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British Geomorphological Research Group: Field Method For Hillslope Description
British Geomorphological Research Group: Field Method For Hillslope Description
RESEARCH GROUP
TECHNICAL BULLETIN NO. 7.
Field methods of w a t e r h a r d n e s s d e t e r m i n a t i o n .
Ian Douglas, 1969.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Techniques of t i l l fabric a n a l y s i s .
J. T. A n d r e w s , 1970.
7.
8.
FIELD
METHOD
FOR
HILLSLOPE
DESCRIPTION
by
Luna B. Leopold and Thomas Dunne
for
The C o m m i s s i o n on P r e s e n t Day P r o c e s s e s
International Geographical Union
(Authors' a d d r e s s : U . S . Department of the I n t e r i o r .
Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. 20242, U. S. A. >
CONTENTS
Introduction
page
3
D e s c r i p t i o n of P r o c e d u r e
3) Survey of c r o s s profiles
4) D e s c r i p t i o n of vegetation
5) Surficial m a t e r i a l
1) Painted r o c k lines
9
-
17
17
22
24
EDITORS'
PREFACE
The publication of the Technical Bulletins by the British Geomorphological Research Group arises out of a common need,
expressed by the Group as a whole, to have a source of standardised information relating to increasingly sophisticated methods of
data collection. The demand for such Bulletins is threefold: for
comparability of results among workers in the field; for the dissemination of information concerning techniques, particularly where
this speeds up and facilitates the execution of a research programme,
and for manuals which stress particularly the uses and limitations
of the techniques in the field of geomorphology.
The authors and editors have endeavoured to ensure accuracy and where necessary the manuscripts are being forwarded
before publication to interested commercial firms for critical evaluation. In other respects the authors alone are responsible for the
views expressed.
The editors would like to express their appreciation to
the authors, the executive committee and the technical publications
sub-committee of the B.G.R.G. for the support they have given in
getting this Bulletin to press and particularly to Professor K. M.
Clayton for his advice and help in publication.
The sub-committee includes L. F . Curtis (Bristol),
C. A. M.King (Nottingham), O. Slaymaker (University of British
Columbia), M. Sweeting (Oxford), P. Worsley (Reading).
INTRODUCTION
It is recognized that one factor hindering knowledge of
hillslope formation is lack of uniform data on what are the shapes
of hills in various parts of the world. The Commission is taking
the lead in encouraging scientists to assist in the collection of a
uniform set of data which merely describe a hillslope. After such
simple data are available, many more sophisticated studies will
be required on process, rate of process activity, and other matters.
Some data already collected using the procedure described
below give an interesting comparison of the hillslope profiles for
different lithologies and different climates. These data give added
impetus to further collection.
Under the auspices of the Commission, such data will be
published or otherwise made available to interested scientists.
The exact form and place of publication are not yet determined.
Any survey data which are collected will be gladly r e ceived by the Commission. The information compiled in a manner
similar to the example enclosed should be sent to the Secretary
of the Commission, Dr. Luna B. Leopold, U.S. Geological
Survey, Washington, D.C. 20242.
International
DESCRIPTION
1)
OF
PROCEDURE
2)
Table 1
St a.
(ft)
BM1
0+00
0+05
0+10
B.S.
H.I.
1.92
201.92
F.S.
Elev.
Notes
2.67
200. 00
199. 25
Top of pin
Ground Surface
2. 70
199.22
199. 17
2. 75
0+15
0+20
0+25
2. 75
2. 72
199. 18
3. 20
198. 72
0+30
0+35
3. 38
3. 58
198. 54
198. 34
0+40
0+45
3. 78
4. 07
198. 14
197. 85
0+5 0
4. 34.
197.58
0+55
4. 83
197. 09
Hole Dug
199.20
Table 1 (continued)
C r o s s profile at 0+55 ftH . I . = 201.92 ft. Depth to b e d r o c k approx. 1.0 ft.
Sta.
(ft)
F.S.
Elev.
%
Veg.
6. 04
195. 88
6. 09
6. 18
195. 83
195. 74
30
6. 08
6. 06
10
6.13
195. 84
195. 86
195. 79
12
6.14
14
4
6
Surficial M a t e r i a l
Bedrocl k
mm.
20
90
20
64
//
15
45
//
40
32
50
22
6. 02
195. 78
195. 90
30
16
16
6. 08
195. 84
20
18
6. 23
6. 27
195. 69
195. 65
6. 29
6. 28
195. 63
195. 64
195. 65
195. 73
195. 64
32
6.
6.
6.
6.
