Chapter 2: Load Flow Analysis

2.1. Introduction: NEED FOR SYSTEM ANALYSIS IN PLANNING AND

OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEM
The system being planned are to be optimal with respect to cost, performance and
operating efficiency. For this better planning tools are required. in general, the major power
system tools are

1.
2.
3.
4.

Load Flow Analysis

Short circuit analysis or fault calculations
Stability analysis
Transient Study

2.2 Load Flow/Power Flow Study

The satisfactory

operation

of

the

system

depends

upon

knowing

the

effects

of

interconnections, new loads, new generating stations or new transmission lines etc, before
they are installed.

Load flow (Power flow) analysis is the backbone of power system analysis and design.
They are necessary for planning, operation, economics scheduling and exchange of
power between utilities. Load flow study is done during the planning of a new
system or the extension of an existing one.

The purpose of power flow studies

to plan ahead and account for various hypothetical situations (normal and
abnormal conditions). It is needed to evaluate the effect of different loading
conditions of an existing system. For instance, what if a transmission line
within the power system properly supplying loads must be taken off line for
maintenance. Can the remaining lines in the system handle the required loads
without exceeding their rated parameters?
to understand the behaviour of the system at different operating conditions
To determine if line overloads occur.
To determine if voltages are within tolerable upper and lower bounds.
Are active or reactive generations within planned or tolerable bounds.
To determine the losses in a power system network.
Do voltage angle differences indicate steady state stability problems?
to ensure that electrical power transfer from generators to consumers through
the grid system is stable, reliable and economic.

Load flow studies data are also used for contingency analysis, outage security assessment,
as well as for optimal dispatching and stability.
Power flow analysis is a steady-state analysis tool involving numerical analysis applied to
a power system. In this analysis, iterative techniques are used due to there no known
analytical method to solve the problem.
The principal target of power flow analysis is to find the magnitude and phase
angle of voltage at each bus and the real and reactive power flowing in
each transmission lines at specific levels of power generation and loads.
The results of load flow analysis are used in load forecasting, system planning
and operation. Practically, system engineers carryout load flows on a daily basis
with varying system configurations, load patterns and generating conditions to
understand the behaviour of the system at different operating conditions.
For purpose of load flow studies; a single-phase representation of the power network
is used since the system is generally almost balanced.

Figure 2- 1: The Simple Power System used for load flow studies
Fig. above illustrates several important elements of the power flow problem. First, one notices
we may categorize each bus depending on whether generation and/or load is connected to it.
Specifically, a bus may have generation only (buses 1), load only (buses 2, 3, and 4), or
neither generation or load (although none of the buses in Fig. 3.1 fall into this category). In
addition, a bus may have both generation and load (bus 5). This categorization, which focuses
on the load and generation, leads us to define the term bus injection or more simply,
injection. We will use this term frequently, and the student is advised to carefully note its
meaning, given and discussed in the following paragraph.
An injection is the power, either real or reactive, that is being injected into or withdrawn from
a bus by an element having its other terminal (in the per-phase equivalent circuit) connected
to ground. Such an element would be either a generator or a load. We define a positive
injection as one where power is flowing from the element into the bus (i.e., into the network);
a negative injection is then when power is flowing from the bus (i.e., from the network) into
the element. Generators normally have positive real power injections, although they may also
be assigned negative real power injections, in which case they are operating as a motor.
Generators may have either positive or negative reactive power injections: positive if the
generator is operating lagging and delivering reactive power to the bus, negative if the
generator is operating leading and absorbing reactive power from the bus, and zero if the
generator is operating at unity power factor. Loads normally have negative real and reactive
power injections, although they may also be assigned positive real power injections in the
case of very special modeling needs. Figure (a) and (b) illustrate the two most common
possibilities. Figure (c) illustrates that we must compute a net injection as the algebraic sum
when a bus has both load and generation; in this case, the net injection for both real and
reactive power is positive (into the bus). Thus, the net real power injection is P k=PGk-PDk, and

the net reactive power injection is Qk=QGk-QDk. We may also refer to the net complex power
injection as Sk=SGk-SDk, where Sk=Pk+jQk.

Pk=100
Qk=30

Pk= - 40
Qk= -20

(a)

(b)

Pk=100+(-40)=60
Qk=30+(-20)=10

(c)
Figure 2- 2: Illustration of (a) positive injection, (b) negative injection, and (c) net
injection (d) power injection at bus i

In the network at each bus or node there are four variables.

Voltage magnitude.

Voltage phase angles.

