hydrocarbons or

injection of fluids,

b)

To protect the production casing from erosive and corrosive fluids,

c)

To optimise production flow rates,

d)

To provide a smooth bore for the running and installation of downhole devices.

A joint of casing or tubing is usually described with the following parameters - size, weight, grade and
connection type, e.g. 7, 29 pound L-80 New Vam. Joint length may be specified within a given range
and size denotes the OD of the pipe body. The weight of pipe is usually expressed in pounds per foot
(lb/ft) and has a direct relationship to the wall thickness of the pipe by varying the I.D. Grade refers to
the type of steel from which the pipe is made.
3.2.1

Tubing Connections

Connection type refers to the threaded ends of the pipe and is either the thread form in API type
connections (8 round, buttress etc) or the maker and proprietary designation in the case of non-API or
premium types such as Hydril PH-6, Atlas Bradford TC-4S, VAM ACE, etc.
Threaded connections can be divided into two broad groups, namely integral connections and threaded
and coupled (T&C) connections. Some relative merits are listed in the table below.
Relative Merits of Integral and T&C Connections

Integral connections
Half the number of threaded connections and
thus half the number of leak paths.
No possibility of receiving a coupling made of a
different, and therefore wrong, material.
Generally of higher torque capacity. This is due
to the external torque shoulder, while for most
threaded and coupled connections the torque
shoulder is located at the pin nose.

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T&C connections
Generally easier to produce and the
pipe ends can be re-cut should the
threads be damaged.
A lot simpler to manufacture as no
upsetting or swaging is required.
Less risk of leakage due to geometric
errors in the machined connection
parts.

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Threaded and
Coupled Connection

Integral Connection

API connections are still widely used due to relatively low-cost manufacture, reasonable reliability under
most field conditions and widespread availability. A very general service limit to API 8-round would be:
< 250F downhole, < 5000 psi differential and not for gas or condensate wells. However, coupled to
the shift away from relatively simple and inexpensive shallow wells has been the need for connections
with better seals than the API connections. This has led to the development of the so-called Premium
Connections, the term given to a collection of non-API connections that have one or more special
features, such as higher strength, better sealing properties, faster make-up, smaller outer diameter of the
coupling, internally streamlined and recess free, etc. API round threads rely on interference of the
thread flanks to produce metal-to-metal seals together with a suitable thread compound to plug the
small gaps. Premium Connections, however, derive their primary pressure-sealing capability from the
use of one or more metal-to-metal seals.
The seals achieve their sealing capability by the wedging action of the pin advancing into the box and
some additional pressure produced by a flexing action caused by a torque shoulder. This requires
accurate machining of the seal surfaces and the seal is achieved by metal-to-metal bearing pressure
between the pin and box seal areas. Torque shoulders act as a 'stop' mechanism to prevent overtorquing and possible deformation of the seal area.

Metal-to-metal seal

Premium Connection example

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3.3 Production Packers

A packer is the device normally used to provide a downhole seal between the casing and tubing to
prevent movement of fluids past the sealing point. Some wells do not require a packer (e.g. pumped
wells) but in most cases one or more packers are necessary within the conduit.

Typical (Permanent) Production Packer

Packers are usually grouped into the three principal classes

Permanent,
Semi-permanent, or
Retrievable.
They can then be further categorised by setting method and the number of production conduits, or
bores, through the packer.

