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Network Protection Automation Guide Areva 1 PDF
Network Protection Automation Guide Areva 1 PDF
Network Protection Automation Guide Areva 1 PDF
&
Network
Automation
Guide
Network P rotection
& Automation Guide
First edition
July 2002
June 1966
January 1967
August 1968
November 1970
September 1971
February 1973
January 1974
Second edition
First printed
Reprinted
March 1975
November 1977
December 1979
November 1982
October 1983
October 1985
Third edition
First printed
Reprinted
June 1987
September 1990
March 1995
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
Peter Rush
Contents
1
Introduction
Fundamental Theory
Fault Calculations
Relay Technology
10
11
Distance Protection
12
13
14
Auto-Reclosing
15
Busbar Protection
16
17
Generator and
Generator-Transformer Protection
18
19
20
21
22
23
Power Quality
24
25
Appendix 1
Terminology
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
Application Tables
Index
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p2
p4
p16
p30
p46
p78
p98
p112
...............
p122
..............
p152
..............
p170
..............
p192
..............
p202
..............
p218
..............
p232
..............
p254
..............
p280
..............
p316
..............
p336
..............
p352
..............
p370
..............
p398
..............
p410
..............
p422
..............
p442
..............
p454
..............
p466
..............
p468
..............
p476
.............................................................................................................................................
Introduction
Introduction
Relay hardware is becoming even more standardised, to the point at
which versions of a relay may differ only by the software they contain.
This accurate prediction in the preface to the Third Edition of the Protective
Relay Application Guide (PRAG), 1987, has been followed by the rapid
development of integrated protection and control devices. The change in
technology, together with significant changes in Utility, Industrial and
Commercial organisations, has resulted in new emphasis on Secondary Systems
Engineering.
In addition to the traditional role of protection & control, secondary systems
are now required to provide true added value to organisations.
When utilised to its maximum, not only can the integration of protection &
control functionality deliver the required reduction in life-time cost of capital,
but the advanced features available (Quality of Supply, disturbance recording
and plant monitoring) enable system and plant performance to be improved,
increasing system availability.
The evolution of all secondary connected devices to form digital control
systems continues to greatly increase access to all information available within
the substation, resulting in new methodologies for asset management.
In order to provide the modern practising substation engineer with reference
material, the Network Protection & Automation Guide provides a substantially
revised and expanded edition of PRAG incorporating new chapters on all levels
of network automation. The first part of the book deals with the fundamentals,
basic technology, fault calculations and the models of power system plant,
including the transient response and saturation problems that affect
instrument transformers.
The typical data provided on power system plant has been updated and
significantly expanded following research that showed its popularity.
The book then provides detailed analysis on the application of protection
systems. This includes a new Chapter on the protection of a.c. electrified
railways. Existing chapters on distance, busbar and generator protection have
been completely revised to take account of new developments, including
improvements due to numerical protection techniques and the application
problems of embedded generation. The Chapter on relay testing and
commissioning has been completely updated to reflect modern techniques.
Finally, new Chapters covering the fields of power system measurements,
power quality, and substation and distribution automation are found, to reflect
the importance of these fields for the modern Power System Engineer.
The intention is to make NPAG the standard reference work in its subject area
- while still helping the student and young engineer new to the field. We trust
that you find this book invaluable and assure you that any comments will be
carefully noted ready for the next edition.
Fundamentals
of Protection Practice
Introduction
2.1
Protection equipment
2.2
Zones of protection
2.3
Reliability
2.4
Selectivity
2.5
Stability
2.6
Speed
2.7
Sensitivity
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
Fundamentals
of P rotection P ractice
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of an electrical power system is to generate
and supply electrical energy to consumers. The system
should be designed and managed to deliver this energy
to the utilisation points with both reliability and
economy. Severe disruption to the normal routine of
modern society is likely if power outages are frequent or
prolonged, placing an increasing emphasis on reliability
and security of supply. As the requirements of reliability
and economy are largely opposed, power system design
is inevitably a compromise.
A power system comprises many diverse items of
equipment. Figure 2.2 shows a hypothetical power
system; this and Figure 2.1 illustrates the diversity of
equipment that is found.
G1
G2
T1
T2
R2
380kV
L2
L1A
L1B
380kV
380kV
L3
T5
L4
T6
110kV
T3
C'
T4
B'
33kV
CCGT power station
G3
G4
T10
T11
R4
R5
G5 G6
T7
220kV
L7A
R6
G7
R7
T8
T9
380kV
T14
L6
380kV
Grid
substation
F
L7B
L5
T15
T12
T16
T13
33kV
L8
D'
Grid
380kV
110kV
F'
e 2.
Figur
T17
G'
2 . 2 P R OT E C T I O N E Q U I P M E N T
Busbar
protection
rotection
Feed
Feeder
protection
2 . 3 Z O N E S O F P R OT E C T I O N
Feed
Feeder
protection
(b) CT's on circuit side of circuit breaker
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
Busbar
protection
rotection
Zone 4
Zone 5
Feeder 1
Zone 7
Feeder 2
Zone 6
Feeder 3
Figure 2.7
For practical physical and economic reasons, this ideal is
not always achieved, accommodation for current
transformers being in some cases available only on one
side of the circuit breakers, as in Figure 2.6(b). This
leaves a section between the current transformers and
thezones
zone
may be systems
unrestricted;
Alternatively,
Figure
2.7: Overlapping
of protection
2.4 RELIABILITY
2.4.4 Testing
a. incorrect design/settings
b. incorrect installation/testing
c. deterioration in service
2.4.2 Settings
2.4.3 Installation
The need for correct installation of protection systems is
obvious, but the complexity of the interconnections of
many systems and their relationship to the remainder of
the installation may make checking difficult. Site testing
is therefore necessary; since it will be difficult to
reproduce all fault conditions correctly, these tests must
be directed to proving the installation. The tests should
be limited to such simple and direct tests as will prove
the correctness of the connections, relay settings, and
freedom from damage of the equipment. No attempt
should be made to 'type test' the equipment or to
establish complex aspects of its technical performance.
Network Protection & Automation Guide
2.4.1 Design
2 . 6 S TA B I L I T Y
The term stability is usually associated with unit
protection schemes and refers to the ability of the
protection system to remain unaffected by conditions
external to the protected zone, for example through load
current and external fault conditions.
2.7 SPEED
2.5 SELECTIVITY
Figure 2.8
Phase-earth
Load power
Phase-phase
Phase-phase-earth
Three-phase
Time
2 . 9 P R I M A R Y A N D B A C K - U P P R OT E C T I O N
The reliability of a power system has been discussed
earlier, including the use of more than one primary (or
main) protection system operating in parallel. In the
event of failure or non-availability of the primary
protection some other means of ensuring that the fault
is isolated must be provided. These secondary systems
are referred to as back-up protection.
Back-up protection may be considered as either being
local or remote. Local back-up protection is achieved
by protection which detects an un-cleared primary
system fault at its own location and which then trips its
own circuit breakers, e.g. time graded overcurrent relays.
Remote back-up protection is provided by protection
that detects an un-cleared primary system fault at a
remote location and then issues a local trip command,
e.g. the second or third zones of a distance relay. In both
cases the main and back-up protection systems detect a
fault simultaneously, operation of the back-up
protection being delayed to ensure that the primary
protection clears the fault if possible. Normally being
unit protection, operation of the primary protection will
be fast and will result in the minimum amount of the
power system being disconnected. Operation of the
back-up protection will be, of necessity, slower and will
result in a greater proportion of the primary system
being lost.
The extent and type of back-up protection applied will
naturally be related to the failure risks and relative
economic importance of the system. For distribution
systems where fault clearance times are not critical, time
delayed remote back-up protection may be adequate.
For EHV systems, where system stability is at risk unless
a fault is cleared quickly, multiple primary protection
systems, operating in parallel and possibly of different
types (e.g. distance and unit protection), will be used to
ensure fast and reliable tripping. Back-up overcurrent
protection may then optionally be applied to ensure that
two separate protection systems are available during
maintenance of one of the primary protection systems.
Back-up protection systems should, ideally, be
completely separate from the primary systems. For
example a circuit protected by a current differential relay
may also have time graded overcurrent and earth fault
relays added to provide circuit breaker tripping in the
event of failure of the main primary unit protection. To
maintain complete separation and thus integrity, current
transformers, voltage transformers, relays, circuit breaker
trip coils and d.c. supplies would be duplicated. This
ideal is rarely attained in practice. The following
compromises are typical:
a. separate current transformers (cores and secondary
windings only) are provided. This involves little extra
cost or accommodation compared with the use of
11
Self reset
Hand reset
`make' contacts
(normally open)
`break' contacts
(normally open)
Time delay on
pick up
Time delay on
drop-off
Figure 2.9: Contact types
2 . 10 R E L AY O U T P U T D E V I C E S
In order to perform their intended function, relays must be
fitted with some means of providing the various output
signals required. Contacts of various types usually fulfil
this function.
The basic trip circuit is simple, being made up of a handtrip control switch and the contacts of the protection
relays in parallel to energise the trip coil from a battery,
through a normally open auxiliary switch operated by
the circuit breaker. This auxiliary switch is needed to
open the trip circuit when the circuit breaker opens
since the protection relay contacts will usually be quite
incapable of performing the interrupting duty. The
auxiliary switch will be adjusted to close as early as
possible in the closing stroke, to make the protection
effective in case the breaker is being closed on to a fault.
a. Self-reset
The contacts remain in the operated condition only
while the controlling quantity is applied, returning
to their original condition when it is removed
b. Hand or electrical reset
These contacts remain in the operated condition
after the controlling quantity is removed. They can
be reset either by hand or by an auxiliary
electromagnetic element
12
2 . 11 T R I P P I N G C I R C U I T S
There are three main circuits in use for circuit breaker
tripping:
a. series sealing
b. shunt reinforcing
c. shunt reinforcement with sealing
These are illustrated in Figure 2.10.
52a
TC
PR
52a
TC
52a
TC
PR
PR
13
PR
52a
TC
52a
TC
52b
(b) Supervision while circuit breaker is open or closed (scheme H5)
PR
52a
TC
Alarm
(c) Supervision with circuit breaker open or closed
with remote alarm (scheme H7)
Trip
Trip
Circuit breaker
52a TC
52b
14
In either case, the addition of a normally open pushbutton contact in series with the lamp will make the
supervision indication available only when required.
Schemes using a lamp to indicate continuity are suitable
for locally controlled installations, but when control is
exercised from a distance it is necessary to use a relay
system. Figure 2.11(c) illustrates such a scheme, which is
applicable wherever a remote signal is required.
With the circuit healthy, either or both of relays A and B
are operated and energise relay C. Both A and B must
reset to allow C to drop-off. Relays A, B and C are time
delayed to prevent spurious alarms during tripping or
closing operations. The resistors are mounted separately
from the relays and their values are chosen such that if
any one component is inadvertently short-circuited,
tripping will not take place.
15
Fundamental Theory
Introduction
3.1
Vector algebra
3.2
3.3
3.4
Impedance notation
3.5
3.6
References
3.7
Fundamental Theor y
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The Protection Engineer is concerned with limiting the
effects of disturbances in a power system. These
disturbances, if allowed to persist, may damage plant
and interrupt the supply of electric energy. They are
described as faults (short and open circuits) or power
swings, and result from natural hazards (for instance
lightning), plant failure or human error.
To facilitate rapid removal of a disturbance from a power
system, the system is divided into 'protection zones'.
Relays monitor the system quantities (current, voltage)
appearing in these zones; if a fault occurs inside a zone,
the relays operate to isolate the zone from the remainder
of the power system.
The operating characteristic of a relay depends on the
energizing quantities fed to it such as current or voltage,
or various combinations of these two quantities, and on
the manner in which the relay is designed to respond to
this information. For example, a directional relay
characteristic would be obtained by designing the relay
to compare the phase angle between voltage and current
at the relaying point. An impedance-measuring
characteristic, on the other hand, would be obtained by
designing the relay to divide voltage by current. Many
other more complex relay characteristics may be
obtained by supplying various combinations of current
and voltage to the relay. Relays may also be designed to
respond to other system quantities such as frequency,
power, etc.
In order to apply protection relays, it is usually necessary
to know the limiting values of current and voltage, and
their relative phase displacement at the relay location,
for various types of short circuit and their position in the
system. This normally requires some system analysis for
faults occurring at various points in the system.
The main components that make up a power system are
generating sources, transmission and distribution
networks, and loads. Many transmission and distribution
circuits radiate from key points in the system and these
circuits are controlled by circuit breakers. For the
purpose of analysis, the power system is treated as a
network of circuit elements contained in branches
radiating from nodes to form closed loops or meshes.
The system variables are current and voltage, and in
17
3 . 2 V E C TO R A L G E B R A
A vector represents a quantity in both magnitude and
direction. In Figure 3.1 the vector OP has a magnitude
|Z| at an angle with the reference axis OX.
sin =
Equation 3.3
e j e j
2j
e j e j
2
Z = |Z|e j
Equation 3.4
Z = x + jy
Equation 3.2
cos =
Figure3.1:
3.1: Vector
VectorOP
OP
Figure
Fundamental Theor y
|Z|
Y 3.1
Figure
(x
+ y2
y
= tan 1
x = Z cos
y = Z sin
Z=
Equation 3.1
a. Polar
b. Rectangular
x + jy
c. Trigonometric
d. Exponential
|Z|e j
whence j = -1
18
Equation 3.7
|Z2|
y2
|Z1|
y1
0
x1
x2
= |Z|e jwt
The real component of the vector is |Z|coswt.
2 m
2 m
+ j sin
n
n
where m has values 1, 2, 3, ... (n-1)
d
Z e jwt = jw Z e jwt
dt
= jw|Z| (coswt + jsinwt)
Separating into real and imaginary components:
d
Z e jwt = Z ( w sin wt + jw cos wt )
dt
Thus, the rate of change of the real component of a
vector |Z|wt is:
11/ n = cos
-|Z| w sinwt
Fundamental Theor y
Z1Z2 = Z1 Z2 1 + 2
Z1 Z1
=
1 2
Z2 Z2
19
2
j
3
1
3
a= + j
=e
2
2
4
j
1
3
=e 3
a2 = j
2
2
j0
1=1+ j0 = e
e=Emsin(wt+)
where:
1+ a + a2 = 0
1a = j 3a2
1a2 = j 3a
a a2 = j 3
j=
a a2
3
Figure 3.3
Fundamental Theor y
3
|Em|
Equation 3.8
X'
Em
t
t=0
Y'
i=
Em
Z
sin (wt + )
Equation 3.9
where:
Z = R2 + X 2
X = L
= tan 1 X
R
Equation 3.10
20
Equation 3.11
The 'root mean square' value is that value which has the
same heating effect as a direct current quantity of that
value in the same circuit, and this definition applies to
non-sinusoidal as well as sinusoidal quantities.
3.4.2 Sign Conventions
In describing the electrical state of a circuit, it is often
necessary to refer to the 'potential difference' existing
between two points in the circuit. Since wherever such
a potential difference exists, current will flow and energy
will either be transferred or absorbed, it is obviously
necessary to define a potential difference in more exact
terms. For this reason, the terms voltage rise and voltage
drop are used to define more accurately the nature of the
potential difference.
E = I Z
Z3
Z1
Z2
E1
E2
E1-E2=(Z1+Z2+Z3)I
(a) Diagrammatic
Zab
a
Zan
Iab
Ean
b
Zbn
Ebn
n
Ean-Ebn=(Zan+Zab+Zbn)Iab
(b) Double suffix
Ldi 1
iR +
+
idt = e
Equation 3.12
dt C
where the terms on the left hand side of the equation are
voltage drops across the circuit elements. Expressed in
Equation 3.13
Fundamental Theor y
21
VV
abab==V
Vanan-VVbnbn
VV
=
V
V
V
baba
bnbn V
anan
S = P + jQ
Equation 3.16
Equation 3.14
Fundamental Theor y
3.4.3 Power
p=ei=P[1-cos2(wt+)]+Qsin2(wt+)
Equation 3.15
where:
P=|E||I|cos
and
Q=|E||I|sin
Ean
Ecn
A'
N'
N Ebn
B
C'
Phase branches
B'
Direction
120 of rotation
120
Ec=aEa
120
Eb=a2Ea
22
MVAb 2
MVAb1
2
kVb1
Zb 2 = Zb1
kVb 2
Zb 2 = Zb1
Equation 3.17
ohms
Equation 3.18
MVA
and, provided the system is balanced, the base
impedance may be calculated using either single-phase
or three-phase quantities.
Zb
Equation 3.20
11.8kV
Hence:
MVAb
(kVb )2
Z (% ) = Z ( p.u .) 100
11.8/141kV
132/11kV
132kV
Overhead line
Z ( p.u .) = Z (ohms )
11kV
Distribution
11.8kV
132kV
11kV
Right selection
11.8kV
141kV
kVb = base kV
Simple transposition of the above formulae will refer the
ohmic value of impedance to the per unit or percentage
values and base quantities.
141 x 11=11.7kV
132
Fundamental Theor y
= a
EEaa= E
Ea
= a 22
EEbb= a EEaa
EEc c== aE
Eaa
23
3 . 6 B A S I C C I R C U I T L AW S ,
THEOREMS AND NETWORK REDUCTION
Fundamental Theor y
(11) =0.27%
100
26
66.6 (132 )2
2
I =0
100 (145 )
12.5
= 20.1%
75 (132 )2
2
E = Z I
Alternatively, the total change in potential around a
closed loop is zero.
Figure 3.7
T1
G1
132kV
overhead
lines
G2
T2
E'
Zbo
Zco
Z12
1
Z13
c
(a) Star network
0
0.75
0.4
0.45
E''
18.85
N
Figure 3.9: Typical power system network
Figure 3.9: Typical power system network
Z AN = Z AO + Z NO +
Z AO Z NO
Z BO
= 0.75 +18.85 +
0.75 18.85
0.45
= 51 ohms
Z23
Z BN = Z BO + Z NO +
Figure
3.8:Star-Delta
Star/Delta
network
reduction
Figure 3.8:
network
transformation
Figure 3.8: Star-Delta network transformation
Z BO Z NO
Z AO
= 0.45 +18.85 +
Zco
and so on.
0.45 18.85
0.75
=30.6 ohms
Z AN = Z AO + Z BO +
Z AO Z BO
Z NO
Figure 3.10
Fundamental Theor y
25
2.5
1.6
0.4
1.2
A
51
E'
B
30.6
E''
1.6 x 51
52.6
Figure 3.111.6
A
51
E'
52.6
51
E'
Fundamental Theor y
0.4
30.6
0.4 x 30.6
31
30.6 E''
31
E''
Figure 3.13
Ia
I
Q
Z= 1 (Zaa+Zbb)
2
(c) Equivalent when Zaa=Zbb
2.5
B
I
Z Z -Z2
Z= aa bb ab
Zaa+Zbb-2Zab
Zbb
Figure
Reduction
of active
meshes: Thvenin's Theorem
Figure
3.11:3.11:
Reduction
of active
meshes:
Thvenin's Theorem
1.55
Zab
Ib
Figure 3.12
Zaa
0.39
1.2
0.97E'
0.99E''
Figure
3.12:3.12:
Reduction
of typical
Figure
Reduction
of typical power system network
power system network
26
Za+Zc=Zaa
V = IaZab + IbZbb
Zb+Zc=Zbb
Za+Zb=Zaa+Zbb-2Zab
Solving these equations gives:
Za = Zaa Zab
Zb = Zbb Zab
Zc = Zab
(Zbb Zab )V
2
Zaa Zbb Zab
from which
(Zaa Zab )V
Ib =
2
Zaa Zbb Zab
and
I = Ia +Ib =
V1=Z11I1+Z12I2
V2=Z21I1+Z22I2
I1=Y11V1+Y12V2
I2=Y21V1+Y22V2
Equation 3.21
Z=
1
(Zaa + Zab )
2
Y11 = Z22
Y22 = Z11
Y12 = Z12
= Z11Z22 Z122
Equation 3.22
(Figure 3.13(c)).
b. consider the circuit in Figure 3.14(a).
Zab
Equation 3.24
Zaa
A
Equation 3.23
Zbb
(a) Actual circuit
Za=Zaa-Zab
Zc=Zab
Z22
Z12 Z12
2
2'
Z21
Z22
Z12
2'
Z11
Figure 3.15
1 : Equivalent circuits for
1'
Z12 mutual coupling
four terminal network with
1'
Zb=Zbb-Zab
Z11
1'
Z12
Z11
C
(c) Equivalent with all
nodes commoned
-Z12
2
Fundamental Theor y
Ia =
-Z12
Z12
Z12
(d) Equivalent circuit
2'
I1 = Y11V1
3.7 REFERENCES
I2 = Y12V1
I1 = V1Z11
I2 = -V1/Z12 = -V1/Z12
These relations follow from the fact that the branch
connecting nodes 1 and 1' carries current I1 and
the branches connecting nodes 1 and 2' and 1 and
2 carry current I2. This must be true since branches
between pairs of commoned nodes can carry no
current.
By considering each node in turn with the
remainder commoned, the following relationships
are found:
Z11 = 1/Y11
Fundamental Theor y
Z22 = 1/Y22
Z12 = -1/Y12
Z12 = Z1 2 = -Z21 = -Z12
Hence:
3
1
Z Z Z 2
Z ' = 11 22 2 12
Z11 11
= Z11
Z22Z-Z
22 12
_______________
Z22 2
Z11Z22 Z12
Z22Z22
=' Z=11
Z22-Z212
_______________
Z
Z1111
2
ZZ
2Z
11 Z 22
Z12Z12
=Z
22-Z 1212
= 11
_______________
ZZ
Equation 3.25
1212
A similar but equally rigorous equivalent circuit is
shown in Figure 3.15(d). This circuit [3.2] follows
from the fact that the self-impedance
of any circuit
Z11
Z11
1
1' it
1' of all other circuits. Therefore,
is independent
need not appear in any of the mutual branches if it
Z12
Z12 Z12
Z21 Z12
is lumped
as a radial branch
at the terminals.
So
putting Z11 and
Z22 equal2 to zero in Equation 2'3.25,
2'
Z22
Z22
1
Z11 Z12 Z12
C
(c) Equivalent with all
nodes commoned
except 1
Z11
-Z12
1'
Z12
-Z12
Z12
Z12
2'
Fault Calculations
Introduction
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
References
4.7
Fault Calculations
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A power system is normally treated as a balanced
symmetrical three-phase network. When a fault occurs,
the symmetry is normally upset, resulting in unbalanced
currents and voltages appearing in the network. The only
exception is the three-phase fault, which, because it
involves all three phases equally at the same location, is
described as a symmetrical fault. By using symmetrical
component analysis and replacing the normal system
sources by a source at the fault location, it is possible to
analyse these fault conditions.
