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6 Velocity Modeling PDF
6 Velocity Modeling PDF
6 Velocity Modeling PDF
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Contents
Chapter 2
1.2
1.3
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
2.1.5
2.1.6
2.1.7
2.1.8
2.1.9
Contents
iii
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
2.2.6
2.2.7
Chapter 3
3.2
3.3
3.4
Chapter 4
3.4.2
3.4.3
4.2
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.3
iv
Contents
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
4.3.5
4.4.2
4.4.3
4.5
Chapter 5
4.5.2
4.6
4.7
5.2
5.3
User Guide
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.1.4
5.1.5
5.1.6
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
5.2.5
5.2.6
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
5.3.5
5.3.6
5.3.7
5.3.8
5.3.9
Contents
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
vi
Contents
6.2
6.3
7.2
7.3
7.4
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.6.2
1
Introduction to Velocity
Modeling
In this chapter
Overview
This section introduces velocity modeling, describes the benefits of using Paradigm
SKUA and Paradigm GOCAD to perform velocity modeling, and describes a typical
velocity modeling workflow.
1-1
1.1
V = DT
Where: V = velocity; T = travel time provided by the seismic data; D = well depth.
You create the velocity model from the seismic velocity and well data (checkshot,
calibrated integrated sonic logs). After you build the velocity model, you can perform the
time-to-depth conversion.
Velocity modeling is an important step in seismic imaging, especially for complex
reservoirs. The greater the complexity of the geological structure, the greater the need for
an accurate velocity model at high resolution. SKUA provide the structural model that
helps you achieve such a velocity model.
1-2
1.2
Creating a velocity
model based on the
SKUA model
When you build the SKUA model, SKUA automatically creates a sealed 3D model. You can
use this SKUA model to create a velocity model. A sealed 3D model has the following
advantages:
Creating velocity
model using velocity
functions
Using geostatistics to
update the velocity
model
SKUA and GOCAD support the Velocity Functions object type. You can use Velocity
Functions to create a basic velocity model from sparse data where the velocity is
interpolated throughout the entire area of interest.
Defining the velocity model is iterative. SKUA and GOCAD provides geostatistic tools that
help you create and refine the velocity model.
Converting velocity
SKUA and GOCAD provide tools for you to convert velocity from one type to another in
same domain or to a different domain. For example, converting RMS velocity to average
velocity.
After you finish refining the velocity mode, you can convert your data (seismic cube,
interpretation data, for example) from time to depth using simple vertical stretching. If
you want to perform migration, you can use Paradigm GeoDepth.
User Guide
1-3
1.3
Description
Import data
Seismic data
Well data
Interpretation data (faults, horizons, salt bodies)
If this data is in the Epos repository, you can import this data from SeisEarth
into a SKUA project. For more information about importing, see:
After you import the data, verify the data is correct and consistent.
SKUA and GOCAD provide several methods for creating the velocity model:
1-4
Calibrate seismic
velocity to well data
You can force the velocity model to fit the well markers when you perform a
domain conversion.
Interpolate velocity
(optional)
2
Constructing 3D Models
In this chapter
Overview
There are two types of model objects in Paradigm SKUA and Paradigm GOCAD :
the Model3d, which is the main focus of this chapter, and the Voxet model.
2-1
2.1
Constructing a Model3d
2.1.1
Regions
Layers
Fault blocks
Regions
In a model object, a region is a closed space bounded by Surfaces and/or the edges
(boundaries) of the model.
Individual
regions
If there are any regions in the model, their names appear in the Regions area. You can
adjust the styles associated with each region.
2-2
Region check boxes. When the Visible check box is selected, turns the display of
individual regions on and off.
Constructing 3D Models
Voxet models are visualized through their parent voxets. (Select the voxet model in the
Objects browser, but display the voxet itself in the 3D Viewer.)
Layers
A layer is composed of one or more geologically related regions (for example, a layer of
sand faulted into two separate bodies). For information on creating and working with
layers, see "Creating and Working with Layers in a Velocity Model" on page 2-12.
By default, a layer is named after its top bounding surface.This is to follow the geologic
convention of naming a surface Top of Something. For example, the name "Top of
Miocene" implies that the layer below the Top of Miocene surface is the Miocene layer.
If there are any layers in the model, their names appear in the lower half of the Layers
area. You can adjust the styles associated with each layer.
Layer check boxes. When the Visible check box is selected, turns the display of
individual layers on and off.
Voxet Models are visualized through their parent voxets. (Select the Voxet Model in the
Objects browser, but display the voxet itself in the 3D Viewer.)
2.1.2
User Guide
To do this
2-3
1. You can choose whether to incorporate the Build function into your changes, prompting the program to
recompute and update the model immediately. If you forego an automatic build to save computation
time, changes will not take effect until you run the Build function as a separate step.
2. The Build function does not take into account any changes to the input Surfaces themselves.
3. The Rebuild function is most useful when there have been changes to the input Surfaces, and you want
to re-cut them.
2.1.3
Figure 23 Model3d
examples
Regular model
To create a new
Model3d from a set
of Surfaces
2-4
Select Surface commands > Model3d > From Surfaces to open the Create Model3d
From Surfaces dialog box.
In the Surfaces box, enter one or more surfaces to use in building the model.
Constructing 3D Models
If you want to indicate that the surfaces are self-intersecting, select the Self
intersection check box. If you clear this check box, the program will compute only
the area between each surface and the voxet itself.
Note Typically, surfaces are not self-intersecting.
If you want the program to define the Model3d borders consistently, select the
Define borders check box.
If you want the program to update the model immediately when you click OK or
Apply, select the Build check box.
Note If you select this check box, the cut operations will be run on all surfaces.
2.1.4
Click OK or Apply.
To create a Model3d
from a SKUA model
User Guide
Select Surface commands > Model3d > From SKUA Model to open the
CreateModel3d from SKUA Model Horizons, Faults and Boundaries dialog box.
In the SKUA Model box, enter the SKUA model to use to create the Model3d.
In the Model3d name box, type the name of the Model3d to create.
If you want to merge fault and horizon contacts that have a small throw, expand the
Advanced area, select the Merge small throw check box, and then in the Max
throw box, type a threshold value. When the throw is below the specified threshold,
the fault and horizon contacts will be merged. For more information about this
option, see "About merging small throws" on page 2-5.
Click OK or Apply.
Areas with a very small throw can often cause failures in the construction of the model3D.
If you merge the fault throw, the contacts will be collocated in these areas, which
simplifies the construction of the Model3D. For an illustration, see Figure 24.
2-5
Merge contacts
2-6
Constructing 3D Models
2.1.5
To add surfaces to a
Model3d
Select Surface commands > Model3d > Add Surface to open the Add Surfaces in
Model3d dialog box.
In the Model3d box, enter one or more existing models to which the surfaces will be
added.
In the Surfaces box, enter one or more surfaces to be added to the model.
If you want to create copies of the added surfaces before modifying their topology
(cutting them) to construct the model, select the To copy check box.
Note Each copied surface is named according to the convention model name_surface name .
For example, if you add a surface H1 to a model m1, the new surface will be called m1_H1.
User Guide
If you want the program to update the model immediately when you click OK or
Apply, select the Build check box.
If you want the program to define the Model3d borders consistently, select the
Define borders check box.
Click OK or Apply.
2-7
2.1.6
To delete surfaces
from a Model3d
2.1.7
Select Surface > Model3d > Kill Surface to open the Kill Surfaces in Model3d
dialog box.
In the Model3d box, enter one or more existing models from which the surfaces will
be deleted.
In the Surface surfaces box, enter one or more surfaces to be deleted from the
model.
If you want the program to update the model immediately when you click OK or
Apply, select the Build check box.
If you want the program to define the Model3d borders consistently, select the
Define borders check box.
Click OK or Apply.
Building a Model3d
When you run a "build," the program analyzes the types of changes that occurred to the
model, such as adding or deleting surfaces, and performs the operations necessary to
recompute the model regions. (If only surfaces were deleted, no intersection phase is
necessary, and the build should be relatively fast.)
To build a Model3d
2-8
Select Surface commands > Model3d > Build to open the Build 3D-Model dialog
box.
Constructing 3D Models
2.1.8
If the surfaces in the model are already pre-cut and you want the program to
construct the model without finding the intersection between all the surfaces, clear
the With cut check box.
If you want the program to define the Model3d borders consistently, select the
Define borders check box.
Click OK to carry out the command and close the dialog box, or click Apply to carry
out the command and keep the dialog box open.
Rebuilding a Model3d
Using this command, you can recreate a model (see "Creating a New Model3d From
Surfaces" on page 2-4), including re-cutting all the input surfaces. The "rebuild" function
actually modifies the input data on which the model is built. In contrast, the regular
"build" function updates the model only, based on added or deleted input data.
To rebuild a Model3d
2.1.9
Select Surface commands > Model3d > Rebuild to open the Rebuild 3D-Model
dialog box.
If you want the program to define the Model3d borders consistently, select the
Define borders check box.
Click OK or Apply.
Editing a Model3d
For information, see:
User Guide
2-9
Removes parts of top surfaces that are above their erosion surfaces (the erosion
surface is younger than the horizon, but part of the horizon is above the erosion
surface)
As shown in the left image of Figure 25, two horizons of older age than the salt body
penetrate the salt volume, splitting the salt region into three regions. The right image
displays the results of the "Make surfaces and regions geologically consistent" function.
The non-geologic parts have been removed, creating a hole inside the two horizons and a
unique region.
Important In order for the algorithm to work properly, you need to first set geologic
information on all of the different surfaces (see Part IV: Foundation Modeling, "Defining
and Working with Geologic Features" on page 8-1). In Figure 25, the salt surface was
declared an intrusive surface with an age younger than the two top surfaces.
Figure 25 Making
figures geologically
consistent
Before
To make a Model3d
geologically
consistent
After
Select Surface commands > Model3d > More > Make Geological Consistency to
open the Make Surfaces and Regions Geologically consistent dialog box.
In the Model3d box, enter one or more models to make geologically consistent.
Click OK or Apply.
Note You need to run the "build" function separately to rebuild the model itself. (See
"Building a Model3d" on page 2-8.)
2-10
Constructing 3D Models
To remove free
horizon extremities in
a given region
User Guide
Select Surface commands > Model3d > More > Remove Free Extremities to open
the Remove Free Horizon Extremities in a given region from Model3d dialog box.
In the Region box, enter the name of the region in which horizon extremities will be
removed.
Click OK or Apply.
2-11
2.1.10
Select Surface commands > Model3d > More > Remove Horizon Free
Extremities to open the Remove Free Horizon Extremities from Model3d dialog box.
In the AtomsSet horizon box, enter the name of the horizon surface from which
extremities will be removed.
Click OK or Apply.
2-12
Constructing 3D Models
To create a default
layer set
Select Surface, Voxet, or SGrid commands > Model3d or Model (as applicable) >
Create Defaults to open the Create Default LayerSet inside Model dialog box.
In the Model box, enter one or more models in which the layer set will be created.
Important The model should contain regions.
Click OK or Apply.
User Guide
Select Surface, Voxet, or SGrid commands > Model3d or Model (as applicable) >
Create One to open the Create new Layer inside Model from an existing Region
dialog box.
In the Model box, enter one or more models to which the layer will be added.
In the Layer name box, type the name of the new layer.
In the Region box, enter the name of the region from which the layer will be created.
Click OK or Apply.
2-13
Select Surface, Voxet, or SGrid commands > Model3d or Model (as applicable) >
Remove Layer to open the Remove Layer dialog box.