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3.3.1

Packer Types

Permanent packers

These are set in the casing on tubing or by wireline, after which the setting tool is released from the
packer and the production string can then be run and sealed in the packer. The packer may be set
mechanically, hydraulically or electrically (by wireline). As the name implies, the packer cannot then be
retrieved intact but can be removed destructively by milling. These packers are generally used where
maximum dependability is required and in high pressure differential applications.
Semi-Permanent packers

This class of packer combines the advantages of the permanent packer (e.g. large bore, withstands
higher pressure differentials, etc.) but when required it can be released and recovered from the well.
Retrievable packers

This packer is run as an integral part of the tubing which cannot be pulled without pulling the packer.
The packer is set mechanically, hydraulically or by a combination of both and is released by
manipulation of the tubing, i.e. either by rotating or pulling (shearing lock pins). This class of packer is
generally used where the well may have to be worked over regularly, in temporary completions
(production testing) or temporarily during well interventions (for stimulation or casing leak detection).
Within these types, packers are mainly set in place in the casing by one of the following methods

Mechanically
By which the packer may be set by one, or a combination of:-

rotation (i.e. standard J-slot arrangement)

compression (setting down tubing weight onto the packer), or
tension (pulling overweight up on the packer)

Hydraulically
The packer is set by applying pressure to the tubing to create a pressure
differential between the tubing and annulus (see below). Some packers
may use this method to activate one set of slips and the mechanical
method for the other set of slips.
Hydraulic setting is most commonly used in deep or highly deviated
wells, or in offshore environments when the platform motion plays a
significant role. It is also a consideration if control lines are used with
the subsurface safety valve or permanent downhole monitoring
applications.

Electrically
The packer is set by a setting tool on electric wireline (wireline set). The
wireline setting tool is released and recovered with the wireline.

Packers may finally be defined by the number of conduits as:

Single bore - for use in single string completions

Multiple bore - for use in multi-string completions

Mechanically
set packer

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Hydraulic set packer operating system

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Permanent
Packer

Semi-permanent
Packer

Hydraulic-set
retrievable
Packer

Dual Bore
Packer

Typical Production Packer configurations

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3.3.2

Expansion Devices and Anchoring Methods

Seal assemblies of various forms are used to connect the

tubing to permanent packers and provide isolation between
the producing zone and the annular space above the packer.
The seal assemblies are designed with external seals on the
tubing which pack-off in the polished bore of the packer or a
packer extension (used to retain the same packer bore
diameter as the tubing). Any number of seal units can be
screwed together to increase the length of the assemblies.
Polished Bore Receptacle (PBR)

The retrievable Packer Bore Receptacle is designed for use in

those applications where a very large ID must be maintained
through the completion while accommodating extreme tubing
movement. Where large tubing movements are encountered,
correct selection of seal arrangements and elastomers is critical
to maintaining long-term integrity. The retrievable PBR can be
latched into a production packer or liner hanger, creating a
static sealing system by means of an anchor tubing seal
assembly.
The PBR seal assembly is held in place inside the honed bore
during running by a shear ring. When combined with hydraulic
set packers, the entire completion can be run in and set on the
production tubing string in one trip. If desired the well can be
flanged up and the tubing string displaced prior to setting the
packer. The entire assembly above the packer is retrievable in
two trips. The seal assembly is retrieved with the tubing string
and the PBR housing is recovered in a second trip using the
specifically designed retrieving tool.
A variation of the PBR principle incorporates circulation slots
on the upper part of the seal housing. This allows the tubing
and annulus contents to be circulated before pulling the
mandrel completely free of the outer housing.

Polished Bore Receptacle

Expansion Joint Seal Assembly

The Expansion Joint, is a telescoping tool that constantly compensates for tubing movement. It is
essentially an inverted PBR with the seals located in the overshot and sealing on the outside surface of
a polished, upstanding tube.
Because of the problems in sealing on the outside of a curved polished surface, particularly with longer
seal assemblies (called Extra Long Tubing Seal Receptacles - ELTSR), this type of assembly is more
difficult to manufacture than a PBR. ELTSRs. It tends to be run in conjunction with permanent
packers and therefore usually has as a smaller ID than a PBR. It is mainly intended as a simple space
out device for landing the surface tubing hanger and is particularly useful when there is another fixed
point in the completion string relatively close to the surface such as an annulus safety system.

