Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Learning Outcome
When you complete this module you will be able to:
Describe the basic principles of magnetism.

Learning Objectives
Here is what you will be able to do when you complete each objective:
1. Describe magnetism and the relationship between magnetism and electricity.
2. Describe the relationship between electricity and magnetism in an electrical
generator.
3. Describe the relationship between electricity and magnetism in an electric
motor.

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INTRODUCTION
Because many common devices are designed using its principles, magnetism is an
important subject. Magnetic principles are the key to understanding the operation
of such common mechanisms as solenoids, relays, electric motors and generators.

MAGNETISM
From early times it was recognized that certain materials, called magnetite or
lodestone, possessed a peculiar ability to attract other metals such as iron, steel,
cobalt, and nickel. These metals all have magnetic properties. Iron exhibits these
properties to a higher degree than the others. Copper, a very common electrical
conductor, cannot be magnetized. Iron and steel may be magnetized by rubbing
the metal with a magnet or inserting the iron or steel bar inside a current-carrying
coil. Inserting the iron or steel bar inside a current-carrying coil is the most
efficient and commonly used method and will be discussed later.
Another interesting property of a magnet is that it will always point in the north
and south direction when suspended in air. The end which points to the north
magnetic pole is called the north pole while the other is the south pole.
It is best to imagine that a magnetic field (the space in which a magnetic force can
be detected), is formed by invisible lines of force directed from the north pole to
the south pole. Fig. 1 shows these lines. This can be demonstrated best by
sprinkling iron filings on a sheet of paper and placing a magnet beneath it. The
filings will group themselves in a shape resembling the lines of force in Fig. 1.
These lines are said to flow from the N pole to the S pole on the outside of the
magnet and from S to N poles inside the magnet. They make what is known as the
magnetic flux of the magnet. The total number of lines of force in a magnetic field
determine the value or magnitude of the flux: the greater the flux, the stronger the
magnetic field.

Figure 1
Magnetic Lines of Force

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Figs. 2 and 3 show the interaction between two magnets. If two unlike poles are
placed adjacent to each other as in Fig. 2, the lines of force complement each
other and there is a force of attraction between the magnets. When like poles of
two magnets are adjacent to each other as in Fig. 3, the lines of force from the N
pole of each magnet oppose each other, and tend to push the magnets apart.

Figure 2
Unlike Poles Adjacent - Attraction

Figure 3
Like Poles Adjacent - Repulsion

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

Electric Current and Magnetism
When an electric current flows in a conductor a circular magnetic field is set up
around the conductor. Magnetic field direction and intensity depend upon the
direction and intensity of current flow. If conventional current flow is downward
in a conductor, as illustrated in Fig. 4, concentric magnetic lines of force travel in
a clockwise direction around the conductor. When the direction of current flow is
reversed, the lines of force also reverse to an anticlockwise direction. Fig. 5 is a
schematic representation showing the direction of the magnetic field with respect
to conventional current flow. The dot represents the point of an arrow pointed
toward the reader to indicate the direction of current flow. A cross is the tail of an
arrow showing that the current is flowing away from the reader.

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Figure 4
Current Flow and Magnetic Field Direction
Magnetic Field Around a Conductor
The direction of the lines of force around a conductor is determined using the
Right Hand Rule for conductors. Mentally grasp a current-carrying conductor
with the right hand, with the thumb pointing in the direction of current flow. The
direction of the lines of force in the magnetic field around the wire is in the
direction the fingers are pointing. (Fig. 5 and Fig. 6)

Figure 5
Direction of Magnetic Field Around a Current Carrying Conductor

Figure 6
Right Hand Rule to Determine Direction
of Magnetic Field About a Conductor

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Another method of determining the field direction around a current carrying

conductor is to think of a screw. Point the screw in the same direction as the
current flow through the conductor. Imagine that you are turning the screw into a
block of wood. The direction that you turn the screw is the direction of the lines
of force around the current carrying conductor (Fig. 7).