In the Model box, enter one or more models from which the layer will be deleted.
Click OK or Apply.
To change a layer
name in a velocity
model
2-14
Select Surface commands > Model3d > Rename to open the Change Model Layer
name dialog box.
In the Model box, enter one or more models containing the layer to be renamed.
In the New name box, type the new name of the layer.
Click OK or Apply.
Constructing 3D Models
2.1.11
To add a region to a
velocity model layer
Click OK or Apply.
To move a region to a
different layer
Select either:
User Guide
In the 3D Viewer, click the region to be moved, then click the destination layer.
2-15
To delete a region
from a layer
Surface commands > Model3d > Region > Remove from Layer.
In the Region box, enter the region to be deleted from the layer.
Click OK or Apply.
Select Voxet or SGrid commands > Model > Region > Find Name, and then click
the region in the 3D Viewer.
or
Select Selection toolbar > Get XYZ Coordinate
3D Viewer.
2-16
Constructing 3D Models
To rename a region
User Guide
To open the Change Model Region name dialog box, select either:
In the New name box, type the new name of the region.
Click OK or Apply.
2-17
2.2
2.2.1
To do this
1. You can choose whether to incorporate the Build function into your changes,
prompting the program to recompute and update the model immediately. If
you forego an automatic build to save computation time, changes will not
take effect until you run the Build function as a separate step.
2. The Build function does not take into account any changes to the input
surfaces themselves.
When you create a Voxet, an empty Voxet Model is created automatically as well. A Voxet
Model is the gridded volume confined within the cage of the Voxet. You can cut the Voxet
Model volume with Surfaces to create gridded sub-volumes. A layer is a contiguous subvolume. A Voxet Model, therefore, is a bounded volume that consists of gridded subvolumes called layers.
Theoretically, a Voxet Model has at least one layer (the entire Voxet volume), but for
practical purposes, a Voxet Model is considered empty until you create at least one subvolume within the model (see "Building a Voxet Model" on page 2-21).
Since building a Voxet Model is simpler than building a Model3d, it can be helpful to build
a Voxet Model to check the validity of layers before building a Model3d. In an effective
Voxet Model, the Voxet should be smaller than all the Surfaces that will to cut the Voxet
walls, creating layers.
2-18
Constructing 3D Models
Building effective
Voxet Models
In the left Voxet in Figure 28, all the sub-horizontal Surfaces cut all four walls of the
Voxet, and there is room above the top and below the bottom Surface. A Voxet Model
built from those Surfaces and the Voxet will have six layers (and six regions in the Voxet).
In the right Voxet in Figure 28, the Voxet is so big that it does not intersect any of the
Surfaces. A Voxet Model built from those Surfaces and the Voxet will have only two
layers: the layer inside the middle closed Surface and the layer outside it.
Figure 28 Voxet
examples
Effective Voxet
Ineffective Voxet
A Voxet created from an object box (see Part IV: Foundation Modeling, "Creating a Voxet
from an Objects Box" on page 6-10) is meant to include all objects selected; therefore, we
do not recommend building a Voxet Model from that set of objects. To guarantee proper
intersections (cutting), create the Voxet from end points (see Part IV: Foundation
Modeling, "Creating a Voxet from Corner Points" on page 6-8), in which you can specify
the XYZ locations of the Voxet corner points.
Visualizing Voxet
Models
Voxet Model
warnings
2.2.2
Voxet Models are visualized through their parent Voxets. (Select the Voxet Model in the
Style dialog box, but display the Voxet itself in the 3D Viewer.) When you successfully
create a layer in a Voxet Model, a region is automatically created in the corresponding
Voxet. You can also view the regions in the Voxet to visualize the Voxet Model.
When you build a Voxet Model, part of the process is cutting the Voxet with the
Surfaces, which cuts the connectivity in the Voxet. (See Part IV: Foundation Modeling,
"Cutting a Voxet with Surfaces" on page 6-12.)
Once you have built a Voxet Model, do not add or delete a Surface and rebuild (see
"Voxet Model warnings" on page 2-19).
User Guide
2-19
Display the Voxet and the Surfaces in the 3D Viewer. In order to create valid regions
in the model, the Surfaces should cut one another and/or the Voxet walls (see
Figure 28 on page 2-19).
Select Voxet commands > Model > Add Surfaces to open the Add Surfaces to
Voxet Model dialog box.
The names of the displayed Surfaces will be listed automatically in the Surface
surfaces box.
Click OK or Apply.
Note The Voxet Model will not actually be built until you execute the Build function (see
"Building a Voxet Model" on page 2-21).
2.2.3
To remove Surfaces
from the build list of
a Voxet Model
Select Voxet commands > Model > Remove Surfaces to open the Remove Surfaces
from Voxet Model dialog box.
2-20
Constructing 3D Models
The names of the displayed Surfaces will be listed automatically in the Surface
surfaces box.
Click OK or Apply.
Note The Voxet Model will not actually be built until you execute the Build function (see
"Building a Voxet Model" on page 2-21).
2.2.4
To build a Voxet
Model
Select Voxet commands > Model > Build to open the Build Voxet Model dialog box.
2.2.5
If you want to construct the layers only, select the Layers only check box.
Alternatively, you can construct layers manually (see "Creating Default Layers in a
Velocity Model" on page 2-13).
Click OK or Apply.
User Guide
2-21
2.2.6
To collapse small
regions
Select Voxet commands > Model > Remove Small Regions to open the Filter/
Collapse Small Voxet Model Regions dialog box.
2.2.7
In the nb cells box, enter the region threshold size. Every region smaller than the size
you specify will be collapsed into neighboring regions.
Click OK or Apply.
2-22
Constructing 3D Models
3
Creating Velocity Functions
In this chapter
Overview
Paradigm SKUA and Paradigm GOCAD provide a Velocity Functions object that
you can use to perform time-to-depth conversions. Depending on the data that is
available on the velocity function, you can export it to the Epos repository as vertical
functions or as pencils. If you generate the velocity functions from a SKUA model, the
pencils carry all of the geologic model information that can be shared in Epos-enabled
applications, such as Paradigm GeoDepth .
The commands to create velocity functions are available with the Velocity Modeling and
Time-Depth Conversion module.
3-1
3.1
Note The vertical functions and pencil data that you import from Epos are stored as velocity
functions in SKUA or GOCAD.
For more information, see:
Velocity functions correspond to a set of vertical curves that carry a velocity property (See
Figure 31). The geometry of the velocity functions is defined by the objects that you use
to create them, which can include the following objects:
Figure 31 Velocity Functions object showing the average velocity property shown with seismic in 3D Viewer
Velocity functions
carrying the average
velocity (Vavg)
Properties on velocity
functions
3-2
Velocity category
In the Objects browser, the category Velocity can contain the following object types that
are used in a velocity modeling workflow:
User Guide
Velocity Functions
3D Surveys
Curves
3-3
3.2
Prerequisites
To create velocity
functions from a
SKUA model
To use this command, you need a SKUA model and a survey as input data.
1
Select Velocity commands > Velocity Functions > Create from SKUA Model to
open the Compute Velocity Functions from SKUA Model dialog box.
In the SKUA Model box, select the SKUA model from which you want to create the
velocity functions.
In the Name box, specify a name for the velocity function output.
If you want to use a survey to define the areal sampling of the velocity functions,
select the Use survey check box, and then in the Survey box, enter the survey.
Otherwise, in the Voxet cube box, enter a voxet cube.
In the Inline jump and Crossline jump boxes, type a value of 1 or greater to indicate
how many samples to compute. For example, if you accept the default value of 1, all
samples are used; If you enter 5, every 5th sample is used and the computed velocity
function is less dense.
The command generates a velocity function with X, Y, Z built-in properties and properties
computed from the SKUA model (azimuth, dip and boundaries). It also creates the units
property (located under edge properties), which is a discrete property that corresponds
to the stratigraphic unit of the SKUA model. The velocity function has the same domain as
the SKUA model.
3-4
3.3
To slice a velocity
function
You can use the Slicer toolbar to "slice" a velocity function in the 3D Viewer so that you
can examine it.
1
In the Objects browser, select the velocity function to display it in the 3D Viewer.
The slicer displays the outline of a box around the velocity function displayed in the
3D Viewer. The slicer limits the view in the 3D Viewer to the volume of the slicer box. For
more information about using the Slicer toolbar, see Part III: Visualization, "Slicer
Toolbar" on page 3-8.
To change the
velocity function
display
User Guide
Using styles, you can display the velocity function by sections and by selected horizon and
fault boundaries.
1
Right-click the velocity function and select Style > Editor to open the Style dialog
box.
From the Graphic tab, use the axis-1 and axis-2 boxes to change the velocity
function section that is displayed in the 3D Viewer.
To display the velocity function only within a specified horizon or fault boundary, in
the Boundaries area, select the horizon or fault, and then select the Show only
check box.
3-5
3.4
3.4.1
"Creating Velocity Functions from a Well Marker in Depth and a Horizon in Time,"
page 3-6
"Creating Velocity Functions from a Time-Depth Well Log," page 3-7
"Creating Velocity Functions from a Vertical Curve," page 3-8
Prerequisites
To create velocity
functions from depth
markers and horizon
in time
3-6
To use this command, you need well markers in depth and horizons in time as input data.
1
Select Velocity commands > Velocity Functions > Create from Calibrated
Markers and Horizons to open the Create Velocity Functions from well markers and
time horizons dialog box.
In the Name box, specify the name of the velocity functions to create.
In the Wells box, select the wells in depth that contain the markers that will be
matched to the time horizons.
In the Object Horizons box, select the time horizons. The time horizons can be a
Surface, 2D-Grid, or Horizon Grid object.
As shown in Figure 32, the command generates two velocity functions (one in depth
domain and one in time domain). The velocity function properties are:
X, Y, Z built-in properties
SKUA or GOCAD computes the average velocity for the well markers and horizons that
share the same feature as follows:
Depth marker
Surface time
Figure 32 Velocity
Function in Objects
browser
Velocity functions
3.4.2
User Guide
3-7
Prerequisites
To create velocity
functions from a
Time-Depth well log
To use this command, you need wells in depth with a time-depth log as input data.
1
Select Velocity commands > Velocity Functions > Create from T-D Well Curves to
open the Create Velocity Functions from Time/Depth Logs dialog box.
In the Name box, specify a name for the velocity functions to create.
In the Wells box, enter wells in the depth domain that carry a time log.
To create the velocity functions in the time domain, select the Create Velocity
Functions in Time Domain check box.
The command generates a velocity functions in the domain of the well (unless you select
the Create Velocity Functions in Time Domain check box). It creates a function at
every well KB location and a vertical point at every curve point (point on the time-depth
log). The velocity function properties are:
3.4.3
X, Y, Z built-in properties
Vavg. The average velocity computed from the depth information of the well path
and the time log.
3-8
Prerequisites
To create velocity
functions from curves
To use this command, you need vertical curves with a velocity property as input data.
1
Select Velocity commands > Velocity Functions > Create from Vertical Curve to
open the Create Velocity Functions from Curves dialog box.
In the Curve box, select the curves on which to compute the velocity functions.
Note If you select a non vertical curve, the command does not create velocity functions.
This command transforms the vertical curve objects into a Velocity Functions object and
transfers all of the curve object properties onto the Velocity Functions object.
The sampling of the curves defines the sampling of the velocity function.
The created velocity functions have the domain of the curve object.