Real power

Reactive power

Out of four quantities two of them are specified at each bus and the remaining two are
determined from the load flow solutions.
Although it is physically appealing to categorize buses based on the generation/load mix
connected to it, we need to be more precise in order to analytically formulate the power flow
problem. For proper analytical formulation, it is appropriate to categorize the buses according
to what information is known about them before we solve the power flow problem. For each
bus, there are four possible variables that characterize the buses electrical condition. Let us
consider an arbitrary bus numbered k. The four variables are real and reactive power
injection, Pk and Qk, respectively, and voltage magnitude and angle, |Vk| and ,
respectively. From this perspective, there are three basic types of buses. We refer to the first
two types using terminology that remind us of the known variables.

PV Buses: For type PV buses, we know P k and |Vk| but not Qk or . These buses fall
under the category of voltage-controlled buses because of the ability to specify (and
therefore to know) the voltage magnitude of this bus. The magnitude of the voltage is
defined and is kept constant by adjusting the field current of a synchronous generator
and the power generation in such buses is controlled through a prime mover. The injected
reactive power is a variable (with specified upper and lower bounds) in the power flow
analysis. Most generator buses fall into this category, independent of whether it also has
load; exceptions are buses that have reactive power injection at either the generators
upper limit (Qmax) or its lower limit (Qmin), and (2) the system swing bus (we describe the
swing bus below). There are also special cases where a non-generator bus (i.e., either a
bus with load or a bus with neither generation nor load) may be classified as type PV, and
some examples of these special cases are buses having switched shunt capacitors or static
var systems (SVCs). We will not address these special cases in this course. In Fig. 3.1,
buses 1 and 5 are type PV. The real power injections of the type PV buses are chosen
according to the system dispatch corresponding to the modeled loading conditions. The
voltage magnitudes of the type PV buses are chosen according to the expected terminal
voltage settings, sometimes called the generator set points, of the units.

PQ Buses: For type PQ buses, we know Pk and Qk but not |Vk | or . Pk and Qk are
known from historical record, load forecast, or measurement. All load buses fall into
this category, including buses that have not either load or generation. In Fig. 3.1, buses
2, 3, and 4 are type PQ. The real power injections of the type PQ buses are chosen
according to the loading conditions being modeled. The reactive power injections of the
type PQ buses are chosen according to the expected power factor of the load. Load buses
may contain generators with specified real and reactive power outputs. However, it is
often convenient to designate any bus with specified injected complex power as a load
bus.

Swing bus: Two other common terms for this bus are slack bus and reference bus. There
is only one swing bus, and it can be designated by the engineer to be any generator bus
in the system. For the swing bus, we know |V| and . The fact that we know is the
reason why it is sometimes called the reference bus. Physically, there is nothing special
about the swing bus; in fact, it is a mathematical artifact of the solution procedure. At this
point in our treatment of the power flow problem, it is most appropriate to understand
this last statement in the following way. The generation must supply both the load and
the losses on the circuits. Before solving the power flow problem, we will know all
injections at PQ buses (i.e. we know all the load demands), but we will not know what the

losses will be as losses are a function of the current flows on the circuits which are yet to
be computed. Even if the generation matches the sum total of these demands exactly, the
mismatch between generation and load will persist because of the line I 2R losses. Since
the I2R loss of a line depends on the line current which, in turn, depends on the magnitudes
and angles of voltages of the two buses connected to the line, it is rather difficult to
estimate the loss without calculating the voltages and angles. So we may set the real
power injections for, at most, all but one of the generators (i.e. one generator bus is
usually chosen as the slack bus without specifying its real power). One generator for which
we do not set the real power injection is the one modeled at the swing bus. The generator
at the swing bus supplies the power difference between the specified power into the
system at the other buses and the total system output plus losses. Thus swing
bus is needed to supply the additional real and reactive power to meet the losses.
This generator swings to compensate for the network losses, or, one may say that it
takes up the slack. Therefore, rather than call this generator a |V| bus (as the above
naming convention would have it), we choose the terminology swing or slack as it
helps us to better remember its function. The voltage magnitude of the swing bus is
chosen to correspond to the typical voltage setting of this generator. The voltage angle
may be designated to be any angle, but normally it is designated as 0 o. The real and
reactive powers at the swing bus are found by the computer routine as part of the load
flow solution process. It is to be noted that the source at the swing bus is a perfect one,
called the swing machine, or slack machine. It is voltage regulated, i.e., the magnitude of
voltage fixed. The phase angle is the system reference phase and hence is fixed. The
generator at the swing bus has a torque angle and excitation which vary or swing
as the demand changes. This variation is such as to produce fixed voltage.

A word of caution about the swing bus is in order. Because the real power injection of the
swing bus is not set by the engineer but rather is an output of the power flow solution, it can
take on mathematically tractable but physically impossible values. Therefore, the engineer
must always check the swing bus generation level following a solution to ensure that it is
within the physical limitations of the generator.