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Expansion joint
retrieval

Tubing Seal Receptacle (or Expansion

Joint) in-situ

Anchor and Locator Seal Assemblies

The Anchor Seal Nipple is an anchoring and sealing device that provides a detachable connection
between the tubing string and the upper bore of the Production Packer. The latch component of the
seal nipple provides positive mechanical engagement with the packer and the seal unit maintains the
pressure integrity of the connection. The tubing can be disengaged and removed by picking up the
tubing weight and rotating to the right. This can be done without exposing the production zone to
damaging fluids by first setting a wireline plug in a nipple profile in the production packer tailpipe
assembly.

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The tubing Locator Seal Assembly does not lock into the packer
and, because it is free to move, does not allow the tubing string
to be landed in tension except that of its own weight. As the top
collar of the assembly seats on the top of the packer body, the
tubing can be landed with set-down weight. Tubing contraction,
caused by well shut-in or the injection of cold fluids, should be
carefully calculated to ensure that with maximum shortening of
the tubing the seal still remains in the packer bore. Spacer seal
assemblies are available to lengthen the seal unit for this
purpose. Tubing expansion above the original design estimate
could cause buckling.

Anchor

Locator

Seal Assemblies

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3.4 Sub-Surface Safety Valves

Subsurface safety valves (SSSVs) are installed below the wellhead, most commonly in the tubing, to
prevent uncontrolled flow in an emergency situation. In the worst case, when the wellhead has suffered
severe damage, the SSSV may be the only means of preventing a blow-out. The correct design,
application, installation and operation of this equipment is fundamental to the safety of the well. SSSVs
will be considered for all wells capable of natural flow and in many locations they are a regulatory
requirement.
Though sharing many of the principles of Tubing Safety Valves, the particular mechanics of Annulus
Safety Valves are covered in a separate section below.
SSSVs are generally categorized by a combination of the following features:

Control mode (surface or sub-surface)

Closure mechanism (ball, flapper, etc.)
Wireline or tubing retrievable
Non-equalising or self-equalising
Concentric or rod piston
Single control line or dual balanced lines

A valve may have any particular combination of these features, e.g. tubing retrievable flapper valve,
self-equalising, concentric piston with a single control line. The selected configuration will be governed
by well conditions, the completion design and local preference.
3.4.1

Surface-Controlled Subsurface Safety Valve (SCSSSV)

A SSSV which is controlled from the surface and installed by wireline or as an integral part of the
tubing. SCSSSVs are normally closed and most commonly held open by external hydraulic pressure
applied from surface via a control line. They may also be controlled by electric, electromagnetic or
acoustic signals. When the control signal/hydraulic pressure is lost, the valve is closed by means of a
spring acting on the closure mechanism. In order to close the valve, this spring must overcome the
hydrostatic pressure in the control line. Each hydraulically controlled SCSSSV therefore has a
maximum safe setting depth. Regulations in most offshore locations require the use of SCSSSVs.
3.4.2

Subsurface-Controlled Subsurface Safety Valve (or Storm Choke) (SSCSSSV)

A wireline retrievable SSSV which is naturally open and actuated by excess flow passing through it. The
dependency on well conditions as a means of control makes these valves inherently less reliable than
surface controlled valves. They also have an unavoidable impact on the production availability of the
well and their application is therefore limited. The valve will re-open once pressures across the closed
valve are equalised. It is normally equipped with an equalising sub-assembly which permits selfequalising prior to retrieving the valve and it is compatible with a variety of wireline locks. Adjustment
of the valve closure mechanism is typically accomplished by changing an orifice size or internal spring
rate.
3.4.3

Closure Mechanisms

Two types of valve closure elements are most commonly used for SCSSSVs, the flapper and ball types.
Both types of closure element pinch off the fluid stream by a pair of opposing surfaces rather than
sliding surfaces. This has the advantage that it can provide a good, tight shut-off when the sealing
surfaces are sound.

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Flappers may be flat, curved or contoured.

