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ENGINEERING DRAWING
Q-1,THE IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN & COMPUTER AIDED
MANUFACTURING!
ANS: Computer-aided design (CAD) involves creating computer models defined by geometrical
parameters. These models typically appear on a computer monitor as a three-dimensional
representation of a part or a system of parts, which can be readily altered by changing relevant
parameters. CAD systems enable designers to view objects under a wide variety of
representations and to test these objects by simulating real-world conditions.
Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) uses geometrical design data to control automated
machinery. CAM systems are associated with computer numerical control (CNC) or direct
numerical control (DNC) systems. These systems differ from older forms of numerical control
(NC) in that geometrical data are encoded mechanically. Since both CAD and CAM use
computer-based methods for encoding geometrical data, it is possible for the processes of design
and manufacture to be highly integrated. Computer-aided design and manufacturing systems are
commonly referred to as CAD/CAM.
THE ORIGINS OF CAD/CAM
CAD had its origins in three separate sources, which also serve to highlight the basic operations
that CAD systems provide. The first source of CAD resulted from attempts to automate the
drafting process. These developments were pioneered by the General Motors Research
Laboratories in the early 1960s. One of the important time-saving advantages of computer
modeling over traditional drafting methods is that the former can be quickly corrected or
manipulated by changing a model's parameters. The second source of CAD was in the testing of
designs by simulation. The use of computer modeling to test products was pioneered by hightech industries like aerospace and semiconductors. The third source of CAD development
resulted from efforts to facilitate the flow from the design process to the manufacturing process
using numerical control (NC) technologies, which enjoyed widespread use in many applications
by the mid-1960s. It was this source that resulted in the linkage between CAD and CAM. One of
the most important trends in CAD/CAM technologies is the ever-tighter integration between the
design and manufacturing stages of CAD/CAM-based production processes.
The development of CAD and CAM and particularly the linkage between the two overcame
traditional NC shortcomings in expense, ease of use, and speed by enabling the design and
manufacture of a part to be undertaken using the same system of encoding geometrical data. This
innovation greatly shortened the period between design and manufacture and greatly expanded
the scope of production processes for which automated machinery could be economically used.

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Just as important, CAD/CAM gave the designer much more direct control over the production
process, creating the possibility of completely integrated design and manufacturing processes.
The rapid growth in the use of CAD/CAM technologies after the early 1970s was made possible
by the development of mass-produced silicon chips and the microprocessor, resulting in more
readily affordable computers. As the price of computers continued to decline and their
processing power improved, the use of CAD/CAM broadened from large firms using large-scale
mass production techniques to firms of all sizes. The scope of operations to which CAD/CAM
was applied broadened as well. In addition to parts-shaping by traditional machine tool processes
such as stamping, drilling, milling, and grinding, CAD/CAM has come to be used by firms
involved in producing consumer electronics, electronic components, molded plastics, and a host
of other products. Computers are also used to control a number of manufacturing processes (such
as chemical processing) that are not strictly defined as CAM because the control data are not
based on geometrical parameters.
Using CAD, it is possible to simulate in three dimensions the movement of a part through a
production process. This process can simulate feed rates, angles and speeds of machine tools, the
position of part-holding clamps, as well as range and other constraints limiting the operations of
a machine. The continuing development of the simulation of various manufacturing processes is
one of the key means by which CAD and CAM systems are becoming increasingly integrated.
CAD/CAM systems also facilitate communication among those involved in design,
manufacturing, and other processes. This is of particular importance when one firm contracts
another to either design or produce a component.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Modeling with CAD systems offers a number of advantages over traditional drafting methods
that use rulers, squares, and compasses. For example, designs can be altered without erasing and
redrawing. CAD systems also offer "zoom" features analogous to a camera lens, whereby a
designer can magnify certain elements of a model to facilitate inspection. Computer models are
typically three dimensional and can be rotated on any axis, much as one could rotate an actual
three dimensional model in one's hand, enabling the designer to gain a fuller sense of the object.
CAD systems also lend themselves to modeling cutaway drawings, in which the internal shape of
a part is revealed, and to illustrating the spatial relationships among a system of parts.
To understand CAD it is also useful to understand what CAD cannot do. CAD systems have no
means of comprehending real-world concepts, such as the nature of the object being designed or
the function that object will serve. CAD systems function by their capacity to codify geometrical
concepts. Thus the design process using CAD involves transferring a designer's idea into a
formal geometrical model. Efforts to develop computer-based "artificial intelligence" (AI) have