34
6. 21
36
6. 26
195. 66
195. 71
195. 66
38
6. 35
6. 29
195. 57
195. 63
20
22
24
26
28
30
40
27
19
28
26
ii.
5
8
5
10
5. 6
25
25
^4
Ml
w. m
m mm m
~m wimim
m. Wl
/
Ill
ML II
20
35
45
30
Surface r o c k s a r e subangular
45
to subrounded. Much q u a r t z i t e .
25
V a r i e t y of c o l o r s and t y p e s .
505
Stream deposits.
21
= 24%
Table 1.
4)
Description of vegetation
Surficial material
The size distribution of the surficial material is measured
by sieve analysis if the material is fine. If a significant proportion
of the surface is covered by gravel and boulders, the size distribution is measured by a combination of sieve analysis and pebble counting. Data are collected in the manner first described by Wolman
(1954) for river gravels. In the vicinity of the surveyed cross profile, the investigator walks along several parallel lines, picking
up a rock at each pace.
Averting his eyes, he reaches down over the toe of his
boot and picks up the first rock touched by his outstretched middle
finger. Each rock chosen in this way is measured across its intermediate axis (b-axis) with a scale on which are marked class intervals in millimeters. Class intervals of rock size are, in millimeters, <4, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16., 22, 32, 45, 64, 90, 128, etc.
The class intervals differ by,/2. In the field, the size is recorded
opposite the appropriate lower class limit (Table 1). This makes
the tabulation consistent with that for sieve analysis where the amount
held on a particular sieve is tabulated against the size of the sieve
opening. If the operator touches material which is less than four
millimeters in diameter, he simply records one rock in a class
8
To B r i d g e r
National ^
Forest
To U.S.
Hghwy.189High point on
road:7643ft.
To Red Butte
163 Mag.
Figure 1.
Data
11
Profile line
* BM 1
mudflow
deposit
t o road, 5 0 feet
/
'
x 0 * 5 0 ft.
-* 0 * 7 0
N
mag.
Fan
--x
4 + 50
-*
7 + 50
major
rill
profile
painted rock line
x
0
i
100feet
1
F i g u r e 2.
channel
12
CD
CO
CD
co
CD
CO
cn
-J
oo
cn
oo oo
h-*
on
2+32
4*
Ol
00+0
"69+0
-a oo oo oo
CD
CD
CD
CD
CD
CO
CO
CO
CO
Distance
CD
2+01
CD
2+11
CD
2+22
CD
0+10
CO
0+20
0+29.
4=>
2+42
cn
0+39.
CD
0+49.
0+59.
4^
0+78.
-a
0+87.
Ol
CO
1+06.
on
cn
1+15.
on
1+24.
cn
1+34.
00
1+43.
i*
1+53.
1+62.
1+72.
1+91.
1+82.
CO
96+0
ST
H
CO
oo
4*
oo
00
-J
2+52
00
4* cn
<i
00
CD
CO
00
h-'
CO
CO
CO
CO
CO
CO
Ol
CO
CO
CO
CO
00
CO
CO
CO
00
Ol
CO
CO
cn co
CO
cn
Ol
-j
CO
-J
00
CD
-J
cn
5+22.
5+12.
5+02.
4+92.
4+82.
4+72.
CO
00
4^
Ol
5+82.
5+72.
5+52.
h-*
h-*
CO
cn
-J
00
CO
CO
i-*
00
cn
(
* CO
CO
-j
co
00
4^
CD
CD
Ol
CD
CD
cn
CD
-J
9+18.
8+79.
-J
00
-J
00
-J
4^
-J
4>-
Oi
H-*
-J
00
On
CO
-J
on cn
4* CD on
-a
H-*
on
-j
co
oo oo
CO co
CD
y-
-J
CD
CO
co
CO
-J
4^
CO
-j
CO
CO
4*
CO
4^
on
co
CO
CO
CO
co
oo
co
4*
00
On
en on
CO
-j
-J
CO
CD N
<! O
CO
'69+8
-J
00
cn cn
CD
le vat ion
4=- Ol
8+39.
4*
co co o
co co o
8+49.
00
H-1
8+59.
CO
'68+8
9+28.
'89+6
9+38.
'80+0
CD
'82+0
CO
cn
1-*
O
stanc
8+29.
4^
8+99.
cn
9+08.
CO
9+78.
co
9+88.
CO
9+98.
4^
0+18.
en
CO
Ol
ISO
~J
CO
4*
< *
nt al
ation
CD
CO
oo co o
<
nc e s a r e h
ation Distan
Ol
OO
6+21.
*>
00
6+31.
CD
CO
00
CO
6+41.