To open the valve, pressure is applied via
the control line, compressing the closing
spring and moving a flow tube down onto
the flapper. As the flow tube continues to
move down, the flapper rotates about its
hinge into the flapper housing. When
control line pressure is removed, the
spring forces the flow tube up, allowing a
spring on the flapper to bring the flapper
into the closed position. In the closed
position the flapper is held closed by the
differential pressure across the valve.

Flow tube

Flapper

Flow

The curved and contoured flapper designs

were introduced to obtain a better
OD/ID ratio, as they are shaped to fit
more efficiently into the valve housing
when in the open position
The contoured flapper design has an
angled sealing surface over the full
circumference of the flapper and thus has
potential to provide good sealing. This
type of mechanism is now strongly
preferred to the ball mechanism due to:

Greater reliability.
Simpler design.
It is less prone to seal damage.
In the event of a failure, the
valve can be pumped through at
sufficiently high rates to kill the
well.

Flapper Housing, showing flow tube holding flapper

open

Curved Flapper Design

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Ball valves operate in a similar manner, except that the hydraulic pressure acts on a piston which rotates
the ball by means of a mechanical linkage.

Ball Valve design

3.4.4

Tubing Retrievable or Wireline Retrievable

Statistics indicate that tubing retrievable downhole safety valves are more reliable than wireline
retrievable valves. Mean time to failure is around six years for wireline valves and fifteen years for
tubing retrievable valves. Furthermore, tubing retrievable valves are full bore and allow for easier
downhole access beyond the valve. Because the tubing retrievable subsurface safety valve is an integral
part of the production tubing string, the valve body and valve-body connections are important. It must
have sufficient structural rigidity to transmit externally applied load and should be at least as strong as
the tubing in which it is mounted. In case of failure, tubing retrievable valves can usually accept a
wireline-run insert, effectively converting them into wireline retrievable valves with a further lease of
life.
As with the tubing retrievable valve, the wireline retrievable valve is operated from a surface control
panel and via a control line that connects into the safety valve nipple. When assembled to an
appropriate lock mandrel, the safety valve is installed and retrieved using wireline and set in a safety
valve landing nipple. This nipple must hold the valve/mandrel assembly securely against the loads of
pressure differentials, regardless of direction, encountered under both flowing and non-flowing
conditions. The nipple is provided with polished bores to enable sealing of the path between valve and
landing nipple by seals fitted to the outside of the valve/mandrel assembly. The sealing of well pressure
therefore relies on both the internal valve seals and the external seals.

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Wireline Retrievable
SCSSSV

Comparison of Tubing and Wireline Retrievable Valves

The external seals of hydraulically operated valves also have the function of containing the control fluid
that is to be transmitted to the valve actuator. The hydraulic control fluid enters the landing nipple
through an externally mounted lug, situated between the two seal bores and is directed to the inlet port
of the inserted valve. In the case of hydraulic balance-line valves, two control ports and three seal
bores are provided in the landing nipple. The purpose of the balance line is for the column of fluid
therein to counteract the closing effect of the hydrostatic head of the control line, allowing the valve to
be installed deeper.
The landing nipple for an electrically operated valve has a connection for an electric control line and an
inductive coupler to transmit the signal to the valve.

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3.4.5

Annulus safety valves (ASV)

A SSSV installed in the well to prevent uncontrolled flow from the casing-tubing annulus when
actuated. It consists of an annular safety valve packer with a bypass. The opening in the by-pass is
controlled by a safety valve which can be an engineered either as an integral part of the packer or as a
wireline retrievable valve.
The annulus safety valve is applied to provide a flow barrier in the casing-tubing annulus, generally in
gas lifted wells where the annulus is filled with compressed gas. Because of the existence of gas lift
valves, the tubing wall cannot be considered as a barrier between the hydrocarbons in the reservoir and
the surface. Although the gas lift valves are commonly equipped with check valves, theoretically
preventing the tubing content to flow back into the annulus, they can not be regarded as a valid barrier.
The ASV is normally located at a shallow depth to reduce the volume of the gas stored in the annulus
between the ASV and the wellhead.