User Guide
3-9
3-10
4
Defining Property Values for
Velocity Models
In this chapter
Overview
4-1
4.1
Table 41 Workflow for
defining property values
4-2
See
4.2
4.2.1
Commands
Property list
Variable type
Value
definition
User Guide
Select Surface, Voxet, or SGrid commands > Model3d or Model (as applicable)
> Editor.
In the Objects browser, right-click any velocity model property > select Editor.
4-3
In the Model box, enter the velocity model for which you want to define properties.
Important Ensure that the velocity model contains, at a minimum, regions and layers.
For more information, see Table 41 on page 4-2.
4.2.2
Figure 42 Property
browser
Global property
Layer
Variable
Layer-specific properties
When you create a new property, it is global, or applicable to the whole model
(see Figure 42). Every layer in the model will contain the property, but the layer-specific
values are initially undefined. You need to define properties for each layer individually, as
the different layers in a model do not share property functions or variables. Since variables
or functions that you define in one layer do not apply to other layers, you can duplicate
the same variable and function names in different layers.
Use the Add Variable, Remove Variable, and Add Property commands to:
Create properties for the model, if you have not already done so (for information, see
"Adding Properties to Velocity Models" on page 4-27)
Create or delete variables or functions that define property values
Note You can define a variable either as a separate step or "on demand," while filling out the
value definition area (shown in Figure 41 on page 4-3).
The value definition area displays the details of the property or variable definition selected
in the Variable type box.
This menu of value definition types contains:
Table 42 Variable
definitions
Five options to define layer property values directly (see "Defining Layer Property
Values Directly" on page 4-9)
Three options to define layer property values using property functions (see "Defining
Properties or Variables by Using Property Functions" on page 4-19)
Variable definition
Undefined
Build In
Constant
Linear Function
Exponential Function
4-4
To define a property
or variable (overview)
Variable definition
Script
Interpolated Property
In the property browser (see Figure 42), click the layer to which the variable will
belong.
In the Name box, type the name of the new variable, and then Click OK.
In the property browser, click the property or variable that you want to define or edit.
If you are defining the property or variable for the first time, select an option in the
Variable type box. (The default variable type is as Undefined.)
Note Each option in the Variable type box brings up a different panel, as indicated in
Figure 42.
User Guide
Define the parameters of the selected option in the value definition area. (See
"Defining Layer Property Values Directly" on page 4-9 or "Defining Properties or
Variables by Using Property Functions" on page 4-19.)
4-5
4.2.3
Variable Name
Direct property
definitions
If you are defining a layer property directly using one of the options in the Variable type
menu, ensure that the Variable name displayed matches the name of the layer property
you are defining; otherwise, the program assumes that you are defining an intermediate
variable to be used in a property function (see "Defining Properties or Variables by Using
Property Functions" on page 4-19).
Intermediate
variables
If you are defining an intermediate variable to be used in a property function, ensure that
the Variable name displayed is different than the name of the layer property; otherwise,
the program assumes that you are defining the layer property itself.
Variables in different
layers
When you create (define) a variable, it is associated with a specific layer and property,
outside of which it has no meaning. If you want to use the variable in any other layers,
you need to recreate the variable in the other layers. Since the various layers do not share
data, you can duplicate the same variable and function names in different layers.
Shoot Direction
Shoot direction, which is also known as the search direction or dir_Z, specifies the
direction along which to search for impact points (see "Impact Point" on page 4-8). There
are four shooting directions, but not all of them are available in every menu. In the
Property Model Editor, only the first three are available; in the Constraints menu (in the
Surface commands), only the fourth is available.
dir_Z = +1
The command searches in the positive Z (up) direction from the shoot position (see
"Shoot Position" on page 4-7), as shown in Figure 43 (b).
dir_Z = -1
The command searches in the negative Z (down) direction from the shoot position, as
shown in Figure 43 (b).
two_way
The command searches in both the positive and negative Z directions from the shoot
position, as shown in Figure 43 (a).
This option overwrites the dir_Z = +1 or dir_Z = -1 options. When shooting two ways,
you can only shoot from inside (see "from_inside" on page 4-7).
4-6
dir_XYZ
The command shoots along the direction specified by the vector dir_XYZ. (Actually, the
command shoots along both the positive and negative directions specified by this shoot
position.)
two_way
dir_z = -1
dir_z = +1
from_inside
from_inside
from_inside
dir_Z = +1
dir_Z = -1
from_outside
from_outside
Shoot Position
Shoot position is also known as the shooting point. This parameter, which is used with the
Add Variable command only, defines the starting point of the shoot (search).
There are two shoot position options: from_inside and from_outside (in dialog boxes,
you select from_outside by clearing the from_inside check box or option). See
Figure 43 on page 4-7.
from_inside
The command searches from the given point in the layer for which you are defining a
property variable, along the specified shoot direction to search for the specified source
object(s). (See a, b, and c in Figure 43 on page 4-7.)
When shooting two ways (see "two_way" on page 4-6), you can only search from inside.
from_outside
User Guide
The command first gets outside of the layer from the given point (along the direction
opposite the specified shoot direction). Once outside the layer, the command keeps
moving (along the direction opposite to the specified shoot direction) until it reaches a
point below (or above, if the shoot direction is Z-) all points in the given layer. (See c and
d in Figure 43 on page 4-7.) The command then shoots from that outside point, along
the specified shoot direction, to look for an impact point on the specified source object(s).
4-7
Impact Point
The impact point is the first point encountered on the specified source object(s) along the
specified shoot direction.
In some geologic formations (such as folded or thrusted surfaces), there can be more than
one intersection between the shooting path and the specified source object(s) (see the
left illustration in Figure 44, dir_Z = -1). Only the first of such intersections is the impact
point. Actually, the command stops searching in that particular direction once it finds an
intersection.
Multiple impact
points
If the shoot direction is two-way, but only one impact point is needed, the command
searches in both directions to find impact points. It will keep the closest one if it finds two
(one in each direction).
X
X
X
X
X
dir_Z = -1
dir_Z = 1
X
No impact point
If the command does not find an impact point along the specified shoot direction(s) for a
given point in the model layer, the value of that particular variable at that point is null.
See the right illustration in Figure 44, dir_Z = 1.
The following are illustrations of how the command finds the impact points under
different circumstances:
4-8
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
45
46
47
48
on
on
on
on
page
page
page
page
4-11
4-14
4-15
4-18
4.3
4.3.1
To assign a constant
value to a property or
variable
4.3.2
In the property browser, click the property or variable that you want to define or edit.
In the Constant value box, type a numerical constant value to assign to the variable.
User Guide
4-9
To define a property
or variable by using a
linear function
In the property browser, click the property or variable that you want to define or edit.
In the Referenced layer box, select the name of the referenced layer whose
bounding Surfaces will be the source Surfaces.
Important Ensure that the property you want is defined on all of those Surfaces.
4.3.3
In the Referenced property box, enter the name of the property on the bounding
Surfaces of the selected referenced layer. (This does not have to be the same name as
the name of the variable or the name of the layer property.)
If you want to add a constant value to the referenced property, type a number in the
Value to add to referenced property box.
If you want to multiply the referenced property by a constant scaling factor, type a
number in the Scaling factor (multiple) to apply to referenced property box.
4-10
Model layer
XX
Model layer
X X
X
X
X X
P x y z = P o + Z Z o
Where P(x,y,z) is the linear property function, Z is the coordinate at a given set of (x,y,z)
points, and Po is a variable. Therefore, this definition option performs an interpolation
between two linear functions of two boundaries.
To define a property
or variable by using
interpolation
In the property browser, click the property or variable that you want to define or edit.
To define Ptop, the variable representing the top boundary, do one of the following:
User Guide
To assign a constant, click Constant, and then type a numerical constant in the
box.
To set Ptop to equal another variable in the model, click Variable, and then
select the variable in the box.
To define Ztop, the Z value of the top boundary, do one of the following:
To assign a constant, click Constant, and then type a numerical constant in the
box.
To set Ztop to equal the Z of another surface/layer, click Variable, and then
select the variable in the box.
4-11
4.3.4
To define Pbot, the variable at the origin of the bottom boundary, do one of the
following:
To assign a constant, click Constant, and then type a numerical constant in the
box.
To set Pbot to equal another variable in the model, click Variable, and then
select the variable in the box.
To define Zbot, the Z value of the bottom boundary, do one of the following:
To assign a constant, click Constant, and then type a numerical constant in the
box.
To set Zbot to equal the Z of another surface/layer, click Variable, and then
select the variable in the box.
To define a property
or variable from a
grid property
4-12
In the property browser, click the property or variable that you want to define or edit.
In the Voxet box, enter the name of the Voxet that includes the property you want.
If you want to extrapolate the property outside the Voxet, select the Extrapolate
check box.
If you want to set the point where the values are not defined as the specified default
value, select the Use the default value check box, and then type a number in the
box.
4.3.5
This definition option creates a variable whose value at a point (x, y, z) is determined by a
property value on the selected boundary at the same xy-position. The boundary can be
either a Surface or a layer. In other words, the command does the following:
Shoots from a point (x, y, z) inside the layer of the model directly upward or
downward until it hits the selected source boundary.
Sets the property value at that impact point as the value of the variable at the
shooting point (x, y, z).
If the variable is an intermediate variable (to be used in a property function), you may
run into problems.
If the variable is being defined as the property, there will be a no-data value at those
points without an impact point, which is acceptable.
Vertical location is important as well. If the shoot direction is purely upward, for example,
the Surface should exist above all points of the layer in order to find an impact point for
every point in the selected layer.
User Guide
4-13
Figure 46 Finding a property value on the source Surface for a given point in the model layer
Layer
Source surface
two_way=on, from_inside=on
Not the source Surface
Layer
Source surface
Layer
Source surface
Layer
Source surface
4-14
Figure 47 Finding a property value on the bounding Surfaces of the source layer for a given point in the model layer
A source Surface
A source Surface
X X
X
A source Surface
A source Surface
X
two_way=on, from_inside=on
A source Surface
X
X
A source Surface
A source Surface
X X
This definition option can be useful when there is more than one top and/or more than
one bottom bounding Surface for the layer of interest. This definition option ensures that
at any given point in the selected layer, the variable will find a Value (an impact point),
since a layer, by definition, is completely bounded. (There is one exception: when part of
the bounding surface of the given layer is the bounding box of the model, the command
may not be able to locate an impact point.)
User Guide
4-15
To define a property
or variable from a
surface or layer
boundary
In the property browser, click the property or variable that you want to define or edit.
In the Variable type box, select From Surface or Layer Boundary Property.
In the Surface box, enter the name of the Surface that includes the property you
want.
In the Surface property box, enter the name of the property on the selected
Surface. (This does not have to be the same name as the name of the variable or the
name of the layer property.)
Skip to step 9.
Click Layer.
In the Layer box, enter the name of the Source (target) layer whose bounding
Surfaces will be the source Surfaces.
Important Ensure that the property you want is defined on all of those Surfaces.
4-16
In the Property box, enter the name of the property on the bounding Surfaces of the
selected source layer (This does not have to be the same name as the name of the
variable or the name of the layer property.)
If you want to search for impact points in only one shoot direction, do one of the
following:
10 If you want to ignore the dir_z parameter and to search for impact points in both
shoot directions, select the Two-way projection check box. (See "two_way" on
page 4-6 and Figure 43 on page 4-7.)
Important When searching two ways, you can only shoot from inside Be sure to also
select the Offset from boundary check box in step 11.
11 If you want to shoot from inside, select the Offset from boundary check box. To
shoot from outside, clear the check box. (See "Shoot Position" on page 4-7 and
Figure 43 on page 4-7.)
12 If you want to set the point where the values are not defined as the specified default
value, select the Use the default value check box, and then type a number in the
box.