CD
I'
CO
4^
9+48.
H-*
cn
6+51.
CD
cn
4^
6+61.
On
CO
6+81.
4^
\L CO
6+71.
CO
9+58.
oo co
00
co
en cn oo co co
CD CD
o oo 4* CO O 00
CO
CD
7+00.
h-*
cn
7+10.
CO
7+20.
CD
7+30.
oo
h-*
7+40.
7+99.
-J
cn cn
o o o o o
00 CD CD CD
7+50.
8+09.
en
*>
00
o o
cn cn
7+60.
CO
on
00
7+70.
cn
4^ Ol
7+80.
00
7+89.
CO
-J
8+19.
o o o o
o o 4^
on cn -a co
CO
'06+9
5+91.
co o
cn
4+10.
6+01.
CO
h-a
4+20.
6+11.
-J
h-*
4+30.
-a
4+44.
4^
00
4^ 4^ 4^ 4^ 4^ 4^ 4^
oo o CO 00 Ol cn oo CD
4+53.
4^
4*
4+62.
-J
"29+9
CD
cn -a
Note: D
Distance
2+72
CO
ation
2+81
H-*
In f e
Dist ance E
2+91
oo co o
3+21
-J
3+51
071
3+80
3+01
CO
5+32.
h-
29+2
CO
lev ation
-a
3+11
3+90
-j
5+42.
4+00
-j
3+33
CO
3+41
CO
3+61
CO
CO
cn cn cn
o
o 00
3+70
CO
Ol
Ol
Table 3
C r o s s profile at 0+55 feet
Ele v.
197. 15
197. 13
4
6
8
197. 13
197. 12
Depth to Bedrock
197. 02
10
197. 05
12
197. 04
14
16
18
197. 15
20
22
197. 13
24
26
28
30
196. 94
32
196. 39
34
36
38
196. 29
40
195. 48
St a.
0
2
197. 12
mm.
%wt.
90
6.1
mm.
%wt.
8
5.6
7. 8 1.2
64
8.2
1.0 feet
45
32
5. 9 13. 2
4
0.5
22
16. 4
16
21. 9
11
17.6
<4
1. 7
197. 14
196. 90
196. 84
196. 77
196. 60
196. 07
195.. 81
14
Table 3 (continued)
Cross profile at 1+00 feet
St a.
0
2
4
6
8
10
Elt5V.
181. 22
181. 20
181. 20
181. 19
181. 09
181. 12
181. 11
12
14
16
181. 19
18
181. 21
20
22
181. 20
181. 22
m m . 90
%wt. 5.4
64
7.3
45
13.0
m m . 11
% wt. 8.6
8
4.8
5.6
1.7
32
17.5
22
23.2
4
0.6
<4
0.1
16
18.4
181. 12
24
26
28
181. 01
30
180. 67
32
34
36
38
180. 46
180. 36
180. 14
40
180. 91
180. 84
179. 88
179. 75
15
Table 3 (continued)
C r o s s profile ;
feet
Sta.
Elev.
V e g e t a t i o n C o v e r 3 7% ( C r o w n d e n s i t y )
163.58
C o v e r c o n s i s t s m a i n l y of b i g s a g e ( A r t e m i s i a
163.75
t r i d e n t a ) and v a r i o u s g r a s s e s ( P e a and A g r o -
163.54
p y r o n s p p . ).
163.73
A r e a of B e d r o c k O u t c r o p s (%)
163.87
Depth to B e d r o c k
10
163.79
12
163.97
14
163.03
16
163.97
18
164.03
20
163.82
22
1 6 4 . 10
24
163.99
26
164.14
28
164.21
30
164.35
32
164.39
34
164.42
36
164.40
38
164.45
40
164.54
1. 5 f e e t
mm.
92
% wt. 1 0 . 5
64
10.8
45
12.7
32
15.5
22
18.0
11
8
4. 9
5.6
0. 7
4
0.9
<^4
2.4
mm.
16
16.0
S u r f a c e r o c k s d e p l e t e d of c a l i c h e c o a t i n g c o m p a r e d w i t h t h o s e at s t a t i o n 0+55 ft. T w o t h i r d s
b y c o u n t a r e w i t h o u t c a l i c h e . S o m e w e r e found
w h i c h r e t a i n a r e m n a n t of c a l i c h e a s if o r i g i n ally c o a t e d on b o t t o m . S u g g e s t s m o t i o n , i n s t a b l i t y and w e a r .