For the correct application of protection equipment, it is
essential to know the fault current distribution
throughout the system and the voltages in different
parts of the system due to the fault. Further, boundary
values of current at any relaying point must be known if
the fault is to be cleared with discrimination. The
information normally required for each kind of fault at
each relaying point is:
i. maximum fault current
ii. minimum fault current
iii. maximum through fault current
To obtain the above information, the limits of stable
generation and possible operating conditions, including
the method of system earthing, must be known. Faults
are always assumed to be through zero fault impedance.
4 . 2 T H R E E - P H A S E F A U LT C A L C U L AT I O N S
Three-phase faults are unique in that they are balanced,
that is, symmetrical in the three phases, and can be
calculated from the single-phase impedance diagram
and the operating conditions existing prior to the fault.
A fault condition is a sudden abnormal alteration to the
normal circuit arrangement. The circuit quantities,
current and voltage, will alter, and the circuit will pass
through a transient state to a steady state. In the
transient state, the initial magnitude of the fault current
will depend upon the point on the voltage wave at which
the fault occurs. The decay of the transient condition,
until it merges into steady state, is a function of the
parameters of the circuit elements. The transient current
may be regarded as a d.c. exponential current
31
Figure 4.2:
2.5
1.55
0.39
1.2
Figure 4.1:
Z '1
0.99E ''
0.97E '
Z ''1
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
N
E'
E''
V = 0.97 E - 1.55 I
N
1.2 2.5
+ 0.39 I
V = 0.99 E '' +
2.5 + 1.2
E 1.207 I . Hence E E V.
Z1' + Z1''
V
= V
Z1
Z1' Z1''
and, since no current was flowing into the network from
F prior to the fault, the fault current flowing from the
network into the fault is:
I =
If
Z1' + Z1'' )
(
= I = V
Z1' Z1''
By applying the principle of superposition, the load
currents circulating in the system prior to the fault may
32
V
Z1 .
1.2 0.563
= 0.183 p.u.
3.7
and the current in 1.2 ohm branch
=
2.5 0.563
= 0.38 p.u.
3.7
Total current entering X from the left, that is, from A to
X, is 0.437 + 0.183 = 0.62 p.u. and from B to X is
0.38p.u. The equivalent network as viewed from the
relay is as shown in Figure 4.4(b). The impedances on
either side are:
=
2.5
0.39
1.55
A
1.2
V
N
(a) Three - phase fault diagram for a fault at node A
Busbar
Circuit breaker
and
A
X
1.55
1.21
N
(a) Impedance viewed from node A
1.1
1.79
N
(b) Equivalent impedances viewed from node X
Figure 4.4: Impedances viewed from fault
E b = a 2 E1 + aE 2 + E 0
E c = aE1 + a 2 E 2 + E 0
33
Equation 4.1
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
4 . 3 S Y M M E T R I C A L C O M P O N E N T A N A LY S I S
OF A THREE-PHASE NETWORK
E1 =
E a + aE b + a 2 E c
3
1
2
E2 =
E a + a E b + aE c
3
1
E0 =
Ea + Eb + Ec
(
(
)
)
Equation 4.2
E2
Ea
Ec
aE1
E1
a2E1
Eb
aE2
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
Eo
(V V )
1
Z1
Equation 4.3
V1 = V - I1 Z1
Equation 4.4
Eo
Eo
a2E2
I =
of the fault branch. The voltage V is equal to the opencircuit voltage in the system, and it has been shown that
V E E (see Section 3.7). So the positive sequence
voltages in the system due to the fault are greatest at the
source, as shown in the gradient diagram, Figure 4.6(b).
Figure 4.6
X
Z '1
ZS1
Z ''1
F
I '1
I ''1
I1
Z '1
V1
E'
E ''
N
(a) System diagram
N
I '1
X
I '1 Z '1
F
V1
34
V2
Z2
Equation 4.5
b. phase to phase
c. phase-phase-earth
d. three-phase (with or without earth)
The above faults are described as single shunt faults
because they occur at one location and involve a
connection between one phase and another or to earth.
X
ZS1
Z'1
V2
N
(a) Negative sequence network
F
X
a. Single-phase-earth (A-E)
V2
I b = 0
I c = 0
V a = 0
V2 + I'2Z'1
N
(b) Gradient diagram
Figure 4.7: Fault at F:
Negative sequence diagram
b. Phase-phase (B-C)
Ia = 0
I b = I c
V b = V c
c. Phase-phase-earth (B-C-E)
V0 = - I0 Z0
Equation 4.6
I a = 0
V b = 0
V c = 0
d. Three-phase (A-B-C or A-B-C-E)
Equation 4.7
Equation 4.8
Equation 4.9
I a + I b + I c = 0
Va = Vb
Vb = Vc
Equation 4.10
It should be noted from the above that for any type of
fault there are three equations that define the fault
conditions.
35
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
I2 =
V - I1 Z1 = I2 Z2
Ib = 0
Ic = 0
V a = I a Z f
Equation 4.11
Figure 4.8
A
B
C
Va
F
Ia
Ib
Vb
Vc
Ic
F2
F1
Z2
Z1
N1
F0
F
Figure
4.9
A
Z0
N2
N0
Vb
F1
F2
Z1
Vc
Ib
N1
Ic
Ib =0
Ic =0
Va=0
(a) Definition of fault
Va
Ia
Z2
N2
F0
Z0
N0
Ia =0
Ib =-Ic
Vb=-Vc
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
I1 = -( I2 + Io )
Equation 4.18
1
I1 = I 2 = I o = I a
Equation 4.12
3
V1 = - ( V2 + V0 )
Equation 4.13
V1 = V2 = V0
Equation 4.19
and
I0 =
Z 2 I1
Z0 + Z 2
Equation 4.20
Z 0 I1
Equation 4.21
Z0 + Z 2
V - I1 Z1 = - I2 Z2
or
I2 =
V = I1 Z1 - I2 Z2
I1 = - I2
Equation 4.15
I0 = 0
V1 = V2
Equation 4.16
or
Z 0 Z 2
V = Z1 +
I1
Z 0 + Z 2
I1 = V
36
(Z
+ Z2
Z1 Z 0 + Z1 Z 2 + Z 0 Z 2
Equation 4.22
Vb
Z1
Vc
C
Ib
V2 = 1/3 Va
Z2
Z0
N2
N0
Ia=0
Vb=0
Vc=0
(a) Definition of fault
V1 = 1/3 Va
F0
N1
Ic
F2
V0 = 1/3 Va
and therefore:
V1 = V 2 = V0 = 1 3 V a
I a = I1 + I 2 + I 0 = 0 Equation 4.28
From Equations 4.28, it can be concluded that the
sequence networks are connected in parallel, as shown in
Figure 4.12(b).
Va
and
= 0
Va
F
Vb
F1
Z1
Vc
Figure 4.11 I
Ib
Ia
F2
N1
Z2
N2
N1
+ve
Sequence
Network
I1
P1
1
Q1
N2
-ve
Sequence
Network
P2
2
Q2
N0
Zero
Sequence
Network
I0
P0
0
Q0
I b + I c = 0
Va = 0
F0
Z0
N0
Equation 4.29
Therefore:
I a1 = I a 2 = I a 0
V a1 + V a 2 + V a 0
= 0
Equation 4.30
b) At point F
I ' a = I ' c = 0
V 'b = 0
Equation 4.31
and therefore:
I b1 = I b2 = I b0
Equation 4.32
Ia = 0
Equation 4.27
I2
V b = V c = 0
Ib Vb'
b I Vc'
c
c
Ia+Ib+Ic=0
Va+Vb+Vc=0
(a) Definition of fault
Q
Va'
Equation 4.23
I0 = 0
Equation 4.24
I2 = 0
Equation 4.25
37
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
Va
A
F1
Figure
4.10Ia Phase-phase-earth fault
F'
a-e
b-e
I'a1
Ia1
F1
F'1
V'a1
Va1
N1
N'1
2
a I'a2
F2
Ia2
I'a2
F'2
1 2
a
2
Va2
N2
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
a V'a2
V'a2
N'2
aI'a0
F0
Ia0
I'a0
F'0
V'a0
Va0
N0
1
a
aV'a0
N'0
(b) Equivalent circuit
= aI a2
= I a0
a2 I a1
or
= a2I a2
= aI a0
I a1
Equation 4.33
Equation 4.34
a. single-phase-earth (A-E)
I ' a = ( 2 C1 + C 0 ) I 0
I ' b = (C1 C 0 ) I 0
I ' c = (C1 C 0 ) I 0
b. phase-phase (B-C)
2
I ' b = a a C1 I1
I ' c = a a 2 C1 I1
c. phase-phase-earth (B-C-E)
I'a = 0
(
(
distribution factor. For this reason, if I1 , I2 and I0 are
sequence currents in an arbitrary branch of a network
due to a fault at some point in the network, then the
phase currents in that branch may be expressed in terms
of the distribution constants and the sequence currents
in the fault. These are given below for the various
common shunt faults, using Equation 4.1 and the
appropriate fault equations:
Z
I ' b = a a 2 C1 0
Z1
Z
I ' c = a 2 a C1 0
Z1
Equation 4.36
a 2 C1 C 0 I 0
aC1 + C 0 I 0
Equation 4.37
I ' a = C1 I1
I ' b = a 2 C1 I1
I ' c = aC1 I1
Equation 4.38
Ia = (0.746 + 0.112) I0
= 0.858 I0
and
I b = I c = -(0.373 + 0.112) I0
= -0.261 I0
By using network reduction methods and assuming that
all impedances are reactive, it can be shown that
Z1 = Z0 = j0.68 ohms.
Therefore, from Equation 4.14, the current in fault
branch I a =
39
V
0.68
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
)
)
I ' a = (C1 C 0 ) I 0
Equation 4.35
Power system
A
B
O
Fault
Load
(a) Single line diagram
j7.5
j0.9
0.755
1.0
0.08
V1' = V I1 Z1
j0.4
B
j2.6 0 j1.6
0.112
0.165
0.192
j4.8
V 2 ' = I 2 Z1 C1 n Z1 n
V0 ' = I 0 Z 0 C 0 n Z 0 n
Equation 4.39
1
0.053
(b) Zero sequence network
j2.5
j1.6
0.422
1.0
0.183
j0.4
B
j0.75 0 j0.45
0.395
0.373
0.556
j18.85
A
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
V ' 2 = V I1 Z1 j 0.464
63.5
= 31.2 A
I 0 = 13 I a =
3 x 0.68
I a = 26.8 -90 A
I b = I c =8.15 -90 A
The vector diagram for the above fault condition is
shown in Figure 4.15.
Figure 4.15
0.022
C1 n Z1 n
}]
}]
= I 0 Z 0 j 0.608
For earth faults, at the fault I1 = I2 = I0 = j31.2A, when
V 'c =61.5-116.4
Hence:
Va = V1 + V2 + V0
V 'a =47.8-0
Va = 47.8 0
Vb = a2 V1 + aV2 + V0
I 'a =26.8-90
V 'b =61.5-116.4
Vc = aV1 + a2V2 + V0
VR = 3Vne
Equation 4.43
Ia
Ib
Ic
C
Vae
Vbe
Vce
V
(a) Residual current
Hence:
I R = Ia + Ib + Ic
and
V R = V ae + V be
Also, from Equations 4.2:
+ V ce
I R = 3 I 0
V R = 3 V0
It should be further noted that:
V ae = V an + V ne
V be = V bn + V ne
V ce = V cn + V ne
Equation 4.40
Equation 4.41
4.6.2 System Z0 / Z1 Ratio
The system Z0 / Z1 ratio is defined as the ratio of zero
sequence and positive sequence impedances viewed from
the fault; it is a variable ratio, dependent upon the
method of earthing, fault position and system operating
arrangement.
When assessing the distribution of residual quantities
through a system, it is convenient to use the fault point
as the reference as it is the point of injection of
unbalanced quantities into the system. The residual
voltage is measured in relation to the normal phaseneutral system voltage and the residual current is
compared with the three-phase fault current at the fault
point. It can be shown [4.4/4.5] that the character of
these quantities can be expressed in terms of the system
Z0 / Z1 ratio.
The positive sequence impedance of a system is mainly
reactive, whereas the zero sequence impedance being
affected by the method of earthing may contain both
resistive and reactive components of comparable
Z0
X
R
= 0 j 0
Z1
X1
X1
Equation 4.42
Equation 4.44
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
a. Single-phase-earth (A-E)
IR
3V
=
=
2 Z1 + Z 0
3.0
(2 + K )
V
Z1
2.5
Residual voltage for
Single-Phase-Earth fault
where K = Z0 / Z1
V
Z1
I3 =
Thus:
IR
=
I3
Equation 4.45
(2 + K )
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
Residual current for
Double-Phase-Earth fault
b. Phase-phase-earth (B-C-E)
I R = 3I0
I1 =
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
V
=
2 K + 1 Z1
Therefore:
IR
3
=
I3
2K +1
Equation 4.46
a. Single-phase-each (A-E)
VR =
Z0
Z1
Iab+Iac
Iab
Iac
3K
(2 + K )
2 Z1 Z 0 + Z12
Hence:
IR =
Z12
3 V Z1
2
K =
V Z1 + Z 0
2 Z1 Z 0 +
3 Z1
I1
=
Z1 + Z 0
V
Equation 4.47
Iab
Iab+Iac
Iac
b. Phase-phase-earth (B-C-E)
VR =
3K
(2 K + 1 )
Iac
Equation 4.48
-VcF=Eac
n
Iab
b
a(F)
VbF
VR
-VbF=Eab
VcF
42
VR = VbF + VcF since VFe = 0
= VbF + VcF
= -3 Ean
VR
At source:
At source:
VR = 3Vne = -3Ean
since
Ia X
Iab
Iac
Ian
Iab
Ia
Iab
ZS
IF
ZL
A
B
C
Iac
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
and
Figure 4.16, the residual current will be Ian , that is, the
neutral earth loop current.Figure 4.19
IF
-VcX
Ia
a(F)
-Vbf
Ian
VcF
Vcn
Iac
-IaZL
-VXn
Iab
Vbn
VFn
b
VR
VR (at fault)
a
-IFZS
X
VbF
IF
VR
VXn
VcF
VR
(at source)
Vbf
VXn
F -IFZL
VcX
Van
Iab
-VbX
b
-Vcf
Vcn
VaX
VbX
43
Vbn
Vcn
Vbn
Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s
44
5.1
Synchronous machines
5.2
Armature reaction
5.3
5.4
5.5
Transient analysis
5.6
Asymmetry
5.7
Machine reactances
5.8
5.9
5.11
47
Weak
Strong
Weak
Strong
S
Direction of rotation
(a)
(b)
48
ATar
ATf
(a)
ATf
ATe
ATar
ATe
Et=1=V
I
ATe
ATar
ATf
(b)
Eo
IXad IX
d
EL
IXL
V
I
(c)
5 . 4 . S T E A DY S TAT E T H E O R Y
The vector diagram of a single cylindrical rotor
synchronous machine is shown in Figure 5.3, assuming
that the magnetic circuit is unsaturated, the air-gap is
uniform and all variable quantities are sinusoidal.
Further, since the reactance of machines is normally very
much larger than the resistance, the latter has been
neglected.
The excitation ampere-turns, ATe, produces a flux
across the air-gap thereby inducing a voltage, Et, in the
stator. This voltage drives a current I at a power factor
cos-1 and gives rise to an armature reaction m.m.f. ATar
in phase with it. The m.m.f. ATf resulting from the
combination of these two m.m.f. vectors (see Figure
5.3(a)) is the excitation which must be provided on the
rotor to maintain flux across the air-gap. Rotating the
rotor m.m.f. diagram, Figure 5.3(a), clockwise until
coincides with Et and changing the scale of the diagram
so that ATe becomes the basic unit, where ATe = Et =1,
results in Figure 5.3(b). The m.m.f. vectors have thus
become, in effect, voltage vectors. For example
ATar /ATe is a unit of voltage that is directly proportional
to the stator load current. This vector can be fully
represented by a reactance and in practice this is called
5 . 3 A R M AT U R E R E A C T I O N
VE
sin
Xd
Equation 5.1
49
Xad
IqXq
IdXd
EO
IXd
E'O
Flux
Lead
Armature
reaction M.M.F.
Flux
Qu rature axis
Quadr
Lag
Dire
rect axis poole
XL
Et
Eo
Iq
Id
Pole axis
50
5 . 6 T R A N S I E N T A N A LY S I S
XL
Xad
Xf
Xad
This voltage will be generated by a flux crossing the airgap. It is not possible to confine the flux to one path
exclusively in any machine, and as a result there will be
a leakage flux L that will leak from pole to pole and
across the inter-polar gaps without crossing the main
air-gap as shown in Figure 5.7. The flux in the pole will
be + L.
Xad
Xf
Xkd
Id =
Figure 5.7: Flux paths of salient pole machine
Eg
Xd
Equation 5.2
51
Eo
X 'd
where X ''d = X L +
X ad X f X kd
X ad X f + X kd X f + X ad X kd
Xd = XL + Xkd
or
Equation 5.3
X 'd =
Equation 5.4
X ad X f
+XL
X ad + X f
Current
I''d =
Eo
X''d
I'd =
Eo
X'd
Id =
Eair gap
Xd
Time
Figure 5.9: Transient decay envelope
of short-circuit current
52
5.7 ASYMMETRY
Type of machine
Short circuit ratio
Direct axis synchronous reactance Xd (p.u.)
Quadrature axis synchronous reactance Xq (p.u.)
Direct axis transient reactance Xd (p.u.)
Direct axis sub-transient reactance Xd (p.u.)
Quadrature axis sub-transient reactance Xq (p.u.)
Negative sequence reactance X2 (p.u.)
Zero sequence reactance X0 (p.u.)
Direct axis short circuit transient time constant Td (s)
Direct axis open circuit transient time constant Tdo (s)
Direct axis short circuit sub-transient- time constant Td (s)
Direct axis open circuit sub-transient time constant Tdo(s)
Quadrature axis short circuit sub-transient time constant Tq (s)
Quadrature axis open circuit sub-transient time constant Tqo (s)
4 Pole I
Multi-Pole
Air Cooled
Hydrogen
Cooled
Hydrogen/
Water Cooled
4 Pole
Multi-pole
0.5-0.7
1.6-2.0
1.0-1.23
0.3-0.5
0.2-0.4
0.25-0.6
0.25-0.5
0.12-0.16
1.5-2.5
5-10
1.0-1.2
0.8-1.0
0.5-0.65
0.2-0.35
0.12-0.25
0.15-0.25
0.14-0.35
0.06-0.10
1.0-2.0
3-7
0.4-0.6
2.0-2.8
1.8-2.7
0.2-0.3
0.15-0.23
0.16-0.25
0.16-0.23
0.06-0.1
0.6-1.3
6-12
0.4-0.6
2.1-2.4
1.9-2.4
0.27-0.33
0.19-0.23
0.19-0.23
0.19-0.24
0.1-0.15
0.7-1.0
6-10
0.4-0.6
2.1-2.6
2.0-2.5
0.3-0.36
0.21-0.27
0.21-0.28
0.21-0.27
0.1-0.15
0.75-1.0
6-9.5
0.4-0.6
1.75-3.0
0.9-1.5
0.26-0.35
0.19-0.25
0.19-0.35
0.16-0.27
0.01-0.1
0.4-1.1
3.0-9.0
0.6-0.8
1.4-1.9
0.8-1.0
0.24-0.4
0.16-0.25
0.18-0.24
0.16-0.23
0.045-0.23
0.25-1
1.7-4.0
0.04-0.9
0.07-0.11
0.05-0.10
0.08-0.25
0.04-0.6
0.05-0.6
0.013-0.022
0.018-0.03
0.013-0.022
0.017-0.025
0.023-0.032
0.018-0.027
0.022-0.03
0.025-0.035
0.02-0.03
0.02-0.04
0.035-0.06
0.025-0.04
0.02-0.06
0.03-0.1
0.025-0.08
0.1-0.2
0.2-0.9
0.026-0.045
0.03-0.05
0.04-0.065
0.13-0.2
0.1-0.35
53
5 . 8 M A C H I N E R E A C TA N C E S
Rotor
construction
Salient
Cylindrical
5 . 9 N E G AT I V E S E Q U E N C E R E A C TA N C E
Rotor Cooling
motors
generators
indirect
synchronous
condensers
motors
generators
direct
synchronous
condensers
indirectly cooled (air)
all
indirectly cooled (hydrogen)
all
<=350
351-900
directly cooled
901-1250
1251-1600
Note 1: Calculate as
Machine
Type (SN)
/Rating
(MVA)
Note 2: Calculate as
Maximum
Maximum
(I2/IN)2t for
I2/IN for
continuous operation during
faults
operation
0.1
0.08
20
20
0.1
20
0.08
0.05
15
15
0.08
15
0.1
0.1
0.08
Note 1
Note 1
0.05
15
10
8
Note 2
5
5
I2
S -350
= 0.08- N
IN
3 x 104
()
I2 2
t = 8-0.00545(SN-350)
IN
54
55
5 . 10 Z E R O S E Q U E N C E R E A C TA N C E
Z1 = Z11 Z12
Z2 = Z22 Z12
Z3 = Z12
B C
~
A'
B' C '
Z11
B'
Z22
Z12
B'
Zero bus
(b) Equivalent circuit of model
r2+jx2
r1+jx1
A
B
R
Zero bus
(c) 'T' equivalent circuit
A'
Z3=Z12
A'
Load
A'
ZT =Z1+Z2
S
Zs
Secondary
jXM
Zero bus
(d) '' equivalent circuit
Equation 5.5
Zp
B'
Primary
P
Tertiary
Zt
B
T
B'
Zero bus
(e) Equivalent circuit: secondary winding s/c
A'
Zero bus
56
57
ZT
b
b
Zero bus
ZT
b
b
Zero bus
ZT
b
Zero bus
ZT
b
b
Zero bus
ZT
b
b
Zero bus
ZT
b
b
Zero bus
ZT
Zero bus
Zs
a
Zp
b
Zt
Zero bus
a
b
Zs
Zp
b
Zt
Zero bus
a
b
Zs
a
Zp
b
Zt
Zero bus
a
b
Zs
a
Zp
b
Zt
Zero bus
a
b
Zs
a
Zp
b
Zero bus
Zt
a
b
5 . 1 6 A U TO - T R A N S F O R M E R S
The auto-transformer is characterised by a single
continuous winding, part of which is shared by both the
high and low voltage circuits, as shown in Figure 5.14(a).