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not yet succeeded in penetrating beyond the mechanicalrepresented by geometrical (rulebased) modeling.
Other limitations to CAD are being addressed by research and development in the field of expert
systems. This field is derived from research done in AI. One example of an expert system
involves incorporating information about the nature of materialstheir weight, tensile strength,
flexibility, and so oninto CAD software. By including this and other information, the CAD
system could then "know" what an expert engineer knows when that engineer creates a design.
The system could then mimic the engineer's thought pattern and actually "create" more of the
design. Expert systems might involve the implementation of more abstract principles, such as the
nature of gravity and friction, or the function and relation of commonly used parts, such as levers
or nuts and bolts. Expert systems might also come to change the way data are stored and
retrieved in CAD/CAM systems, supplanting the hierarchical system with one that offers greater
flexibility. Such futuristic concepts, however, are all highly dependent on our abilities to analyze
human decision processes and to translate these into mechanical equivalents if possible.
One of the key areas of development in CAD technologies is the simulation of performance.
Among the most common types of simulation are testing for response to stress and modeling the
process by which a part might be manufactured or the dynamic relationships among a system of
parts. In stress tests, model surfaces are shown by a grid or mesh, that distort as the part comes
under simulated physical or thermal stress. Dynamics tests function as a complement or
substitute for building working prototypes. The ease with which a part's specifications can be
changed facilitates the development of optimal dynamic efficiencies, both as regards the
functioning of a system of parts and the manufacture of any given part. Simulation is also used in
electronic design automation, in which simulated flow of current through a circuit enables the
rapid testing of various component configurations.
The processes of design and manufacture are, in some sense, conceptually separable. Yet the
design process must be undertaken with an understanding of the nature of the production
process. It is necessary, for example, for a designer to know the properties of the materials with
which the part might be built, the various techniques by which the part might be shaped, and the
scale of production that is economically viable. The conceptual overlap between design and
manufacture is suggestive of the potential benefits of CAD and CAM and the reason they are
generally considered together as a system.
Recent technical developments have fundamentally impacted the utility of CAD/CAM systems.
For example, the ever-increasing processing power of personal computers has given them
viability as a vehicle for CAD/CAM application. Another important trend is toward the
establishment of a single CAD-CAM standard, so that different data packages can be exchanged
without manufacturing and delivery delays, unnecessary design revisions, and other problems
that continue to bedevil some CAD-CAM initiatives. Finally, CAD-CAM software continues to

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evolve in such realms as visual representation and integration of modeling and testing
applications.
THE CASE FOR CAS AND CAS/CAM
A conceptually and functionally parallel development to CAD/CAM is CAS or CASE,
computer-aided software engineering. As defined by SearchSMB.com in its article on "CASE,"
"CASE ' is the use of a computer-assisted method to organize and control the development of
software, especially on large, complex projects involving many software components and
people." CASE dates back to the 1970s when computer companies began to apply concepts from
the CAD/CAM experience to introduce more discipline into the software development process.
Another abbreviation inspired by the ubiquitous presence of CAD/CAM in the manufacturing
sector is CAS/CAM. This phrase stands for Computer-Aided Selling/Computer-Aided Marketing
software. In the case of CASE as well as CAS/CAM, the core of such technologies is integration
of work flows and application of proven rules to a repeating process.
Q-2: CLASIFICATION OF SCALE USED IN MECHANICAL DRAWING
ANS: Scales
There is a wide variation in sizes for engineering objects. Some are very large (eg. Aero planes,
rockets, etc) Some are vey small ( wrist watch, MEMs components)
There is a need to reduce or enlarge while drawing the objects on paper. Some objects can be
drawn to their actual size. The proportion by which the drawing of aan object is enlarged or
reduced is called the scale of the drawing.
Definition
A scale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of the object as represented in a drawing
to the actual dimensions of the same.
Drawings drawn with the same size as the objects are called full sized drawing.
It is not convenient, always, to draw drawings of the object to its actual size. e.g. Buildings,
Heavy machines, Bridges, Watches, Electronic devices etc.
Hence scales are used to prepare drawing at
Full size
Reduced size
Enlarged size
BIS Recommended Scales are shown in table 1.
Table 1. The common scales recommended.

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Intermediate scales can be used in exceptional cases where recommended scales can not be
applied for functional reasons.
Types of Scale :Engineers Scale : The relation between the dimension on the drawing and the actual dimension
of the object is mentioned numerically (like 10 mm = 15 m).
Graphical Scale: Scale is drawn on the drawing itself. This takes care of the shrinkage of the
engineers scale when the drawing becomes old.