Annulus Safety Valves

The complete system will serve as a redundant wellhead capable of carrying the weight of the tubing
string safely in the event of catastrophic failure. The slip and packing element systems used in the
system hanger are designed to safely distribute the loads from both the sealed-in pressure and the full
weight of the supported tubing string into the casing. The system is designed to transmit these loads
without damaging the casing, even if the casing is unsupported. The hanger is retrieved on drillpipe
using a specially designed retrieving tool.
Another option, of course, would be to install a tubing SCSSSV as the barrier below the bottom gas lift
valve. This has the disadvantages that the valve has to be set relatively deep and that a large volume of
compressed gas from the annulus will escape in case of a leaking wellhead.

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3.4.6

Electrically operated valves

Electrically operated valves are controlled by an electrical signal, either DC or AC. They have the
following advantages:
Much faster response time (only a few seconds)
Almost no setting depth limitation for the electric control signal (no static head pressure of
the control signal).
Well pressure does not affect the electric control signal
Less potential leak paths
No fail-to-close risk if control cable is damaged
Can be combined with a downhole monitoring system
The valves may be controlled either by a steel encapsulated downhole electrical cable, clamped to the
tubing string, or by electro-magnetic waves along the casing and through the formation (i.e. wireless).
3.4.7

Equalising systems

When a SCSSSV is closed, a high differential pressure may be present across the valve closure element.
Opening the valve under this condition will be difficult, if not impossible, because of the inability of the
relatively small valve mechanism to cope with the load working on the large diameter closure element.
Insufficient equalising will introduce high loads that could deform critical valve parts. Also, erosive
wash-out on the closure element by the sudden rush of well fluid through the partly opened valve can
occur. It is therefore necessary to equalise any differential pressure prior to opening a SCSSSV. The two
methods commonly used for tubing-pressure equalization are by:
repressurisation of the tubing string above the SCSSSV from an external source, for instance a
nearby well or pump unit, or
by by-passing well fluid from below the SCSSSV through an integrated equalising valve into the
tubing string above the SCSSSV.
Selecting a self-equalising valve provides operational flexibility in that no external source of pressure is
required to pressurise above the valve prior to opening it. However, the self-equalising feature
introduces an additional potential failure
mechanism and therefore has an impact on
reliability. When to use self-equalisation will
depend on the operating environment and
whether such a feature will provide a
significant operational advantage in the field,
e.g. self-equalising valves are a virtual necessity
on unmanned satellite platforms in the North
Sea.
Non-equalising valves are clearly superior to
self-equalising valves in sealing reliability due
to a simpler design and reduced leak paths.
The equalising feature may also determine the
depth of the valve. If equalisation is required,
it is better to have the valve shallow in order
to reduce the amount of liquids that have to
be pumped. Likewise wax or hydrates may
force a self equalising valve to be set deeper.

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3.4.8

SCSSSV Setting Depth Requirements

The depth at which to set the subsurface safety valve depends upon a number of variables, such as
hydrate and wax formation tendencies, deviation kick-off depth, scale precipitation, earthquake
probabilities, etc. The recommended minimum setting depth is below the cratering depth (or 50 ft
below the deepest pile penetration depth on offshore structures, or 100 ft below ground level on land
locations, if deeper).
Factors to be considered in determining the setting depth include:
Giving maximum depth protection against leakage from tubing to annulus.
Giving protection against abnormal conditions, e.g. earthquake areas, where both tubing and
casing could become seriously damaged.
Setting the valve below cratering depth.
Placing the valve below the mudline when producing a well in deep water.
Providing for well control in the event that one wellbore is intersected by another during drilling
on an offshore platform where numerous highly deviated wells are drilled in a relative small area.
Having an additional barrier below the lowest gas-lift valve in a gas-lifted well where no annulus
safety valve is installed.
Having a SCSSSV below secondary recovery equipment, such as beam pump or ESP, to afford
well control during running and pulling operations.
Having a SCSSSV below the tubing extension joint of a downhole packer to shut-off any leaks
occurring at its dynamic seals.
Placing the valve as close to the reservoir as possible to provide downhole shut-in and safety
means if there is a catastrophe during well testing.
Reducing tubing pressure reduction losses.
Minimising the accumulation of hydrate and wax inside the valve.
Enabling downhole wireline jobs without the necessity to remove the SCSSSV.
Parallel use of an electrically operated SCSSSV with downhole pressure and temperature
monitoring.
Government legislation.