The 'common' winding is the winding between the low
voltage terminals whereas the remainder of the winding,
belonging exclusively to the high voltage circuit, is
designated the 'series' winding, and, combined with the
'common' winding, forms the 'series-common' winding
between the high voltage terminals. The advantage of
using an auto-transformer as opposed to a two-winding
transformer is that the auto-transformer is smaller and
lighter for a given rating. The disadvantage is that
galvanic isolation between the two windings does not
exist, giving rise to the possibility of large overvoltages
on the lower voltage system in the event of major
insulation breakdown.
Ze
Zs
Zp
Zt
Ze
IH
ZL =
IL
VH
IL
where:
Zsc-t = impedance between 'series common' and tertiary
windings
N
IL-IH VL
IN
ZH
IL1
ZL
ZT
ZN
ZX
IH1
IL0
H
IH0
IT0
T
(c) Positive sequence impedance
L
ZY
ZZ
IT1
IT
IL-IH
IH N IL
(a) Circuit diagram
Equation 5.8
IH
ZLH
IL0
IH0
ZHT
ZLT
T
IT0
59
1
(Z scc + Zct Z sct )
2
1
Z H = (Z scc + Z sct Zct )
2
1
ZT = (Z sct + Zct Z scc )
2
ZT
2
ZT
2
( N +1)
N
Z y = Z H 3 Zn
( N +1)2
Z z = ZT +3 Zn
( N +1)
Z x = Z L +3 Zn
Equation 5.9
Z LT = Z st N
N
Z HT = Z st
(1 + N )
MVA
Z% HV/LV
X/R
<0.630
4.00
5.00
6.25
7.15
8.35
1.5
3.5
6.0
8.5
13.0
20.0
0.631-1.25
1.251 - 3.15
3.151 - 6.3
Z LH = Z st
6.301-12.5
12.501- 25.0
25.001 - 200
>200
10.00
12.50
45.0
Tolerance on Z%
10
10
10
10
10
7.5
7.5
by agreement
Primary kV
Primary Taps
Secondary kV
Z% HV/LV
X/R ratio
MVA
Primary kV
Primary Taps
Secondary kV
Z% HV/LV
X/R ratio
7.5
7.5
8
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.5
12
12
12
15
15
16
16
16
19
30
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
66
66
33
33
33
33
33
+5.72% -17.16%
+5.72% -17.16%
+5.72% -17.16%
+5.72% -17.16%
+5.72% -17.16%
+5.72% -17.16%
+5.72% -17.16%
+4.5% -18%
+5% -15%
10%
10%
+9% -15%
+9% -15%
10%
+5.72% -17.16%
+5.72% -17.16%
+5.72% -17.16%
+5.72% -17.16%
11
11
11
6.6
6.6
11
11
6.6
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.5
11
6.6
11
11
7.5
7.5
8
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.5
12
12
12
15
15
16
16
16
19
30
15
17
9
24
24
24
26
24
27
27
25
14
16
16
30
31
37
40
24
30
30
30
30
40
45
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
65
90
90
33
33
132
132
132
132
132
132
132
132
132
132
132
132
140
132
132
10%
10%
+10% -20%
+10% -20%
+10% -20%
+10% -20%
+10% -20%
+10% -20%
+10% -20%
+10% -20%
+10% -20%
+10% -20%
+9.3% -24%
+9.3% -24%
+7.5% -15%
+10% -20%
+10% -20%
6.9
6.9
11
11
11
11
33
33
33
33
66
11/11
11/11
11/11
11
33
66
24
24
21.3
25
23.5
27.9
11.8
16.7
17.7
14.5
11
35.5
36
35.9
12.3
24.4
15.1
25
25
43
30
46
37
18
28
26
25
25
52
75
78
28
60
41
MVA
Primary
kV
Primary
Taps
Secondary
kV
Tertiary
kV
Z%
HV/LV
X/R
ratio
MVA
Primary
kV
Primary
Taps
Secondary
kV
Z%
HV/LV
X/R
ratio
20
20
57
74
79.2
120
125
125
180
255
220
230
275
345
220
275
230
230
275
230
+12.5% -7.5%
+12.5% -7.5%
10%
+14.4% -10%
+10% -15%
+10% -15%
16.8%
not known
15%
+10%
6.9
6.9
11.8
96
11.6
34.5
66
150
66
16.5
7.2
12
11
13
-
9.9
10-14
18.2
8.9
18.9
22.5
13.1
10-14
22.2
14.8
18
13
34
25
35
63
52
22
38
43
95
140
141
151
132
157.5
400
236
10%
10%
5%
5%
11
11.5
15
15
13.5
12.7
14.7
13.6
46
41
57
47
167
180
145
289
+7.5% -16.5%
5%
15
16
25.7
13.4
71
34
15
15.5
15
15
15.5
17.5
22
21
13.8
15.2
28.6
15.7
15.3
16.4
16
14.6
40
61
70
43
67
81
87
50
19
21
19
14
16.2
15.7
49
74
61
+6.25% -13.75%
22
+7% -13%
22
+7% -13%
23
(a) Three-phase units
15.2
15.5
15.7
83
73
67
Z%
HV/LV
X/R
ratio
15.8
15.7
16.9
92
79
105
15
15.1
118
112
180
247
250
290
307
346
420
437.8
450
600
716
721
736
900
MVA
X/R
ratio
28
55
83
1000
1000
90
89
91
MVA/
phase
266.7
266.7
277
375
333.3
5003
101
375
100
180
240
240
240
250
500
750
10%
2303
22
18.2
51
61
50
51
132
10%
432 +3.75% -16.25%
300
+11.2% -17.6%
420
10%
432 +3.75% -16.25%
435
+5% -15%
432 +5.55% -14.45%
144.1 +10.8% -21.6%
132
420
525
362
245
525
10%
11.25%
10%
Primary
Primary
Secondary
kV
Taps
kV
432/3 +6.67% -13.33%
23.5
23.5
432/3 +6.6% -13.4%
22
515/3
5%
525/3 +6.66% -13.32%
26
26
420/3 +6.66% -13.32%
(b) Single-phase units
61
MVA
5 . 1 9 C A L C U L AT I O N O F S E R I E S I M P E D A N C E
The self impedance of a conductor with an earth return
and the mutual impedance between two parallel
conductors with a common earth return are given by the
Carson equations:
De
dc
Equation 5.11
De
D
Z p = R +0.000988 f + j0.0029 f log10
where:
R = conductor a.c. resistance (ohms/km)
dc = geometric mean radius of a single conductor
D = spacing between the parallel conductors
f = system frequency
De = equivalent spacing of the earth return path
R
G
R
G
sinh ZY
Z
ZY
Y
2
tanh ZY 2
ZY 2
Y
2
tanh ZY 2
ZY 2
(b) Equivalent
5
Z
2
tanh ZY 2
ZY 2
Z
2
tanh ZY 2
ZY 2
sinh ZY
Y
ZY
Z1 = Z2 = Z p Zm
Zo = Z p + 2 Zm
(c) T Equivalent
ZY
ZY
=1+
= 1-
ZY
6
ZY
12
Z2Y2
120
Z2Y2
120
Z3Y3
5040
Z1 = Z2 = R + j0.0029 f log10
+ ...
17Z3Y3
20160
Equation 5.12
D
dc
+ ...
De
dcD 2
Equation 5.13
62
Conductor
Radius r
h
D'
Earth
ABC
Z1 = Z 2 = R + j0.145 log10
dc
D
Zo = ( R +0.148 ) + j0.434 log10 e
Dc Equation 5.14
5 . 2 0 C A L C U L AT I O N O F S H U N T I M P E D A N C E
It can be shown that the potential of a conductor a
above ground due to its own charge qa and a charge -qa
on its image is:
Va =2 qaloge
2h
r
Va' =2 qbloge
D'
D
Zo = j0.396 log10
D
r
D'
rD 2
Z1 = Z2 = j0.132 log10
Equation 5.16
2 h
r
D'
'
Zm = j0.132 log10
D
a'
ABC
8 ha hbhb
Z0 = j0.132 log10
r 3 A 2 B 2 C 2 Equation 5.19
Z1 = Z2 = j0.132 log10
Equation 5.17
Equation 5.18
63
3.80
0.50
6.0
U n (kV)
A=3.5m
a (m)
R2
0.55
3.3
6.6
0.67
11
0.8
22
33
1.25
R1
W
X
Y
Single circuit
Un= 63kV/66kV/90kV
Single circuit
1.75 - K
2.00 - N
6.6
2
2
2.50
a
2.50
3.30
3.30
b
d
4.00
3.50
2.70
Un(kV) a (m)
R1
W
63
1.4
90
1.85
Single circuit
Un= 90kV
R1
63 kV(K) 3.0
3.7
3.0
1.4
90 kV (N) 3.1
3.8
3.8 1.85
3.50
2.8
2.8
3.5
3.0
3.5
3.0
a (m)
63
1.40
66
1.40
90
1.85
Y
Double circuit
Un= 63kV/90kV
Single circuit
Un= 63kV/90kV
Double circuit
Un= 63kV/66kV/90kV
3.4
6.60
U n (kV)
2
2
2.75
6.20
a
4.1
3.9
3.7
2.75
3.10
5.80
4.2
a=3.7m
b=4.6m
R1
4.2
8.0
8.0
R1
Single circuit
Un= 110kV
3.9
Double circuit
Un= 138kV
Double circuit
Un= 170kV
8.45
2.5
d
5.0
1.75
5.20
7.5
5.0
16.4
6.0
7.50
6.0
c
n1
a
R1
R2
R1
n2
n
Single circuit
Un= 245kV
n2
9.5
5.0 4.5
6.3
9.8
5.0 4.8
6.3
Double circuit
Un= 245kV
Double circuit
Un= 245kV
9.74
n1
12.2
25.1
8.5
7.0
2.40
9.2
11.3
8.5
7.7
R1
R1
32.4
6.7
7.4
7.4
8.5
7.8
7.8
Double circuit
Un= 420kV
Double circuit
Un= 420kV
Single circuit
Un= 245kV
6.7
8.5
7.5
0
20.0
10.0
8.0
5.0
9.5
9.5
8.0
12.0
9.5
16.0
37.0
23.0
Single circuit
Un= 550kV
Double circuit
Un= 550kV
65
Single circuit
Un= 800kV
12.0
5 . 21 O V E R H E A D L I N E C I R C U I T S
WITH OR WITHOUT EARTH WIRES
Equation 5.20
where:
De
dc
De
D
and so on.
The equation required for the calculation of shunt
voltage drops is identical to Equation 5.20 in form,
except that primes must be included, the impedances
being derived from Equation 5.17.
Figure 5.18: Typical overhead line tower
66
Z00 = (Z00)
Z11 = Z22 = (Z11)
(Z00 =Z00)
Z01 = Z20 = (Z01 = Z20)
Z02 = Z10 = (Z02 = Z10)
Z12 = (Z12)
Z21 = (Z21)
(Z11=Z11 = Z22 = Z22)
(Z02 = Z02 = Z10 = Z10)
(Z02 = Z02 = Z10 = Z10
(Z12 = Z12)
(Z21 = Z21)
132kV
Single circuit line
(400 mm2)
1.0782 7354
0.3947 7854
0.0116 -16652
58
0.0255 -409
0.0256 -1391
-
380kV
Single circuit line
(400 mm2)
0.8227 7036
0.3712 7557
0.0094 -3928
0.0153 2853
0.0275 14726
0.0275 2729
-
132kV
Double circuit line
(200 mm2)
1.1838 716
6619
0.6334 712
0.0257 -6325
0.0197 -9458
0.0276 16117
0.0277 3713
0.0114 886
0.0140 -9344
0.0150 -4411
0.0103 14510
0.0106 3056
275kV
Double circuit line
(400 mm2)
0.9520 7646
0.3354 7435
0.5219 7543
0.0241 -7214
0.0217 -10020
0.0281 14946
0.0282 296
0.0129 8844
0.0185 -9116
0.0173 -772
0.0101 14920
0.0102 2731
Ie =
Z
Z
Zea
I a + eb I b + ec I c
Zee
Zee
Zee
J nm = Znm
Zne Zme
Zee
Equation 5.21
For example:
J aa = Zaa
2
Zae
Zee
J ab = Zab
Zae Zbe
Zee
and so on.
So Equation 5.20 can be simplified while still taking account
of the effect of the earth wire by deleting the fourth row and
fourth column and substituting Jaa for Zaa, Jab for Zab , and
so on, calculated using Equation 5.21. The single circuit line
with a single earth wire can therefore be replaced by an
equivalent single circuit line having phase self and mutual
impedances Jaa , Jab and so on.
It can be shown from the symmetrical component theory
given in Chapter 4 that the sequence voltage drops of a
general three-phase circuit are:
Equation 5.22
1
2
J aa + J bb + J cc ) + ( J ab + J bc + J ac )
(
3
3
1
1
Z11 = ( J aa + J bb + J cc ) ( J ab + J bc + J ac )
3
3
1
2
2
2
Z12 = ( J aa + a J bb + aJ cc ) + (aJ ab + a J ac + J bc )
3
3
1
2 2
2
Z21 = ( J aa + aJ bb + a J cc ) + (a J ab + aJ ac + J bc )
3
3
1
1
2
2
Z20 = ( J aa + a J bb + aJ cc ) (aJ ab + a J ac + J bc )
3
3
1
1
Z10 = ( J aa + aJ bb + a 2 J cc ) (a 2 J ab + aJ ac + Jbc )
3
3
Z22 = Z11
Z01 = Z20
Z02 = Z10
Equation 5.23
Sequence impedance
Line
Source
E
(a) Actual circuit
3E
Ic
Z1
Ib
Z1
Ia
Z1
(Z0-Z )/3
X 2
Z1 = Z2 = Rc + Rs 2 cs 2
Rs + X s
X 2
+ j X c X s 2 cs 2
Rs + X s
2 Z +Z
Ze = 1 0
3
Equation 5.24
3E
Ib = Ic =
2 Z1
_
where 3E is the voltage between phases and 2Z is the
impedance of the fault loop.
1
C = 0.0241
log d + 2 T
d
F / km
Equation 5.25
C=
0.0555
F / km
G
Number of Strands
7
19
37
61
91
127
169
Solid
Equation 5.26
GMR
0.726r
0.758r
0.768r
0.772r
0.774r
0.776r
0.776r
0.779r
Number of Layers
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
Ic
Is
Rs'Xs Per unit length
GMR
0.5r*
0.75r*
0.776r
0.803r
0.812r
0.826r
0.833r
0.778r
0.794r
0.799r
0.81r
0.827r
0.789r
0.793r
0.801r
* - Indicative values only, since GMR for single layer conductors is affected by cyclic
magnetic flux, which depends on various factors.
Number of Al Strands
6
12
18
24
26
30
32
36
45
48
54
66
72
76
84
5 . 2 4 O V E R H E A D L I N E A N D C A B L E D ATA
69
Stranding
area (mm2)
Wire
10.6
21.2
26.7
33.6
42.4
53.5
67.4
85.0
107.2
126.6
152.0
177.3
202.7
228.0
253.3
278.7
304.3
329.3
354.7
380.0
405.3
456.0
506.7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
19
19
19
19
37
37
37
37
61
61
61
61
61
61
Overall
Diameter
(mm)
RDC
Diameter
(mm)
(20C)
(Ohm/km)
1.38
1.96
2.20
7.00
2.77
3.12
3.50
3.93
4.42
2.91
3.19
3.45
3.69
2.80
2.95
3.10
3.23
2.62
2.72
2.82
2.91
3.09
3.25
4.17
5.89
6.60
7.42
8.33
9.35
10.52
11.79
13.26
14.58
15.98
17.25
18.44
19.61
20.65
21.67
22.63
23.60
24.49
25.35
26.19
27.79
29.26
1.734
0.865
0.686
0.544
0.431
0.342
0.271
0.215
0.171
0.144
0.120
0.103
0.090
0.080
0.072
0.066
0.060
0.056
0.052
0.048
0.045
0.040
0.036
Overall
Diameter
(mm)
RDC
Diameter
(mm)
(20C)
(Ohm/km)
3.73
4.06
4.22
1.63
4.52
4.90
5.46
6.40
2.64
2.95
3.45
9.45
4.22
2.95
4.90
5.46
3.33
(b) BS Standards
3.25
4.06
4.22
4.88
4.52
4.90
5.46
6.40
7.92
8.84
10.36
9.45
12.65
14.73
14.71
16.38
16.64
1.617
1.365
1.269
1.231
1.103
0.938
0.756
0.549
0.466
0.375
0.273
0.252
0.183
0.139
0.135
0.109
0.109
Aluminium
Sparrow
Robin
Raven
Quail
Pigeon
Penguin
Partridge
Ostrich
Merlin
Lark
Hawk
Dove
Teal
Swift
Tern
Canary
Curlew
Finch
Bittern
Falcon
Kiwi
Wire
11.0
13.0
14.0
14.5
16.1
18.9
23.4
32.2
38.4
47.7
65.6
70.1
97.7
129.5
132.1
164.0
165.2
1
1
1
7
1
1
1
1
7
7
7
1
7
19
7
7
19
Designation
6
6
6
6
6
6
26
26
18
30
26
26
30
36
45
54
54
54
45
54
72
2.67
3
3.37
3.78
4.25
4.77
2.57
2.73
3.47
2.92
3.44
3.72
3.61
3.38
3.38
3.28
3.52
3.65
4.27
4.36
4.41
Sectional area
(mm2)
Total Approx.
RDC
area overall at 20 C
2
(mm ) diameter (Ohm/km)
Aluminium Steel
(mm)
Steel
1
1
1
1
1
1
7
7
1
7
7
7
19
1
7
7
7
19
7
19
7
2.67
3
3.37
3.78
4.25
4.77
2
2.21
3.47
2.92
2.67
2.89
2.16
3.38
2.25
3.28
3.52
2.29
2.85
2.62
2.94
33.6
42.4
53.5
67.4
85.0
107.2
135.2
152.0
170.5
201.4
241.7
282.0
306.6
322.3
402.8
456.1
523.7
565.0
644.5
805.7
1100.0
5.6
7.1
8.9
11.2
14.2
17.9
22.0
26.9
9.5
46.9
39.2
45.9
69.6
9.0
27.8
59.1
68.1
78.3
44.7
102.4
47.5
39.2
49.5
62.4
78.6
99.2
125.1
157.2
178.9
179.9
248.3
280.9
327.9
376.2
331.2
430.7
515.2
591.8
643.3
689.2
908.1
1147.5
8.01
9
10.11
11.34
12.75
14.31
16.28
17.28
17.35
20.44
21.79
23.55
25.24
23.62
27.03
29.52
31.68
33.35
34.17
39.26
44.07
0.854
0.677
0.536
0.426
0.337
0.268
0.214
0.191
0.169
0.144
0.120
0.103
0.095
0.089
0.072
0.064
0.055
0.051
0.045
0.036
0.027
Designation
Gopher
Weasel
Ferret
Rabbit
Horse
Dog
Tiger
Wolf
Dingo
Lynx
Caracal
Jaguar
Panther
Zebra
1
1
1
1
7
7
7
7
1
7
1
1
7
7
Sectional area
(mm2)
Total Approx.
RDC
area overall at 20 C
2
(mm ) diameter (Ohm/km)
Steel
Aluminium Steel
(mm)
2.36
26.2
4.4 30.6
7.08
1.093
2.59
31.6
5.3 36.9
7.77
0.908
3
42.4
7.1 49.5
9
0.676
3.35
52.9
8.8 61.7 10.05
0.542
2.79
73.4
42.8 116.2 13.95
0.393
1.57
105.0
13.6 118.5 14.15
0.273
2.36
131.2
30.6 161.9 16.52
0.220
2.59
158.1
36.9 194.9 18.13
0.182
3.35
158.7
8.8 167.5 16.75
0.181
2.79
183.4
42.8 226.2 19.53
0.157
3.61
184.2
10.2 194.5 18.05
0.156
3.86
210.6
11.7 222.3 19.3
0.137
3
212.1
49.5 261.5
21
0.136
3.18
428.9
55.6 484.5 28.62
0.067
(b) to BS 215.2
70
35/6
44/32
50/8
70/12
95/15
95/55
120/70
150/25
170/40
185/30
210/50
265/35
305/40
380/50
550/70
560/50
650/45
1045/45
Aluminium
6 2.7
14
2
6 3.2
26 1.85
26 2.15
12 3.2
12 3.6
26 2.7
30 2.7
26
3
30
3
24 3.74
54 2.68
54
3
54 3.6
48 3.86
1
7
1
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
45
72
7
7
4.3
4.3
Sectional area
(mm2)
Total Approx.
RDC
area overall at 20 C
(mm2) diameter (Ohm/km)
Steel
Aluminium Steel
(mm)
2.7
34.4
5.7 40.1
8.1
0.834
2.4
44.0
31.7 75.6
11.2
0.652
3.2
48.3
8.0 56.3
9.6
0.594
1.44
69.9
11.4 81.3
11.7
0.413
1.67
94.4
15.3 109.7 13.6
0.305
3.2
96.5
56.3 152.8
16
0.299
3.6
122.1
71.3 193.4
18
0.236
2.1
148.9
24.2 173.1 17.1
0.194
2.7
171.8
40.1 211.8 18.9
0.168
2.33
183.8
29.8 213.6
19
0.157
3
212.1
49.5 261.5
21
0.136
2.49
263.7
34.1 297.7 22.4
0.109
2.68
304.6
39.5 344.1 24.1
0.095
3
381.7
49.5 431.2
27
0.076
3.6
549.7
71.3 620.9 32.4
0.052
3
561.7
49.5 611.2 32.2
0.051
2.87
2.87
653.5
1045.6
45.3 698.8
45.3 1090.9
34.4
43
0.044
0.028
Designation
CANNA 59.7
CANNA 75.5
CANNA 93.3
CANNA 116.2
CROCUS 116.2
CANNA 147.1
CROCUS 181.6
CROCUS 228
CROCUS 297
CANNA 288
CROCUS 288
CROCUS 412
CROCUS 612
CROCUS 865
Total Approxi.