Types of Graphical Scale :

Plain Scale
Diagonal Scale
Vernier Scale
Comparative scale
Scale of chords
Representative fraction (R.F.) :-

When a 1 cm long line in a drawing represents 1 meter length of the object

Usually the word scale is used for an instrument used for drawing straight lines. But actually in
Engineers language scale means the proportion or ratio between the dimensions adopted for the
drawing and the corresponding dimensions of the object. It can be indicated in two different
ways. Example: The actual dimensions of the room say 10m x 8m cannot be adopted on the
drawing. In suitable proportion the dimensions should be reduced in order to adopt conveniently
on the drawing sheet. If the room is represented by a rectangle of 10cm x 8cm size on the
drawing sheet that means the actual size is reduced by 100 times.

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Representing scales: The proportion between the drawing and the object can be represented
by two ways as follows:
a) Scale: - 1cm = 1m or 1cm=100cm or 1:100
b) Representative Fraction: - (RF) = 1/100 (less than one) i.e. the ratio between the size of the
drawing and the object.
There are three types of scales depending upon the proportion it indicates as
1. Reducing scale: When the dimensions on the drawing are smaller than the actual dimensions
of the object. It is represented by the scale and RF as
Scale: - 1cm=100cm or 1:100 and by RF=1/100 (less than one)
2. Full scale: Some times the actual dimensions of the object will be adopted on the drawing
then in that case it is represented by the scale and RF as
Scale: - 1cm = 1cm or 1:1 and by R.F=1/1 (equal to one).
3. Enlarging scale: In some cases when the objects are very small like inside parts of a wrist
watch, the dimensions adopted on the drawing will be bigger than the actual dimensions of the
objects then in that case it is represented by scale and RF as
Scale: - 10cm=1cm or 10:1 and by R.F= 10/1 (greater than one)
Note: The scale or R.F of a drawing is given usually below the drawing. If the scale adopted is
common for all drawings on that particular sheet, then it is given commonly for all figures under
the title of sheet.
1.7 Types of Scales and their constructions:
When an unusual proportion is to be adopted and when the ready made scales are not available
then the required scale is to be constructed on the drawing sheet itself. To construct the scale the
data required is 1) the R.F of the scale 2) The units which it has to represent i.e. millimetres or
centimetres or metres or kilometres in M.K.S or inches or feet or yards or miles in F.P.S) The
maximum length which it should measure. If the maximum length is not given, some suitable
length can be assumed.
The maximum length of the scale to be constructed on the drawing sheet =
R.F X maximum length the scale should measure.
This should be generally of 15 to 20 cms length.
Table: Metric Units Table: FPS Units
1 Kilometre (km) =10 Hecta metres (hm)
1 Mile =8 Furlongs
1 Hectametere(hm) =10 Decametres(dam)or 0.1km
1 Furlong =220 Yards
1 Decametre(dam) =10 Metres (m) or 0.1hm
1Yard =3 Feet
1 Metre(m) =10Decimetres(dm) or 0.1dam
1 Feet =12 Inches
1 Decimetre(dm) =10 Centimetres(cm) or 0.1m
1 Centimetre(cm) =10 Millimetres (mm) or 0.1dm

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The various types of scales used in practice are 1. Plain scales, 2. Diagonal scales, 3. Vernier
scales, 4. Comparative scales and 5. Scale of chords.
1.7.1 Plain Scales: Plain scales read or measure upto two units or a unit and its sub-division, for
example centimetres (cm) and millimetres (mm). When measurements are required upto first
decimal, for example 2.3 m or 4.6 cm etc. It consists of a line divided into number of equal main
parts and the first main part is sub-divided into smaller parts. Mark zero (O) at the end of the first
main part. From zero mark numbers to the main parts or units towards right and give numbers to
the sub-divisions or smaller parts towards left. Give the names of the units and sub-units below
clearly. Indicate below the name of the scale and its R.F clearly.
The construction of the plain scale is explained below by a worked example.
W E 1.1 A 3 cm long line represents a length of 4.5 metres. Extend this line to measure upto
30 metres and show on it units of metre and 5 metre. Show the length of 22 metres on this
line. Fig 1.10

i) The scale has to represent metre and 5 metres, hence it is a Plain scale.
ii) Given that 3cm represents 4.5metres or 450cm, Hence 1cm represents 450/3=150cm, hence
scale is 1cm=150cm or 1:150: R.F=1/150
iii) Maximum length to read is 30metres; Length of the scale is 20cm. i.e. (1/150)x30x100 =
20cm
Construction:
Draw a straight line of 20cm length and divide into 6 equal parts.
Divide again first part into 5 equal parts. Give numbers as shown. To represent 22 metres, take 4
main parts to represent 20 metres and 2 small parts to represent 2metres. Give names as A and B
so that the distance between A and B is 22 metres as shown.
Note: Assume height of the plain scale as 1 cm.