13 Click Update Variable Definition to apply your changes.
User Guide
4-17
In a Model3d, SKUA and GOCAD recognize not only which objects form the
bounding Surface of a layer, but also which portion of the objects really form the
boundaries. In a Voxet Model, however, SKUA and GOCAD only recognize whole
Surfaces, not the separate portions. You need to ensure that your specifications will
direct SKUA or GOCAD to find the proper impact points. This important concept is
illustrated in Figure 48.
S1
S1
pA
dir_Z = -1
from_inside = off
Model3d
L1
(a)
L1
(b)
S2
pA
dir_Z = -1
from_inside = off
Model3d
S2
4-18
pA
dir_Z = -1
from_inside = off
Voxet Model
pB
pA
L2
(c)
dir_Z = -1
from_inside = off
Voxet Model
pB
L2
(d)
Given the same shoot specifications (Z+ from outside, target layer Surface L1) and
geology, the two types of models may produce different impact points for a given
point in a layer. This is because a Model3d recognizes different portions of an object,
while a Voxet Model does not.
In Figure 48 (a), Only the lower portion of the closed Surface S1 is recognized as part
of the bounding Surface of the layer L1; therefore, the first intersection with S1 is
ignored and the second one is chosen as the impact point.
In Figure 48 (c) and (d), the two models produce the same impact point for point A
(pA), because the from_outside shooting point is lower. (The shooting point only
needs to be higher than any point in the layer L1.) At point B (pB), however, the two
models will again produce different impact points.
4.4
Undefined
Build In
Constant
Linear Function (For information, see "Defining Properties or Variables by Using Linear
Functions" on page 4-20.)
Exponential Function
Script (For information, see "Defining Property Functions by Using Scripts" on
page 4-23.)
Linear Function of Property
Interpolated Property
From Grid Property
From Surface or Layer Boundary Property
P p = P o p + K p Z p Zo p
If you use user-defined variables in a linear function, define the variables (see "Working
with the Variable Type Menu" on page 4-4) after you define the function itself.
Exponential functions: Exponential functions have the following form:
K Z p Zo p
P p = Po p
Scripts: Script syntax is similar to the awk or C programming language.
If you use user-defined variables in a script function, you can define the variables (see
"Working with the Variable Type Menu" on page 4-4) either before or after you define
the function itself.
For information, see:
User Guide
4-19
4.4.1
P x y z = Po + K Z Z o
Where P(x, y, z) is the linear property function, Z is the Z coordinate of the given (x, y,
z) point, and P o, K, and Z o are constants.
P x y z = Po x y z + K x y z Z Z o x y z
where P(x, y, z) is the linear property function, Z is the Z coordinate of a given point,
and Po, K and Z o are variables that you can define using one of the definition options
found in "Working with the Variable Type Menu" on page 4-4.
To define a value by
using a linear
function
In the property browser, click the property or variable that you want to define or edit.
4-20
To assign a constant, click Constant, and then type a numerical constant in the
box.
To set P0 to equal another variable in the model, click Variable, and then select
the variable in the box.
To assign a constant, click Constant, and then type a numerical constant in the
box.
To set K to equal another variable in the model, click Variable, and then select
the variable in the box.
To assign a constant, click Constant, and then type a numerical constant in the
box.
To set Z0 to equal another variable in the model, click Variable, and then select
the variable in the box.
User Guide
4-21
4.4.2
To define a value by
using an exponential
function
In the property browser, click the property or variable that you want to define or edit.
4-22
To assign a constant, click Constant, and then type a numerical constant in the
box.
To set P0 to equal another variable in the model, click Variable, and then select
the variable in the box.
To assign a constant, click Constant, and then type a numerical constant in the
box.
To set K to equal another variable in the model, click Variable, and then select
the variable in the box.
To assign a constant, click Constant, and then type a numerical constant in the
box.
To set Z0 to equal another variable in the model, click Variable, and then select
the variable in the box.
4.4.3
Script syntax
The syntax used to define a script property function is similar to the C programming
language. All script functions should be enclosed in { }. All operations should end with ";"
and be enclosed in { }. You can include the following components in your script:
numbers
the variables X, Y, and Z
Variables that you have defined for a specific layer property
logical expressions such as
&&, ||, ==, !, <, <=, >, >=, if, else,
User Guide
4-23
Examples of script
functions
To create a script
property function
In the property browser, click the property or variable for which you want to create a
function.
Type the name and the text of the script function in the Script box.
Note The name of the function should be identical to the name of the property you are
defining. Also, you need to declare all variables (including x, y, z, if there are any) used in
the function. Separate the names of the variables by a space. If you fail to declare a
variable that you have used in the function, the command will not recognize it as a variable
or fetch its definition.
To load a previously saved function, click Load. The Load File dialog box appears
and prompts you to select the text file that contains the function.
Note Ensure that all the variables are defined, which you can do after the function is
created.
If you want to save your script function, click Save As. The Save File dialog box
appears and prompts you to save the function as a text file under a file name that you
specify.
Note Only the definition of the function itself is saved, not the definition of the variables used
in the function.
4-24
4.5
4.5.1
Select either:
Voxet commands > Property > With Property Model to open the dialog box.
Surface, Voxet, or SGrid commands > Model3d or Model (as applicable) >
Paint Voxet to open the dialog box.
In the Model box, enter the model that contains the property function.
In the Property box, enter the property that you want to review.
In the Layer name box, select the layer to which the property function is attached.
In the Voxet voxet box, select the Voxet onto which you want to paint the selected
model property.
In the Voxet Property box, select the name of the property that you want to paint
over.
Note The selected property will be painted over by values derived from the property function in
the model.
User Guide
4-25
4.5.2
To paint a velocity
function on a grid
Select Velocity commands > Velocity Modeling > Block Velocity Functions on
Grid to open the Block Velocity Function on Grid dialog box.
In the Grid box, select the grid on which you want to paint the velocity function.
In the Velocity function box, select the velocity function that you want to paint.
In the Velocity box, select the velocity property of the velocity function.
In the Output type box, select the velocity type that you want to paint on the grid.
In the Output velocity box, enter the name of the new velocity property that you
want to paint on the grid.
For Input velocity function interpolation, select of the following methods for
interpolating between velocity data points.
4-26
linear. The velocity is linearly interpolated from the two values on either side of
it.
Click OK or Apply.
4.6
To add a property to a
velocity model
User Guide
Select Surface, Voxet, or SGrid commands > Model3D or Model (as applicable)
> Add Property.
Specify the property options as described in Part IV: Foundation Modeling, "Creating
an Object Property or Well Log" on page 12-3. If it is not already preselected, select
Velocity as the Category.
4-27
4.7
4-28
5
Creating Grid Properties with
Geostatistical Functions
In this chapter
Overview
In Paradigm SKUA and Paradigm GOCAD , you can apply geostatistical functions
to grids (SGrid and Voxet objects). To do this, you should be familiar with geostatistical
concepts and terminology and have the necessary background to run geostatistical
applications. The geostatistical applications in SKUA and GOCAD use the geostatistical
software library, GSLIB, from Stanford University (for information, see GSLIB:
Geostatistical Software Library and User's Guide, C.V. Deutsch & A.G. Journel Oxford
Press, 1992). For additional information about terms and methods, see Statistics for
Engineers and Geoscientists, J.L. Jensen et al., Prentice Hall, 1996.
5-1
5.1
5.1.1
GS File
Explanation of
individual lines in a
GS file
This line gives the maximum number of data points, m, that will be used to krige the
property value at any given node. Only the closest m points are used.
This line describes the search ellipsoid in the uvw- or xyz-coordinate system.
5-2
This line describes the first component of the nested variogram model.
The rest of the files describe the rest of the components in the variogram model.
GS File Examples
Below are examples (with comments) of two types of variogram files:
Indicator simulation
example
User Guide
5-3
COVARIANCE_MODEL 1. 1
SPHERICAL 135. 0. 0. 3000.
END
Gaussian simulation
example
5.1.2
250.
0.1
1.
Column_Average_Map File
This file is needed for block kriging and simulated annealing (see "Running Annealing
Simulations" on page 5-26). This example uses an SGrid with the dimensions
138x33x100. The first two lines should start with NX and NY, which specify the number of
cells in the u and v directions, followed by NX*NY lines of data (one data per line) that
represent the column averages.
NX
NY
0.23
...
0.30
5.1.3
138
33
Scattergram File
This file is needed for cloud transformations with P-fields (see "Running Cloud Transform
Simulations with P-Fields" on page 5-29). This file has no header lines, just two columns
of data.
Independent_VariableDependent_Variable
0.1
1.5
0.1
1.3
0.1
1.6
...
1.2
3.9
5-4
5.1.4
External_Histogram File
This file is needed for simulated annealing (see "Running Annealing Simulations" on
page 5-26) and continuous histogram correction (see "Performing Continuous Histogram
Corrections" on page 5-32). This file has no header lines, just a column of data.
Data_Value
The command then constructs the histogram using the data read in from the file.
1.0
0.9
...
1.2
5.1.5
Facies_Map File
This file is needed for Fill From Facies Map (see "Filling Grids with Facies Map Data" on
page 5-34). This file has a header line for user identification (not used in the algorithm),
followed by a series of data lines in the following format:
X_coord
1230303.0
...
3030303.0
5.1.6
Y_coord
39393939.0
Facies_value
1
10393030.0
Annealing_Schedule File
This file is needed in Simulated Annealing (see "Running Annealing Simulations" on
page 5-26).
# Comment lines start with this symbol
#but there are no real comments because if the variables
#are not obvious, it will take too long to define them
# comments
INITIAL_TEMPERATURE
0.001
REDUCTION_FACTOR
0.1
# controls how temperature is lowered, 0<<1
MAX_PERTURB
1000.
MAX_PERTURB_PER_TEMP
10.
# maximum number of perturbation at any one temperature.
#Temperature is multiplied by a reduction factor when that number is
reached
MAX_SUCC_PERTURB_PER_TEMP
3.
#maximum number of successful perturbation for any one temperature.
#Temperature is multiplied by a reduction factor when that number is
reached
MIN_OBJECTIVE
0.001
REPORT_INTERVAL
0.2
#controls screen dump of objective function values
STOPPING_NUMBER
5
#represents the number of times MAX_PERTURB_TEMP is reached before the
algorithm stops
User Guide
5-5
5.2
"Estimating
"Estimating
"Estimating
"Estimating
"Estimating
"Estimating
Properties
Properties
Properties
Properties
Properties
Properties
with
with
with
with
with
with
Kriging processes are more sophisticated than traditional interpolation processes in that
they enable you to specify statistical anisotropy in terms of variogram parameters. If you
also want to model heterogeneity in the property, you can do this by using various types
of stochastic simulation processes (see "Running Geostatistical Simulations" on
page 5-18).
5.2.1
To run kriging to
create SGrid or Voxet
properties
5-6
Display the SGrid or Voxet and the property object in the 3D Viewer.
Select Voxet, SGrid, or General commands > Geostatistics > Kriging to open the
Kriging dialog box.
In the Region name box, enter the grid object region where the kriging will be
performed.
Note By default, kriging will be performed for all points (everywhere) on the grid.
In the Discrete property server by box, enter the object that carries the existing
property values.
In the Property box, select the object property to be used in the operation.
In the New property prefix box, type the prefix for the created properties. (For
example, if you type Kriging_, the two new created properties will be named
Kriging_estimate and Kriging_variance.)