RDC
area overall at 20 C
2
(mm ) diameter (Ohm/km)
Aluminium Steel
Aluminium Steel
(mm)
12 2
7
2
37.7
22.0 59.7
10
0.765
12 2.25 7 2.25 47.7
27.8 75.5 11.25
0.604
12
30
30
30
30
30
36
30
30
32
66
2.5
2
2
2.25
2.5
2.8
2.8
3.15
3.15
3.6
3.13
7
7
7
7
7
7
19
7
7
19
19
66 3.72
19
Sectional area
(mm2)
2.5
2
2
2.25
2.5
2.8
2.25
3.15
3.15
2.4
2.65
58.9
94.2
94.2
119.3
147.3
184.7
221.7
233.8
233.8
325.7
507.8
34.4
22.0
22.0
27.8
34.4
43.1
75.5
54.6
54.6
86.0
104.8
93.3
116.2
116.2
147.1
181.6
227.8
297.2
288.3
288.3
411.7
612.6
12.5
14
14
15.75
17.5
19.6
22.45
22.05
22.05
26.4
32.03
0.489
0.306
0.306
0.243
0.197
0.157
0.131
0.124
0.124
0.089
0.057
3.15
717.3
148.1 865.4
38.01
0.040
No.
Wire Sectional Overall
RDC
of Al diameter area
diameter at 20C
Strands
(mm) (mm2)
(mm) (Ohm/km)
Standard
Designation
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-397
ASTM B-399
ASTM B-399
ASTM B-399
ASTM B-399
ASTM B-399
ASTM B-399
ASTM B-399
ASTM B-399
ASTM B-399
Kench
Kibe
Kayak
Kopeck
Kittle
Radian
Rede
Ragout
Rex
Remex
Ruble
Rune
Spar
Solar
7
7
7
7
7
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
37
37
2.67
3.37
3.78
4.25
4.77
3.66
3.78
3.98
4.14
4.36
4.46
4.7
3.6
4.02
39.2
62.4
78.6
99.3
125.1
199.9
212.6
236.4
255.8
283.7
296.8
330.6
376.6
469.6
8.0
10.1
11.4
12.8
14.3
18.3
18.9
19.9
19.9
21.8
22.4
23.6
25.2
28.2
0.838
0.526
0.418
0.331
0.262
0.164
0.155
0.140
0.129
0.116
0.111
0.100
0.087
0.070
19
19
19
3.686
3.909
4.12
202.7
228.0
253.3
18.4
19.6
20.6
0.165
0.147
0.132
37
37
37
3.096
3.233
3.366
278.5
303.7
329.2
21.7
22.6
23.6
0.120
0.110
0.102
37
37
37
3.493
3.617
3.734
354.6
380.2
405.2
24.5
25.3
26.1
0.094
0.088
0.083
ASTM B-399
ASTM B-399
37
37
3.962
4.176
456.2
506.8
27.7
29.2
0.073
0.066
(a) ASTM
Standard
(d) to NF C34-120
Table 5.14: Overhead line conductor data - aluminium
conductors steel reinforced (ACSR).
Designation
No.
Wire Sectional Overall
RDC
of Al diameter area
diameter at 20C
Strands
(mm) (mm2)
(mm) (Ohm/km)
BS 3242
Box
1.85
18.8
5.6
1.750
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
BS 3242
Acacia
Almond
Cedar
Fir
Hazel
7
7
7
7
7
2.08
2.34
2.54
2.95
3.3
23.8
30.1
35.5
47.8
59.9
6.2
7.0
7.6
8.9
9.9
1.384
1.094
0.928
0.688
0.550
Pine
Willow
Oak
Mullberry
Ash
Elm
Poplar
Sycamore
Upas
Yew
Totara
Rubus
Araucaria
7
7
7
7
7
19
19
19
37
37
37
37
37
61
61
3.61
4.04
4.19
4.45
4.65
3.18
3.48
3.76
2.87
3.23
3.53
4.06
4.14
3.5
4.14
71.6
89.7
96.5
108.9
118.9
150.9
180.7
211.0
239.4
303.2
362.1
479.0
498.1
586.9
821.1
10.8
12.1
12.6
13.4
14.0
15.9
17.4
18.8
20.1
22.6
24.7
28.4
29.0
31.5
28.4
0.460
0.367
0.341
0.302
0.277
0.219
0.183
0.157
0.139
0.109
0.092
0.069
0.067
0.057
0.040
(b) BS
Table 5.15: Overhead line conductor data - aluminium alloy.
71
Designation
No.
Wire Sectional Overall
RDC
of Al diameter area
diameter at 20C
Strands
(mm) (mm2)
(mm) (Ohm/km)
Standard
Design.
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
10
16
25
40
63
7
7
7
7
7
1.45
1.83
2.29
2.89
3.63
11.5
18.4
28.8
46.0
72.5
4.3
5.5
6.9
8.7
10.9
2.863
1.788
1.142
0.716
0.454
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
CSA C49.1-M87
100
125
160
200
250
315
400
450
500
560
630
710
800
900
1000
1120
1250
1400
1500
19
19
19
19
19
37
37
37
37
37
61
61
61
61
91
91
91
91
91
2.78
3.1
3.51
3.93
4.39
3.53
3.98
4.22
4.45
4.71
3.89
4.13
4.38
4.65
4.01
4.25
4.49
4.75
4.91
115.1
143.9
184.2
230.2
287.7
362.1
460.4
517.9
575.5
644.5
725.0
817.2
920.8
1035.8
1150.9
1289.1
1438.7
1611.3
1726.4
13.9
15.5
17.6
19.6
22.0
24.7
27.9
29.6
31.2
33.0
35.0
37.2
39.5
41.9
44.1
46.7
49.4
52.2
54.1
0.287
0.230
0.180
0.144
0.115
0.092
0.072
0.064
0.058
0.051
0.046
0.041
0.036
0.032
0.029
0.026
0.023
0.021
0.019
Standard
Designation
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
ASTER 22
ASTER 34-4
ASTER 54-6
ASTER 75-5
ASTER 93,3
ASTER 117
ASTER 148
ASTER 181-6
ASTER 228
ASTER 288
ASTER 366
ASTER 570
ASTER 851
ASTER 1144
ASTER 1600
No. of
Wire Sectional Overall
RDC
Al
diameter area
diameter at 20C
Strands
(mm) (mm2)
(mm) (Ohm/km)
7
7
7
19
19
19
19
37
37
37
37
61
91
91
127
2
2.5
3.15
2.25
2.5
2.8
3.15
2.5
2.8
3.15
3.55
3.45
3.45
4
4
22.0
34.4
54.6
75.5
93.3
117.0
148.1
181.6
227.8
288.3
366.2
570.2
850.7
1143.5
1595.9
6.0
7.5
9.5
11.3
12.5
14.0
15.8
17.5
19.6
22.1
24.9
31.1
38.0
44.0
52.0
1.497
0.958
0.604
0.438
0.355
0.283
0.223
0.183
0.146
0.115
0.091
0.058
0.039
0.029
0.021
(e) NF
Table 5.15 (cont): Overhead line conductor data - aluminium alloy.
(c) CSA
No. of
Wire Sectional Overall
RDC
Al
diameter area
diameter at 20C
2
Strands
(mm) (mm )
(mm) (Ohm/km)
Standard
Designation
DIN 48201
DIN 48201
16
25
7
7
1.7
2.1
15.9
24.3
5.1
6.3
2.091
1.370
DIN 48201
DIN 48201
35
50
7
19
2.5
1.8
34.4
48.4
7.5
9.0
0.967
0.690
DIN 48201
DIN 48201
50
70
7
19
3
2.1
49.5
65.8
9.0
10.5
0.672
0.507
DIN 48201
DIN 48201
DIN 48201
DIN 48201
DIN 48201
DIN 48201
DIN 48201
DIN 48201
95
120
150
185
19
19
37
37
2.5
2.8
2.25
2.5
93.3
117.0
147.1
181.6
12.5
14.0
15.7
17.5
0.358
0.285
0.228
0.184
240
300
400
61
61
61
2.25
2.5
2.89
242.5
299.4
400.1
20.2
22.5
26.0
0.138
0.112
0.084
500
61
3.23
499.8
29.1
0.067
(d) DIN
72
Designation
Alloy
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
ASTM B711
Sectional area
(mm2)
Steel
26
26
30
26
30
26
26
30
30
30
54
54
54
54
84
84
2.62
2.97
2.76
3.13
3.08
3.5
3.7
3.66
3.88
4.12
3.26
3.63
3.85
4.34
4.12
4.35
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
2.04
2.31
2.76
2.43
3.08
2.72
2.88
2.2
2.33
2.47
1.98
2.18
2.31
2.6
2.47
2.61
Alloy
Steel
140.2
180.1
179.5
200.1
223.5
250.1
279.6
315.6
354.7
399.9
450.7
558.9
628.6
798.8
1119.9
1248.4
22.9
29.3
41.9
32.5
52.2
40.7
45.6
72.2
81.0
91.0
58.5
70.9
79.6
100.9
91.0
101.7
Total
area
(mm2)
Approximate
overall diameter
(mm)
163.1
209.5
221.4
232.5
275.7
290.8
325.2
387.9
435.7
491.0
509.2
629.8
708.3
899.7
1210.9
1350.0
7.08
11.08
12.08
13.08
16.08
17.08
19.08
22.08
24.08
26.08
27.08
29.08
30.08
32.08
35.08
36.08
Total
area
(mm2)
Approximate
overall diameter
(mm)
RDC at 20 C
(ohm/km)
0.240
0.187
0.188
0.168
0.151
0.135
0.120
0.107
0.095
0.084
0.075
0.060
0.054
0.042
0.030
0.027
(a) ASTM
Standard
Designation
Alloy
Sectional area
(mm2)
Steel
Alloy
Steel
RDC at 20 C
(ohm/km)
DIN 48206
DIN 48206
70/12
95/15
26
26
1.85
2.15
7
7
1.44
1.67
69.9
94.4
11.4
15.3
81.3
109.7
11.7
13.6
0.479
0.355
DIN 48206
DIN 48206
DIN 48206
DIN 48206
125/30
150/25
170/40
185/30
30
26
30
26
2.33
2.7
2.7
3
7
7
7
7
2.33
2.1
2.7
2.33
127.9
148.9
171.8
183.8
29.8
24.2
40.1
29.8
157.8
173.1
211.8
213.6
16.3
17.1
18.9
19
0.262
0.225
0.195
0.182
DIN 48206
DIN 48206
210/50
230/30
30
24
3
3.5
7
7
3
2.33
212.1
230.9
49.5
29.8
261.5
260.8
21
21
0.158
0.145
DIN 48206
DIN 48206
DIN 48206
DIN 48206
DIN 48206
DIN 48206
265/35
305/40
380/50
450/40
560/50
24
54
54
48
48
3.74
2.68
3
3.45
3.86
7
7
7
7
7
2.49
2.68
3
2.68
3
263.7
304.6
381.7
448.7
561.7
34.1
39.5
49.5
39.5
49.5
297.7
344.1
431.2
488.2
611.2
22.4
24.1
27
28.7
32.2
0.127
0.110
0.088
0.075
0.060
680/85
54
19
2.4
678.6
86.0
764.5
36
0.049
Total
area
(mm2)
Approximate
overall diameter
(mm)
Standard
(b) DIN
Standard
Sectional area
(mm2)
Designation
Alloy
Steel
Alloy
Steel
RDC at 20 C
(ohm/km)
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
PHLOX 116.2
PHLOX 147.1
18
19
56.5
59.7
116.2
14
0.591
18
2.25
19
2.25
71.6
75.5
147.1
15.75
0.467
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
PASTEL 147.1
PHLOX 181.6
30
18
2.25
2.5
7
19
2.25
2.5
119.3
88.4
27.8
93.3
147.1
181.6
15.75
17.5
0.279
0.378
PASTEL 181.6
PHLOX 228
PASTEL 228
30
18
30
2.5
2.8
2.8
7
19
7
2.5
2.8
2.8
147.3
110.8
184.7
34.4
117.0
43.1
181.6
227.8
227.8
17.5
19.6
19.6
0.226
0.300
0.180
PHLOX 288
18
3.15
19
3.15
140.3
148.1
288.3
22.05
0.238
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
NF C34-125
PASTEL 288
PASTEL 299
PHLOX 376
30
42
24
3.15
2.5
2.8
7
19
37
3.15
2.5
2.8
233.8
206.2
147.8
54.6
93.3
227.8
288.3
299.4
375.6
22.05
22.45
26.4
0.142
0.162
0.226
(c) NF
Table 5.16: Overhead line conductor data aluminium
alloy conductors, steel re-inforced (AACSR)
73
XAC at 50 Hz
66kV
RDC
(20C)
RAC at
50Hz
@ 20C
3.3kV
6.6kV
11kV
22kV
mm2
/km
/km
/km
/km
/km
/km
X
/km
C
nF/km
X
/km
C
nF/km
X
/km
C
nF/km
X
/km
C
nF/km
X
/km
C
nF/km
X
/km
C
nF/km
X
/km
C
nF/km
13.3
15.3
21.2
23.9
26.2
28.3
33.6
37.7
42.4
44.0
47.7
51.2
58.9
63.1
67.4
73.4
79.2
2.1586
1.8771
1.3557
1.2013
1.0930
1.0246
0.8535
0.7647
0.6768
0.6516
0.6042
0.5634
0.4894
0.4545
0.4255
0.3930
0.3622
2.159
1.877
1.356
1.201
1.093
1.025
0.854
0.765
0.677
0.652
0.604
0.564
0.490
0.455
0.426
0.393
0.362
0.395
0.391
0.381
0.376
0.374
0.352
0.366
0.327
0.359
0.320
0.319
0.317
0.313
0.346
0.344
0.306
0.339
0.409
0.405
0.395
0.390
0.388
0.366
0.380
0.341
0.373
0.334
0.333
0.331
0.327
0.360
0.358
0.320
0.353
0.420
0.415
0.405
0.401
0.398
0.377
0.390
0.351
0.383
0.344
0.344
0.341
0.337
0.371
0.369
0.330
0.363
0.434
0.429
0.419
0.415
0.412
0.391
0.404
0.365
0.397
0.358
0.358
0.355
0.351
0.385
0.383
0.344
0.377
0.445
0.441
0.430
0.426
0.424
0.402
0.416
0.376
0.409
0.369
0.369
0.367
0.362
0.396
0.394
0.356
0.389
8.7
8.8
9.0
9.1
9.2
9.4
9.4
9.7
9.6
9.9
9.9
10.0
10.1
9.9
10.0
10.3
10.1
0.503
0.499
0.488
0.484
0.482
0.460
0.474
0.435
0.467
0.427
0.427
0.425
0.421
0.454
0.452
0.414
0.447
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
8.0
8.2
8.1
8.4
8.3
8.5
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.5
8.5
8.8
8.7
0.513
0.508
0.498
0.494
0.491
0.470
0.484
0.444
0.476
0.437
0.437
0.434
0.430
0.464
0.462
0.423
0.457
7.4
7.5
7.7
7.8
7.8
8.0
7.9
8.2
8.1
8.3
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.3
8.3
8.6
8.4
0.520
0.515
0.505
0.501
0.498
0.477
0.491
0.451
0.483
0.444
0.444
0.441
0.437
0.471
0.469
0.430
0.464
7.3
7.4
7.6
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.8
8.1
7.9
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.3
8.2
8.2
8.5
8.3
0.541
0.537
0.527
0.522
0.520
0.498
0.512
0.473
0.505
0.465
0.465
0.463
0.459
0.492
0.490
0.452
0.485
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.3
7.5
7.5
7.7
7.6
7.8
7.8
7.9
7.9
7.8
7.8
8.1
7.9
0.528
0.523
0.513
0.509
0.506
0.485
0.499
0.459
0.491
0.452
0.452
0.449
0.445
0.479
0.477
0.438
0.472
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.5
7.7
7.7
7.9
7.8
8.0
8.1
8.1
8.2
8.0
8.1
8.3
8.2
0.556
0.552
0.542
0.537
0.535
0.513
0.527
0.488
0.520
0.481
0.480
0.478
0.474
0.507
0.505
0.467
0.500
6.8
6.9
7.0
7.1
7.1
7.3
7.2
7.4
7.3
7.5
7.6
7.6
7.7
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.6
85.0
94.4
105.0
121.6
127.9
131.2
135.2
0.3374
0.3054
0.2733
0.2371
0.2254
0.2197
0.2133
0.338
0.306
0.274
0.237
0.226
0.220
0.214
0.337
0.302
0.330
0.294
0.290
0.289
0.297
0.351
0.316
0.344
0.308
0.304
0.303
0.311
0.361
0.327
0.355
0.318
0.314
0.313
0.322
0.375
0.341
0.369
0.332
0.328
0.327
0.336
0.387
0.352
0.380
0.344
0.340
0.339
0.347
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.6
10.7
10.7
10.5
0.445
0.410
0.438
0.402
0.398
0.397
0.405
8.7
8.8
8.8
9.0
9.0
9.1
9.0
0.454
0.420
0.448
0.412
0.407
0.407
0.415
8.5
8.6
8.6
8.8
8.8
8.8
8.8
0.461
0.427
0.455
0.419
0.414
0.414
0.422
8.4
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.7
8.6
0.483
0.448
0.476
0.440
0.436
0.435
0.443
7.9
8.0
8.1
8.2
8.2
8.3
8.2
0.469
0.435
0.463
0.427
0.422
0.421
0.430
8.2
8.3
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.5
8.4
0.498
0.463
0.491
0.455
0.451
0.450
0.458
7.7
7.8
7.8
7.9
8.0
8.0
7.9
148.9 0.1937
158.7 0.1814
0.194
0.182
0.288
0.292
0.302
0.306
0.312
0.316
0.326
0.330
0.338
0.342
10.8
10.7
0.396
0.400
9.1
9.1
0.406
0.410
8.9
8.9
0.413
0.417
8.7
8.7
0.434
0.438
8.3
8.3
0.420
0.425
8.6
8.5
0.449
0.453
8.0
8.0
170.5 0.1691
184.2 0.1565
0.170
0.157
0.290
0.287
0.304
0.302
0.314
0.312
0.328
0.326
0.340
0.337
10.8
10.9
0.398
0.395
9.1
9.2
0.407
0.405
8.9
9.0
0.414
0.412
8.8
8.8
0.436
0.433
8.3
8.4
0.422
0.420
8.6
8.6
0.451
0.449
8.0
8.1
201.4 0.1438
210.6 0.1366
0.144
0.137
0.280
0.283
0.294
0.297
0.304
0.308
0.318
0.322
0.330
0.333
11.0
11.0
0.388
0.391
9.3
9.3
0.398
0.401
9.1
9.1
0.405
0.408
8.9
8.9
0.426
0.429
8.5
8.4
0.412
0.416
8.8
8.7
0.441
0.444
8.2
8.1
221.7
230.9
241.7
263.7
282.0
306.6
322.3
339.3
362.6
386.0
402.8
428.9
448.7
456.1
483.4
494.4
510.5
523.7
0.131
0.126
0.120
0.110
0.103
0.095
0.090
0.086
0.081
0.076
0.073
0.068
0.066
0.065
0.061
0.060
0.058
0.057
0.274
0.276
0.279
0.272
0.274
0.267
0.270
0.265
0.262
0.261
0.261
0.267
0.257
0.257
0.255
0.254
0.252
0.252
0.288
0.290
0.293
0.286
0.288
0.281
0.284
0.279
0.276
0.275
0.275
0.281
0.271
0.271
0.269
0.268
0.266
0.266
0.298
0.300
0.303
0.296
0.298
0.291
0.294
0.289
0.286
0.285
0.285
0.291
0.281
0.281
0.279
0.279
0.277
0.277
0.312
0.314
0.317
0.310
0.312
0.305
0.308
0.303
0.300
0.299
0.299
0.305
0.295
0.295
0.293
0.293
0.291
0.291
0.323
0.326
0.329
0.321
0.324
0.317
0.320
0.315
0.311
0.311
0.310
0.316
0.306
0.307
0.305
0.304
0.302
0.302
11.3
11.2
11.2
11.3
11.3
11.5
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.8
11.5
11.9
12.0
12.0
12.1
12.1
12.1
0.381
0.384
0.387
0.380
0.382
0.375
0.378
0.373
0.369
0.369
0.368
0.374
0.364
0.365
0.363
0.362
0.360
0.360
9.5
9.4
9.4
9.5
9.5
9.7
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.8
9.9
9.7
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.1
10.1
0.391
0.393
0.396
0.389
0.392
0.384
0.387
0.383
0.379
0.379
0.378
0.384
0.374
0.374
0.372
0.372
0.370
0.370
9.3
9.2
9.2
9.3
9.3
9.4
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.4
9.7
9.7
9.8
9.8
9.8
9.8
0.398
0.400
0.403
0.396
0.399
0.391
0.394
0.390
0.386
0.386
0.385
0.391
0.381
0.381
0.379
0.379
0.377
0.377
9.1
9.0
9.0
9.1
9.1
9.2
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.4
9.4
9.2
9.5
9.5
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.6
0.419
0.422
0.425
0.418
0.420
0.413
0.416
0.411
0.408
0.407
0.407
0.413
0.402
0.403
0.401
0.400
0.398
0.398
8.6
8.6
8.5
8.6
8.6
8.7
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.9
8.9
8.7
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.1
9.1
0.406
0.408
0.411
0.404
0.406
0.399
0.402
0.398
0.394
0.393
0.393
0.399
0.389
0.389
0.387
0.387
0.385
0.385
8.9
8.9
8.8
8.9
8.9
9.1
9.0
9.1
9.2
9.2
9.2
9.0
9.3
9.3
9.4
9.4
9.4
9.4
0.435
0.437
0.440
0.433
0.435
0.428
0.431
0.426
0.423
0.422
0.422
0.428
0.418
0.418
0.416
0.415
0.413
0.413
8.3
8.3
8.2
8.3
8.3
8.4
8.4
8.5
8.5
8.6
8.6
8.4
8.7
8.7
8.7
8.7
8.7
8.7
0.1307
0.1249
0.1193
0.1093
0.1022
0.0945
0.0895
0.085
0.0799
0.0747
0.0719
0.0671
0.0642
0.0635
0.0599
0.0583
0.0565
0.0553
33kV
Flat
circuit
Double
vertical
Triangle
132kV
Double
triangle
Sectional
area of
aluminium
Double
vertical
Flat
circuit
74
Sectional RDC
RAC at
area of (20C) 60Hz
aluminium
@ 20C
3.3kV
6.6kV
11kV
22kV
33kV
Flat
circuit
Double
vertical
mm2
/km
/km
/km
/km
/km
/km
X
/km
C
nF/km
13.3
15.3
21.2
23.9
26.2
28.3
33.6
37.7
42.4
44.0
47.7
51.2
58.9
63.1
67.4
73.4
79.2
2.1586
1.8771
1.3557
1.2013
1.0930
1.0246
0.8535
0.7647
0.6768
0.6516
0.6042
0.5634
0.4894
0.4545
0.4255
0.3930
0.3622
2.159
1.877
1.356
1.201
1.093
1.025
0.854
0.765
0.677
0.652
0.604
0.564
0.490
0.455
0.426
0.393
0.362
0.474
0.469
0.457
0.452
0.449
0.423
0.439
0.392
0.431
0.384
0.383
0.380
0.375
0.416
0.413
0.367
0.407
0.491
0.486
0.474
0.469
0.466
0.440
0.456
0.409
0.447
0.400
0.400
0.397
0.392
0.432
0.430
0.384
0.424
0.503
0.498
0.486
0.481
0.478
0.452
0.468
0.421
0.460
0.413
0.412
0.409
0.404
0.445
0.442
0.396
0.436
0.520
0.515
0.503
0.498
0.495
0.469
0.485
0.438
0.477
0.429
0.429
0.426
0.421
0.462
0.459
0.413
0.453
0.534
0.529
0.516
0.511
0.508
0.483
0.499
0.452
0.490
0.443
0.443
0.440
0.435
0.475
0.473
0.427
0.467
8.7
8.8
9.0
9.1
9.2
9.4
9.4
9.7
9.6
9.9
9.9
10.0
10.1
9.9
10.0
10.3
10.1
0.604
0.598
0.586
0.581
0.578
0.552
0.569
0.521
0.560
0.513
0.513
0.510
0.505
0.545
0.543
0.496
0.536
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
8.0
8.2
8.1
8.4
8.3
8.5
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.5
8.5
8.8
8.7
0.615
0.610
0.598
0.593
0.590
0.564
0.580
0.533
0.572
0.525
0.524
0.521
0.516
0.557
0.554
0.508
0.548
7.4
7.5
7.7
7.8
7.8
8.0
7.9
8.2
8.1
8.3
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.3
8.3
8.6
8.4
0.624
0.619
0.606
0.601
0.598
0.572
0.589
0.541
0.580
0.533
0.533
0.530
0.525
0.565
0.563
0.516
0.556
85.0
94.4
105.0
121.6
127.9
131.2
135.2
0.3374
0.3054
0.2733
0.2371
0.2254
0.2197
0.2133
0.338