Bus Admittance Matrix or Ybus

First step in solving the power flow is to create what is known as the bus dmittance matrix,
often call the Ybus.
Current injections at a bus are analogous to power injections. The student may have already been
introduced to them in the form of current sources at a node. Current injections may be either positive
(into the bus) or negative (out of the bus). Unlike current flowing through a branch (and thus is a branch
quantity), a current injection is a nodal quantity. The admittance matrix, a fundamental network analysis
tool that we shall use heavily, relates current injections at a bus to the bus voltages. Thus, the
admittance matrix relates nodal quantities. The Ybus gives the relationships between all the bus

current injections, I, and all the bus voltages, V,

We motivate these ideas by introducing a simple example.

Figure 2.3 shows a network represented in a hybrid fashion using one-line diagram
representation for the nodes (buses 1-4) and circuit representation for the branches
connecting the nodes and the branches to ground. The branches connecting the nodes
represent lines. The branches to ground represent any shunt elements at the buses, including
the charging capacitance at either end of the line. All branches are denoted with their
admittance values yij for a branch connecting bus i to bus j and yi for a shunt element at bus
i. The current injections at each bus i are denoted by Ii.

y13

I1

y34

I4

y12
y1

I2
y2

y23

I3

y3

y4

Figure 2- 3: Network for Motivating Admittance Matrix

The Ybus is developed by applying KCL at each bus in the system to relate the bus current
injections, the bus voltages, and the branch impedances and admittances.
Kirchoffs Current Law (KCL) requires that each of the current injections be equal to the sum
of the currents flowing out of the bus and into the lines connecting the bus to other buses,
or to the ground. Therefore, recalling Ohms Law, I=V/Z=VY, the current injected into bus 1
may be written as:

I1=(V1-V2)y12 + (V1-V3)y13 + V1y1

To be complete, we may also consider that bus 1 is connected to bus 4 through an infinite
impedance, which implies that the corresponding admittance y 14 is zero. The advantage to
doing this is that it allows us to consider that bus 1 could be connected to any bus in the
network. Then, we have:
I1=(V1-V2)y12 + (V1-V3)y13 + (V1-V4)y14 + V1y1

(T7.2)

Note that the current contribution of the term containing y 14 is zero since y14 is zero.
Rearranging eq. T7.2, we have:
I1= V1( y1 + y12 + y13 + y14) + V2(-y12)+ V3(-y13) + V4(-y14)

(T7.3)

Similarly, we may develop the current injections at buses 2, 3, and 4 as:

I2= V1(-y21) + V2( y2 + y21 + y23 + y24) + V3(-y23) + V4(-y24)
(T7.4)
I3= V1(-y31)+ V2(-y32) + V3( y3 + y31 + y32 + y34) + V4(-y34)
I4= V1(-y41)+ V2(-y42) + V3(-y34)+ V4( y4 + y41 + y42 + y43)
where we recognize that the admittance of the circuit from bus k to bus i is the same as the
admittance from bus i to bus k, i.e., yki=yik From eqs. (T7.3) and (T7.4), we see that the

current injections are linear functions of the nodal voltages. Therefore, we may write these
equations in a more compact form using matrices according to:

I 1 y1 y12 y13 y14

I
y 21
2
I 3
y 31

y 41
I 4

y12
y 2 y 21 y 23 y 24

y13
y 23

y 32
y 42

y 3 y 31 y 32 y 34
y 43

y14
y 24

V1
V
2
V3
y 34

y 4 y 41 y 42 y 43 V4

(T7.5)

Note: Observe the symmetry of the Y-bus.

The matrix containing the network admittances in eq. (T7.5) is the admittance matrix, also
known as the Y-bus, and denoted as:

y12
y13
y14
y1 y12 y13 y14

y 21
y 2 y 21 y 23 y 24
y 23
y 24

y 31
y 32
y 3 y 31 y 32 y 34
y 34

y 41
y 42
y 43
y 4 y 41 y 42 y 43

(T7.6)

Denoting the element in row i, column j, as Yij, we rewrite eq. (T7.6) as:

Y11
Y
Y 21
Y31

Y41

Y12 Y13 Y14

Y22 Y23 Y24
Y32 Y33 Y34

Y42 Y43 Y44

(T7.7)

where the terms Yij are not admittances but rather elements of the admittance matrix.
Therefore, eq. (T7.6) becomes:

I 1 Y11
I Y
2 21
I 3 Y31

I 4 Y41

Y12 Y13 Y14 V1

Y22 Y23 Y24 V2
Y32 Y33 Y34 V3

Y42 Y43 Y44 V4

(T7.8)

By using eq. (T7.7) and (T7.8), and defining the vectors V and I, we may write eq. (T7.8) in
compact form according to:

V1
V
V 2 ,
V3

V4

I1
I
I 2
I3

I4

I YV

(T7.9)

Y-bus formulation rules.