Construct a plain scale of 1:5 to show decimeters and centimeters and to read upto 1 metre.
Show the length of 7.4 decimetres on it.

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i) The scale has to represent decimetre and 1/10 of decimeter.

ii) Given that the scale is 1:5 that is R.F=1/5
iii) Maximum length to read is 1 metre; Length of the scale=(1/5)x1x100=20cm
Construction:
Draw a straight line of 20cm length and divide into 10 equal parts.
Divide again first part into 10 equal parts. Give numbers as shown. To represent 7.4
decimetres, take 7 main parts to represent 7 decimetres and 4 small parts to represen0t 0.4
decimetres. Give names as A and B so that the distance between A and B is 7.4 decimetres
as shown.
Diagonal Scales:
Diagonal scales are used to read or measure upto threeunits.
For example: decimetres (dm), centimetres (cm) and millimetres (mm) or miles, furlon
gs and yards etc. This scale is used when very small distances such as 0.1 mm are to be
accurately measured or when measurements are required upto second decimal.

For example: 2.35dm or 4.68km etc.

Small divisions of short lines are obtained by the principle of diagonal division, as
explained below:
Principle of diagonal scale: To divide a given line AB into small divisions in multiples of
1/10 its length for example 0.1AB; 0.2AB etc. as shown in

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Procedure:
i) Draw AB of given length
ii) At one end, say at B draw a line perpendicular to AB.
iii) Mark 10 equal divisions by taking some convenient length starting from B and ending
with C.
iv) Give numbers from 9, 8, 7----1 as shown.
v) Join C to A and from 9 to 1, draw parallels to AB, cutting AC at 9, 8, ------ 1 etc.
vi) From the similar triangles 11C, 22C ------- 99C and ABC, C5=(1/2)BC=0.5BC and
55=(1/2)AB=0.5AB. Similarly 11=0.1AB, 22=0.2AB etc
Thus each horizontal line below AB will be shorter by (1/10)AB, giving lengths in multiples
of 0.1AB
: An area of 144 sqcm on a map represents an area of 9 sqkm on the field. Find the R.F.of
the scale for this map and draw a diagonal scale to show kilometers, hectametres and
decameters and to measure upto 5 kilometres. Indicate on the scale a distance of 3
kilometres, 5 hectametres and 6 decametres or 3.56km.
The area on the map is 144 sqcm and the area on the field is 9 sqkm.
Take square root on both sides. Then 12cm=3 km or Scale is 1 cm= 0.25km or 2.5x104 cm;
RF=1/(2.5x104)

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Length of the scale to read upto 5 km is RF X 5 km= 1/(2.5x104) X 5x105 =20cm

Construction:
Draw a line AB of 20 cm and construct a rectangle on it, by taking AD 5cm as shown. Divide
AB into 5 equal parts and number them from second part starting with 0 to 4 towards right side
to indicate kilometers (km). Divide 0A into 10 equal parts, each part represents a hectametre
(hm). Divide AD into 10 equal parts, each part represents one decametre (dam). Join diagonals as
shown.
To mark 3.56km, take it as sum of 3.50km and 0.06km. On the plain scale take 3.5km and on the
diagonal at 5 upto 6 parts diagonally which is equal to 0.06km, giving a total of 3.56km as
shown by MN.
Note: Assume the height of the diagonal scale AD as 5cm for dividing it into 10 equal parts
conveniently.
Q-3: (A) ELABORATE CONIC SECTIONS & IMPORTANCE OF FOUR CURVES
DEVELOPED BY THE CONE?
ANS: Introduction
According to Kepler's First Law of Planetary Motion, the orbit of each planet is an ellipse,
with one focus of that ellipse at the center of the Sun. Newton's reformulation of this Law states
that the orbit of each planet is a conic section, with one focus of that conic section at the center
of the Sun. To properly understand planetary orbits, we therefore need some understanding of
ellipses in particular, and conic sections in general.
Conic Sections
A section is the surface or outline of that surface formed by cutting a solid figure with a
plane. If the solid figure is a right circular cone, the resulting curve is called a conic section. The
diagram below shows such a cone, formed by rotating a diagonal line around a vertical axis so
that the axis, the diagonal and a horizontal line connecting the two form a right triangle. Four
planes are shown, cutting through the cone at various angles, producing the curves shown in the

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following diagram. The intersection of each plane with the cone forms a conic section. The kind
and shape of the conic section is determined by the angle of intersection of the plane with the
axis and surface of the cone.