0.306
0.274
0.238
0.226
0.220
0.214
0.404
0.363
0.396
0.353
0.348
0.347
0.357
0.421
0.380
0.413
0.370
0.365
0.364
0.374
0.433
0.392
0.426
0.382
0.377
0.376
0.386
0.450
0.409
0.442
0.399
0.394
0.393
0.403
0.464
0.423
0.456
0.413
0.408
0.407
0.416
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.6
10.7
10.7
10.5
0.534
0.492
0.526
0.482
0.477
0.476
0.486
8.7
8.8
8.8
9.0
9.0
9.1
9.0
0.545
0.504
0.537
0.494
0.489
0.488
0.498
8.5
8.6
8.6
8.8
8.8
8.8
8.8
148.9 0.1937
158.7 0.1814
0.194
0.182
0.346
0.351
0.362
0.367
0.375
0.380
0.392
0.397
0.405
0.410
10.8
10.7
0.475
0.480
9.1
9.1
0.487
0.492
170.5 0.1691
184.2 0.1565
0.170
0.157
0.348
0.345
0.365
0.362
0.377
0.374
0.394
0.391
0.408
0.405
10.8
10.9
0.477
0.474
9.1
9.2
201.4 0.1438
210.6 0.1366
0.145
0.137
0.336
0.340
0.353
0.357
0.365
0.369
0.382
0.386
0.396
0.400
11.0
11.0
0.466
0.469
221.7
230.9
241.7
263.7
282.0
306.6
322.3
339.3
362.6
386.0
402.8
428.9
448.7
456.1
483.4
494.4
510.5
523.7
0.132
0.126
0.120
0.110
0.103
0.096
0.091
0.086
0.081
0.076
0.074
0.069
0.066
0.065
0.062
0.060
0.059
0.057
0.328
0.331
0.335
0.326
0.329
0.320
0.324
0.318
0.314
0.313
0.313
0.320
0.308
0.305
0.306
0.305
0.303
0.303
0.345
0.348
0.351
0.343
0.346
0.337
0.341
0.335
0.331
0.330
0.330
0.337
0.325
0.322
0.323
0.322
0.320
0.320
0.357
0.360
0.364
0.355
0.358
0.349
0.353
0.347
0.343
0.342
0.342
0.349
0.337
0.334
0.335
0.334
0.332
0.332
0.374
0.377
0.381
0.372
0.375
0.366
0.370
0.364
0.360
0.359
0.359
0.366
0.354
0.351
0.352
0.351
0.349
0.349
0.388
0.391
0.394
0.386
0.389
0.380
0.384
0.378
0.374
0.373
0.372
0.380
0.367
0.364
0.366
0.365
0.362
0.363
11.3
11.2
11.2
11.3
11.3
11.5
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.8
11.5
11.9
12.0
12.0
12.1
12.1
12.1
0.458
0.460
0.464
0.455
0.458
0.450
0.453
0.448
0.443
0.443
0.442
0.449
0.437
0.434
0.435
0.435
0.432
0.432
0.1307
0.1249
0.1193
0.1093
0.1022
0.0945
0.0895
0.0850
0.0799
0.0747
0.0719
0.0671
0.0642
0.0635
0.0599
0.0583
0.0565
0.0553
X
C
X
/km nF/km /km
Triangle
Flat
circuit
X
C
X
C
/km nF/km /km nF/km
7.3
7.4
7.6
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.8
8.1
7.9
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.3
8.2
8.2
8.5
8.3
0.649
0.644
0.632
0.627
0.624
0.598
0.614
0.567
0.606
0.559
0.558
0.555
0.550
0.591
0.588
0.542
0.582
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.3
7.5
7.5
7.7
7.6
7.8
7.8
7.9
7.9
7.8
7.8
8.1
7.9
0.633
0.628
0.616
0.611
0.608
0.582
0.598
0.551
0.589
0.542
0.542
0.539
0.534
0.574
0.572
0.526
0.566
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.5
7.7
7.7
7.9
7.8
8.0
8.1
8.1
8.2
8.0
8.1
8.3
8.2
0.668
0.662
0.650
0.645
0.642
0.616
0.633
0.585
0.624
0.577
0.576
0.573
0.568
0.609
0.606
0.560
0.600
6.8
6.9
7.0
7.1
7.1
7.3
7.2
7.4
7.3
7.5
7.6
7.6
7.7
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.6
0.554
0.512
0.546
0.502
0.497
0.496
0.506
8.4
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.7
8.6
0.579
0.538
0.572
0.528
0.523
0.522
0.532
7.9
8.0
8.1
8.2
8.2
8.3
8.2
0.563
0.522
0.555
0.512
0.507
0.506
0.516
8.2
8.3
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.5
8.4
0.598
0.556
0.590
0.546
0.541
0.540
0.550
7.7
7.8
7.8
7.9
8.0
8.0
7.9
8.9
8.9
0.495
0.500
8.7
8.7
0.521
0.526
8.3
8.3
0.504
0.509
8.6
8.5
0.539 8.0
0.544 8.0
0.489
0.486
8.9
9.0
0.497
0.494
8.8
8.8
0.523
0.520
8.3
8.4
0.507
0.504
8.6
8.6
0.541 8.0
0.538 8.1
9.3
9.3
0.477
0.481
9.1
9.1
0.486
0.489
8.9
8.9
0.511
0.515
8.5
8.4
0.495
0.499
8.8
8.7
0.529 8.2
0.533 8.1
9.5
9.4
9.4
9.5
9.5
9.7
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.8
9.9
9.7
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.1
10.1
0.469
0.472
0.476
0.467
0.470
0.461
0.465
0.459
0.455
0.454
0.454
0.461
0.449
0.446
0.447
0.446
0.444
0.444
9.3
9.2
9.2
9.3
9.3
9.4
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.4
9.7
9.7
9.8
9.8
9.8
9.8
0.478
0.480
0.484
0.476
0.478
0.470
0.473
0.468
0.463
0.463
0.462
0.469
0.457
0.454
0.455
0.455
0.452
0.452
9.1
9.0
9.0
9.1
9.1
9.2
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.4
9.4
9.2
9.5
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.6
0.503
0.506
0.510
0.501
0.504
0.495
0.499
0.493
0.489
0.488
0.488
0.495
0.483
0.480
0.481
0.480
0.478
0.478
8.6
8.6
8.5
8.6
8.6
8.7
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.9
8.9
8.7
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.1
9.1
0.487
0.490
0.493
0.485
0.488
0.479
0.483
0.477
0.473
0.472
0.472
0.479
0.467
0.463
0.465
0.464
0.462
0.462
8.9
8.9
8.8
8.9
8.9
9.1
9.0
9.1
9.2
9.2
9.2
9.0
9.3
9.4
9.4
9.4
9.4
9.4
0.522
0.524
0.528
0.519
0.522
0.514
0.517
0.511
0.507
0.506
0.506
0.513
0.501
0.498
0.499
0.498
0.496
0.496
75
C
nF/km
132kV
Double
triangle
X
C
/km nF/km
C
X
nF/km /km
Double
vertical
8.3
8.3
8.2
8.3
8.3
8.4
8.4
8.5
8.5
8.6
8.6
8.4
8.7
8.7
8.7
8.7
8.7
8.7
XAC at 60 Hz
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
Series Resistance
Series Reactance
Susceptance
Series Resistance
Series Reactance
Susceptance
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
Series Resistance
Series Reactance
Susceptance
Series Resistance
420kV* Series Reactance
Susceptance
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
3.3kV
6.6kV
11kV
22kV
33kV
66kV*
145kV*
245kV*
25
0.927
0.097
0.059
0.927
0.121
0.085
0.927
0.128
0.068
-
35
0.669
0.092
0.067
0.669
0.113
0.095
0.669
0.119
0.074
0.669
0.136
0.053
0.669
0.15
0.042
50
0.494
0.089
0.079
0.494
0.108
0.104
0.494
0.114
0.082
0.494
0.129
0.057
0.494
0.143
0.045
70
0.342
0.083
0.09
0.342
0.102
0.12
0.342
0.107
0.094
0.348
0.121
0.065
0.348
0.134
0.05
95
0.247
0.08
0.104
0.247
0.096
0.136
0.247
0.101
0.105
0.247
0.114
0.072
0.247
0.127
0.055
120
0.196
0.078
0.111
0.196
0.093
0.149
0.196
0.098
0.115
0.196
0.11
0.078
0.196
0.122
0.059
150
0.158
0.076
0.122
0.158
0.091
0.16
0.158
0.095
0.123
0.158
0.107
0.084
0.158
0.118
0.063
185
0.127
0.075
0.133
0.127
0.088
0.177
0.127
0.092
0.135
0.127
0.103
0.091
0.127
0.114
0.068
240
0.098
0.073
0.146
0.098
0.086
0.189
0.098
0.089
0.15
0.098
0.1
0.1
0.098
0.109
0.075
300
0.08
0.072
0.16
0.08
0.085
0.195
0.08
0.087
0.165
0.08
0.094
0.109
0.08
0.105
0.081
400
0.064
0.071
0.179
0.064
0.083
0.204
0.064
0.084
0.182
0.064
0.091
0.12
0.064
0.102
0.089
*500
0.051
0.088
0.19
0.057
0.088
0.205
0.051
0.089
0.194
0.051
0.096
0.128
0.051
0.103
0.094
*630
0.042
0.086
0.202
0.042
0.086
0.228
0.042
0.086
0.216
0.042
0.093
0.141
0.042
0.1
0.103
*800
0.0387
0.117
0.079
0.0387
0.13
0.053
0.031
0.113
0.082
0.031
0.125
0.06
0.0254
0.109
0.088
0.0254
0.12
0.063
0.0215
0.102
0.11
0.0215
0.115
0.072
0.0215
0.123
0.057
0.0215
0.156
0.05
0.0161
0.119
0.063
0.0161
0.151
0.057
0.0126
0.113
0.072
0.0126
0.144
0.063
For aluminium conductors of the same cross-section, the resistance increases by 60-65 percent, the series reactance and shunt capacitance is virtually unaltered.* - single core cables in trefoil.
Different values apply if laid in spaced flat formation.
Series Resistance - a.c. resistance @ 90C. Series reactance - equivalent star reactance.
Data for 245kV and 420kV cables may vary significantly from that given, dependent on manufacturer and construction.
Table 5.18: Characteristics of polyethylene
insulated cables (XLPE)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
R (/km)
X (/km)
C (mS/km)
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120 150 185 240
2063 1289 825.5 595 439.9 304.9 220.4 174.5 142.3 113.9 87.6
87.7 83.6 76.7 74.8 72.5 70.2 67.5 66.6 65.7 64.7 63.8
300
70.8
62.9
400
56.7
62.4
*500
45.5
73.5
*630
37.1
72.1
*800 *1000
31.2 27.2
71.2 69.8
514.2 326
26.2 24.3
17.6
16.9
14.1
16.5
11.3
18.8
9.3
18.4
7.8
18
111
9.26
76.2
19.6
55.1
18.7
43.6
18.3
35.6
17.9
28.5
17.6
21.9
17.1
6.7
17.8
0.87 0.63 0.46 0.32 0.23 0.184 0.15 0.12 0.092 0.074 0.059 0.048 0.039 0.033 0.028
0.107 0.1 0.096 0.091 0.087 0.085 0.083 0.081 0.079 0.077 0.076 0.085 0.083 0.081 0.08
17.69 12.75 9.42
2.89 2.71 2.6
-
4.19
1.16
6.53
2.46
4.71
2.36
3.74
2.25
3.04
2.19
2.44
2.11
1.87
2.04
1.51
1.97
1.21
1.92
0.96
1.9
0.79
1.84
0.66
1.8
0.57
1.76
2.9
1.09
2.09
1.03
0.181 0.147 0.118 0.09 0.073 0.058 0.046 0.038 0.031 0.027
0.107 0.103 0.101 0.097 0.094 0.09 0.098 0.097 0.092 0.089
0.104 0.116 0.124 0.194 0.151 0.281 0.179 0.198 0.22 0.245
Cables are of the solid type, 3 core except for those marked *. Impedances at 50Hz frequency
Table 5.19: Characteristics of paper insulated cables
76
Voltage Level
Um kV
11
12
24
30
33
36
66
72.5
132
145
220
380
245
420
R /km
X /km
1.380
0.870
0.627
0.463
0.321
0.232
0.184
0.150
0.121
0.093
0.075
0.060
0.049
0.041
0.035
0.030
0.106
0.100
0.094
0.091
0.086
0.084
0.081
0.079
0.077
0.076
0.075
0.075
0.089
0.086
0.086
0.084
Cross Sectional
Area mm2
Conductors
per phase
Surge Impedance
Loading
MVA
Voltage Drop
Loading
MWkm
30
50
90
120
150
1
50
90
120
150
50
1
1
1
1
1
1.2
1
1
1
1
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.5
44
1.2
1.2
1.4
1.5
11
17
23
27
30
5.8
66
92
106
119
2.7
90
120
150
90
1
1
1
1
2.7
3.1
3.5
11
150
250
250
150
250
250
400
400
1
1
2
1
Indicative Thermal
Loading
MVA
A
2.9
3.9
5.1
6.2
7.3
151
7.8
10.2
12.5
14.6
204
268
328
383
149
11.7
204
207
239
15.3
18.7
268
328
11
11
15
44
267
827
1068
21.9
41
59
383
268
383
1240
1790
4070
77
153
85
502
1004
370
1
2
1
2
44
58
56
4960
7160
6274
115
230
160
502
1004
698
73
9057
320
1395
400
400
1
2
130
184
15600
22062
247
494
648
1296
400
400
400
550
4
2
4
2
260
410
582
31200
58100
82200
988
850
1700
2592
1296
2590
482
68200
1085
1650
550
540
81200
1630
2475
77
151
204
268
328
383
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
300
400
*500
*630
*800
*1000
3 core Copper conductors, 50Hz values.
* - single core cables in trefoil
Table 5.20: 3.3 kV PVC insulated cables
Un kV
5.25 REFERENCES
3.3kV
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e
Transformers
Introduction
6.1
Electromagnetic voltage
transformers
6.2
Capacitor voltage
transformers
6.3
Current transformers
6.4
Novel instrument
transformers
6.5
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Whenever the values of voltage or current in a power
circuit are too high to permit convenient direct
connection of measuring instruments or relays, coupling
is made through transformers. Such 'measuring'
transformers are required to produce a scaled down
replica of the input quantity to the accuracy expected
for the particular measurement; this is made possible by
the high efficiency of the transformer. The performance
of measuring transformers during and following large
instantaneous changes in the input quantity is
important, in that this quantity may depart from the
sinusoidal waveform. The deviation may consist of a
step change in magnitude, or a transient component
that persists for an appreciable period, or both. The
resulting effect on instrument performance is usually
negligible, although for precision metering a persistent
change in the accuracy of the transformer may be
significant.
However, many protection systems are required to
operate during the period of transient disturbance in the
output of the measuring transformers that follows a
system fault. The errors in transformer output may
abnormally delay the operation of the protection, or
cause unnecessary operations. The functioning of such
transformers must, therefore, be examined analytically.
It can be shown that the transformer can be represented
by the equivalent circuit of Figure 6.1, where all
quantities are referred to the secondary side.
1/1
Rp
Lp
Rs
Ze
79
Ls
Burden
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
( K nV s )
100%
Vp
where:
Kn is the nominal ratio
IpXp
IpRp
Ep
-V
Vs
Im
Ie
Ip L
Ie
6.2.1 Errors
Ic
E
s
Is
Ie
Im
I
Vs
IsXs
= exciting current
= phase angle error
I
Ip
Es
Is R s
I
I
I
Ipp
s s
Accuracy
class
= secondary current
p
= primary current
0.1
0.2
0.5
1.0
3.0
80
3P
6P
+/- 6.0
+/- 240
Time
rating
1.2
continuous
1.2
1.5
1.2
continuous
30 s
continuous
1.9
30 s
1.2
continuous
1.9
8 hours
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
Accuracy
class
81
Residual
voltage
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
C
P
P - primary winding
C - coupling windings
S - secondary winding
82
C1
L
C2
C2
Zb
Zb
T
L
C2
Zb
Rp
Rs
C1
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
Vi
Ze
Zb
L - tuning inductance
Rp - primary winding resistance (plus losses)
Ze - exciting impedance of transformer T
Rs - secondary circuit resistance
Zb - burden impedance
C - C1 + C2 (in Figure 6.6)
If the burden impedance of a CVT were to be shortcircuited, the rise in the reactor voltage would be limited
only by the reactor losses and possible saturation, that is,
to Q x E2 where E2 is the no-load tapping point voltage
and Q is the amplification factor of the resonant circuit.
This value would be excessive and is therefore limited by
a spark gap connected across the auxiliary capacitor. The
voltage on the auxiliary capacitor is higher at full rated
output than at no load, and the capacitor is rated for
continuous service at this raised value. The spark gap will
be set to flash over at about twice the full load voltage.
Amplitude
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
Time
6.3.3 Ferro-Resonance
The exciting impedance Ze of the auxiliary transformer T
84
6.4.1 Errors
Z=21.2
E=6350V
300/5A
Es
Is X s
Iq
Ir
0.2
Z=21.2
'Ideal'
CT
E=6350V r=300/5
j50
150
Ip
Vs
0.4
Is
Er =6350V x 60
=381kV
Ie
0.2
j50
150
0.4
Ie
Iq
Is
Is
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
Is R s
Burden
10VA
Class
5P
10P
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
0.5
1
1.5
3
0.75
1.5
0.5
1.0
0.5
1.0
45
90
30
60
30
60
% current
50
3
120
3
Current error at
Phase displacement
Composite error at
rated primary
at rated current
rated accuracy limit
current (%)
(minutes)
primary current (%)
+/-1
+/-60
5
+/-3
10
Standard accuracy limit factors are 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30
+ 10%V
V
Exciting voltage (V
Vs)
+ 50%IIeK
87
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
VK
CTs for measuring line currents fall into one of three types.
6.4.6.1 Overdimensioned CTs
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
88
Equation 6.1
Ep
= system resistance
= system inductance
R
i p = I p sin t + e (
2
L) t
...Equation 6.2
( R L) t
where:
R 2 + 2 L2
[ sin ( t + ) + sin ( ) e
Ep
t2
= K t vdt
1
Equation 6.3
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
20
3 2
A = KR b I s
sin t dt
KR b I s
B = KR b I s e ( R
L) t
dt =
...Equation 6.4
KR b I s L
R
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
0.1
0.15
0.2
1 +
...Equation 6.6
1.0
0.9
-
0.8
=1 +
0.05
Time (seconds)
wL
X
=
R
R
T = 0.06s
4
12
...Equation 6.5
16
-1
e T
0.7
L
= 1 + T
R
1
T1
0.6
Ie
0.5
0.4
0.3
TF = 1 + 2fT = 1 + 2T
0.2
0.1
i's
Time
-0.1
Ie = Transient exciting current
...Equation 6.7
also,
Le
di e
= R b i s
dt
whence:
R i
di e
R i
+ b e = b s
Le
Le
dt
which gives for the transient term
ie = I1
T
e t T e t T
T1 T
1
...Equation 6.8
...Equation 6.9
where:
T = primary system time constant L/R
T1 = CT secondary circuit time constant Le/Rb
I1 = prospective peak secondary current
6.4.10.2 Practical conditions
Practical conditions differ from theory for the following
reasons:
a. no account has been taken of secondary leakage or
burden inductance. This is usually small compared
with Le so that it has little effect on the maximum
transient flux
Exciting current
Time
Current
Primary current
referred to
secondary
Time
0
Secondary current
Residual flux = 0
Resistive burden
Power system T.C. = 0.05s
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
Let:
is = the nominal secondary current
91
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
HV
Bus
Insulating
function
Sensor
E/O converter
+
Communication
Sensing
function
Instrument
Transformer
Electronic
interface
Communication
+
O/E converter
Secondary
output
'Odd' polariser
input
polariser
output
polariser
optical
fibre
optical
fibre
in
light source
sensing
light
detector
out
45
90
optical
sensing
medium
1.0
0.5
0.5
0
1.0
+
t
reference
light input
intensity
t
modulated
light input
intensity
Figure. 6.18: Schematic representation of the concepts behind the optical sensing of varying electric and magnetic fields
93
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
analysing circuitry.