We make several observations about the admittance matrix given in eqs. (T7.6) and (T7.7).
These observations hold true for any linear network of any size.
1. The matrix is symmetric, i.e., Yij=Yji.
2. A diagonal element Yii is obtained as the sum of admittances for all branches connected

to bus i, including the shunt branch, i.e.,

Yii yi

k 1, k i

ik , where we emphasize once

again that yik is non-zero only when there exists a physical connection between buses i
and k.
3. The off-diagonal elements are the negative of the admittances connecting buses i and j,
i.e., Yij=-yji.
These observations enable us to formulate the admittance matrix very quickly from the
network based on visual inspection. The following example will clarify.
Example 2.1
Consider the network given in Fig. T7.5, where the numbers indicate admittances.

1-j4

I1

2-j3

I4

2
2-j4
j0.1

I2
j0.2

2-j5
j0.3

I3

j0.4

The admittance matrix is given by inspection as:

Y11
Y
Y 21
Y31

Y41

Y12 Y13 Y14 2 j 7.9 2 j 4 1 j 4

0

Y22 Y23 Y24 2 j 4 4 j8.8 2 j 5

0

Y32 Y33 Y34 1 j 4 2 j 5 5 j11.7 2 j 3

Y42 Y43 Y44 0

0
2 j 3 2 j 2.6

Note:

The shunt elements all have positive susceptance, and must therefore be capacitive.

The elements of Y-bus are designated as Ykj= Gkj+jBkj. Observe Bkj<0 for diagonal
elements; Bkj>0 otherwise.
Example 2.2:

The power flow equations

We have defined the net complex power injection into a bus, in Section T7.2, as S k=SGk-SDk.
In this section, we desire to derive an expression for this quantity in terms of network voltages
and admittances. We begin by reminding the reader that all quantities are assumed to be in
per unit, so we may utilize single-phase power relations. Drawing on the familiar relation for
complex power, we may express Sk as:

Sk=VkIk*

(T.7.10)

Let Pk and Qk denote the real and reactive power entering the network at the bus k. The
the complex conjugate the power injected to at bus k is

Pk Q VkIk
*

From eq. (T7.8), we see that the current injection into any bus k may be expressed as
N

I k YkjV j

(T7.11)

j 1

where, again, we emphasize that the Ykj terms are admittance matrix elements and not
admittances. Substitution of eq. (T7.11) into eq. (T7.10) yields:
*

N
N

*
*

S k Vk YkjV j Vk Ykj V j
j 1
j 1

(T7.12)

Recall that Vk is a phasor, having magnitude and angle, so that Vk=|Vk| . Also, Ykj, being a
function of admittances, is therefore generally complex, and we define G kj and Bkj as the real
and imaginary parts of the admittance matrix element Y kj, respectively, so that Ykj=Gkj+jBkj.
Then we may rewrite eq. (T7.12) as
N

j1

j1

Sk Vk Ykj* Vj* Vk k ( G kj jBkj )* Vj j

Vk k ( G kj jBkj ) Vj j
j1

(T7.13)

Vk k Vj j ( G kj jBkj ) Vk Vj ( k j ) ( G kj jBkj )
j1

j1

Recall, from the Euler relation, that a phasor may be expressed as complex function of
sinusoids, i.e., V=|V|=|V|{cos+jsin}, we may rewrite eq. (T7.13) as
N

Sk Vk Vj ( k j ) ( G kj jBkj )

j1
The most important step
(T7.14)
N
in deriving pf eqts:
substitute Y-bus relation

Vk Vj cos( k j ) j sin( k j ) ( G kj jBkj )

j1
into S=VI*.
If we now perform the algebraic multiplication of the two terms inside the parentheses of eq.

(T7.14), and then collect real and imaginary parts, and recall that S k=Pk+jQk, we can express
eq. (T7.14) as two equations, one for the real part, P k, and one for the imaginary part, Qk,
according to:
The pf equations! We will
be very wise to ensure
that the left-hand-side is
always known.