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3.5

Landing Nipples

Landing nipples, also known as wireline or seating nipples, provide a location point for a wide range of
devices which may be required to be installed temporarily or permanently in the tubing string. Landing
nipples are typically short tubular sections with an internally machined profile, designed to accept the
locking keys of a wireline lock mandrel, and a honed bore section. The lock mandrels provide a positive
lock, whereby keys may be mechanically locked out into the matching machined profile (i.e. same size
and shape recess in a landing nipple and, for instance, a Halliburton (Otis) 'X' lock mandrel will only
locate and lock in an 'X' landing nipple). Integral parts of lock mandrels of this type are high pressure
and temperature sealing rings which are positioned in the honed seal bore of the appropriate landing
nipple. Depending on the type of device being run, the packing configuration can be adjusted to hold
pressure from above and/or below.
Selective (X)

Non-Selective (XN)

Selective and No-Go Landing Nipples

Landing nipples come in two forms dependent on completion design, selective or non-selective.
Selective lock mandrels are designed to have the landing/locking keys retracted during running or
pulling operations for faster wireline servicing. The wireline operator selects the landing nipple where
he will set and lock the mandrel by manipulation of his toolstring at the selected depth. There is usually
more than one landing nipple with the same locking or landing profile incorporated in the tubing string.
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A non-selective type lock mandrel, incorporating a no-go landing nipple profile which cannot be
passed, may be used in the lower-most position at or near the tubing foot.
One of the most common applications of landing nipples and lock mandrels is for the installation of a
temporary blind plug to act as an operational safety barrier or against which to pressure test a section of
the tubing.

Selective Landing Nipple with/without Lock Mandrel (Plug) installed

3.6 Circulation Devices

The capability to establish tubing/annulus communication in order to equalise pressures and for
circulation of fluids is a necessary feature in many completion designs. This also allows chemicals to be
introduced, for counteracting wax, scale, sulphur and corrosion, and the introduction of gas for gas lift.
The commonest such devices are sliding sleeves (or Sliding Side Doors, SSDs) and side-pocket
mandrels (SPMs). SPMs require insertion of a valve or other device before they become operational but
have the advantage that the seals can be retrieved and replaced by wireline methods.
3.6.1

Sliding Side Doors

SSDs are part of the tubing string and provide communication between the well production conduit
and the A annulus. Their purposes can include:

Fluid displacement,
Selective testing, treating or producing multiple zones,
Commingled production,
Well killing (by fluid circulation),

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 Kicking off wells (by gas lift),

Pressure equalisation,
Chemical injection

Typical wireline operated Sliding Side Door

The sleeve within an SSD may be shifted by:

Wireline methods (most common),

Coiled tubing methods,
Pressure application to the tubing after dropping or running a shifting dart,
Pressure application to the annulus, acting on the differential piston area of the SDD sleeve.