Angled view of a cone, with conic sections produced by cutting the cone at different angles.
Cutting at right angles to the axis produces a circle. Cutting at less than a right angle to the axis
but more than the angle made by the side of the cone produces an ellipse. Cutting parallel to a
side of the cone produces a parabola. Cutting more nearly parallel to the axis than to the side
produces a hyperbola (the hyperbola in the diagram represents a cut parallel to the axis of the
cone).

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View from above of, from left to right, a circle, an ellipse, a parabola and a hyperbola. A
circle is a smooth, uniform curve, while an ellipse is "stretched" out along one axis, and
"compressed" along the perpendicular axis. Circles and ellipses are closed curves, while
parabolas and hyperbolas are open curves. For parabolas the two arms are parallel to each other
at infinity, but for hyperbolas the two arms make an angle with each other even at infinity.
The Four Kinds of Conic Sections
When a plane cuts a cone at right angles to its axis a circle is formed. The axis passes
through the center of the circle, and the focus (and the Sun, if the curve represents the orbit of a
planet) is at the center of the circle.
When the plane cuts the cone parallel to the side of the cone a parabola is formed. Since the
plane of the parabola is parallel to one side of the cone, the curve never cuts the side it is parallel
to and as the arms of the parabola extend into infinity they become parallel to each other and the
axis of the parabola.
Since circles and parabolas are formed by cutting the cone at specific angles they have
unique shapes. All circles are identical in shape, and all parabolas are identical in shape; only
their size and orientation differ (there are bigger and smaller circles, and broader and narrower
parabolas). For ellipses and hyperbolas however, there is a wide range of angles between the
plane and the axis of the cone, so they have a wide range of shapes.
When the plane cuts the cone at an angle between a perpendicular to the axis (which would
produce a circle) and an angle parallel to the side of the cone (which would produce a parabola),
the curve formed is an ellipse. Since circles and parabolas are formed by angles just beyond the
range of angles which produce ellipses, ellipses can vary in shape from very nearly circular to
very nearly parabolic. The closer the plane is to a perpendicular to the axis the more nearly
circular the ellipse is, and the closer its focus (which is the location of the Sun for objects moving
around the Sun) lies to its center. The closer the plane is to being parallel to the side of the cone
the more elongated the ellipse is, the closer its focus is to one end of the ellipse, and the more
either end of the ellipse looks similar to the "near" end of a parabola (for very small segments of
very elongated ellipses, such as the paths followed by objects falling to the surface of the Earth,
the portion of the ellipse that is observed is essentially identical to a parabola, and in basic
physics classes falling objects are said to follow parabolic paths, even though they are actually
following very elongated elliptical paths).
When the plane cuts the cone at an angle closer to the axis than the side of the cone
a hyperbola is formed. As in the case of a parabola the curve extends into infinity, as the plane
can never reach the far side of the cone and in fact, gets further and further from it the further
along the arms you go. Hyperbolas that are formed by angles close to the side of the cone look
very nearly parabolic, while hyperbolas that are formed at steeper angles look less parabolic; but
in every case there is a fundamental difference between a hyperbola and a parabola: the arms of a
parabola eventually become parallel to each other, while the arms of a hyperbola always make an
angle relative to each other. For a hyperbola which is very nearly parabolic this angle may be
close to zero; but for some hyperbolas the angle may be close to 180 degrees, and the hyperbola
can be almost a straight line.
Application to The Solar System
Kepler's First Law of Planetary Motion says that the orbits of the planets are ellipses with the