To specify the ASCII file that contains the variogram data (see "GS File" on page 5-2),
do either of these:
Click
10 If you want to set options for the variogram and associated parameters, click
Advanced to expand the dialog box.
In the Kriging Type box, select one the following kriging options:
Simple. Residuals are computed from the mean of the data and kriged.
Ordinary. Input data values are used directly for the kriging.
Use_variogram_file_setting. Use the type set in the variogram file.
To allow for the possibility that the result at a cell containing data points is not
kriged, but rather directly assigned from input data in that cell, select one of the
following data value assignment options:
Assign data to nearest cells. In any particular cell, the data point closest to
the cell center is assigned as the estimation at the cell.
Assign mean at cell center. The mean of all the data points in a particular
cell is assigned as the cell value.
If you choose this option, also select a method of computing the mean in the
Mean computation type box, and type the value for the exponent (in the
standard mean power equation) in the Power mean power box.
11 Click OK or Apply.
User Guide
5-7
5.2.2
Display the SGrid or Voxet and the property object in the 3D Viewer.
Select Voxet, SGrid, or General commands > Geostatistics > Kriging with Trend
to open the Kriging With Trend dialog box.
In the Region name box, enter the grid object region in which the kriging will be
performed.
Note By default, kriging will be performed for all points (everywhere) on the grid.
5-8
In the Discrete property server by box, enter the object that carries the existing
property values.
In the Property box, select the object property to be used in the operation.
In the New property prefix box, type the prefix for the created properties. (For
example, if you type Kriging_, the two new created properties will be named
Kriging_estimate and Kriging_variance.)
To specify the ASCII file that contains the variogram data (see "GS File" on page 5-2),
do either:
Click
to open the Select Text File dialog box, find and select the file, and then
click OK.
10 In the Kriging Type box, select one the following kriging options:
Simple. Residuals are computed from the mean of the data and kriged.
Ordinary. Input data values are used directly for the kriging.
Use_variogram_file_setting. Use the type set in the variogram file.
11 To allow for the possibility that the result at a cell containing data points is not kriged,
but rather directly assigned from input data in that cell, do one of the following to
assign data values to cells:
Select the Assign data to nearest cells check box. In any particular cell, the
data point closest to the cell center is assigned as the estimation at the cell.
Clear the Assign data to nearest cells check box. All cells are kriged.
12 In the Trend Model area, select the check boxes representing the trend components
you want.
a, a5, or a9. These are unknown weights that will be estimated during the
kriging process.
13 Click OK or Apply.
User Guide
5-9
5.2.3
Display the SGrid or Voxet and the property object in the 3D Viewer.
Select Voxet, SGrid, or General commands > Geostatistics > Kriging with
External Drift to open the Kriging With External Drift dialog box.
In the Region name box, enter the grid object region in which the kriging will be
performed.
Note By default, kriging will be performed for all points (everywhere) on the grid.
5-10
In the Discrete property server by box, enter the object that carries the existing
property values.
In the Property box, select the object property to be used in the operation.
In the Drift Property box, enter the secondary property that exists everywhere on the
Grid.
In the New property prefix box, type the prefix for the created properties. (For
example, if you type Kriging_, the two new created properties will be named
Kriging_estimate and Kriging_variance.)
10 To specify the ASCII file that contains the variogram data (see "GS File" on page 5-2),
do either:
Click
to open the Select Text File dialog box, find and select the file, and then
click OK.
11 In the Kriging Type box, select one the following kriging options:
Simple. Residuals are computed from the mean of the data and kriged.
Ordinary. Input data values are used directly for the kriging.
Use_variogram_file_setting. Use the type set in the variogram file.
12 To allow for the possibility that the result at a cell containing data points is not kriged,
but rather directly assigned from input data in that cell, do one of the following to
assign data values to cells:
Select the Assign data to nearest cells check box. In any particular cell, the
data point closest to the cell center is assigned as the estimation at the cell.
Clear the Assign data to nearest cells check box. All cells are kriged.
13 Click OK or Apply.
User Guide
5-11
5.2.4
To run Bayesian
kriging to create
SGrid or Voxet
properties
Display the SGrid or Voxet and the property object in the 3D Viewer.
Select Voxet, SGrid, or General commands > Geostatistics > Bayesian Kriging to
open the Bayesian Kriging dialog box.
In the Region name box, enter the grid object region in which the kriging will be
performed.
Note By default, kriging will be performed for all points (everywhere) on the grid.
5-12
In the Discrete property server by box, enter the object that carries the existing
property values.
In the Property box, select the object property to be used in the operation.
In the Guess Property box, enter the secondary property that exists everywhere on
the Grid and has the same units as the property being estimated (selected in step 7).
In the New property prefix box, type the prefix for the created properties. (For
example, if you type Kriging_, the two new created properties will be named
Kriging_estimate and Kriging_variance.)
10 To specify the ASCII file that contains the variogram data (see "GS File" on page 5-2),
do either:
Click
to open the Select Text File dialog box, find and select the file, and then
click OK.
11 In the Kriging Type box, select one the following kriging options:
Simple. Residuals are computed from the mean of the data and kriged.
Ordinary. Input data values are used directly for the kriging.
Use_variogram_file_setting. Use the type set in the variogram file.
12 To allow for the possibility that the result at a cell containing data points is not kriged,
but rather directly assigned from input data in that cell, select one of the following
data value assignment options:
Assign data to nearest cells. In any particular cell, the data point closest to the
cell center is assigned as the estimation at the cell.
Assign mean at cell center. The mean of all the data points in a particular cell is
assigned as the cell value.
If you choose this option, also select a method of computing the mean in the
Mean computation type box, and type the value for the exponent (in the
standard mean power equation) in the Power mean power box.
13 Click OK or Apply.
User Guide
5-13
5.2.5
To run collocated
cokriging to create
SGrid or Voxet
properties
Display the SGrid or Voxet and the property source object in the 3D Viewer.
In the Region name box, enter the grid object region in which the kriging will be
performed.
Note By default, kriging will be performed for all points (everywhere) on the grid.
5-14
In the Discrete property server by box, enter the object that carries the existing
property values.
In the Property box, select the object property to be used as the source for kriging.
This property is considered the hard data.
In the New property prefix box, type the prefix for the created properties. (For
example, if you type Kriging_, the two new created properties will be named
Kriging_estimate and Kriging_variance.)
In the Soft data box, enter the name of the SGrid or Voxet property that will be used
as the soft data in the cokriging.
Click
to open the Select Text File dialog box, find and select the file, and then
click OK.
Note The variogram is used by the hard data, then scaled by the factor specified in step 10 on
page 5-15 and used by the soft data. If the file is not in the default directory, you need to
include the proper path in the file name.
12 To allow for the possibility that the result at a cell containing data points is not kriged,
but rather directly assigned from input data in that cell, select one of the following
data value assignment options:
Assign data to nearest cells. In any particular cell, the data point closest to the
cell center is assigned as the estimation at the cell.
Assign mean at cell center. The mean of all the data points in a particular cell is
assigned as the cell value.
If you choose this option, also select a method of computing the mean in the
Mean computation type box, and type the value for the exponent (in the
standard mean power equation) in the Power mean power box.
13 Click OK or Apply.
User Guide
5-15
5.2.6
To run indicator
kriging to create
SGrid or Voxet
properties
Display the SGrid or Voxet and the property source object in the 3D Viewer. Display
a SGrid or Voxet Section with the property on which you want to run kriging.
Select Voxet, SGrid, or General commands > Geostatistics > Indicator Kriging to
open the Indicator kriging dialog box.
In the Region name box, enter the grid object region in which the kriging will be
performed.
Note By default, kriging will be performed for all points (everywhere) on the grid.
5-16
In the Discrete property server by box, enter the object whose property will be the
source for kriging.
In the Property box, select the object property to be used as the source for kriging.
In the New property prefix box, type the prefix for the created properties. (For
example, if you type CutOff_, the two new created properties will be named
CutOff_1, CuttOff_2, and so on.) The number of properties is equal to the number
of cutoffs specified in the variogram file.
To specify the ASCII file that contains the variogram data (see "GS File" on page 5-2),
do either:
Click
to open the Select Text File dialog box, find and select the file, and then
click OK.
Note If the file is not in the default directory, you need to include the proper path in the file
name.
10 In the Kriging Type box, select one the following kriging options:
Simple. Residuals are computed from the mean of the data and kriged.
Ordinary. Input data values are used directly for the kriging.
Use_variogram_file_setting. Use the type set in the variogram file.
11 In the Distribution Type box, select the type of distribution function to be used.
Your selection determines how the cutoff value given in the variogram files are used
to define the indicator kriging (IK) stages and how the input property values are
interpreted in each stage.
12 To allow for the possibility that the result at a cell containing data points is not kriged,
but rather directly assigned from input data in that cell, do one of the following to
assign data values to cells:
Select the Assign data to nearest cells check box. In any particular cell, the
data point closest to the cell center is assigned as the estimation at the cell.
Clear the Assign data to nearest cells check box. All cells are kriged.
13 Click OK or Apply.
User Guide
5-17
5.3
A simulation method is more sophisticated than a kriging process in that it enables you
not only to specify statistical anisotropy in terms of variogram parameters (as kriging
does), but also to model heterogeneity by adding a random factor.
5.3.1
5-18
To run an SGS to
create SGrid or Voxet
properties
Select Voxet, SGrid, or General commands > Geostatistics > Sequential Gaussian
Simulation (SGS) to open the Sequential Gaussian Simulation dialog box.
In the Region name box, enter the region in which the simulation will be performed.
Property values outside the selected region will not be altered.
Note By default, the simulation will be performed for the entire grid object (everywhere).
In the Discrete property server by box, enter the object whose property will be the
source for the simulation.
In the Property box, select the object property to be used as the source for the
simulation.
In the External histogram box, enter the distribution that you want to use.
. The Distribution
Note By default, the input data histogram is used to transform the input and realizations into
and out to a normal score space.
User Guide
In the New property prefix box, type the prefix for the created properties.
In the Min box, type the low-cut value of the simulation value range (enter a
reasonable number).
5-19
10 In the Max box, type the high-cut value of the simulation value range (enter a
reasonable number).
Tip Be conservative; each
simulation can take a while,
and each simulation creates
a new property.
11 In the Number of realizations box, type a positive integer specifying the number of
simulations to be performed.
12 In the Seed box, type any number. (It will be used to start the random number
generation process.)
13 To specify the ASCII file that contains the variogram data (see "GS File" on page 5-2),
do either:
Click
to open the Select Text File dialog box, find and select the file, and then
click OK.
Note If the file is not in the default directory, you need to include the proper path in the file
name.
14 In the Kriging Type box, select one the following kriging options:
Simple. Residuals are computed from the mean of the data and kriged.
Ordinary. Input data values are used directly for the kriging.
15 To perform the simulation recursively, select the Multi-grid simulation check box.
(For large grids, this speeds up the operation and produces realizations that are truer
to the variogram.)
16 Click OK or Apply.
5-20
5.3.2
Select Voxet, SGrid, or General commands > Geostatistics > Unconditional SGS
to open the Non Conditional Simulation dialog box.
In the Region name box, enter the region in which the simulation will be performed.
Property values outside the selected region will not be altered.
Note By default, the simulation will be performed for the entire grid object (everywhere).
User Guide
In the Property class box, type the name of a new property class. (Property classes
are used to set up a set of universal statistical parameters so that all the properties
that you define as being in the same property class will be in the same statistical pool.
For example, you can share color maps and their minimum and maximum settings.)
In the New property prefix box, type the prefix for the created properties.
5-21
In the Distribution object box, enter the distribution that you want to use.