In sharp contrast with a
conventional free-standing instrument transformer, the
optical instrument transformer needs an electronic
interface module in order to function. Therefore its
sensing principle (the optical material) is passive but its
operational integrity relies on the interface that is
powered in the control room (Figure 6.21).
'Floating'
electrode
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
Electro-optic
sensor
AC line
voltage
Optical fibres
Reference
electrode
Reference
electrode
Light
path
AC line
voltage
Electro-optic
sensor
I AC line current
Reference
electrode
Optical fibres
Optical fibre
High voltage
sensor assembly
AC line current
I
Magnetic field
Optical fibres
Gapped
Magneto-optic sensor
magnetic core
(b) 'Field-shaping' type
Junction
box
Optical
interface
unit
AC/DC source
94
Dome
AC line current
Electro-optic sensor
(bulk-glass transducer)
Electro-optic sensor
('all-fibre' transducer)
AC
line I
current
H1
H2
Bulk-glass
sensing element
Light in
Optical fibres
Light out
Liquid /solid/ gaseous
internal insulation
Insulator
column
AC line current
I
Light in
Fibre
optic
cables
Optical fibres
Fibre
sensing element
Light out
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
Fibre optic
cable conduit
Conductor
95
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
Electrical to optical
converter/transmitter
I
Burden
Optical
fibres
Current transformer
Magnetic concentrator
(gapped magnetic core)
Air core
toroidal coil
i
Electrical to optical
converter
V
Optical
fibres
Sensing current
Sensing element
Current carrying
conductor
Relay Technolog y
Introduction
7.1
Electromechanical relays
7.2
Static relays
7.3
Digital relays
7.4
Numerical relays
7.5
7.6
7.7
References
7.8
7 R elay Te ch n o l o g y
7. 1 I N T R OD U C T I O N
The last thirty years have seen enormous changes in relay
technology. The electromechanical relay in all of its
different forms has been replaced successively by static,
digital and numerical relays, each change bringing with
it reductions and size and improvements in functionality.
At the same time, reliability levels have been maintained
or even improved and availability significantly increased
due to techniques not available with older relay types.
This represents a tremendous achievement for all those
involved in relay design and manufacture.
This chapter charts the course of relay technology
through the years. As the purpose of the book is to
describe modern protection relay practice, it is natural
therefore to concentrate on digital and numerical relay
technology. The vast number of electromechanical and
static relays are still giving dependable service, but
descriptions on the technology used must necessarily be
somewhat brief. For those interested in the technology
of electromechanical and static technology, more
detailed descriptions can be found in reference [7.1].
7. 2 E L E C T R OM EC H A NI C AL RE L AY S
These relays were the earliest forms of relay used for the
protection of power systems, and they date back nearly
100 years. They work on the principle of a mechanical
force causing operation of a relay contact in response to
a stimulus. The mechanical force is generated through
current flow in one or more windings on a magnetic core
or cores, hence the term electromechanical relay. The
principle advantage of such relays is that they provide
galvanic isolation between the inputs and outputs in a
simple, cheap and reliable form therefore for simple
on/off switching functions where the output contacts
have to carry substantial currents, they are still used.
Electromechanical relays can be classified into several
different types as follows:
a. attracted armature
b. moving coil
c. induction
d. thermal
e. motor operated
f. mechanical
However, only attracted armature types have significant
99
100
101
7 . 4 D I G I TA L R E L AY S
Digital protection relays introduced a step change in
technology.
Microprocessors and microcontrollers
replaced analogue circuits used in static relays to
implement relay functions. Early examples began to be
introduced into service around 1980, and, with
improvements in processing capacity, can still be regarded
as current technology for many relay applications.
However, such technology will be completely superseded
within the next five years by numerical relays.
Compared to static relays, digital relays introduce A/D
conversion of all measured analogue quantities and use
a microprocessor to implement the protection algorithm.
The microprocessor may use some kind of counting
technique, or use the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) to
implement the algorithm.
However, the typical
microprocessors used have limited processing capacity
and memory compared to that provided in numerical
relays. The functionality tends therefore to be limited
and restricted largely to the protection function itself.
Additional functionality compared to that provided by an
electromechanical or static relay is usually available,
typically taking the form of a wider range of settings,
and greater accuracy. A communications link to a
remote computer may also be provided.
The limited power of the microprocessors used in digital
relays restricts the number of samples of the waveform
that can be measured per cycle. This, in turn, limits the
speed of operation of the relay in certain applications.
Therefore, a digital relay for a particular protection
function may have a longer operation time than the
static relay equivalent. However, the extra time is not
significant in terms of overall tripping time and possible
effects of power system stability. Examples of digital
relays are shown in Figure 7.6.
7. 5 N U M E RI C A L RE L AY S
The distinction between digital and numerical relay rests
on points of fine technical detail, and is rarely found in
areas other than Protection. They can be viewed as
natural developments of digital relays as a result of
advances in technology. Typically, they use a specialised
digital signal processor (DSP) as the computational
hardware, together with the associated software tools.
The input analogue signals are converted into a digital
representation and processed according to the appropriate
mathematical algorithm. Processing is carried out using a
specialised microprocessor that is optimised for signal
processing applications, known as a digital signal
processor or DSP for short. Digital processing of signals in
real time requires a very high power microprocessor.
In addition, the continuing reduction in the cost of
microprocessors and related digital devices (memory, I/O,
etc.) naturally leads to an approach where a single item
of hardware is used to provide a range of functions
(one-box solution approach). By using multiple
microprocessors to provide the necessary computational
performance, a large number of functions previously
implemented in separate items of hardware can now be
included within a single item. Table 7.1 provides a list of
typical functions available, while Table 7.2 summarises
the advantages of a modern numerical relay over the
static equivalent of only 10-15 years ago. Figure 7.7
shows typical numerical relays, and a circuit board is
shown in Figure 7.8. Figure 7.9 provides an illustration of
the savings in space possible on a HV feeder showing the
space requirement for relays with electromechanical and
numerical relay technology to provide the same
functionality.
Distance Protection- several schemes including user definable)
Overcurrent Protection (directional/non-directional)
Several Setting Groups for protection values
Switch-on-to-Fault Protection
103
104
where:
2 x fh
fs = sampling frequency
fh = highest frequency of interest
105
106
107
e. harmonic quantities
f. frequency
g. temperatures/RTD status
108
109
110
Protection: Signalling
and Intertripping
Introduction
8.1
8.2
Teleprotection commands
8.3
Intertripping
8.4
Performance requirements
8.5
8.6
Methods of signalling
8.7
8 P rotection: Signalling
and Intertripping
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Unit protection schemes, formed by a number of relays
located remotely from each other, and some distance
protection schemes, require some form of communication
between each location in order to achieve a unit protection
function. This form of communication is known as
protection signalling. Additionally communications
facilities are also required when remote operation of a
circuit breaker is required as a result of a local event. This
form of communications is known as intertripping.
The communication messages involved may be quite
simple, involving instructions for the receiving device to
take some defined action (trip, block, etc.), or it may be
the passing of measured data in some form from one
device to another (as in a unit protection scheme).
Various types of communication links are available for
protection signalling, for example:
i. private pilot wires installed by the power
authority
ii. pilot wires or channels
communications company
rented
from
113
V
Intertrip
Intertrip
Permissive
trip
Permissive
trip
Blocking
Protection
relay
scheme
Teleprotection
command
(send)
Trip
Blocking
Communication
link
Teleprotection
command
(receive)
Telemetry
Telemetry
Telecontrol
Telecontrol
Telephone
Telephone
Data
Data
Communication
systems
Communication
systems
Protection
relay
scheme
Figure 8.1: Application of protection signalling and its relationship to other systems using communication
(shown as a unidirectional system for simplicity)
Figure 8.1:
Application
of protection
signalling
its relationship
to other
Details
of Unit
Protection
schemes
areand
given
in Chapter
10. systems using communication
(Shown
as
a
unidirectional
system
for
simplicity)
a. a feeder with a weak infeed at one end, insufficient
Communications methods are covered later in this Chapter.
to operate the protection for all faults
8 . 3 T E L E P R OT E C T I O N C O M M A N D S
8.4 INTERTRIPPING
Intertripping is the controlled tripping of a circuit
breaker so as to complete the isolation of a circuit or
114
115
Sec
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
10-2
10-3
10-4
10-5
10
10
TOP
Analogue
Digital
TOP
Intertrip
Blocking
Analogue
Intertrip
ntertrip
T - 0.04sec
PUC -1.00E-03
P -1.00E-01
Digital
Intertrip
ntertrip
T - 0.04sec
P
P
TOP - 0.015sec
P -1.00E-01
PMC -1.00E-01
T
P
P
-1.00E-01
- 0.015sec
- 0.015sec
-2.00E-02
-1.00E-01
PMC
Dependability
- Maximum
imum operating time
UC
)%
100(1-P
PMC )%
116
To station
To line
Series
tuning
unit
Capacitor VT
To E/M VT
To E/M VT
117
118
119
120
Pilot wires
Pilot channel
Voice
frequency
Power line
carrier
communication
channel
Protection
relay
scheme
Carrier
frequency
shift
On/off
keyed
carrier
Radio
transmitter
Digital
PCM
primary
multiplex
Optical
transmitter
Radio
Optical fibre
general purpose
Optical fibre
dedicated
Optical
Protection
signalling
equipment
Communication
equipment
Transmission media
121
Frequency
division
multiplex
Overcurrent Protection
for Phase and Earth Faults
Introduction
9.1
Co-ordination procedure
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13
9.14
Ring mains
9.15
9.16
9.17
9.18
9.19
9.20
References
9.21
Overcurrent P rotection
for Phase and Earth Faults
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Protection against excess current was naturally the
earliest protection system to evolve. From this basic
principle, the graded overcurrent system, a discriminative
fault protection, has been developed. This should not be
confused with overload protection, which normally
makes use of relays that operate in a time related in
some degree to the thermal capability of the plant to be
protected. Overcurrent protection, on the other hand, is
directed entirely to the clearance of faults, although with
the settings usually adopted some measure of overload
protection may be obtained.
9.2 CO-ORDINATION PROCEDURE
Correct overcurrent relay application requires knowledge
of the fault current that can flow in each part of the
network.
Since large-scale tests are normally
impracticable, system analysis must be used see
Chapter 4 for details. The data required for a relay
setting study are:
i. a one-line diagram of the power system involved,
showing the type and rating of the protection
devices and their associated current transformers
ii. the impedances in ohms, per cent or per unit, of
all power transformers, rotating machine and
feeder circuits
iii. the maximum and minimum values of short circuit
currents that are expected to flow through each
protection device
iv. the maximum load current through protection
devices
v. the starting current requirements of motors and
the starting and locked rotor/stalling times of
induction motors
vi. the transformer inrush, thermal withstand and
damage characteristics
vii. decrement curves showing the rate of decay of
the fault current supplied by the generators
viii. performance curves of the current transformers
The relay settings are first determined to give the
shortest operating times at maximum fault levels and
123
t1
t1
6350
A
Z S + Z L1
t1
F
112
250
= 0.485
= 0.24
Hence
I=
11
3 0.725
= 8800 A
124
6350
A
Z S + Z L1
I=
11
3 (0.485 + 0.24 + 0.04 )
= 8300 A
Alternatively, assuming a source fault level of 130MVA:
I=
11
3 (0.93 + 0.214 + 0.04 )
= 5250 A
In other words, for either value of source level, the relay
at B would operate correctly for faults anywhere on the
11kV cable feeding the transformer.
= 2.12
I=
Hence
11
3 2.885
= 2200 A
200 metres
240mm2 P.I.L.C.
Cable
11kV
250MVA
Source
F1
200 metres
240mm2 P.I.L.C.
Cable
F2
4MVA
11/3.3kV
7%
F3
F4
125
Relay Characteristic
1000.
t=
TD 0.0515
+0.114
7 I r0.02 1
t=
TD 19.61
+0.491
7 I r2 1
t=
TD 28.2
+0.1217
7 I r2 1
US CO8 Inverse
t=
TD 5.95
+0.18
7 I r2 1
100.
TD
7
0.02394
0.02
+ 0.01694
I r
1
1.00
1000.00
0.10
100
1000
10,000
100.00
Current (A)
Relay A: Current Setting = 100A, TMS = 1.0
Relay B: Current Setting = 125A, TMS = 1.3
Figure 9.3: Relay characteristics for different settings
t =
10.00
Time (s)
10.00
1.00
t = TMS
I r0.02
t = TMS
80
I r2 1
t = TMS
120
I r 1
0.10
10
100
126
10
1000.00
8
6
4
3
TMS
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
10.00
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.6
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.1
0.2
1.00
0.1
Moderately Inverse
Extremely
Inverse
10
100
20
30
3
4
6
8 10
Current (multiples of plug settings)
CO 8 Inverse
Time Inverse
0.10
127
Time (seconds)
100.00
R2
R1
R3
Time (seconds)
0.1
100
1000
0
R1
R2
10,000
0
Ratio
400/1A
100/1A
Fault level 13.000A Fault level 2300A
500A 0.125 TMS
300A
500A
100.00
R3
50/1A
Fault level 1100A
10.00
Source
250 MVA
11kV
1.00
Very Inverse (VI)
0.10
10
Current ( multiples of Is )
100
128
Digital and numerical relays may also include predefined logic schemes utilising digital (relay) I/O
provided in the relay to implement standard schemes
such as CB failure and trip circuit supervision. This saves
the provision of separate relay or PLC (Programmable
Logic Controller) hardware to perform these functions.
9.9 INDEPENDENT (DEFINITE) TIME
OVERCURRENT RELAYS
Overcurrent relays are normally also provided with
elements having independent or definite time
characteristics. These characteristics provide a ready
means of co-ordinating several relays in series in
situations in which the system fault current varies very
widely due to changes in source impedance, as there is
no change in time with the variation of fault current.
The time/current characteristics of this curve are shown
in Figure 9.9, together with those of the standard I.D.M.T.
characteristic, to indicate that lower operating times are
achieved by the inverse relay at the higher values of fault
current, whereas the definite time relay has lower
operating times at the lower current values.
200.0
100.0
10.0
Time (secs)
Standard
inverse (SI)
1.0
inverse
v s (EI)
E
200A
A Fuse
us
0.1
100
1000
Current (amps)
10,000
129
10
R4
R2
R3
R1
R1A
2A
3A
Time (seconds)
R4A
T4
1
T3
T
0.1
1
1000
100
10
R1
R1A
Fault level
6000A
R2
R2A
3500A
10.000
R4
R4A
1200A
2000A
4A
4A
300A
175A
100A
57.5A
0.2TMS
0.3TMS
0.37TMS
0.42TMS
130
50
40
3
Time (seconds)
20
10
8
6
4
5 6
8 10
20
30
9.11.3 Overshoot
When the relay is de-energised, operation may continue
for a little longer until any stored energy has been
dissipated. For example, an induction disc relay will have
stored kinetic energy in the motion of the disc; static
relay circuits may have energy stored in capacitors.
Relay design is directed to minimising and absorbing
these energies, but some allowance is usually necessary.
The overshoot time is defined as the difference between
the operating time of a relay at a specified value of input
current and the maximum duration of input current,
which when suddenly reduced below the relay operating
level, is insufficient to cause relay operation.
9.11.4 CT Errors
Current transformers have phase and ratio errors due to
the exciting current required to magnetise their cores.
The result is that the CT secondary current is not an
identical scaled replica of the primary current. This leads
to errors in the operation of relays, especially in the time
of operation. CT errors are not relevant when
independent definite-time delay overcurrent relays are
being considered.
9.11.5 Final Margin
After the above allowances have been made, the
discriminating relay must just fail to complete its
operation. Some extra allowance, or safety margin, is
required to ensure that relay operation does not occur.
9.11.6 Overall Accuracy
The overall limits of accuracy according to IEC 60255-4
for an IDMT relay with standard inverse characteristic
are shown in Figure 9.10.
Network Protection & Automation Guide
131
specification.
This requires consideration when
considering the grading margin at low fault current levels.
Electromechanical
7.5
0.05
0.1
0.4
Relay Technology
Static
Digital
Numerical
5
0.03
0.05
5
0.02
0.03
5
0.02
0.03
0.35
0.3
0.3
Equation 9.2
where:
Er = relay timing error (IEC 60255-4)
Ect = allowance for CT ratio error (%)
t = operating time of relay nearer fault (s)
tCB = CB interrupting time (s)
to = relay overshoot time (s)
ts = safety margin (s)
Equation 9.4
Location
Fault Current
(A)
Maximun
Load Current
(A)
Maximun Minimun
CT
Ratio
Relay Time
Primary Multiplier Setting
Current
(A)
133
Va
A
MT
30
V'bc
150
30
Vbc
Vb
Vc
TA
Ia
Va
V'bc
135
R'1
R1
Vbc
Vc
Source
Vb
I>
I>
Load
Fault
R'2
R2
I>
I>
134
2.1 2.1
1
0.1
5'
1.7
0.5
1'
0.1
Ix
1.7
Fault
0.5
Iy
2'
1.3
1.3
4'
0.9 0.9
3
3'
2.1
1.7
1.3
0.9
0.5
0.1
6'
5'
4''
3'
2'
1'
0.1
0.5
0.9
1.3
1.7
2.1
135
6'
A
B
C
(a)
B
C
I>
I>
>
I>
>
I>
(b)
A
B
C
On the whole, the low settings permissible for earthfault relays are very useful, as earth faults are not only
by far the most frequent of all faults, but may be limited
in magnitude by the neutral earthing impedance, or by
earth contact resistance.
The residual component is extracted by connecting the
line current transformers in parallel as shown in Figure
9.15. The simple connection shown in Figure 9.15(a) can
be extended by connecting overcurrent elements in the
individual phase leads, as illustrated in Figure 9.15(b),
and inserting the earth-fault relay between the star
points of the relay group and the current transformers.
>
I>
(c)
Figure 9.15: Residual connection of current
transformers to earth-fault relays
136
10
Current transformer
excitation characteristic
0.5
1.0
Exciting current (amperes)
1.5
100
Effective setting (per cent)
20
80
60
40
20
20
40
60
Relay setting (per cent)
80
100
Relay Plug
Coil voltage
Setting
at Setting
(V)
%
Current (A)
5
0.25
12
10
0.5
6
15
0.75
4
20
1
3
40
2
1.5
60
3
1
80
4
0.75
100
5
0.6
Exciting
Current
Ie
0.583
0.405
0.3
0.27
0.17
0.12
0.1
0.08
Effective Setting
Current
%
(A)
2
40
1.715
34.3
1.65
33
1.81
36
2.51
50
3.36
67
4.3
86
5.24
105
137
Secondary voltage
Cable gland
Cable
box
>
No operation
I
>
Operation
I
>
A
B
>
(a) Relay connections
Va
Va
3IIO
Va2
3V
3
VO
Vb
Vc
Vb
Vc
139
Vaf
IR1
Ia1
Ib1
IR1
jX
Xc1
IH1
Ia2
Ib2
IR2
jX
Xc2
IH2
Ia3
IH1+
H3
IR3
IR3 =I +IIH2+IIH3-IIH3
=IIH1 IH2
jX
Xc3
I +IIH2
Restrain
Ib1
Vapf
Ia1
Operate
Vbf
Vbpf
Vcpf
Vres (= -3Vo)
An RCA setting of +90 shifts
the "center of the characteristic" to here
140
Ia1
Ib1
IR1
IH1
IL
Ia2
Ib2
IR2
jX
XL
IH2
Ia3
Ib3
I =IIF
IR3
jX
XL
Petersen
coil
If
=O if
H1
b1
Vab
jX
XL
an
3V
VO
Van
jX
XL
IH2
-IIB
(=IIL)
H1+IIH2
-IIC
If IB- C+
IF
IL
Source
- XC3
-jX
IL
Van
- XC2
-jX
jX
XC
(=-IIb
=IIB+IIC
-X
-jX
- XC
-jX
Ia1
Vac
Ic)
B
a) Capacitive et inductive currents
- XC
-jX
IL
-IIC
A
Ib1
IL
-IIB
IR1=IH1
-IH1
-I
IR3
Ia1
Vac
IR3 =-I +I
=-IH2
Vab
N
- XC1
-jX
Vres=-3V
VO
b) Unfaulted line
Vres=-3V
VO
c) Faulted line
141
IROF
Faulted
feeder
IROH
Healthy
feeders
IROH
IL
IH3
-VO
3XL
1+IH2+IH3)'
3VO
B
a) Capacitive and inductive currents
with resistive components
Restrain
Operate
IL
IR1=IH1
-IH1-IH2
IR3
=I +I
IR3 F H3
=IL-IH1-IH2
Vres=-3VO
Zero torque line for 0 RCA
b) Unfaulted line
Vres=-3VO
Key:
IROF=residual current on faulted feeder
IROH=residual current on healthy feeder
It can therefore be seen that:
-IOF=IL-IH1-IH2-IH3
IROF=IH3+IOF
So:
-IROF=IL=IH1-IH2
(I
IH1
IH2
Xco
Resistive component
in grounding coil
I'L
Restrain
Operate
c) Faulted line
142
Vres=-3V
VO
Active component
of residual current:
faulted feeder
IR3
IH1-IIH2
Operate
IL
IR1
of residual current:
healthy feeder
Restrain
5
I>>
I>
I >
3000/5
Max load 2800A
4
I>
I >
Bus A
11kV
I>>
I>
3
1000/1
Equation 9.5
where:
Reactor R1 :
Z=4% on 20MVA
Bus B
11kV
500/1
>
Cables C2,C3:
1 x 3c x 185mm2XLPE
Z = 0.128 + j 0.093/km
I>
I
2
>
500/1
C3
L = Ikm
Bus C
11kV
150/5
FS2
160A
F2
I>
200/5
F1
I>
IS = 120%
IS = 110%
TMS = 0.25
TMS = 0.1
Max load 190A
Max load 130A
I>
Utility
client
FS1
125A
143
(ii) At bus B
Fault Level =
= 232MVA
=12.2 kA
(iii) At bus A
Fault Level =
= 22.7kA
(iv) Source
500 100
MVA
ZS + ZC1
= 432MVA
500 100
MVA
ZS + ZC1 + Z R1
Reactor R1
4 500
Z R1 =
= 100%
20
Cable C1
0.096
ZC1 =
2 = 0.038
5
On 500MVA base,
0.038 100 500
ZC1 =
(11)2
= 26.3kA
On 500MVA base,
= 15.7%
Cables C2,C3
ZC2, ZC 3 =
(11)
= 65.3%
Source Impedance (500MVA base)
500
ZS =
100%
500
= 100%
9.20.1.2 Fault Levels
The fault levels are calculated as follows:
(i) At bus C
For 2 feeders,
Fault Level=
500 100
MVA
Z R1 + ZS + ZC1 + ZC 2 2
144
characteristic:
I sr1 f =
where
t is the required operation time (s)
Isr1f = setting of relay at fault current
Hence, with t = 0.35,
Isr1f = 15.16
or, I sr1 =
I sr1 =
9330
=615.4 A
15.16
616
=1.232
500
80
2
9330
1
620
= 0.355
0.35
= 0.99
0.355
Isr3 >1052A
0.35
=1.66
0.21
This value of TMS is outside the settable range of the
relay (maximum setting 1.2). Therefore, changes must be
made to the relay current setting in order to bring the
value of TMS required into the range available, provided
this does not result in the inability of the relay to operate
at the minimum fault level.