Pk Vk Vj G kj cos( k j ) Bkj sin( k j )

N

j1

Qk Vk Vj G kj sin( k j ) Bkj cos( k j )

N

j1

If the admittance matrix is expressed in polar form as

(T7.15)

kj

Y
kj

kj
N

Pk Vk Vj
j1

kj

cos(

Q k Vk Vj
j1

kj

kj

j kj )

sin( k j kj )

(T7.16)

Taking Vk out of the summation

Pk Vk
Q k Vk

V Y
j1

kj

cos(

V Y
j1

kj

kj

j kj )

sin( k j kj )

(T7.16)

Equations (9)-(10) and (13)-(14) are the power flow equations or the load flow
equations in two alternative forms, corresponding to the n-bus system, where each
bus-i is characterized by four variables, Pk, Qk, | |, and . They form the fundamental
building block from which we attack the power flow problem.
Thus a total of 4n variables are involved in these equations. The load flow equations can be
solved for any 2n unknowns, if the other 2n variables are specified. This establishes the need
for classification of buses of the system for load flow analysis into: PV bus, PQ bus, etc.
Solutions to Non Linear Equations
Constant power loads and generator injections are nonlinear and hence systems with these
elements cannot be analyzed by superposition. Nonlinear problems can be very difficult to
solve, and usually require an iterative approach.
Nonlinear Systems May Have Multiple Solutions or No Solution.

The power flow equations are non-linear equations. In some cases the power flow can be
solved analytically. In most cases, however, the solution cannot be found analytically, and
the use of iterative methods implemented by digital computer is indicated.
The solution of the simultaneous nonlinear power flow equations requires the use of iterative
techniques for even the simplest power systems. There are many methods for solving
nonlinear equations, such as:
- Gaus -Seidel.
- Newton Raphson.
- Fast Decoupled.

The Power Flow Problem

The power flow problem may now be stated with some precision. The formulation is based on
operational consideration of the power industry as well as mathematical considerations.
Operational considerations indicate that at a generator bus the active power P Gk and the
voltage magnitude | | may be specified (by varying turbine and generator filed current). At
all buses we assume that SDK are specified. In terms of bus power, then we see that a
generator bus Pk = PGk-PDk may be specified, while at a load bus S k = -SDk is specified. Thus
at some buses Pk and | | may be specified, at others Pk and Qk. One important point must be
noted. In general, we cannot specify all the Pks independently. There is a constraint imposed
by the need to balance active power. With a lossless transmission system, the sum of the Pks
over all the buses equals to zero. Thus one of the P ks is determined by specification of the
rest. On the other hand, with a lossy system the sum of the Pks must be equal the I2R losses
in the transmission system. A problem arises because these losses are not known accurately
in advance of the power flow calculation. The resolution of this problem is simple and effective
and takes care of both cases. For a calculation of steady-state values, this choice is arbitrary;
for convenience we specify Pk at all buses but one. The injected power at this bus is left open
to take up the slack and balance the active powers. It is conventional, but completely
arbitrary, to number the buses so that the generator assigned this function is connected to
bus 1. For this generator we dont specify P 1, or equivalently PG1, but rather specify 1 =
|1 |1 . Choosing 1 amounts to no more than picking a time reference. For a calculation os
steady-state values, this choice is arbitrary; for convenience we ordinarily pick 1 = 0.
In summary, there are three types of sources at the different buses.
1. A voltage source (Slack bus, or swing bus). Assume at bus 1.

2. P, || sources (voltage control buses). At other generator buses

3. P, Q sources (load bus). At the load buses.
Finally, it should be noted that while ordinarily a bus may be clearly identified as either
generator or load bus, in the case of a load bus with capacitors the bus may be identified as
a P, Q bus if the capacitors are utilized to maintain a specified P (=0) and ||.
Sometimes Q rather than || is specified at a generator bus. In this we include it with the load
buses. Unless otherwise indicated, we assume voltage control at generator buses.
We now state two versions of the power flow program. In both cases we assume that bus 1
is the slack (or swing) bus. In case I we assume that all the remaining buses are P, Q buses.
Case I: Given V1, S2, S3,,Sk
Find S1, V2, V3,, Vk
In case II we assume both P, || and P, Q buses. We number the buses so that buses 2, 3, ,
m are P, || buses and m+1, , k are P, Q buses.
Case II: Given V1, (P2, |2 |, , (Pm, | |, Sm+1, , Sk.
Find S1, (Q2, 2 ),, (Qm, ), Vm+1,, Vn.
We now discuss the formulation by noting the following points.
1. The preceding formulations concern bus power (and voltages). However, the SDk and
SGk are involved since Sk = SGk-SDk. Thus at the P, Q buses Sk = -SDk while at the
P, || buses, Pk =PGk-PDk.
2. Case I corresponds to the one-generator case (at bus 1). Case II is the more typical
case.
3. In both cases we assume that two out of 4 variables at each bus are given and are
asked to find the remaining two variables.

Power Flow Solution by Gauss-Seidel (GS) method

The GS method is an iterative algorithm for solving non-linear algebraic equations. An
initial solution vector is assumed, chosen from past experiences, statistical data or from
practical considerations. This is then used as a starting estimate (or initial guess) in the
iterative procedure. At every subsequent iteration, the solution is updated till convergence is
reached.