Figure 7
Screw and Current Flow

Magnetic Field Around a Coil of Wire

If a conductor is formed into the shape of a coil, the magnetic field around the
conductor will be reinforced by each turn of wire in the coil. In Fig. 8(a) the lines
of force due to opposing directions of current flow in two conductors cancel each
other. In Fig. 8(b) the lines of force are reinforced when the current flows the
same direction in two conductors side by side.

Magnetic flux cancelled due to

opposite current flow directions in
adjacent conductors
(not a coil)
(a)

Magnetic flux reinforced due to same

current flow directions.
(coil)
(b)

Figure 8
Lines of Magnetic Force

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The magnetic force around a coil may be increased many times compared to the
force around a single conductor as shown in Fig. 9.

Figure 9
Magnetic Force Around a Coil
Magnetic fields are subject to a type of resistance that is analogous to the
resistance in electric current flow. Some materials establish magnetic fields much
more readily than others. Magnetic fields are easily established in iron and steel
(good conductors) but cannot be established well in air and glass (good
insulators). The property that determines whether or not a material will be easily
magnetized or not is called permeability. Iron and steel have high permeability
while air and glass have low permeability. The quantity used to measure the
opposition to establishing a magnetic field is reluctance and is analogous to
resistance in electric circuits. Reluctance depends directly on permeability. Iron
and steel have very low reluctance while air and glass have high reluctance.

Electromagnet
A basic electromagnet is a current-carrying conductor formed into a coil about a
permeable core such as soft iron. Since iron is more permeable than air, the
strength of the magnetic flux about the coil is greater than it would be if the iron
core was removed.

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The same Right Hand Rule that was used to determine the direction of flux
around a current carrying conductor is used to determine the polarity of a coil or
electromagnet. Mentally grasp the coil or electromagnet in your right hand with
your fingers pointing the same direction as the current flow through the coils of
wire. Your thumb will be pointing in the direction of the north pole of the coil or
magnet. See Fig. 10.

Figure 10
Electromagnet

Strength of the Magnetic Field About an Electromagnet

Magnetic field and magnetic flux are used somewhat interchangeably. Magnet
flux is the sum of the magnetic lines of force about a magnet. Magnetic field
refers to the space around a magnet through which the magnetic lines of flux are
considered to travel.
The strength of the magnetic flux about an electromagnet is proportional to the
current flowing through the coil, the number of turns in the coil, and the
permeability of the core. That is, the greater the current flow, the stronger the
magnet; the greater the number of turns of wire around the core, the stronger the
magnet; and the more permeable the core, the stronger the magnet.

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The principle of an electromagnet is applied in a solenoid valve shown in Fig. 11.

When the solenoid coil is energized by a flow of current, the magnetic lines of
force combine to form a continuous path and an electromagnet. If an iron core is
placed in the field path, the magnetic flux is greatly increased and the core is
drawn upward to open a valve connected to the core. When the current flow is
stopped, the compressed spring instantly closes the valve.

Figure 11
Solenoid Valve

GENERATORS AND MOTORS

Generator Action
The principle of operation of the electric generator, the transformer, and many
other electrical devices, is based on a discovery made by Michael Faraday in
1831. He discovered that an induced voltage is produced in a conductor when the
conductor is moved across a magnetic field. This principle may be proven by
connecting a galvanometer (a sensitive current measuring device) to a conductor
moving through the field of a permanent magnet.
Fig. 12 shows that as a conductor is moved from right to left through the magnetic
field, current is caused to flow from A to B through the conductor. A voltage is
induced across the conductor.

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Figure 12
Generator Action
The right hand rule for generators is applied by using the thumb and first two
fingers of the right hand. The thumb points in the direction of motion, the index
finger points in the direction of the magnetic lines of force, and the second finger
indicates the direction of induced current flow. (Consider only the magnetic lines
of force that are perpendicular to the conductor.) The direction of current flow in
Fig. 13 is determined using the right hand rule for generators.

Figure 13
Right Hand Rule for Generators

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A single conductor produces a small induced voltage. The magnitude of the

voltage may be increased by:
1.