. The Distribution
Note By default, the input data histogram is used to transform the input and realizations into
and out to a normal score space.
In the Distribution Type box, select the type of distribution function to use:
type the Mean of the distribution function in the Mean box (enter a reasonable
number).
In the Sigma box, type the standard deviation of the distribution function (enter
a reasonable number).
In the Min box, type the low-cut value of the simulation value range (enter a
reasonable number).
In the Max box, type the high-cut value of the simulation value range (enter a
reasonable number).
10 In the Number of realizations box, type a positive integer specifying the number of
simulations to be performed.
11 In the Seed box, type any number. (It will be used to start the random number
generation process.)
12 To specify the ASCII file that contains the variogram data (see "GS File" on page 5-2),
do either:
Click
to open the Select Text File dialog box, find and select the file, and then
click OK.
13 Note If the file is not in the default directory, you need to include the proper path in
the file name.
14 To perform the simulation recursively, select the Multi-grid simulation check box.
(For large grids, this speeds up the operation and produces realizations that are truer
to the variogram.)
15 Click OK or Apply.
5.3.3
5-22
You need an ASCII file containing the variogram data and an object that can serve as the
property source (it should lie at least partially inside the SGrid or Voxet). The SGrid or
Voxet should have a property that will be used as the soft data (see step 12).
To run collocated
cokriging simulations
to create SGrid or
Voxet properties
Display the SGrid or Voxet and the property source object in the 3D Viewer.
In the Region name box, enter the region in which the simulation will be performed.
Property values outside the selected region will not be altered.
Note By default, the simulation will be performed for the entire grid object (everywhere).
User Guide
In the Discrete property server by box, enter the object whose property will be the
source for the simulation.
In the Property box, select the object property to be used as the source for the
simulation.
In the External histogram box, enter the distribution that you want to use.
5-23
. The Distribution
Note By default, the input data histogram is used to transform the input and realizations into
and out to a normal score space.
In the New property prefix box, type the prefix for the created properties.
10 In the Min box, type the low-cut value of the simulation value range (enter a
reasonable number).
11 In the Max box, type the high-cut value of the simulation value range (enter a
reasonable number).
12 To specify soft data information, do the following:
In the Soft data box, enter the name of the SGrid or Voxet property that will be
used as the soft data in the cokriging.
Select the option indicating whether you want to use soft data from the entire
grid or from the region only.
14 In the Number of realizations box, type a positive integer specifying the number of
simulations to be performed.
Tip Be conservative; each simulation can take a while, and each simulation creates a new
property.
15 In the Seed box, type any number. (It will be used to start the random number
generation process.)
16 To specify the ASCII file that contains the variogram data (see "GS File" on page 5-2),
do either:
Click
to open the Select Text File dialog box, find and select the file, and then
click OK.
Note The variogram is used by the hard data, then scaled by the factor specified in step 13 and
used by the soft data. If the file is not in the default directory, you need to include the proper
path in the file name.
17 To perform the simulation recursively, select the Multi-grid simulation check box.
(For large grids, this speeds up the operation and produces realizations that are truer
to the variogram.)
18 Click OK or Apply.
5.3.4
5-24
Select Voxet, SGrid, or General commands > Geostatistics > Sequential Indicator
Simulation (SIS) to open the Sequential Indicator Simulation dialog box.
In the Region name box, enter the region in which the simulation will be performed.
Property values outside the selected region will not be altered.
Note By default, the simulation will be performed for the entire grid object (everywhere).
In the Discrete property server by box, enter the object whose property will be the
source for the simulation.
In the Property box, select the object property to be used as the source for the
simulation.
In the New property prefix box, type the prefix for the created properties.
In the Distribution Type box, select the type of distribution function to be used.
Your selection determines how the cutoff value given in the variogram files are used
to define the indicator kriging (IK) stages and how the input property values are
interpreted in each stage.
User Guide
5-25
In the Min box, type the low-cut value of the simulation value range (enter a
reasonable number).
10 In the Max box, type the high-cut value of the simulation value range (enter a
reasonable number).
Tip Be conservative; each
simulation can take a while,
and each simulation creates
a new property.
11 In the Number of realizations box, type a positive integer specifying the number of
simulations to be performed.
12 In the Seed box, type any number. (It will be used to start the random number
generation process.)
13 To specify the ASCII file that contains the variogram data (see "GS File" on page 5-2),
do either:
Click
to open the Select Text File dialog box, find and select the file, and then
click OK.
Note If the file is not in the default directory, you need to include the proper path in the file
name.
14 To perform the simulation recursively, select the Multi-grid simulation check box.
(For large grids, this speeds up the operation and produces realizations that are truer
to the variogram.)
15 To allow for the possibility that the result at a cell containing data points is not kriged,
but rather directly assigned from input data in that cell, select one of the following to
assign data values to cells:
Assign most dominant value to cell. Computes the most dominant value in
the cell, using all the volumes falling in that cell, and assigns that data value.
Assign nearest data to cell. Finds the closest value to the center of the cell and
assigns that data value.
16 Click OK or Apply.
5.3.5
5-26
An SGrid or Voxet
An object that carries a discrete property (it should at least partially overlap the SGrid
or Voxet spatially)
To run an annealing
simulation
In the Region name box, enter the region in which the simulation will be performed.
Property values outside the selected region will not be altered.
Note By default, the simulation will be performed for the entire grid object (everywhere).
User Guide
In the Discrete property server by box, enter the object whose property will be the
source for the simulation.
In the Property box, select the object property to be used as the source for the
simulation.
In the New property prefix box, type the prefix for the created properties.
In the Min box, type the low-cut value of the simulation value range (enter a
reasonable number).
5-27
In the Max box, type the high-cut value of the simulation value range (enter a
reasonable number).
10 To specify the ASCII file that contains the variogram data (see "GS File" on page 5-2),
do either:
Click
to open the Select Text File dialog box, find and select the file, and then
click OK.
Note If the file is not in the default directory, you need to include the proper path in the file
name.
11 To specify the ASCII file that contains the annealing schedule (see
"Annealing_Schedule File" on page 5-5), do either:
Click
to open the Select Text File dialog box, find and select the file, and then
click OK.
12 In the Nlags box, type a positive integer specifying the number of variogram lags to
be honored in the Annealing. (The default is 250.)
13 If you want to specify soft data information, do the following:
a
In the Soft data box, enter the name of the SGrid or Voxet property that will be
used as the soft data.
In the Correlation coefficient box, type the correlation coefficient between the
property and the soft data.
14 If you want to specify the map containing column averages, do the following:
a
In the Map file box, enter the path to the map file (see "Column_Average_Map
File" on page 5-4). Or, click
to open the Select Text File dialog box, find and
select the file, and then click OK.
15 If you want to use an external histogram stored in an ASCII file, do the following:
a
In the Hist file box, enter the path to the file (see "External_Histogram File" on
page 5-5). Or, click
to open the Select Text File dialog box, find and select the
file, and then click OK.
16 In the Number of realizations box, type a positive integer specifying the number of
simulations to be performed.
17 In the Seed box, type any number. (It will be used to start the random number
generation process.)
18 Click OK or Apply.
5-28
5.3.6
To run a cloud
transform simulation
Select Voxet, SGrid, or General commands > Geostatistics > Cloud Transform
(with P-Field) to open the Pfield Simulation dialog box.
In the Region name box, enter the region in which the simulation will be performed.
Property values outside the selected region will not be altered.
Note By default, the simulation will be performed for the entire grid object (everywhere).
User Guide
In the Grid input property box, select the property to be used as the input data.
5-29
If you set an input property as a constraint on the cloud transform, select the
Conditional pfield check box, and then do the following:
In the Discrete property server by box, enter the object that carries the
conditioning data.
In the Property box, select the object property to be used as the conditioning
data.
In the Property class box, type the name of a new property class. (Property classes
are used to set up a set of universal statistical parameters so that all the properties
that you define as being in the same property class will be in the same statistical pool.
For example, you can share color maps and their minimum and maximum settings.)
In the New property prefix box, type the prefix for the created properties.
To specify the ASCII file that contains the variogram data (see "GS File" on page 5-2),
in the GS file box, enter the path to the file. Or, click
dialog box, find and select the file, and then click OK.
Note If the file is not in the default directory, you need to include the proper path in the file
name.
Simple. Residuals are computed from the mean of the data and kriged.
Ordinary. Input data values are used directly for the kriging.
10 To specify the ASCII file that contains the calibration data (see "Scattergram File" on
page 5-4), in the Cloud file box, enter the path to the file. Or, click
Select Text File dialog box, find and select the file, and then click OK.
to open the
11 In the Null data value in cloud file box, type the value used to represent null value
in the scattergram.
12 In the Cloud transform binning box, select the type of binning to use in the cloud
transform.
Number of bins. If you select this option, also type a positive integer specifying
the fixed number of bins in the Num bins box.
Data points per bin. If you select this option, also type a positive integer
specifying the fixed number of data points per bin in the Data per bin box.
13 In the Number of realizations box, type a positive integer specifying the number of
simulations to be performed. (The default is 1.)
Tip Be conservative; each simulation can take a while, and each simulation creates a new
property.
14 In the Seed box, type any number. (It will be used to start the random number
generation process. The default is 101.)
15 To perform the simulation recursively, select the Multi-grid simulation check box.
(For large grids, this speeds up the operation and produces realizations that are truer
to the variogram.)
16 Click OK or Apply.
5-30
5.3.7
To perform a
categorical histogram
correction
In the Region name box, enter the region in which the simulation will be performed.
Property values outside the selected region will not be altered.
Note By default, the simulation will be performed for the entire grid object (everywhere).
In the New property prefix box, type the prefix for the created properties.
If you want to specify how much the realization point can be modified, select the Use
kriging Variance check box, and then select the variance in the Kriging variance
box.
In the Seed box, type any number. (It will be used to start the random number
generation process.)
To specify the ASCII file that contains the variogram data (see "GS File" on page 5-2),
in the GS file box, enter the path to the file. Or, click
dialog box, find and select the file, and then click OK.
Note The PDF specified in this file is used to correct the input realization.
User Guide
Click OK or Apply.
5-31
5.3.8
To perform a
continuous histogram
correction
In the Region name box, enter the region in which the simulation will be performed.
Property values outside the selected region will not be altered.
Note By default, the simulation will be performed for the entire grid object (everywhere).
5-32
In the New property name box, type the name of the new grid object property that
will store the result of the realization. (By creating a new property, you avoid
modifying the input property.)
If you want to specify how much the realization point can be modified, select the Use
kriging Variance check box, and then select the variance in the Kriging variance
box.
In the Discrete property server by box, enter the object that will be used to
construct the histogram.
In the By region box, enter the object region that will be used to build the
histogram.
In the Property box, select the object property that will be used to build the
histogram.
In the External histogram box, enter the distribution that you want to use.
. The Distribution
In the Hist file box, enter the path to the file (see "External_Histogram File" on
page 5-5). Or, click
to open the Select Text File dialog box, find and select the
file, and then click OK.
10 fudging factor: A positive number (keyboard-entry), specifying how much the input
realization can be changed. The larger the number, the more the input realization is
allowed to change. Default=0.5.
11 x window size: The u-dimension of the search window used to find neighboring
cells for calculating the average at any given cell.
12 y window size: The v-dimension of the search window used to find neighboring
cells for calculating the average at any given cell.
13 z window size: The w-dimension of the search window used to find neighboring
cells for calculating the average at any given cell.