TMS =
80
+1
t
145
current
1.3x12.2kA
=15.86kA
9.20.1.7 Relay 5
Relay
(6.88 )
0.02
= 3.56 s
146
100.00
10.00
Relay F1
Fuse FS1
1.00
Fuse FS2
Relays 1/2
Relay 3
Relay 4
0.10
0.01
100
10000
1000
100000
Current (A)
(a) Initial grading curves
100.00
10.00
Relay F1
Time (sec)
Relay F2
Fuse FS1
Fuse FS2
1.00
Time (sec)
Relay F2
Relays 1/2
Relay 3
Relay 4
0.10
0.01
100
10000
1000
100000
Current (A)
(b) Revised initial grading curves
Figure 9.29: Initial relay grading curves overcurrent relay example
147
Relay Settings
Load
Max
Relay/ current Fault
CT
Fuse Charac- Current Setting
TMS
Fuse
Current Ratio Rating teristic Primary Per
Amps Cent
(A)
kA
F1
190
10.6
200/5
EI
100
100
0.1
F2
130
10.6
150/5
EI
150
120
0.25
FS1
90
10.6
125A
FS2
130
10.6
160A
1
400
12.2
500/1
EI
620
124
1
2
400
12.2
500/1
EI
620
124
1
EI
1060
106
0.85
3
1000
22.7 1000/1
Instant. 15860 14.96
4
3000
22.7 3000/1
SI
3000
100 0.275
5
3000 26.25 3000/5
SI
3300
110
0.35
100.00
Relay F1
Relay F2
10.00
Fuse FS2
Relays 1/2
Time (sec)
Fuse FS1
Relay 3
1.00
Relay 4
Relay 5
0.10
0.01
100
10000
1000
100000
Current (A)
Figure 9.30: Final relay grading curves for overcurrent relay example
148
Source
0.01pu I
f
6
>
10.00
Bus Q
110kV
1
II>
5
II>
3
II>
2
>
I Z=0.25puI
Bus P
10000
100000
I
I>
Ib
2 fdrs
1 fdr
2 fdrs
2 fdrs
1 fdr
1000
Current (A)
(b) Relay grading curves - non-directional relays
3
II>
I
I>
All impedances
p
to
100MVA, 110kV base
(b) Impedance diagram
F1
F1/F2
F2
F3
F4
Relays 4/5
1.00
0.10
100
Bus Q
Fault System
Position Config.
Relays 2/3
Relay 6
Ie
Characteristic
SI
SI
SI
SI
SI
SI
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.425
0.425
0.7
Relay 1
50MVA
Z=12.5%
TMS
100.00
F3
Bus P
220k
Ie
300
300
300
300
300
300
IF4
1
2
3
4
5
6
Current
setting
1
1.1
1.1
0.61
0.61
0.7
Fault
Ia
Ib
Currents (A)
Ic
Id
Ie
If
3888
2019
3888
3888
26243
1944
2019
1944
1944
0
1944
0
1944
1944
0
0
0
0
1944
0
972
1009
972
972
26243
972
0
972
972
0
1944
1009
1944
1944
26243
149
6
>
Time (sec)
Source
10000MVA
If
CT Primary
50MVA
Z=12.5%
Relay
T1
4
I>
Id
If
Bus P
220kV
I
I>
e
CT Primary
300
300
300
300
300
300
I>
diagram
1000/1
1
I>
Bus Q
110kV
3
Current setting
TMS
1
0.2
0.42
0.1
0.42
0.1
0.6
0.275
0.275
0.6
0.7
0.475
(b) Relay settings
F1
F1
10.00
1.00
0.10
100
1000
10000
(ii) (i)
(iii)
Current (A) - referred to 110kV
1000/1
CB8
IF2
I>
R8
F2
Characteristic
SI
SI
SI
SI
SI
SI
CB1
1000/1
I>
3.3kV
R6
I>
R5
I>
CB2
I> R2
1000/1
CB6
R1
1000/1
R7 I>
1000/1
C3
=2km
C2
=1.3km
1000/1
CB5
A
3.3kV
1000/1
C4
=1.5km
C1
=1km
1000/1
CB7
Relay 1
Relays 2/3
Relays 4/5
Relay 6
(i) Fault current 3888A -
100.00
Time (sec)
F3
5MVA
Z=7.15%
1000/1
CB3
I>
R3
I>
R4
3.3kV
CB4
C
3.3kV
ZS+ZT
6.08%
A
ZAD
4.13%
ZS+ZT
6.08%
D
ZCD
5.37%
ZAB
6.2%
I1
C
I 1=
B
ZBC
8.26%
ZBC+ZCD+ZAD
ZAB
ZS 1+
A
ZAD
4.13%
D
ZCD
5.37%
5
I>
IF3
F4
T2
220/110kV
50MVA
Z
Ib
5MVA
Z=7.15%
Ic
IF4
6
I>
Source
10000MVA
Relay
1
2
3
4
5
6
50MVA
Z=12,5% I
+ZBC+ZCD+ZAD
ZAB
6.2%
I1
B
ZBC
8.26%
C
V
I'1=
+ZS+ZBC+ZCD+ZAD
(b) Ring open at CB1
150
Clockwise
Open Point CB8
Fault
Bus
Current
kA
D
7.124
C
4.259
B
3.376
Bus
B
C
D
Anticlockwise
Open Point CB1
Fault
Current
kA
3.665
5.615
8.568
100.00
Table 9.7 shows the fault currents at each bus for open
points at CB1 and CB8.
10.00
9.20.4.1 Relay R7
Load current cannot flow from Bus D to Bus A since Bus
A is the only source. Hence low relay current and TMS
settings can be chosen to ensure a rapid fault clearance
time. These can be chosen arbitrarily, so long as they are
above the cable charging current and within the relay
setting characteristics. Select a relay current setting of
0.8 (i.e. 800A CT primary current) and TMS of 0.05. This
ensures that the other relays will not pick up under
conditions of normal load current. At a fault current of
3376A, relay operating time on the SI characteristic is
1.00
Relayy R5
0.10
Relayy R7
1000
10000
100,000
Current (A)
(a) Clockwise grading of relays (ring open at CB8)
100.00
0.14
s
0.05
0.02
( 4.22 )
= 0.24s
9.20.4.2 Relay R5
Time (sec)
10.00
1.00
0.14
s = 5.14s
=
0.02
( 3.84 )
0.10
100,000
10000
Current (A)
(b) Anticlockwise grading of relays (ring open at CB1)
0.54
= 5.14s
5.14
Use nearest settable value of TMS of 0.125.
Hence, relay R5 TMS =
Bus
Relay
Relay
Characteristic
CT
Ratio
D
C
B
A
A
D
C
B
R7
R5
R3
R1
R8
R6
R4
R2
SI
SI
SI
SI
SI
SI
SI
SI
1000/1
1000/1
1000/1
1000/1
1000/1
1000/1
1000/1
1000/1
Max
Max
Load
Fault
Current Current (A)
(A) (3.3kV base)
874
3376
874
4259
874
7124
874
14387
874
14387
874
8568
874
5615
874
3665
1000
TMS
0.8
0.88
0.97
1.07
1.07
0.97
0.88
0.8
0.05
0.125
0.2
0.275
0.3
0.2
0.125
0.05
9.21 REFERENCES
9.1. Directional Element Connections for Phase
Relays. W.K Sonnemann, Transactions A.I.E.E.
1950.
Relayy R2
151
Time (sec)
10
10.1
Convention of direction
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
Summation arrangements
10.6
Examples of electromechanical
and static unit protection systems
10.7
10.8
10.9
10.10
10.11
Examples
10.12
References
10.13
10
153
10 . 2 C O N V E N T I O N O F D I R E C T I O N
It is useful to establish a convention of direction of
current flow; for this purpose, the direction measured
from a busbar outwards along a feeder is taken as
positive. Hence the notation of current flow shown in
Figure 10.3; the section GH carries a through current
which is counted positive at G but negative at H, while
the infeeds to the faulted section HJ are both positive.
Source
Source
+
Fault
End H
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
Id>
Relay
End G
End H
10 . 3 C O N D I T I O N S
F O R D I R E C T I O N C O M PA R I S O N
Id>
Relay G
Id>
Relay H
Figure 10.2: Balanced voltage system
10
Most systems of unit protection function through the
determination of the relative direction of the fault
current. This direction can only be expressed on a
comparative basis, and such a comparative measurement
is the common factor of many systems, including
directional comparison protection and distance
teleprotection schemes with directional impedance
measurement.
A major factor in consideration of unit protection is the
method of communication between the relays. This is
covered in detail in Chapter 8 in respect of the latest
fibre-optic based digital techniques. For older pilot wire
systems, only brief mention is made. For more detailed
descriptions of pilot wire techniques, see reference
[10.2] in Section 10.13.
154
IPg
End G
End H
RLg
RSh
RLh
iSg
ieg
Zeg
IPh
ieh
Relay
Zeh
RR
(a)
G'
Subscripts:
scripts
S - CT Secondary
F'
G''
L
J
G
h - end H
F
H'
GG'
GG''
RSh
Sh
Id
H
H''
'
'' Electro-motive forces with low impedance relay
(b)
I1
I2
I3
Idiff
155
= I1+I2+I3
Operate
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
Percentage
bias k2
Percentage
bias k1
Restrain
Is1
Is2
Ibias=
I1 + I2 + I3
2
10
10 . 5 B A L A N C E D V O LTA G E S Y S T E M
This section is included for historical reasons, mainly
because of the number of such schemes still to be found
in service for new installations it has been almost
completely superseded by circulating current schemes. It
is the dual of the circulating current protection, and is
summarised in Figure 10.2 as used in the Translay H04
scheme.
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
10
End H
RSg
Zeg
RLg
Pilot
Parameters
Id>
Relay G
RLh
RSh
Zeh
Id>
Relay H
156
End G
End H
Summation
winding
Secondary
ry
winding
Pilot
Bias loop
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
A
B
C
A
B
T1 - Summation transformer
T2 - Auxiliary transformer
RVO - Non linear resistor
Trip
Rs
T2
T1
Pr
Pr
Tr
O
RVO
T1
Tr
Ro
TO
Pilot wires
Ro
To - Operating winding
Trip
T2
Rs
Tr - Restraining winding
Ro - Linear resistor
Pr - Pilots padding resistor
RVO
- Phase comparator
Figure 10.8: Typical static circulating current feeder unit protection circuit diagram
157
10
10 . 8 D I G I TA L / N U M E R I C A L C U R R E N T
D I F F E R E N T I A L P R OT E C T I O N S Y S T E M S
A digital or numerical unit protection relay may typically
provide phase-segregated current differential protection.
This means that the comparison of the currents at each
relay is done on a per phase basis. For digital data
communication between relays, it is usual that a direct
optical connection is used (for short distances) or a
multiplexed link. Link speeds of up to 64kbit/s (56kbit/s
in N. America) are normal. Through current bias is
typically applied to provide through fault stability in the
event of CT saturation. A dual slope bias technique
(Figure 10.5) is used to enhance stability for through
faults. A typical trip criterion is as follows:
For |Ibias| < Is2
For |Ibias| < Is2
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
10
158
B
End A
End B
Current
v
TA1
TA2
ectors
TB1
TA1
Tp1
TB2
TA3
Td
TB3*
TA4
TA*
TA5
Tp2
TB3 TA1
Td
ve
Current
TB3
TB4
ctors
TB5
TB*
159
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
10
Bus 1
B2 IF
B1
Bus 2
F
Id >
Stub
bus
inputs
A
I d>
10 . 10 C U R R E N T D I F F E R E N T I A L S C H E M E
ANALOGUE TECHNIQUES
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
10
160
End G
Squarer
D'
Receiver
Phase
comparator
Pulse length
discrimination
Load or through fault
G IG
IH H
G IG
Internal fault
IH H
1
0
1
0
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
Summation
network
End H
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
Stability setting
161
10
=90
=180-Tripping
Stability
=0
=270
System differential phase shift referred to through fault reference
condition
IG
IH
OR Through fault
IG=-IH
reference condition
H
G
(IG' IH conventional relay currents at ends of protected feeder)
Discriminator stability angle setting.
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
10
162
End G
End H
Line trap
Line trap
Coupling
filter
Summation
network
A
Squarer
Transmitter
Identical
relay
to end G
Receiver
Pulse length
discriminator
D
Trip
1
0
Internal fault
Trip
D. Discriminator output
Stability setting
A
c
O
IC
IL
Through Fault
Reference
Squarer Threshold
Starter Threshold
Limits of differential phase shift due to capacitive current IC
Encroachment into tripping region for discriminator
with stability angle setting s
`Keyhole' characteristic
capacitive current
Minimum starter threshold =
sin s
IC
-1
where s = tan
IL
Characteristic of system with amplitude dependent
compensation s = angular compensation for current of magnitude OA
IC
for squarer threshold IC
2sin-1
OA
IL = load current
163
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
10
Equation 10.1
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
where
10
For three phase faults, or solid earth faults on phase-byphase comparison schemes, through load current falls to
zero during the fault and so need not be considered. For
all other faults, load current continues to flow in the
healthy phases and may therefore tend to increase
|G - H| towards the through fault reference value. For
low resistance faults the fault current usually far exceeds
the load current and so has little effect. High resistance
faults or the presence of a weak source at one end can
prove more difficult, but high performance is still
possible if the modulating quantity is chosen with care
and/or fault detectors are added.
IG = -IH
IG G = -IH H = IH H 180
|G - H| =180
During internal faults, the system tripping angle 0 is the
differential phase shift relative to the reference
condition.
0 =180 - |G - H|
Substituting 0 in Equation 10.1, the conditions for
tripping are:
180 - |G - H| S + c
|G - H| 180 - (S + c)
Equation 10.2
Equation 10.4
Equation 10.3
164
M = 6 and N = -1
M
= 6
N
Equation 10.5
where
3
IE = IL
5
MI FG NI FG
+
3
3
and
G 0
I mH = NI L +
MI FH NI FH
+
3
3
Now, for
ImH > 0,H = 0, and |G - H| = 0
and for
3I L
= IE
M
+1
Equation 10.6
165
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
IM = MI2 + NI1
10
MIE
0.9
3
NILH
1.1
NI
0.9 E
3
0.9
MIE
3
ImG
G=180
NILG
NIE
3
(a) A phase to earth fault IF = 0.9IE
|G- H |=180
0.9
NIE
3
MIE
3
ImH
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
10
1.1
NIE
3
MIE
3
ImH
H=0
NILH
ImG
G=0
NILG
NIE
1.1 3
(b) A phase to earth fault IF = 1.1 IE
|G- H |=0
NIE
3
NILH
G
H
NILG
120 NI
E
3
ImG
MIE
3
(c) B phase to earth fault IF = IE
|G- H |=70
MIE
3
NILH
H
MIE
3
ImH
NILG
NIE 120
ImG
3
MIE
3
(d) C phase to earth fault IF = IE
166
Setting Range
0.2 -2.0 In
1-30 In
0.3-1.5
0.3-1.5
k1 = 30%
k2 = 150%
10 . 1 2 E X A M P L E S
This section gives examples of setting calculations for
simple unit protection schemes. It cannot and is not
intended to replace a proper setting calculation for a
particular application. It is intended to illustrate the
principles of the calculations required. The examples use
the AREVA MiCOM P541 Current Differential relay, which
has the setting ranges given in Table 10.1 for differential
protection. The relay also has backup distance, high-set
instantaneous, and earth-fault protection included in the
basic model to provide a complete one-box solution of
main and backup protection.
10.12.1 Unit Protection of a Plain Feeder
The circuit to be protected is shown in Figure 10.16. It
consists of a plain feeder circuit formed of an overhead
line 25km long. The relevant properties of the line are:
Line voltage: 33kV
Z = 0.157 + j0.337/km
Shunt charging current = 0.065A/km
To arrive at the correct settings, the characteristics of the
relays to be applied must be considered.
The recommended settings for three of the adjustable
values (taken from the relay manual) are:
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
Parameter
Differential Current Setting, Is1
Bias Current Threshold Setting, Is2
Lower Percentage Bias Setting, k1
Higher Precentage Bias Setting, k2
In - CT rated secondary current
Is2 = 2.0pu
25km
33kV
33kV
400/1
400/1
Id>
167
10
5
Idiff
a. HV side: Yd1
LV side: Yy0
b. HV side: Yy0
LV side: Yd11
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
3
Ibias
33kV
11
= 0.3333
33
20 MVA
33/11kV
Dyn1
400/1
10
350A
1050A
-30
0.875A
400
1 = 0.32
1250
1
Cable
100m
1250/1
11kV
0.84A
Digital communication
channel
Id >
Id>
Ratio correction: 1.19
software CT: Yd11
168
U n i t P ro te c t i o n Fe e d e r s
IS1 = 20%
169
10
11
Distance Protection
Introduction
11.1
11.2
Relay performance
11.3
11.4
11.5
Zones of protection
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10
11.11
11.12
References
11.13
11
Distance P rotection
11.1 INTRODUCTION
The problem of combining fast fault clearance with
selective tripping of plant is a key aim for the protection
of power systems. To meet these requirements, highspeed protection systems for transmission and primary
distribution circuits that are suitable for use with the
automatic reclosure of circuit breakers are under
continuous development and are very widely applied.
Distance protection, in its basic form, is a non-unit
system of protection offering considerable economic and
technical advantages. Unlike phase and neutral
overcurrent protection, the key advantage of distance
protection is that its fault coverage of the protected
circuit is virtually independent of source impedance
variations.
Zs=10
Z1=4
Zs=10
IF1=
F1
I >>
115kV
R1
3
3
+
Relay R1
(a)
=7380A
Zs=10
Z1=4
115kV
>
I >>
F2
115x103
=6640A
3x10
(b)
Therefore, for relay operation for line faults,
Relay current setting <6640A and >7380A
This is impractical, overcurrent relay not suitable
Must use Distance or Unit Protection
IF2=
171
ZL
and
ZS
11
11.3 RELAY PERFORMANCE
Distance relay performance is defined in terms of reach
accuracy and operating time. Reach accuracy is a
comparison of the actual ohmic reach of the relay under
practical conditions with the relay setting value in ohms.
Reach accuracy particularly depends on the level of
voltage presented to the relay under fault conditions.
The impedance measuring techniques employed in
particular relay designs also have an impact.
Operating times can vary with fault current, with fault
position relative to the relay setting, and with the point
on the voltage wave at which the fault occurs.