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Sun at one focus of the ellipse. As reformulated by Newton, the First Law says that the orbits
may be any kind of conic section, with the Sun at one focus of the section. In practice, however,
all planetary orbits must be ellipses, because objects in parabolic or hyperbolic orbits would go
around the Sun once, go out into interstellar space, and never return. For an object to have been
orbiting the Sun for 4.5 billion years as the planets have been, the orbit must be closed and
repeating, so it must be a circle or an ellipse; and since a circle can be viewed as a special kind of
ellipse (as explained below), all the more or less stable orbits in our Solar System are elliptical.
This does not mean that open orbits are forbidden. There is a possibility that something might
approach our Solar System from interstellar space. As it does so, the Sun's gravity would bend its
path, causing it to follow a hyperbolic orbit through the Solar System, curving around the Sun
then returning to the interstellar space from which it came. We have never seen anything do this,
but it would be a very exciting thing if we did (and we would study the object as much as we
could while we had the chance).
It is also possible for orbits to change from one conic section to another
through perturbations -- that is, gravitational interactions with objects other than the Sun. In
recent centuries several comets have passed close enough to Jupiter to allow Jupiter's gravity to
change their orbits from very long ellipses to hyperbolas, "flinging" them out of the Solar System
and into interstellar space. We've always noticed this after the fact, and in each case for a short
time there was excitement about the possibility that we were seeing an interstellar visitor; but so
far, every time we've traced the orbit backwards we've found that Jupiter was the cause of the
change in the orbit.
Generating Ellipses
Since ellipses can have various shapes, it is important to understand how the various shapes
are related to each other, and the terms that are used to descirbe those relationships.
There are a large number of ways in which the generation or creation of ellipses can be
accomplished. If we want to calculate the exact place where each part of the curve is located, we
would use some kind of algebraic curve, such as
( x2 / a2 ) + ( y2 /b2 ) = 1
or as another example, r = a (1 - e2) / ( 1 + e cos ).
As useful as these formulae might be for calculations, unless you are familiar with the
mathematics involved it is difficult to see what the resulting curves look like, or how changing
the parameters (the constants) in the equations affects the appearance of the curve. It is easier to
understand the nature of ellipses of various types by using graphical methods of creating them, as
in the example of cutting a cone with a plane used above.
One simple way to generate ellipses is to take a circle and rotate it about a diameter. As
shown below the diameter which is used as an axis of rotation is unchanged by the rotation, but
all the diameters that make an angle to that one are reduced in size (foreshortened) by the
rotation. If the rotation is small the resulting ellipse is very nearly round, but if the rotation is
large the ellipse becomes very flattened (or very elongated, depending upon how you look at the
effect), and if the circle is rotated until it is edge-on to our line of sight the "ellipse" becomes just
a straight line segment. (The same thing can be done with open curves such as parabolas and
hyperbolas, but the results are not as useful for orbital mechanics.)

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Above: Creating ellipses by rotating a circle about a diameter. As the circle rotates it becomes
foreshortened. The axis of rotation stays the same as the original diameter, but the other axes
become shorter and shorter. In the process the ellipse becomes flattened or stretched out,
depending upon your viewpoint.
All of the curves produced by rotating a circle are ellipses. Even the extremes, a circle (on
the left) and a straight line segment (on the right) are technically considered to be ellipses -- just
ellipses of special type. As you will see the shape (or more accurately, the position of the focus)
of an ellipse can be expressed by a number called the eccentricity, which is somewhere between
zero and one. If the eccentricity is zero the ellipse is a circle. If the eccentricity is one the ellipse
is a straight line segment. "Normal" ellipses have values between these extremes. Later we will
discuss how we measure the size of an ellipse. As you will see at that time, all the ellipses
generated by rotating a circle are the same "size" (namely, they have a semi-major axis equal to
the radius of the original circle).
Degenerate Ellipses
Sometimes we encounter situations where things become, in a very real sense, not what we
think they should be. The straight line segment that is considered to be an ellipse of eccentricity
one is an example of such a situation. Ellipses are curves, and a straight line segment is not a
curve, so it is hard to imagine calling it an ellipse of any sort. However, since we can create such
an "ellipse" in the same way as any other ellipse, it seems fair to consider it a special case, in the
same way that a circle is a special case; and to indicate this we give it a special name -a degenerate ellipse. The word degenerate does not, in physical science or mathematics, refer to
some kind of moral failing; it means that by pushing something to an extreme limit it
"degenerates" from something complex to something much simpler, and at first glance not at all
the same.
An ellipse can also be created by attaching a string to two thumbtacks and stretching the
string as taut as possible. The resulting curve is the set of all points for which the sum of the
distances to the two foci (the plural of focus) is a constant. The length of the string is equal to the
sum of the distances involved, and is also equal to the major axis of the resulting ellipse (proof to
follow). If the two foci are in the same place the curve that results is a circle centered on the foci
(drawing to follow); if the two foci are so far apart that the string just barely stretches between

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them the curve is a straight line (a degenerate ellipse) with the foci at the two ends of the line.
The closer the foci are to each other, the more nearly circular the ellipse appears; and the further
apart they are, the more elongated it appears. (more diagrams to follow)

Above, an ellipse showing various lines drawn from the foci to the perimeter
Below, a Wikipedia animation showing that the total length of the lines is a constant

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Q-3 (B): CONSTRUCT AN ELLIPSE OF MAJOR AXIS 100 MM AND MINOR AXIS 70MM
BY CONCENTRIC CIRCLE METHOD.