14 Click OK or Apply.
User Guide
5-33
5.3.9
Select Voxet, SGrid, or General commands > Geostatistics > Fill from Facies
Maps to open the FaciesMap Simulation dialog box.
In the Region name box, enter the region in which the simulation will be performed.
Property values outside the selected region will not be altered.
Note By default, the simulation will be performed for the entire grid object (everywhere).
5-34
In the New property prefix box, type the prefix for the created properties.
In the Discrete property server by box, enter the object that carries the existing
property values.
In the Property box, select the object property to be used as the input data.
In the Map file box, enter the path to the ASCII facies map file (see "Facies_Map
File" on page 5-5). Or, click
to open the Select Text File dialog box, find and
select the file, and then click OK.
Note The facies map contains X, Y and facies values in each line.
In the Map sampling rate box, type a positive number between 0 and 100,
indicating the percentage of the SGrid region space that should be filled with a
vertical projection of the facies map data. (The rest of the space will be filled with
simulated values.)
10 To specify the ASCII file that contains the variogram data (see "GS File" on page 5-2),
in the GS file box, enter the path to the file. Or, click
dialog box, find and select the file, and then click OK.
11 In the Map weight box, type a positive number between 0 and 100, specifying the
weight percentage assigned to the map data. (The weight percentage of the property
specified in step 7 will be 100 - the map weight.)
12 In the Well weight box, type a positive number between 0 and 100, specifying the
weight percentage assigned to the well facies proportions.
13 In the Variogram file weight box, type a positive number between 0 and 100,
specifying the weight percentage assigned to the variogram file facies proportions.
14 In the Seed box, type any number. (It will be used to start the random number
generation process. The default is 101.)
15 Click OK or Apply.
User Guide
5-35
5-36
6
Performing Velocity
Conversions
In this chapter
Overview
The Velocity commands consist of a series of functions that perform velocity conversions
and time-to-depth conversions (or depth-to-time conversions).
Velocity can originate from different sources. The Velocity cube can be directly imported,
computed from regional data within Paradigm SKUA and Paradigm GOCAD using
mathematical functions, or computed from field data (such as well logs, checkshots,
stacking velocity, or VRMS) using geostatistical operations and/or interpolation methods.
You can convert velocity from the following source types:
6-1
6.1
To convert velocity in
one domain
Select Velocity commands > Velocity Conversion > Voxet and Seismic Lines: In
One Domain to open the Convert Velocity Type dialog box.
In the Seismic Grid box, enter the name of the Voxet or Seismic Line object that
contains the velocity you want to convert.
In the Input Velocity Property box, enter the velocity property you want to convert.
In the Velocity Unit box, enter the unit of the input velocity property that you are
converting.
In the Output Velocity Property box, enter the name of the velocity property
obtained by conversion of the input velocity.
In the Velocity Type box, select the type of the velocity obtained by the conversion.
Important If you selected a two-way time velocity in step 4, you need to select
another two-way time velocity type here. If the conversion to be performed is from
one domain (time or depth) to another, use the function described in "Converting the
Velocity Type in Different Domains" on page 6-3.
6-2
Click OK or Apply.
6.2
To convert velocity in
different domains
Select Velocity commands > Velocity Conversion > Voxet and Seismic Lines: In
Different Domains to open the Convert Velocity Type dialog box.
In the Seismic Grid box, select the name of the Voxet or Seismic Lines object that
carries the velocity to be converted.
In the Input velocity property box, enter the velocity property to be converted.
In the Velocity type box, select the type of the velocity to be converted.
Note The seismic grid can be in either the time domain (choose from the first four types) or
the depth domain (choose from the last four types).
User Guide
6-3
In the Velocity unit box, select the units in which the velocity is measured:
m/s (two-way time). For a seismic grid that is in the time domain, the time
required, measured in meters per second, to go from the datum to a given point
and back.
ft/s (two-way time). For a seismic grid that is in the time domain, the time
required, measured in feet per second, to go from the datum to a given point and
back.
m/s (one-way time). For a seismic grid that is in the time domain, the time
required, measured in meters per second, to go from the datum to a given point.
ft/s (one-way time). For a seismic grid that is in the time domain, the time
required, measured in feet per second, to go from the datum to a given point.
Note For seismic grids in the depth domain, the unit describes the nature of the velocity.
Tip In the example in
step 6, the depth cube will
be between 0 and 7500 m,
but you may not want the
full cube for the current
stage of the modeling. You
might only want the subvolume included between 0
and 5000.
In the Output voxet name box, type the name of the Voxet or Seismic Lines object
to be created. Since the domain is changing, the converted velocity should be in a
different Voxet or Seismic Lines object.
Example In the case of conversion from time to depth, if the time cube is between 0 and 6 s
and the maximum average velocity is 2500m/s, the depth cube will be between 0 and 7500m
(with a conversion factor of 2). Therefore, if the same input Voxet or Seismic Lines obj ect had
been used, most of the converted velocity would have fallen outside the input cube.
In the Starting Z box, type the starting z-value for the voxet or seismic lines in the
final domain.
In the Ending Z box, type the final z-value for the voxet or seismic lines in the final
domain.
In the Number of W steps box, type the number of samples along the depth/time
axis.
10 In the Output velocity property box, enter the name of the velocity obtained by
conversion.
11 In the Velocity type box, select the type of the velocity obtained by the conversion.
Note You need to select a different domain than the one selected in step 4. If you selected a
two-way time average velocity in step 4, you need to select a depth type velocity here. If the
conversion to be performed is from one domain to another, use the function described in
"Converting the Velocity Type in Different Domains" on page 6-3.
12 Select the option that indicates whether the new converted velocity will be stored in
memory or on disk: Store in memory or Store on disk.
13 Click OK or Apply.
6-4
6.3
To convert the
velocity type of a
velocity function
Select Velocity commands > Velocity Conversion > Velocity Functions: In One
Domain to open the Convert Velocity Type dialog box.
In the Velocity functions box, select the velocity function that you want to convert.
In the Input velocity property box, select the velocity of the velocity function.
In the Output velocity property box, enter the new velocity property.
User Guide
If the seismic reference datum (SRD) is constant for the velocity function, then
select the Constant SRD check box, and then in the SRD value box, enter the
SRD.
If the SRD varies, deselect the Constant SRD check box, and then in the 2D-Grid
SRD surface box, enter a 2D-grid that represents the SRD value.
Click OK or Apply.
6-5
6-6
7
Interpolating Velocity
In this chapter
Overview
The Velocity Interpolation commands enable you to interpolate velocity data. The
velocity data can be a property on a voxet, a property on a grid, or a well log.
7-1
7.1
7-2
Interpolating Velocity
7.2
To interpolate
velocity linearly
between surfaces
Select Velocity commands > Velocity Interpolation > Between Surfaces to open
the Interpolate Velocity Linearly Between Surfaces (Store in Voxet) dialog box.
In the Voxet Velocity Cube box, enter the voxet that carries the velocity.
In the Output Velocity Property box, type the name of the new property that will
hold the interpolated velocity and will be associated with the voxet.
In the Surface List box, enter the horizons or faults between which you want to
linearly interpolate the velocity.
In the Surface Velocity box, enter the property of the voxet that represents the
velocity.
Choose one of the following options for the voxet property you create:
User Guide
Stored on memory
Stored on disk
If you want to extrapolate the values beyond the surfaces you select, select the
Extrapolate Values check box.
Click OK or Apply.
7-3
7.3
To extract velocity
from a Voxet
Select Velocity commands > Velocity Interpolation > Extract Trend from Voxet
to open the Create a Least Squares Coefficients Map dialog box.
In the Map name box, type the name of the map that you want to create.
In the Voxet box, enter the voxet that has the velocity property.
If you want to extract the velocity trend in only a specific region within the voxet,
select the Region check box, and then select the region.
In the X Property (Z) box, enter the voxet property that represents depth.
In the Y Property (Velocity) box, enter the voxet property that represents velocity.
In the Least squares Regression Type box, select the regression type, linear or
quadratic.
If you want to create a property that contains the error between the velocity property
and the regression function, select the Create local error check box.
The voxet property that contains the error is local_error. To change the property
name, in the Error box, type a new name.
10 Click OK or Apply.
7-4
Interpolating Velocity
7.4
To extract velocity
from wells
User Guide
Select Velocity commands > Velocity Interpolation > Extract Trend from Well(s)
to open the Create a Point Set Holding Velocity Trend dialog box.
In the PointSet name box, type the name of the PointsSet object that you want to
create to hold the velocity trend properties.
In the Well box, enter the wells for which you want to extract the velocity trend.
If you want to extract the velocity trend in only a specific region, select the Region
check box, and then select the region.
In the Y Property (Velocity) box, enter the well log property that represents velocity.
In the Least squares Regression Type box, select the regression type, linear or
quadratic.
Click OK or Apply.
7-5
7-6
Interpolating Velocity
8
Performing Time and Depth
Domain Conversions
In this chapter
Overview
The Velocity commands consist of a series of functions that perform velocity conversions
and time-to-depth conversions (or depth-to-time conversions).
The time-to depth conversion functions in Paradigm SKUA and Paradigm GOCAD
convert modeling objects from the time domain to the depth domain and vice versa.
Velocity can originate from different sources. The Velocity cube can be directly imported,
computed from regional data within SKUA or GOCAD by using mathematical functions,
or computed from field data (such as well logs, checkshots, stacking velocity, or VRMS) by
using geostatistical operations and/or interpolation methods.
8-1
8.1
Select Velocity commands > Time-Depth Conversion > Convert Object Using
Velocity to open the Convert Objects dialog box.
In the Domain Type box, select the domain of the objects that you want to convert.
In the Object list box, enter one or more objects to be converted (excluding seismic
cubes; see "Converting a Seismic Cube" on page 8-4).
If you want to create copies of the objects before converting them, select the Copy
the Objects Before Conversion check box. If you want to prefix the names of the
copied objects, select the Using Prefix check box, and then in the Prefix box, type
the prefix.
In the Point property server Velocity volume box, enter the name of the object
(voxet, velocity function, stratigraphic grid, or geologic grid) carrying the average
velocity.
Note The velocity cube should be in same domain as the objects to be converted.
8-2
In the Average velocity box, enter the name of the average velocity.
In the Velocity unit box, select the units in which the velocity is measured:
m/s (two-way time). The time required, measured in meters per second, to go
from the datum to a given point and back.
ft/s (two-way time). The time required, measured in feet per second, to go
from the datum to a given point and back.
m/s (one-way time). The time required, measured in meters per second, to go
from the datum to a given point.
ft/s (one-way time). The time required, measured in feet per second, to go
from the datum to a given point.
User Guide
Constant datum. Equal to a constant. In the Value box, enter the constant.
Datum surface. Defined by a Surface or 2D-Grid object. In the 2D-Grid Surface
box, enter the Surface or 2D-Grid object to which the seismic is referenced.
8-3
8.2
To convert Seismic
cube to time or to
depth using average
velocity
8-4
Select Velocity commands > Time-Depth Conversion > Seismic Cube Conversion
to open the Convert Seismic Cube dialog box.
In the Voxet seismic box, enter the name of the Voxet that contains the seismic
attribute to be converted.
In the Seismic properties box, enter one or more seismic properties to be converted.
(Amplitude is the default, but you can choose any other attribute(s).)
Select the option indicating the type of conversion to be performed: Time to depth
conversion or Depth to time conversion.
In the Voxet velocity cube box, enter the name of the Voxet that contains the
average velocity. The velocity cube can be in the same domain as the seismic cube, or
it can be in another domain.
In the Average velocity box, enter the name of the average velocity used during the
seismic attribute conversion.