Case (a): Systems with PQ buses only:

Initially assume all buses to be PQ type buses, except the slack bus. This means that (n1)
complex bus voltages have to be determined. For ease of programming, the slack bus is
generally numbered as bus-1. PV buses are numbered in sequence and PQ buses are ordered
next in sequence. This makes programming easier, compared to random ordering of buses.
We derive equations for a four-bus system and write the general equations later. With the
slack bus designated as number 1, computations start with bus with bus 2. If P2 and Q2 are
the scheduled real and reactive power, respectively, are the scheduled real and reactive power,
respectively, entering node 2, it follows that k = 2 and N =4. Then from

P jQ V I
*

k k

2 2
= 21 1 + 22 2 + 23 3 + 24 4
2

Solving for

gives

2 =

1 2 2
(21 1 + 23 3 + 24 4 )]
[
22
2

For now let us assume that buses 3 and 4 are also load buses with real and reactive
power specified. Expressions similar to that in Eq. (9. 15) may be written for each bus. At bus
3 we have

3 =

1 3 3
(31 1 + 32 2 + 34 4 )]
[
33
3

If we were to equate real and imaginary parts of Eqs. (9. 15), (9. 1 6), and the similar
equation of bus 4, we would obtain six equations in the six state 2 to 4 and |2 | to
|4 |. However we solve for the complex voltages directly from the equations as they
appear. The solution proceeds by iteration based on the scheduled real and reactive power
at buses 2, 3, and 4, and the scheduled slack bus voltage 1 = |1 |1 , and initial voltage
estimates 2 (0) , 3 (0) , and 4 (0) at other buses.
Solution of Eq. ( 9.15) gives the corrected voltage 2 (1) calculated from

2 (1) =

1 2 2
(21 1 + 23 3 (0) + 24 4 (0) )]
[
(0)
22 2

As the corrected voltage is found at each bus, it is used to calculate the corrected
voltage at the next bus. Therefore, substituting
at bus 3

2 (1)

we obtain for the first calculated value

3 (1) =

1 3 3
(31 1 + 32 2 (1) + 34 4 (0) )]
[
(0)
33 3

For a system of N buses the general equation for the calculated voltage at any bus k where P
and Q are scheduled is

()

=1

=+1

1
=
[ (1) () (1) ]

OR

()

1
=
(1)
(1)

=1
[
]

Keeping in mind that updated (latest) values of Vk will be used in the equation.
Algorithm for GS method
1. Prepare data for the given system as required.
2. Formulate the bus admittance matrix YBUS.
inspection.

This is generally done by the rule of

3. Assume initial voltages for all buses, 2,3,N. In practical power systems, the
magnitude of the bus voltages is close to 1.0 p.u. Hence, the complex bus voltages at
all (n-1) buses (except slack bus) are taken to be 1.000 . This is normally referred as
the flat start solution.
4. Update the voltages. In any ( + 1)st iteration, the voltages at any bus are given
by

=1

=+1

1
=
(+1) () ]
[
()
( )

(+1)

Here note that when computation is carried out for bus-k, updated values are already
available for buses 2,3.(k-1) in the current (i+1)st iteration. Hence these values are
used. For buses (k+1 ) . .N, values from previous, kth iteration are used.
5. Continue iterations till
(+1)

Where,
pu.

(+1)

| = |

()

| <

for

= 2, 3,

is the tolerance value. Generally it is customary to use a value of 0.0001

6. Compute slack bus power after voltages have converged using [Assuming bus 1 is
slack bus].

7. Compute all line flows.

8. The complex power loss in the line is given by Sik + Ski. The total loss in the system
is calculated by summing the loss over all the lines

Case (b): Voltage-controlled (PV) buses:

When voltage magnitude rather than reactive power is specified at bus k, the real and
imaginary components of the voltage for each iteration are found by first computing a
value for the reactive power.

= ( )
=1
which has the equivalent algorithmic expression

1
(1)

() = (

[ () + ])
=1

Therefore for the voltage-controlled bus, first the reactive power is computed. In all
calculations updated values are used if available. The bus voltage is calculated as

()

1 ()
=
(1)
(1)

=1
[
]

For load buses Pk and Qk are known and the iteration proceeds as in case I (i.e., in 10.14 the
()

superscript on Qk and the tilde on

are ignored). For the generator buses Qk is not specified,

but we can do a side calculation to estimate it on the basis of the ith step voltages, already
calculated.

We then use the above equation to calculate

()

specified for generator buses, we then replace |

()

a preliminary version of . Since | | is

| by | | and obtain .