Increasing the speed at which the magnetic lines of force are cut.

2.

Increasing the strength of the magnetic field.

3.

Increasing the number of conductors cutting the magnetic field with

the conductors connected in series with each other.

Fig. 14 shows that the conductors may be held stationary while the magnetic field
is moved and forced to cut across the conductors, producing the same effect. This
figure also demonstrates that the direction of the current flow is reversed when
either the motion or the polarity of the magnetic field is reversed.

Figure 14
Conductors and Magnetic Fields
Simple DC Generator
Fig. 15 shows a simple dc generator composed of a pair of magnetic poles and a
simple loop conductor. The loop is connected to a commutator (split ring) upon
which carbon brushes ride. The commutator and brushes connect the loop to the
external circuit. As the loop is turned clockwise, a current is induced in the loop
in the direction indicated. Maximum voltage is generated when the conductor is
cutting the magnetic lines of force at an angle of 90(Fig. 16(a)). As the loop turns
to a vertical position between the poles, the voltage generated drops to zero.
When the loop is in a vertical position between the poles, the conductors are
moving parallel to the lines of force, and no voltage is generated (Fig. 16(b)).

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Figure 15
Simple DC Generator
At this point the commutator has turned to the point where the brushes bridge the
gap between the commutator segments, and as it continues to turn, the brush
connections to the loop are reversed. As the loop continues to turn, the loop
begins to cut the magnetic lines again, generating a voltage that increases to
maximum when the loop is again cutting the magnetic lines at an angle of 90.
The commutator continuously reverses connections between the loop and the
external circuit, causing current to flow in one direction in the external circuit
(direct current or dc). A commutator on a generator may be considered to be a
mechanical rectifier. A rectifier changes alternating current (ac) to direct current
(dc).

Loop cuts lines at 90 maximum E

generated
(a)

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Loop moving parallel to magnetic lines

of force generating no E
(b)

Figure 16
Conductors Moving Through a Magnetic Field

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Simple AC Generator
Fig. 17 shows a simple ac generator composed of a simple loop, a pair of slip
rings, and an electromagnet supplying the magnetic field. The slip rings and
brushes provide the connections from the loop to the external circuit. Through the
use of slip rings, one side of the loop is always connected to the same side of the
external circuit rather than having the connections reversed every half turn as with
the simple commutator shown previously with the dc generator.

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Figure 17
Simple AC Generator
By working through Fig. 18, it can be seen that the alternating voltage and current
induced in the loop is transferred directly to the external circuit. The voltage
produced takes the form of a sinusoidal wave as shown in.

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Figure 18
Generator Principle

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MOTOR ACTION
Every conductor carrying current has a magnetic field around it. The strength of
this field depends upon the amount of current flowing through the conductor; the
direction of the field depends on the direction of the current flow.
When a conductor carrying current is placed in a uniform magnetic field, there
will be an interaction between the two fields as shown in Fig. 19. In this case, the
current is flowing down the conductor away from the reader, and the resulting
field is clockwise around the conductor. The field due to the magnets will be
strengthened above the conductor (where the two fields agree) and weakened
below the conductor (where the two fields are in opposition).
This unbalance in the magnetic field results in distortion of the lines of force
passing from N to S. These lines of force tend to straighten themselves and in
doing so exert a downward force upon the conductor field which results in a
movement of the conductor.
This basic principle can be stated as: a conductor carrying current in a magnetic
field tends to move at right angles to the field.
By winding a motor armature so that a succession of current-carrying conductors
come under the poles of the magnets in the frame, this magnetic thrust can be
made to drive a motor continuously.

Figure 19
Lines of Force Around a Current-Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field
The left hand rule for motors is used to determine the direction of the force
exerted on a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field. The thumb,
index, and middle finger of the left hand are held such that each is at 90 to the
other in three planes (Fig. 20).

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The index finger represents the direction of the magnetic flux, the second finger
represents the direction of current flow (conventional current flow), and the
thumb indicates the direction of the force acting on the conductor.

Figure 20
Left Hand Rule for Motors

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