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Q-4: JUSTIFY THE IMPORTANCE OF ARTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS IN

MANUFACTURING DRAWINGS. ALSO EXPLAIN THE FIRST AND THIRD ANGLE OF
PROJECTION?
ANS: We need to ask ourselves what is Orthographic Projection? Basically it is a way a
representing a 3D object on a piece of paper. This means we make the object become 2D. The
difference between Orthographic Projection and any other drawing method is that we use several
2D views of the object instead of a single view.
Orthographic Projection gives us a very clear method of communicating ideas and objects. It is a
method that every engineer in the world recognizes. Because of this we can reproduce any object
drawn Orthographically. This is very important.
Think of how many languages there are in the world... imagine how much of a problem this
presents to designers and manufacturers across the world. Imagine an engineer in Germany who
wants a plastic bottle manufactured in Japan. How do you think he will overcome the language
barrier? The easiest way is to use a drawing. However drawing can be interpreted differently by
different people. A good example is shown below. Is the blue face on the inside or outside of the
box?

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All of these problems can be overcome using Orthographic Projection. An engineer in Germany
can have a plastic bottle made in Japan, exactly as he wants it, without any problem if he sends
an Orthographic drawing of the bottle. This makes Orthographic Projection a Universal language
among people in engineering professions!
FIRST AND THIRD ANGLE OF PROJECTION: There are two ways of drawing in
orthographic - First Angle and Third Angle. They differ only in the position of the plan, front and
side views.

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First Angle Projection is commonly used in all countries other than United States. The Indian
Standard Institution (ISI) recommends the use of First Angle Projection method now in all the
institutions.
Third Angle Projection is commonly used in United States of America. In Third Angle
Projection the Object is placed in the Third Quadrant. This means that the Vertical Plane is in
front of the object and the Horizontal Plane is above the object. To see the effects of this watch
the animation below.
Following table describes what the difference is between or comparison between First Angle
Projection and Third Angle projection.

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Q-5: BRIEFELY DESCRIBE THE SECTIONAL VIEWS AND CLASSIFY THE SECTIONAL
VIEWS ACCORDING TO THE NEED OF ENGINEERING DRAWING?
ANS: A section view is a view used on a drawing to show an area or hidden part of an
object by cutting away or removing some of that object.
The cut line is called a cutting plane, and can be done in several ways.
It is very important to Visualize what the part will look like after it is cut open.
Choosing the type of section and location of the cutting plane.
Making the cut and drawing the view in the proper location.
FULL SECTION
In a full section, the cutting plane line passes fully through the part.
Normally a view is replaced with the full section view.
The section-lined areas are those portions that have been in actual contact with the
cutting-plane.

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HALF SECTION:
Half Section is used to the exterior and interior of the part in the same view.
The cutting-plane line cuts halfway through the part and removes one quarter of the
material.
The line that separates the different types (interior and exterior) may be a centerline or a
visible line.

SECTION LINING:
Materials Common materials

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The symbol for cast iron can be used for most section views.
Refer to any common drafting text for additional symbols.

OFFSET SECTIONS:
Used to show parts and features that do not line up with each other.
Cutting-plane line does not travel in a straight line.
The offsets or bends in the cutting-plane line do not show in the section.
The versatility of this section makes it very useful.

ALLIGNED SECTION
Usually used on symmetrical circular parts.
Place the cutting-plane line to show the most detail.
All parts and details are rotated into the section view.
Ribs and spokes can be left un-lined for better clarity in the section view.
REVOLVED SECTIONS
Used to show a small portion of a drawing.
Show a cross-section of an area turned 90 degrees or perpendicular to the object.
Put into a drawing to show an area not normally shown.
BROKEN-OUT SECTIONS
Used to generate a section for a small area without using a cutting-plane line.
Removes a small amount of material to show the interior details.

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Always used in an orthographic view.

Used to enhance the orthographic view by giving the viewer a better look at key interior
details.
SECTIONING SHAFTS
Used to show a break in a longer part allowing better used of drawing surface.
Gives the impression of a 3-D break on the shaft.
Adds a touch of flair to the drawing.
ASSEMBLY SECTIONS
Shows how parts fit together
Allows better clarity with a complicated assembly of parts.
Shows how parts not only fit together, but allows for a visual view of how they function.
Q-8: CONSTRUCT A REGULAR HEXAGON HAVING 100 MM DISTANCE ACROSS THE
CORNERS, SELECT THE MOST PRACTICAL METHOD TO DRAW THE HEXAGON?
ANS: To Draw a Hexagon, Given the Distance across the Corners
Method A
1. Draw vertical and horizontal centre lines and a circle with a diameter equal to the given
distance.
2. Step off the radius around the circle to give six equally spaced points, and join the points
to give the required hexagon.

Figure A

Method B
1. Draw vertical and horizontal centre lines and a circle with a diameter equal to the given
distance.
2. With a 60 set-square, draw points on the circumference 60 apart.
3. Connect these six points by straight lines to give the required hexagon.