Case (c): PV buses with reactive power generation limits specified:

Either voltage magnitude or reactive power must be specified at every bus except the slack
bus, where voltage is specified by both voltage magnitude and angle. At buses with generation
the voltage magnitude is specified as well as the real power PG supplied by the generator.
The reactive power QG entering the network from the generation is then determined by the
computer in solving the power-flow problem. From a practical viewpoint the output of the
generator must be within definite limits given by the inequality

where Qmin is the minimum and Qmax is the maximum limit imposed on the reactive
power output of the generator at the bus. If the Q limit at the voltage controlled bus is violated
during any iteration, it means that it means that the voltage cannot be maintained at
the specified value due to lack of reactive power support.
In the course of power-flow solution if the calculated value of QG is outside either limit, then
QG is set equal to the limit violated, i.e.,

Then originally specified voltage magnitude at the bus is relaxed, and the bus is then
treated as a P-Q bus for which a new voltage is calculated by the computer program.
In subsequent iterations the program endeavors to sustain the originally specified voltage
at the bus while ensuring that QR is within the permitted range of values. This could
well be possible since other changes may occur elsewhere in the system to support
the local action of the generator excitation as it adjusts to satisfy the specified terminal
voltage.
If in the subsequent iteration, if Qk falls within the limits, then the bus can be switched back
to PV status.

Acceleration of convergence
It is found that in GS method of load flow, the number of iterations increase with
increase in the size of the system. The number of iterations required can be reduced if the
correction in voltage at each bus is accelerated, by multiplying with a constant , called the
acceleration factor. In the (k+1)st iteration we can let
(+1)

() = + ((+1) )
(+1)

where is a real number. When =1, the value of

is the computed value. If 1 <

< 2, then the value computed is extrapolated. Generally is taken between1.2 to 1.6, for GS
load flow procedure. At PQ buses (pure load buses) if the voltage magnitude violates
the limit, it simply means that the specified reactive power demand cannot be supplied,
with the voltage maintained within acceptable limits.
Example 2.3
Figure 2-4 shows a single-line diagram of a five-bus power system. Input data are given in
Tables 1, 2, and 3. As shown in table 1, bus 1, to which a generator is connected, is the swing
bus. Bus 3, to which a generator and a load are connected, is a voltage-controlled bus. Buses
2, 4, and 5 are load buses. Note that the loads at buses 2 and 3 are inductive since Q 2 = -QL2
= -2.8 and QL3 = -0.4 are negative.
For each bus k, determine which of the variables , , , and are input input data and
which are unknowns. Also, compute the elements of the second row of Y bus.

Figure 2- 4: Single-line diagram for example 2.1

Table 1: Bus input data

Table 2: Line input data

Table 3: Transformer input data

Solution: The input data and unknowns are listed in Table 4. For bus 1, the swing bus, P 1
and Q1 are unknowns. For bus 3, a voltage-controlled bus, 3 and 3 are unknowns. For
buses 2, 4, and 5, load buses, 2 , 4 , 5 and 2 , 4 , 5 are unknowns.
Table 4: Input data and unknowns

The elements of Ybus are computed as follows:

Since buses 1 and 3 are not directly connected to bus 2,

Example 2.4
Figure shows the one-line diagram of a simple three-bus power system with a generation at
bus 1. The magnitude of voltage at bus 1 is adjusted to 1.05 per unit. The scheduled loads at
buses 2 and 3 are as marked on the diagram. Line impedances are marked in per unit on a
100-MVA base and the line charging capacitances are neglected.

Figure 2- 5: One-line diagram of Example 2.4 (impedances in pu on 100-MVA base)

a) Using the Gauss-Seidel method, determine the phasor values of the voltage at the
load buses 2 and 3 (P-Q buses) accurate to four decimal places for at the end of
second iteration.
b) Find the slack bus real and reactive power.
c) Determine the line flows and line losses. Construct a power flow diagram showing the
direction of line flow.
Solution

THE NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD

Taylor's series expansion for a function of two or more variables is the basis for the NewtonRaphson method of solving the power-flow problem. Our study of the method begins by a
discussion of the solution of a problem involving only two equations and two variables. Then,
we see how to extend the analysis to the solution of power-flow equations.