S o i l P r o f i l e at 1+50 f e e t
0 - 1.5 ft. - T a n - c o l o u r e d , s t o n y , fine s a n d
and silt with n u m e r o u s s t o n e s . L a r g e s t s t o n e s
3 2 - 4 5 m m ; a v e r a g e s i z e 16 m m . M o s t s t o n e s
c o v e r e d w i t h r e s i s t a n t c a l i c h e on one s i d e o n l y ,
i n d i c a t i n g s u r f a c e d e p o s i t i o n . No c a l i c h e i n
m a t r i x . No s o i l s t r u c t u r e o r p r o f i l e d e v e l o p ment. I n t e r p r e t e d as a mudflow. Rocks in
s o i l s i m i l a r t o t h o s e on s u r f a c e .
Roots p e n e t r a t e t o 1. 25 ft.
1.5 ft. - c l a y b e d r o c k .
S t a t i o n 2+00 f e e t
No c r o s s p r o f i l e
Vegetation Cover
S a m e a s at 14-5 0 f e e t
A r e a of B e d r o c k O u t c r o p s (%)
Depth to B e d r o c k
1.0 feet
22
6.0
16
11
4.2 9.7
8
8.9
5.6
12.5
4
8.4
< 4
50.3
S a m p l e t a b u l a t i o n : D a t a f r o m s u r v e y s of c r o s s p r o f i l e s ,
vegetation, and s u r f i c i a l m a t e r i a l .
16
ADDITIONAL
MEASURE MENTS
In addition to the profiles and cross profiles which are descriptive, the Commission recommends installation of two kinds
of simple observation to record, by successive resurvey, effects
of processes through time. These observations are simple, but if
various investigators use the same methods over a period of time,
then the observations become more useful and understandable.
It is recommended that on each surveyed hillslope three
lines of painted rocks be placed and their distances of movement
be recorded at least two times a year. Where additional observations are possible, such as movements resulting from a single rainstorm, these additional observations are of course useful.
And on each surveyed hillslope, the Commission recommends one mass-movement pit, usually placed near the center of
the surveyed profile. The pit should be excavated and movement
recorded once a year. Additional pits are desirable but if one is
placed on each surveyed hillslope, much useful information of a
uniform type would be available in only a few years.
The following pages describe how to lay out and observe
both the painted rock lines and the pits.
1)
64mm
0
45
32
22
Painted r o c k s
64.
11 5 6
16 8
H*~
39
cm.
-H
27
I I I i*10 5
19 13
7
'
Figure 3.
- -
39
27
19
Spacing
in cm.
19
Number of r o c k s
Red
50 ft. west of surveyed hillslope p r o file to 50 ft. e a s t of it.
F r o m west to e a s t r o c k s held on s i e v e s
of the following s i z e s : 64 m m , 45 m m ,
32 m m , 22 m m , 16 m m , 11" m m ,
8 m m , 5. 6 m m .
Distance between r o c k s i s six t i m e s
the geometric m e a n d i a m e t e r of the
l a r g e r size c l a s s .
Eighteen sequences of eight r o c k s .
Green
Location
Sequence of s i z e s
Number of r o c k s
Painted r o c k line at 1+90 feet
Colour
Red
Location
Sequence of s i z e s
Number of r o c k s
As at 0+55 feet.
As at 0+55 feet
20
Green
Location
Sequence of s i z e s
Number of r o c k s
As at 0+55 feet.
Red
Location
Sequence of s i z e s
Number of r o c k s
Green
Location
Table
Sequence of s i z e s
As at 0+55 feet.
Number of r o c k s
E i g h t e e n sequences of eight r o c k s .
4.
21
2)
For his work on mass movement in England, Young described a pit into the side of which, in the undisturbed soil, were
driven horizontal rods. The rods were arranged one above the
other in a vertical plane and the plane went to a benchmark consisting of a steel rod driven into undisturbed soil at the base of the
pit. With the passage of time, the deviation of the emplaced rods
from a vertical alignment gives some indication of the amount and
rate of movement at various distances from the soil surface.
(Young 1960, 1963).
After the initial emplacement of the rods the pit is refilled
and after an interval of time (6 months or a year) the pit is r e excavated and, digging carefully up to ends of the rods, their vertical alignment is re-surveyed.
The Commission recommends that round rods should not
be used. Some data indicate that either because the rods were too
small or perhaps because they were too smooth, the soil was moved
around them as if they were the roots of a tree. (Leopold, 1967).
It is recommended that metal plates be substituted for the rods.