They may be selected in either the shift down to open or shift up to open versions. Jar up to open
sleeves, as opposed to jar down to open, have the advantage that a greater force can usually be exerted
by upward jarring, especially using hydraulic or spring jars. Downward jarring force, especially in
deviated wells, is somewhat limited. Where a large differential pressure, annulus to tubing, is expected,
down to open sleeves may be preferable. This places the shifting tool below the communication port as
the sleeve opens, preventing tools being blown up the tubing by inflow from the annulus.
Most sliding sleeves incorporate a landing nipple profile and seal bores top and bottom, enabling a
selection of control devices, including straddle tools to isolate a leaking sleeve, to be locked in. The
sealing mechanism can be elastomeric or non-elastomeric. The sliding side door is preferable to a SPM
for high circulation rates, e.g. well killing. However, the SSD may not be the best option for
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temperatures greater than 225F, where seal damage may occur, or in highly deviated wells where jarring
may be difficult.
3.6.2

Side Pocket Mandrels (SPMS)

SPMs are fitted in the well conduit where it is necessary to install a valve that will provide
communication between the tubing and the annulus. The valves may be installed/retrieved by wireline
or coiled tubing using a kickover tool which positions the device in the side pocket.
Originally designed for gas lift, the SPM can also be used as an alternative circulating device. When no
communication is required, a dummy valve is located in the SPM. Working valves are usually activated
by annular pressure and are used for gas lift, circulation and chemical injection. Unlike the SSD, the
flow control device can be removed or replaced on a regular basis without pulling the tubing. The SPM
allows unrestricted flow through a full bore but it does have a large, irregular OD requiring relatively
large casing

Camco Side
Pocket
Mandrel

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3.7 Flow Couplings, Blast Joints and Tail Pipes

These are important devices designed to inhibit the effects of corrosion/erosion caused by flow
turbulence and jetting actions.
3.7.1

Flow Couplings

Flow couplings are short sections of thick walled pipe manufactured from bar stock and normally
having a wall thickness equal to that of the tubing ID through to coupling OD. The purpose is to
withstand any internal erosion caused by turbulent flow and their use will be considered above and
below any major ID change such as at crossovers, safety valves or wireline nipples. Erosion is induced
by any item that causes an abrupt change in flow area and is accelerated at an abrupt entry to, or exit
from, a restriction. A flow coupling below a landing nipple is therefore as important as one above.

Flow Coupling and Blast Joint application

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The indiscriminate use of flow couplings above and below all restrictions, however, is possibly an
unjustifiable expense and their use should be restricted to places close to erosion or
erosion/corrosion flow limits.
3.7.2

Blast Joints

Blast are designed to withstand external erosion and are normally

positioned at perforated production zones in multi-zone
completions where the jetting action of the fluid could erode the
outside of the tubing. A blast joint is a joint of tubing with
enhanced wall thickness and is usually manufactured from a heat
treated alloy.
3.7.3

Perforated Joint

The perforated joint is located in the tailpipe section of the

completion below the production packer and above either a
landing nipple or controlled ID joint. Its purpose is to provide an
alternate flow path where wireline deployed memory gauges or
flow meters are required for monitoring bottom hole
3.7.4

Wireline Entry Guide

The Half or full Mule Shoe Wireline Entry Guide ( WEG ) is

situated at the very bottom of the tailpipe section. The purposes
are
a) to provide a means of guiding the completion tailpipe
section past a liner top and into the liner section, and/or
b) as a re-entry guide for toolstrings such as wireline and coil
tubing back into the tailpipe without hanging up.
3.8

Muleshoe/Wireline Entry Guide

Permanent Downhole Gauges

Downhole data such as flowing well pressures and

temperatures may be required for hydrocarbon reservoir
management on a continuous basis and one method to
obtain the data is the use of permanent downhole gauges
(PDGs). This is a monitoring system which facilitates real
time surface data acquisition of down hole pressure
fluctuations and reservoir depletion. These systems are
commonly installed in Sub Sea developments. Cost issues
are also a deciding factor in their use, e.g. costs associated
with wireline run memory gauges where a Jack Up or
Semi-Submersible rig would have to be positioned over
the well to support the operation. There are also other
issues such as personnel and equipment costs, equipment
failure, mis-runs, safety and lost production during these
operations. Enhancements made to Down Hole
Permanent Gauge Mandrels now provide long term
reliability and data accuracy.

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