THE NEWTON-RAPHSON POWER-FLOW SOLUTION

Case I: all buses are load buses

Pk Vk Vj G kj cos( k j ) Bkj sin( k j )

N

j1

Qk Vk Vj G kj sin( k j ) Bkj cos( k j )

N

j1

The slack bus has specified values for 1 , and |1 |, and each of the other buses in the
network has the two state variables , and | | to be calculated in the power-flow
solution.
Therefore we strip away the first equations (involving P1 and P2). In the remaining equations,
the Pk and Qk on the left sides of the equations are specified values. The right sides are
functions of , and | |.
Since we assume that 1 , and |1 | are known, it remains to find N-1 unknown , and N-1
unknown | |. It is convenient to define the (N-1) vectors , and ||, and their composite
vector X as follows:

|2 |
2
= [ ] || = [ ]
| |

=[ ]=
||
|2 |

[| |]

Thus we define the functions () and () by

() = | | | |[ cos( ) + sin( )]
=1

() = | | | |[ sin( ) cos( )]
=1

For k = 1, 2,3, , N
The notation is a natural one since for any given X the right sides are the active and reactive
components of the bus power. We can rewrite the power flow equation wit simpler power flow
equations; at the same time we will stripping away the first (active and reactive) equations.
We get

 = (),

= 2,3, ,

= (),

= 2,3, ,

In these equations the and are specified constants, while the () and () functions
of the unknown . Lets assume the specified values are given by a vector Y and the functions
as (), In vector form
()

()

()
() = [
]=
==
()
()

[ ]
[ ()]
In the course of the iterations we will be picking a sequence of values () in an effort to make
the left sides match the given right sides (i.e., to drive the mismatches to zero). We now set
up the mismatch equations in the vector form () = . We subtract the right sides from the
left sides to get

() = 0

= 2,3, ,

() = 0

= 2,3, ,

The above equation identifies the 2N-2 components of () . Thus () = 2 2 () ,

()= 3 3 (), , ()= (). In matrix notation, this is written as

2 2 ()

()
() = ()
2
2

[ ()]
We next consider J, the Jacobian of f. It is convenient to partition as follows:

Defining the so-called mismatch vectors as:

() = [

2 2 ()

()

] and () = [

2 2 ()

()

()
() = [
]
()
Next is to write it in a form in which the power flow equations can be solved by N-R iteration.
[

For a 4-bus power system

11
21

() ()
12 () ()
] [
] =[
]
22
||
()

Procedures of NR
We now apply to the power-flow problem the four Newton-Raphson steps starting with

() = [

()
] at ith iteration.
||

STEP 1: Compute the mismatch using the initial guesses as follows:

()

= () = [

()
]
()

()
=[ ][
]

()

()

STEP 2: Calculate the Jacobian matrix

STEP 3: Use Gauss elimination and back substitution to solve.

STEP 4: Compute

(+)

(+1)

=[ ]
=[ ]
||
||

()

+[

()
]
||

Starting with initial value () , the procedure continues until convergence is obtained or until
the number of iterations exceeds a specified maximum. Convergence criteria are often based
on () (called power mismatches) rather than () (phase angle and voltage magnitude
mismatches).
Case II: Voltage-controlled Bus

In the previous algorithm if the Q limit at the voltage controlled bus is violated during

iQ computed using (21) is either less than Qi, min or greater than
Qi,max, it means that the voltage cannot be maintained at the specified value due to
lack of reactive power support. This bus is then treated as a PQ bus in the (k+1)st
iteration and the voltage is calculated with the value of Qi set as follows:

From Eq. (9.4) we have

Information available from load-flow studies

The basic information contained in the load-flow output is:

i) All bus voltage magnitudes and phase angles w.r.t the slack bus.
ii) All bus active and reactive power injections.
iii) All line sending- and receiving-end complex power flows.
iv) Individual line losses can be deduced by subtracting receiving-end complex
power from sending-end complex power.
v) Total system losses can be deduced by summing item iv) for all lines, or by
summing complex power at all loads and generators and subtracting the totals.

The most important information obtained from the load-flow is the voltage profile
of the system. If V varies greatly over the system, large reactive flows will result; this,

in turn, will lead to increased real power losses and, in extreme cases, an increased
likelihood of voltage collapse. When a particular bus has an unacceptably low voltage,
the usual practice is to install capacitor banks in order to provide reactive compensation
to the load. Load-flow studies are used to determine how much reactive compensation
should be applied at a PQ bus, to bring its voltage up to an appropriate level, i.e.:
i) Re-execute the load-flow with the bus re-designated as PV type with the required
voltage level specified.
ii) Subtract the value of Q obtained from i) from the value obtained in the old load-flow when the bus
was PQ.
iii) The result is the value of Qc needed to bring the voltage up to the specified level.
Note that if the specified voltage is not 1 pu, then the value of Qc has to be
adjusted by 1/V2
in order to specify Qc at rated voltage.

If new lines (or additional transformers) are to be installed, to reinforce the

system, a load-flow will show how it will relieve overloads on adjacent lines. It will also
show how much reduction in losses will result from the new line (important for economic
assessment.)