In the Velocity unit box, select the units in which the velocity is measured:
m/s (two-way time). The time required, measured in meters per second, to go
from the datum to a given point and back.
ft/s (two-way time). The time required, measured in feet per second, to go
from the datum to a given point and back.
m/s (one-way time). The time required, measured in meters per second, to go
from the datum to a given point.
ft/s (one-way time). The time required, measured in feet per second, to go
from the datum to a given point.
The command creates another voxet to define the degree of deformation (stretching)
of the resampled wavelet. Under Output Voxet, specify information about the new
voxet as follows:
a
In the Output Voxet Name box, type a name for the voxet.
Example In the case of conversion from time to depth, if the time cube is between 0 and 6 s
and the maximum average velocity is 2500m/s, the depth cube will be between 0 and 7500m
(with a conversion factor of 2). Therefore, if the same input Voxet had been used, most of the
converted velocity would have fallen outside the input cube.
In the Starting depth/time box, type the starting z-value for the voxet in the
final domain.
In the Ending depth/time box, type the final z-value for the voxet in the final
domain.
In the Number of depth/time steps box, type the number of samples along the
depth/time axis.
This value corresponds to the number of nodes in the vertical direction in the
destination voxet. The command uses this value, the Starting Z value, and the
Ending Z value to determine the vertical step of the destination voxet.
User Guide
8-5
Under the Seismic Output Property, specify how you want to create the new
property:
Click the option that indicates the property size of the voxet: Create as 32 bits,
Create as 16 bits, or Create as 8 bits.
Note If the property is created as 8 bits, the command reduces the memory used for the
display without sacrificing visual accuracy.
If you chose Create as 8 bits in step a and you want to define the data spread of
the converted property as -127 to 127, select the Is signed check box.
Otherwise, the data spread is assumed to be 0 to 255.
Select the option that indicates whether the new converted velocity will be stored
in memory or on disk: Store in memory or Store on disk.
Note If you select Store in memory and the system does not have enough memory, then
it puts the properties on disk automatically.
In the Interpolation method box, select the interpolation method to use in the
conversion that is appropriate for the property type you are using:
Note Because voxets have a fixed sampling in each domain, when the position of the values are
converted from one domain to another, they do not fall exactly on a node in the destination
voxet. Therefore, the command uses the selected interpolation method to estimate the value in
the destination voxet.
Constant datum. Equal to a constant. In the Value box, enter the constant.
Datum surface. Defined by a Surface or 2D-Grid object. In the 2D-Grid Surface
box, enter the Surface or 2D-Grid object to which the seismic is referenced.
11 Click OK or Apply.
8-6
8.3
User Guide
8-7
8.4
To convert Seismic
Lines domain using
average velocity
In the SeismicLine Lines box, enter the name of the Seismic Lines object that contain
the seismic attribute to be converted.
Note The type of conversion depends of the domain of the Seismic Lines. If the Seismic Lines
are in time, SKUA or GOCAD performs a Time-to-Depth conversion. If the Seismic Lines are in
depth, SKUA or GOCAD performs a Depth-to-Time conversion.
In the Seismic properties box, enter one or more seismic properties to be converted.
Amplitude is preselected, but you can choose any other attributes.
In the Average velocity box, enter the name of the average velocity used during the
seismic attribute conversion.
Note The Seismic Line to be converted contains the average velocity properties and the
properties to be converted (no other source of velocity data can be used).
8-8
In the Velocity unit box, select the units in which the average velocity is measured:
m/s (two-way time). The time required, measured in meters per second, to go
from the datum to a given point and back.
ft/s (two-way time). The time required, measured in feet per second, to go
from the datum to a given point and back.
m/s (one-way time). The time required, measured in meters per second, to go
from the datum to a given point.
ft/s (one-way time). The time required, measured in feet per second, to go
from the datum to a given point.
The command creates another survey to store the data. Specify information to create
the new survey as follows:
a
In the Output Survey Name box, type the name of the SeismicLines to create.
The new SeismicLines defines the extent of either the deformation or stretching
of the resampled wavelet.
In the Starting Z box, type the starting z-value for the SeismicLines in the final
domain.
In the Ending Z box, type the final z-value for the SeismicLines in the final
domain.
In the Number of depth/time steps box, type the number of samples along the
depth/time axis.
In the Interpolation method box, select the interpolation method to use in the
conversion:
User Guide
Click OK or Apply.
8-9
8.5
To convert the
domain of a SKUA
model
Select Velocity commands > Time-Depth Conversion > Convert SKUA Model and
al. to open the Convert SKUA model dialog box.
In the Point property server Velocity Cube box, enter the name of the geologic
grid, voxet, or velocity function that carries the average velocity.
The domain of thee geologic grid, voxet, or the velocity function and the SKUA model
you are converting need to be in the same domain.
In the Average Velocity box, enter the name of the average velocity property.
In the Velocity unit box, select the units in which the velocity is measured:
m/s (two-way time). The time required, measured in meters per second, to go
from the datum to a given point and back.
ft/s (two-way time). The time required, measured in feet per second, to go
from the datum to a given point and back.
m/s (one-way time). The time required, measured in meters per second, to go
from the datum to a given point.
ft/s (one-way time). The time required, measured in feet per second, to go
from the datum to a given point.
8-10
If you want to convert the SKUA model (with faults), the horizon grids, and the
geologic grid, select the Transform attached objects check box.
If not checked, the command convert only the structural models (with faults).
User Guide
Click OK or Apply.
8-11
8.6
8.6.1
Z new
Z old
= rescaled depth
= initial depth
Correction Factor
To rescale objects in
same domain
Select Velocity commands > Conversion Correction > Rescale Objects in Same
Domain to open the Rescale Objects dialog box.
In the Object List box, enter the objects (any object other than seismic cubes) to be
rescaled.
Note To rescale a seismic cube, see "To rescale a seismic cube in same domain" on page 8-13.
8-12
If you want to create copies of the objects before you rescale them, select the Copy
Objects Before Rescaling check box.
Note SKUA or GOCAD keeps a copy of the initial objects and creates rescaled objects prefixed
with scaled_.
In the Point Property server Cube box, enter the name of the voxet, velocity
function, or grid that carries the correction factor property that is in the same domain
as the objects to be rescaled.
Note The Property server cube should be in same domain as the objects to be rescaled.
8.6.2
In the Scaling Property box, enter the name of the correction factor property. This
property should unitless.
Click OK or Apply.
To rescale a seismic
cube in same domain
User Guide
Select Velocity commands > Conversion Correction and then click Seismic Cube
Rescaling-Resampling to open the Rescale Seismic Cube dialog box.
In the Voxet seismic box, enter the name of the voxet that contains the seismic
attribute to be rescaled.
In the Seismic properties box, enter one or more seismic properties to be rescaled.
8-13
In the Voxet rescaling cube box, enter the name of the voxet that contains the
correction factor property.
The voxet rescaling cube can be in the same domain as the seismic cube, or it can be
in another domain; usually it will be in the same domain.
In the Scaling property box, enter the name of the scaling property used to rescale
the seismic cube.
In the Output voxet name box, type the name of the voxet to create.
In the Starting Z box, type the starting z-value for the rescaled voxet (usually it
should be the same starting z as the initial voxet).
In the Ending Z box, type the final z-value for the rescaled Voxet in the final domain.
(usually it should be the same ending z as the initial voxet).
In the Number of depth/time steps box, type the number of samples along the
depth/time axis (usually it should be the same vertical samples z as the initial voxet).
12 Click OK or Apply.
8-14
Index
A
Add Function menu 4-19
Add Region to Layer dialog
box 2-15
add Surface (to Model) 2-7
add surfaces (to
VoxetModel) 2-19
Add Surfaces in Model3d dialog
box 2-7
Add Surfaces to Voxet Model
dialog box 2-20
Annealing Simulation dialog
box 5-27
attributes of
Model
common 2-2
B
Bayesian kriging 5-12
Bayesian Kriging dialog box 5-12
Block Velocity Functions on Grid
dialog box 4-26
build (Model3d) 2-8
build (Voxet Model) 2-21
Build 3D-Model dialog box 2-8
Build Voxet Model dialog
box 2-21
C
categorical histogram
correction 5-31
Model3d 2-13
Create Default LayerSet inside
Model dialog box 2-13
Create Model3d From Surfaces
dialog box 2-4
Create new Layer inside Model
from an existing Region dialog
box 2-13
Create Velocity Functions from
Time/Depth Logs dialog
box 3-8
CreateModel3d from SKUA Model
Horizons, Faults and Boundaries
dialog box 2-5
D
define
property function
dir_Z 4-6
direction
shoot 4-6
4-19
F
FaciesMap Simulation dialog
box 5-34
fill grid from facies map 5-34
Filter/Collapse Small Voxet Model
Regions dialog box 2-22
from_inside 4-7, 4-17
from_outside 4-7
function
Index-1
property function
4-19
G
geostatistics
estimation method
Bayesian kriging 5-12
collocated cokriging 5-14
indicator kriging 5-16
kriging 5-6
kriging with external
drift 5-10
kriging with trend 5-8
simulation methods
collocated cokriging 5-22
nonconditional SGS 5-21
SCloud transform 5-29
sequential gaussian
simulation 5-18
sequential indicator
simulation 5-24
simulated annealing 5-26
tools
categorical histogram
correction 5-31
continuous histogram
correction 5-32
fill grid from facies map 5-34
I
impact point 4-8
on bounding surfaces 4-18
on bounding surfaces,
Fig. 4-18
on Surfaces for interpolation,
Fig. 4-11
indicator kriging 5-16
in Voxet 5-16
Indicator kriging dialog box 5-16
K
Kill Surfaces in Model3d dialog
box 2-8
kriging 5-6
Kriging dialog box 5-6
Kriging menu
in SGrid 5-6
Index-2
L
layer 2-18
display 2-3
linear
property function
4-20
M
Make Surfaces and Regions
Geologically consistent dialog
box 2-10
Menu
Add Function, see Add Function
menu
merging fault throws 2-5
N
name of
a variable in Property
Function 4-6
New menu
Model 2-2
Non Conditional Simulation dialog
box 5-21
nonconditional SGS
Voxet simulation 5-21
P
painting velocity model 4-25
parameters
shoot parameters 4-6
Pfield Simulation dialog box 5-29
property
function 4-19
linear function 4-20
script function 4-23
script function
components 4-23
script function
examples 4-24
syntax 4-23
Property Model Editor 4-9, 4-27
property variable
constant 4-9
from a Surface 4-13
from a Voxet 4-12
R
Rebuild 3D-Model dialog box 2-9
Remove Free Horizon Extremities
from Model3d dialog box 2-12
Remove Free Horizon Extremities in
a given region from Model3d
dialog box 2-11
Remove Layer dialog box 2-14
remove Surface (from Model) 2-8
remove surfaces (from
VoxetModel) 2-20
Remove Surfaces from Voxet
Model dialog box 2-20
Rescale Objects dialog box 8-12
Rescale Seismic Cube dialog
box 8-13
S
script
of property functions 4-23
Select Text File dialog box 5-9,
5-11, 5-15, 5-17, 5-20, 5-22,
5-24, 5-26, 5-28
sequential gaussian
simulation 5-18
nonconditional 5-21
Sequential Gaussian Simulation
dialog box 5-19
sequential indicator
simulation 5-24
Sequential Indicator Simulation
dialog box 5-25
shoot
direction 4-6
User Guide
Surface
property
variable in Model
4-13
V
variable name 4-6
Variable Name dialog box
variogram
4-5
Index-3
Index-4