Digging a notch carefully into the undisturbed side of the
open pit, a metal strip is inserted in a vertical position. The metal
may be aluminum, thin brass, or copper. The strip is about 30 cm
long and 5 cm wide. Before placement the long strip has been cut
into small rectangles 2. 5 cm high and all the rectangles put back
into their original alignment by the use of sticky transparent tape
which holds them together during the time that the rods are inserted
into the side of the pit. The metal rectangles should be separated
slightly when they are taped together in a strip by the sticky tape.
If they actually touch each other, they may influence each other or
one may prevent its neighbors from being displaced. With time,
the sticky tape is destroyed by weathering and the plates then can
move downhill independently of each other. (Fig. 4).
The original survey and re-surveys are made with an engineer's transit or theodolite set up about 10 feet from the pit and
about on the same contour, as shown in the accompanying diagram.
The transit is set up over a bench mark consisting of an iron rod
at least 1 meter long driven vertically into the soil. The theodolite is oriented on a similar bench mark about 7 meters away on
the opposite side of the pit. To make sure that the alignment of
those two bench marks is not disturbed by downslope motion, a third
bench mark may be driven vertically into the ground at the bottom
of the pit and thus the top of that bench mark should be free of any
downslope motion. (Fig. 4). This is strongly recommended.
The procedure is as follows. Approximately on contour
of the chosen pit site, iron rods are driven as bench marks about
3. 5 meters on each side of the chosen site. A pit is dug along one
side of the column of soil to be observed, one side of the pit being
vertical, the other side sloping toward the bench mark over which
22
PLAN VIEW
/Plates
A-
Iron stakes
C.
;?
A'
Iron stake
<cf
Plates
Iron s t a k e
SECTION A - A
ENLARGED VIEW
OF METAL PLATES
^ 5
J_ 2-5cm
Sticky t a p e
30cm
9g
Figure 4.
23
the theodolite is set up. This allows the t e l e s c o p e to look down into
the bottom of the pit with the m i n i m u m amount of excavation.
The theodolite is oriented on the far bench m a r k and in
the v e r t i c a l plane defined by the two bench m a r k s , a notch is cut
into the undisturbed soil of the v e r t i c a l wall of the pit.
When the m e t a l s t r i p is installed firmly in the notch, a
m i l l i m e t e r rule is held h o r i z o n t a l at the top and bottom c o r n e r of
each m e t a l plate. The r e a d i n g of the theodolite v e r t i c a l c r o s s h a i r
on the rule is r e c o r d e d , showing thus the original position of each
m e t a l plate r e l a t i v e to the plane of the line of sight.
When the r e a d i n g s a r e c o m p l e t e , the pit is carefully r e filled with attention paid to not disturbing the installed p l a t e s .
On r e - s u r v e y , the approximate position of the m e t a l plates
is d e t e r m i n e d by tape m e a s u r e m e n t from the bench m a r k s . A pit
is dug a little distance away from the plates and only gradually and
with c a r e excavated toward the plates so they will be found before
they a r e d i s t u r b e d with the t r o w e l or shovel.
The p r o g r a m m e i s completed by the r e p e t i t i o n of the
original m e a s u r e m e n t p r o c e d u r e .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
D i s c u s s i o n of some of the techniques used in this Bulletin will be
found in:
Leopold Luna B. (Editor) (1967) F i e l d methods for the study of
slope and fluvial p r o c e s s e s .
Revue de G e o morphologie Dynamique, 17 (4), 147-188.
Young A.
Young A.
(1963) Soil m o v e m e n t on s l o p e s .
129-130.
Wolman M . G .
N a t u r e , 200(4902),
(1954) A method of s a m p l i n g c o a r s e r i v e r - b e d
m a t e r i a l . T r a n s . A m e r . Geophysical Union,
35 (6), 951-956.
24
Notes to Authors
P l e a s e a d d r e s s all communications concerning publication to one
of the e d i t o r s .
Responsibility for the content of Bulletins r e s t s with the a u t h o r s .
No responsibility for content r e s t s with the Group.
Copyright i s vested in the B r i t i s h Geomorphological R e s e a r c h
Group.
Manuscripts shall be typewritten, in final form, fully documented
with r e f e r e n c e s and submitted in duplicate in double-spaced type.
N u m e r i c a l data shall be in the m e t r i c s y s t e m .
Illustrations shall be drawn in Indian ink on t r a c i n g p a p e r , in a
form suitable for publication and capable of reduction to the A5
page s i z e .
References shall be p r e p a r e d in the following style :Carpenter P . C. , Morgan T . D . a n d E . D . P a r s o n s . (1952)
Use of boron compunds as flood w a t e r t r a c e r s . P r o d u c e r s
Monthly, 16 (10), 12-24.
Authors receive 25 copies free of c h a r g e .