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Figure B

Q-8: WHAT ARE THE RUE LENGTH LINES? EXPLAINS.

ANS:
To
Find
True
length
and
true
inclinations
of
a
line
Many times if the top and front views of a line are given, the true length and true inclinations of
a
line
is
required
to
be
determined.
The top and front views of the object can be drawn from if any of the following data are
available:
(a)
Distance
between
the
end
projectors,
(b) Distance of one or both the end points from HP and VP and
(c)
Apparent
inclinations
of
the
line.
The problems may be solved by
(i)
Rotating
(ii)
Rotating
(iii) Auxiliary plane method.

line
trapezoidal

plane

method
method

or
or

Rotating line method

The method of obtaining the top and front views of a line, when its true length and true
inclinations
are
given.
When a view of a line is parallel to the XY line, its other view will be in true length and at true
inclination.
By following the procedure mentioned previously, in the reverse order, the true length and true
inclinations of a line from the given set of top and front views can be found. The step by step
procedure is shown below in figure 1.

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Figure 1. determinationof ture length and true inclinations of a line.

Draw the top view ab and the front view a'b' as given
Rotation of the top view: With center a and radius abrotate the top view to the new position ab1
to make it parallel to the XY line. Since ab1 is parallel to the XY line, its corresponding front
view will be in true length and at true inclination.
Rotation of the front view: With center a' and radius a'b' rotate the front view to the new position
a'b2' parallel to the XYline. Since a'b2 is parallel to the XY line, its corresponding top view
will be in true length and at true inclination. In this position, the line will be parallel to HP and
inclined at fto VP. Through b draw the locus of B in the top view. Project b2' to get b2, in the top
view. Connect ab2 which will be in true length and true inclination f which the given line AB
makes with VP.
Traces of a line

The trace of a line is defined as a point at which the given line, if produced, meets or intersects a
plane.

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When a line meets HP, (or if necessary on the extended portion-of HP), the point at which the
line meets or intersects the horizontal plane, is called horizontal trace (HT)of the line and
denoted by the letter H.
When a line meets VP (or if necessary on the extended portion of VP), the point at which the line
meets or intersects the vertical plane, is called vertical trace (VT) of the line and denoted by the
letter V.
When the line is parallel to both HP and VP, there will be no traces on the said planes. Therefore
the traces of lines are determined in the following positions of the lines.
Trace of a line perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the other
Since the line is perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the other, the trace of the line is
obtained only on the plane to which it is perpendicular, and no trace of the line is obtained on the
other plane to which it is parallel. Figures 2 and 3 illustrates the trace of a line parallel tp0VP
and perpendicular to HP and parallel to HP and perpendicular to VP respectively.

Figure 2. Trace of line parallel to VP and perpendicular to HP

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Figure 3. Trace of a line perpendicular to the VP and parallel to HP

Traces of a line inclined to one plane and parallel to the other
When the line is inclined to one plane and parallel to the other, the trace of the line is obtained
only on the plane to which it is inclined, and no trace is obtained on the plane to which it is
parallel. Figure 4 shows the horizontal trace of line AB which is in lined HP and parallel to VP

Figure 4 Horizontal trace of line AB

Figure 5 shows the vertical trace of line AB which is inclined to VP and parallel to HP

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Figure 5 Vertical trace of line AB

Traces
of
a
line
inclined
to
both
the
planes
Figure 6 shows the Vertical trace (V) and Horizontal Trace (H) of Line AB inclined at q to HP
and

to
VP.
The line when extended intersects HP at H, the horizontal trace, but will never intersect the
portion of VP above XY line, i.e. within the portion of the VP in the 1st quadrant. Therefore VP
is extended below HP such that when the line AB is produced it will intersect in the extended
portion
of
VP
at
V,
the
vertical
trace.
In this case both horizontal trace (H) and Vertical Trace (V) of the line AB lie below XY line.

Figure 6 Vertical trace and horizontal trace of line AB which is inclined to both vertical plane
and horizontal plane.
Q-10 (A) : EXPLAIN THE GLASS BOXMETHOD FOR THE ARRANGMENT OF
ARTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS.
ANS: ARTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS - When we look at everyday objects we see them in a
three dimensional (3-D) view. However we cannot see the true lengths of the different
sides of the object. For instance when you are watching the television you can see the
front screen, but you cannot see the back & sides of the T.V. set.
Orthographic Projection- Sometimes a view of the back and sides is needed. For example
in the manufacturing industry, drawings need to have views of all sides of an object so
that workers can read important dimensions and get an accurate view of what each side of
the component should look like.
THE GLASS BOX APPROACH:

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