Depending on the measuring techniques employed in a
particular relay design, measuring signal transient errors,
such as those produced by Capacitor Voltage
172
Impedance reach
(% Zone 1 setting)
S.I .R. = ZS
105
100
95
10
20
30
40
50
60
65
Distance P rotection
105
Impedance reach
(% Zone 1 setting)
105
100
95
0
20
40
80 100
60
% relay rated voltage
(b) Phase-phase faults
20
100
95
40
60
80
100
50
40
30
20
Max
10
Min
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Fault position (% relay setting)
50
40
30
20
Max
10
Min
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Fault position (% relay setting)
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.01
Boundary
13ms
9ms
IR =
VR =
0.1
ZL
S/Z
10
1
100
1000
0.1
ZL
V
ZS + Z L
or
VR =
15ms
0.01
V
ZS + Z L
Therefore :
Boundaryy
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
VR=IRZL
Distance P rotection
(ZS
1
V
ZL ) +1
...Equation 11.1
10
100
1000
ZL
S/Z
(b) Zone 1 phase-phase fault: maximum operation times
173
11
VR =
1
V pp
ZL ) +1
(ZS
Equation 11.2
(ZS
ZL )
1
V l n
2 + p
+1
2 +q
...Equation 11.3
where
ZS = 2ZS1 + ZS0 = ZS1(2+p)
ZL = 2ZL1 + ZL0 = ZL1(2+q)
and
p=
ZS0
Z S1
q=
Z L0
Z L1
R
Distance P rotection
VS
ZS
VR
VL=VR
ZL
VR (%)
7.5
11
Line
IR
100
90
80
VR (%)
5.0
2.5
0
10
70
60
20 30 40 50
ZS
ZL
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.1
Source
0.2 0.3
0.5
2
3 4 5
ZS
System impedance ratio
ZL
10
Time
Source
H J
Z1H
H
Time
Z3JF
Z2J
Z1J
Z1L
Source
Z1K
Z2K
Z3KF
Z3KR
175
Distance P rotection
11
Line AC
Line AB
B
Z
Z<
X
B
Distance P rotection
11
Line AB
Operates
Restrains
AC
M
C
Impedance
p
relay
Figure 11.7: Plain impedance relay
characteristic
Impedance
element RZ<
Restrains
Directional
element RD
(a) Characteristic of combined directional/impedance relay
A
IF1
IF2
Source
B
Source
Z<
F
(b) Illustration of use of directional/impedance relay: circuit diagram
RAZ<
RAD
RAD
&
&
Trip relay
AZ<
176
IX
V-IZn
IZn
Restrain
Opperate
IR
Restrain
Zn
ZF
Operate
IR
Restrain
K
Distance P rotection
q
j
A
IR
AP Relay impedance setting
j
AB Protected line
Arc resistance
q Line angle
177
11
Distance P rotection
AQ =
AB
cos ( )
28710
I 1.4
Zone
3
where:
Zone
2
...Equation 11.4
Zone
1
11
Busbar zone
X
J
H
Zone
3
Zone
2
Carrier stop
Zone
1
Carrier start
X
Offset Lenticular
characteristic
b
Offset Mho
characteristic
a
Z D1
Z D2
Z D3
Load
area
Impedance
characteristic
179
Distance P rotection
11
X
ZS
=25
ZL
ZS
0
ZL
Distance P rotection
Source
11
ZS
Relay location
N1
N2
E1
Va1
ZS1
Shield-shaped
characteristic with
16% square-wave
cr
cross-polarisation
F1
Ia1
Ia2
IF
ZL1
ZS2
ZL2
F2
Fully cross-polarised
Mho circle
c
Zn
-R
Va2
Mho unit
characteristic
(not cross-polarized)
R
Extra resistive
coverage of shield
Conventional 16%
partially cross-polarised
Mho circle
-X
X
S'2=Z
ZL1+Zn1
Zn1
ZL1
Zn2
30
ZS1
0
S'1=Z
ZL1+Zn2
1 6
12
24
60
R
-X
180
Zone 3
C
Zone 2
Zones
Zone 1
1&2
R
Zone 3
RZ1
RZ2
RZ3
Figure 11.15: Quadrilateral characteristic
Locus of
181
Distance P rotection
X
H
Line impedance
Zone C
Zone B
Zone A
11
Distance P rotection
11
182
Distance P rotection
183
11
Distance P rotection
11
184
V ' bc = a 2 a Z L1 I '1
V ' bc = 2 a 2 a Z L1 I '1
A
Va
B
Ic
Ib
Vb
Ia
Vc
Va=0
Ic=0
Ib=0
(a) Single-phase to earth (A-E)
F
A
Va
B
Ic
Ib
C
Ia
Vb
Vc
Va=Vb=Vc=0
Ia+Ib+Ic=0
(b) Three-phase (A-B-C or A-B-C-E)
F
A
Va
B
Ic
Ib
C
Ia
Vb
Vc
Vc=0
Vb=0
Ia=0
(c) Double phase to earth (B-C-E)
F
A
Va
B
Vb
C
Ic
Ib
Ia
Vc
Ia=0
Vb=Vc
Ib=-Ic
(d) Double-phase (B-C)
Figure 11.18: Current and voltage
relationships for some shunt faults
Three-phase
(A-B-C)
Double-phase
(B-C)
I'a
I'1
I'b
a2I'1
(a2-a)I'1
I'c
aI'1
(a-a2)I'1
V'a
ZL1I'1
2(ZS1+ZL1)I'1
V'b
a2ZL1I'1
(2a2ZL1-ZS1)I'1
V'c
aZL1I'1
(2aZL1-ZS1)I'1
Relaying
point
F 1
Supply
A
(K-1)
Z
where K= L0
Z= 1+
Z
3 L1
ZL1
(a) System earthed at one point only behind the relaying point
Relaying
point
( 3 - phase faults )
Supply
F 2
Z= ZL1
(b) System earthed at one point only in front of the relaying point
F 2
Supply
A
Z=KZL1
(c) As for (b) but with relaying point at receiving end
Relaying
point
1
185
Distance P rotection
Fault
quantity
11
3 I1 ( Z1 + Z N
( K 1 ) Z
Z = 1 +
L1
3
ZN =
=
Equation 11.6
Distance P rotection
11
) = I1 ( 2 Z1
+ ZN
Z 0 Z1
3
( Z0
Z1 )
3 Z1
Z1
Equation 11.7
Z 0 Z1
, earth
3
fault measuring elements will measure the fault
impedance correctly, irrespective of the number of
infeeds and earthing points on the system.
With the replica impedance set to
186
ZA +
So, for relay balance:
Z A + ZC = Z A +
ZC
IA
IA
ZA +
ZC
IA + IB
x ZC
...Equation 11.8
xZC
IA
+ IB )
IA+IB
A
(I A
IB
Source
IA + IB
x ZC
IA
ZA
where:
...Equation 11.9
Z<
Relaying point
Relay setting: ZA+ZC
ZF = effective reach
An example of the over-reaching effect is when distance
relays are applied on parallel lines and one line is taken
out of service and earthed at each end. This is covered
in Section 13.2.3.
187
Distance P rotection
11
Distance P rotection
11
188
230kV
60km
230kV
230kV/110V
PQR
230kV
Z<
Source Impedance: 5000MVA max
=
+
ZL1 (mag)
ZL1 (ang)
ZLO (mag)
ZLO (ang)
KZO (mag)
KZO (ang)
Z1 (mag)
Z1 (ang)
Z2 (mag)
Z2 (ang)
Z3 (mag)
Z3 (ang)
R1ph
R2ph
R3ph
TZ1
TZ2
TZ3
R1G
R2G
R3G
Parameter
value
Units
48.42
79.41
163.26
74.87
0.79
-6.5
38.74
80
62.95
80
83.27
80
78
78
78
0
0.35
0.8
104
104
104
deg
deg
deg
deg
deg
deg
s
s
s
/km
/km
= 48.42 79.41
0
Distance P rotection
1000/1A
Parameter
description
ABC
Relay
parameter
189
11
( Z0
Z1 )
( Z0
48.42 79.41 o +
Z1 )
3 Z1
= 83.27 79.41 o
(
)
= 0.426 + j1.576 (1.632 74.87 )
Hence,
K Z 0 = 0.792
K Z 0 = 6.5 o
Distance P rotection
11
3 Z1
K Z0 =
Z L0
48.42 79.41 o +
=
= 62.95 79.41
Use 62.9580 0 nearest available setting.
190
11.13 REFERENCES
191
Distance P rotection
11
12
Distance Protection
Schemes
Introduction
12.1
12.2
12.3
Blocking scheme
12.4
12.5
12.6
12
Distance P rotection
Schemes
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Conventional time-stepped distance protection is
illustrated in Figure 12.1. One of the main disadvantages
of this scheme is that the instantaneous Zone 1
protection at each end of the protected line cannot be
set to cover the whole of the feeder length and is usually
set to about 80%. This leaves two 'end zones', each
being about 20% of the protected feeder length. Faults
in these zones are cleared in Zone 1 time by the
protection at one end of the feeder and in Zone 2 time
(typically 0.25 to 0.4 seconds) by the protection at the
other end of the feeder.
Relay A
end zone
Time
Z2A
A
Z1A
Z3G
Z1B
Z3B
Relay B
end zone
(a) Stepped time/distance characteristics
Z1
Z2
Z2T 0
Z3
Z3 0
Trip
193
Z1A
A
12
Z1extB
Z2B
Z1B
Z3B
(a) Distance/time characteristics
Auto-reclose
Reset Zone 1ext
Z3A
Z2A
Z1extA
&
Zone 1ext
1
Zone 1
Zone 2
Z2T O
Zone 3
Z3T O
Trip
194
Z1extA
Z1B1
Z1extB1
Z1B2
Z1extB2
Z1C
Z1extC
Breakers
marked thus
auto-reclose
Z1extA
C
Z1extD
Z1extB
Z1B
Z1D
Z1extC
Z1C
Z1extP
Z1P
P
L
Z1extN
Z1N
Z1extL
Z1M
Z1L
Z1extM
Signal send
Z1
Z1
Z2
Z2T O
1
Z3
Trip
Z3
Z3T 0
&
Signal
send
Send
circuit
(f1)
Receive
circuit
(f1)
Signalling equipment
-End A
Signal
receive
Send
circuit
(f1)
Signal receive
Figure 12.4: Logic for direct under-reach
transfer tripping scheme
Network Protection & Automation Guide
195
Signal
send
Receive
Signal
circuit
receive
(f1)
Signalling equipment
-End B
Z3T O
Trip
Distance relay
Signal send
Z2T 0
Signal receive 0
Distance relay
Z2
Z1A
12
Z1A
Z3B
12
Z1B
Z2B
Z1 & Z2
Z3
Z3T O
Trip
Z2T O
Open
Signal receive
&
Signal send
196
Signal send
Z1
Z1
Z2
Z2T O
Z3
Z3T O
Z2T O
Z2
Z3T O
Z3
Trip
tp td
&
Signal receive
&
&
Signal receive
&
Signal
send
Send f1
circuit
(f1)
f2 Send
circuit
(f2)
Signal
send
Signal
receive
Receive
circuit
(f2) f2
f1
Receive
circuit
(f1)
Signal
receive
Signalling equipment
-End A
Distance relay
Distance relay
Trip
Signal send
Signalling equipment
-End B
197
T1 0
&
T2
&
Signal
send
Signal
receive
Figure 12.10: Weak Infeed Echo logic circuit
12
Z3A
Z1
Z2A
Z2
Z2T
Z3
Z3T
STL
td
Trip
Z1A
A
F1
F2
Z1B
Z2B
Signal receive
Z3B
&
12
Channel in service
Signal send
Z1
Z2
Z2T O
Z3
Z3T O
Trip
&
Signal receive
Signal
send
Send
circuit
(f1)
Send
circuit
(f1)
Signal
send
Signal
receive
Receive
circuit
(f1)
Receive
circuit
(f1)
Signal
receive
Signalling equipment
-End A
Signalling equipment
-End B
Distance relay
Z3G
Z2G
Z1G
G
H
Z1H
Z2H
Z3H
&
Signal send
199
12
12
Slower
Yes
Security against
maloperation due to:
Current reversal
Loss of communications
Weak Infeed/Open CB
Blocking scheme
Not as fast
As fast
Yes
13
Protection of Complex
Transmission Circuits
Introduction
13.1
Parallel feeders
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
Examples
13.7
References
13.8
13 P rotection of Complex
Transmission Circuits
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Chapters 10-12 have covered the basic principles of
protection for two terminal, single circuit lines whose
circuit impedance is due solely to the conductors used.
However parallel transmission circuits are often
installed, either as duplicate circuits on a common
structure, or as separate lines connecting the same two
terminal points via different routes. Also, circuits may
be multi-ended, a three-ended circuit being the most
common.
For economic reasons, transmission and distribution
lines can be much more complicated, maybe having
three or more terminals (multi-ended feeder), or with
more than one circuit carried on a common structure
(parallel feeders), as shown in Figure 13.1. Other
possibilities are the use of series capacitors or directconnected shunt reactors. The protection of such lines
is more complicated and requires the basic schemes
described in the above chapters to be modified.
The purpose of this chapter is to explain the special
requirements of some of these situations in respect of
protection and identify which protection schemes are
particularly appropriate for use in these situations.
Bus C
Source
Source
Bus A
Bus B
203
C
Z<
Z<
Fault
Z<
Z<
F
Z<
Open D
Z<
Fault
Z<
Z<
204
Z'S1,Z'SO
ZL1 ZL0
Z''S1 , Z''SO
Line B
ZM0
IA
Line A
n
I B 0 I A0 =
nZSO
(1 n )ZSO
(2 n ) ZSO + (1 n ) (ZSO + Z L 0 + Z M 0 )
(2 n )ZS1 + (1 n )(ZS1 + Z L1 ) I
I A1 =
1
2 (ZS1 + ZS1 ) + Z L1
Fault
Relay R
location (a) Single line diagram
ZL1
IB1
Z''S1
Z'S1
IA1
nZL1
R
(2 n )ZSO + (1 n )(ZSO + Z L 0 + Z M 0 ) I
0
2 (ZSO
+ ZSO
) + Z L 0 + Z M 0
(1-n)ZL1
I1
(b) Positive sequence network
IA0
F0
n(ZLO-ZMO)
I0
(1-n)(ZLO-ZMO)
100
Limit of n'
n'
50
n'
n'=
0.7
10
'
n'
5
Z''
y = SO
ZLO
1
0.5
...Equation 13.1
Limit of
where:
M =ZM 0
n'
n'
( I B 0 I A 0 ) M
Z A = nZ L1 1 +
2 ( I A1 I A 0 ) + K
All symbols in the above expressions are either selfexplanatory from Figure 13.3 or have been introduced in
Chapter 11. Using the above formulae, families of reach
curves may be constructed, of which Figure 13.4 is
typical. In this figure, n is the effective per unit reach
of a relay set to protect 80% of the line. It has been
assumed that an infinite busbar is located at each line
end, that is, ZS1 and ZS1 are both zero. A family of
curves of constant n has been plotted for variations in
the source zero sequence impedances ZS0 and ZS0.
0.9
(1-n)ZMO Z''S0
n'=
IB0
and
(ZLO-ZMO)
Z'S0 nZM0
R
I A0 =
F1
when y
x
0.1
Z L1
0.5
10
50
Z
x=
ZLO
It can be seen from Figure 13.4 that relay R can underreach or over-reach, according to the relative values of
the zero sequence source to line impedance ratios; the
205
IB
13
extreme effective per unit reaches for the relay are 0.67
and 1. Relay over-reach is not a problem, as the
condition being examined is a fault in the protected
feeder, for which relay operation is desirable. It can also
be seen from Figure 13.4 that relay R is more likely to
under-reach. However the relay located at the opposite
line end will tend to over-reach. As a result, the Zone 1
characteristic of the relays at both ends of the feeder will
overlap for an earth fault anywhere in the feeder see
Section 13.2.3.5 for more details.
13
V A = I A1Z L1 + I A 2 Z L 2 + I A 0 Z L 0 + I B 0 Z M 0
I A = I A1 + I A 2 + I A 0
Thus:
KR =
Z L 0 Z L1
Z L1
KM =
ZM 0
Z L1
2
I A0 Z M
0
I RZ L0
...Equation 13.4
where:
IR is the current fed into the relay
Equation 13.2
= IA + KRIA0
The voltage and current fed into the relay are given by:
FO
IO
Z'SO
V R =V A
I R = I A + K R I A 0 + K M I B 0
nZLO
IGO
Relay
location
...Equation 13.3
mZLO
IHO
where:
(1-n)ZLO
Z''SO
(1-n)ZMO
ZLO
206
Z R = Z L1 1
2
ZM
0
2
Z L0
Zero sequence
mutual impedance
ZMO
Line
voltage
(sq.in)
Metric
(sq.mm)
equivalent
ohms/mile
ohms/km
ohms/mile
32kV
275kV
400kV
0.4
2 x 0.4
4 x 0.4
258
516
1032
0.3 + j0.81
0.18+j0.69
0.135+j0.6
0.19+j0.5
0.11+j0.43
0.80+j0.37
0.41+j1.61 0.25+j1.0
0.24+j1.3 0.15+j0.81
0.16+j1.18 0.1+j0.73
Per unit
over-reach
error
(ZMO/ZLO)2
ohms/km
207
13
End A
End B
A
B
C
Quadrature CT
A1
A1
A
C1
N
A1
S1
S2
S1
C1
S2
Relay
S1
13
S2
Pilots
IA
IC
IB
Fault
End A
End B
End C
A
B
C
P4
Quadrature
CT
D Operating coil
E Restraints coil
Bias pilots
IA
IC
Trip
Differential
current
Idiff
Idiff = K Ibias
IB
Restrain
Fault
IS
B
RA
RB
IA
IB
RC
I diff > I A + I B + I C
I bias =
1
I A + I B + IC
2
and
IC
C
I diff > I S
where:
K = percentage bias setting
IS = minimum differential current setting
If the magnitudes of the differential currents indicate
that a fault has occurred, the relays trip their local circuit
breaker.
209
13
13
Z A = Z LA + Z LB +
(ZSB + Z LB ) Z
(ZSC + Z LC ) LB
IA
IB
ZSB
ZLB
ZLA
ZLC
Fault
IC
ZSC
X
B'
VA = IAZLA + IBZLB
so the impedance ZA seen by the distance relay at
terminal A is given by:
B
V
I
Z A = A = Z LA + B Z LB
IA
IA
or
I
Z A = Z LA + B Z LB
IA
or
Z A = Z LA + Z LB +
...Equation 13.5
IC
Z LB
IA
R
Figure 13.13: Apparent impedance
presented to the relay at substation A for
a fault at substation B busbars
210
ZSA A
IA
ZLC
Phase A
to ground fault
ZT
C
M Load
ZSA1
ZLA1
A1
T1
ZLB1
IA1 Z
LJ1
EA
ZSB
ZLB
ZLA
ZSH1
B1
EB
ZT1
B'2
ZM1
ZSA2
ZLA2
G1
T2
B'1
ZLB2
IA2 ZLC2
ZSB2
B2
ZT2
ZM2
ZSA0
ZLA0
A0
T0
ZLB0
IA0 ZLC0
ZSB0
B0
IC0
ZT0
211
13
IA
IB
T
ZA
ZB
I'B
IC
I'C
Fault
13
IA
ZA
ZB
ZC
Fault
A
IA
IC
IB
Fault
I'B
IC
IB
I'C
Case Description
Relevant figure
number
13.12 to 13.15
13.16
13.17
13.18
13.19
212
213
13
VF
jXS
-jXC
E
13
Bus A
Bus B
ZT
PT a
Z<
EB
EA EB sin d
ZT
XS>XC
IF
VF
IF
VF
jXS
-jXC
VF
jIFXS
XS< XC
Z<
IF
IF
Figure 13.22: Current inversion
in a transmission line
214
Relay
Parameter
ZL1 (mag)
ZL1 (ang)
ZL0 (mag)
ZL0 (ang)
KZ0 (mag)
KZ0 (ang)
Z1 (mag)
Z1 (ang)
Z2 (mag)
Z2 (ang)
Z3 (mag)
Z3 (ang)
R1ph
R2ph
R3ph
KZ1 (mag)
KZ1 (ang)
KZ2 (mag)
KZ2 (ang)
TZ1
TZ2
Parameter
Parameter
Description
Value
Line positive sequence impedance (magnitude)
21.95
Line positive sequence impedance (phase angle)
66.236
Line zero sequence impedance (magnitude)
54.1
Line zero sequence impedance (phase angle)
70.895
Default residual compensation factor (magnitude)
0.49
Default residual compensation factor (phase angle)
7.8
Zone 1 reach impedance setting (magnitude)
17.56
Zone 1 reach impedance setting (phase angle)
66.3
Zone 2 reach impedance setting (magnitude)
30.73
Zone 2 reach impedance setting (phase angle)
66.3
Zone 3 reach impedance setting (magnitude)
131.8
Zone 3 reach impedance setting (phase angle)
66.3
Phase fault resistive reach value - Zone 1
84.8
Phase fault resistive reach value - Zone 2
84.8
Phase fault resistive reach value - Zone 3
84.8
Zone 1 residual compensation factor (magnitude)
0.426
Zone 1 residual compensation factor (phase angle)
9.2
Zone 2 residual compensation factor (magnitude)
not used
Zone 2 residual compensation factor (phase angle) not used
0
Time delay - Zone 1
0.25
Time delay - Zone 2
TZ3
R1G
R2G
R3G
0.45
84.8
84.8
84.8
Units
deg
deg
deg
deg
deg
deg
deg
deg
s
s
s
T3
120MVA 220/110/11kV
transformers
XHL=0.15; XHT=0.35;
XLT=0.25
XH=0.125; XL=0.025
XT=0.225 on 120MVA
T4
110kV Substation P
Current transformer
ratio 600/1A
T5
45MVA
132/33kV
transformers
XT=0.125
Line 1
T6
Line 3
Line 2
K ZO =
Voltage transformer
ratio 110kV/110V
33kV
busbars
45MVA 132/33kV
transformers
XT=0.125
3 Z1
Z L1 = 0.177 + j0.402
(0.439 66.236 )
o
Z LO = 0.354 + j1.022
(1.082 70.895 )
o
Hence,
K ZO = 0.490
(Zo Z1 )
Line 4
3 Z1
K ZO =
110kV
Substation Q
T7
(Zo Z1 )
K ZO =7.8 o
215
13.7 EXAMPLES
13
=17.56 66.236 o
13
o
(ii) 21.95 66.236 +
TZ3 = 450ms
21.95 66.3 o
Z3 =1.2
216
where:
R3 ph = 84.8
R2 ph = 84.8
R1 ph = 84.8
13.7.1.8 Earth Fault Reach Settings
By default, the residual compensation factor as
calculated in section 13.7.1.1 is used to adjust the phase
fault reach setting in the case of earth faults, and is
applied to all zones. However, it is also possible to apply
this compensation to zones individually. Two cases in
particular require consideration, and are covered in this
example.
13.7.1.9 Zone 1 earth fault reach
Where distance protection is applied to parallel lines (as
in this example), the Zone 1 earth fault elements may
sometimes over-reach and therefore operate when one
line is out of service and earthed at both ends
The solution is to reduce the earth fault reach of the
Zone 1 element to typically 80% of the default setting.
Hence:
% Under-reach =
Under-reach
Reach of protected zone
and hence
% Under-reach = 14.3%
This amount of under-reach is not significant and no
adjustment need be made. If adjustment is required, this
can be achieved by using the KZ2 relay setting,
increasing it over the KZ0 setting by the percentage
under-reach. When this is done, care must also be taken
that the percentage over-reach during single circuit
operation is not excessive if it is then use can be made
of the alternative setting groups provided in most
modern distance relays to change the relay settings
according to the number of circuits in operation.
13.7.1 11 Ground fault resistive reach settings
The same settings can be used as for the phase fault
resistive reaches. Hence,
K Z1 = 0.8 K ZO
= 0.8 0.532
R3G = 84.8
R2G = 84.8
R1G = 84.8
= 0.426
In practice, the setting is selected by using an alternative
setting group, selected when the parallel line is out of
service and earthed.
13.8 REFERENCES
Underreach = Zadj
I fltp
I flt
217
= 4.39 66.3 o
13
14
Auto-Reclosing
Introduction
14.1
Application of auto-reclosing
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
Single-phase auto-reclosing
14.7
14.8
14.9
14.10
Auto-close circuits
14.11
14.12
14
Auto-Reclosing
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Faults on overhead lines fall into one of three categories:
a. transient
b. semi-permanent
c. permanent
80-90% of faults on any overhead line network are
transient in nature. The remaining 10%-20% of faults
are either semi-permanent or permanent.
Transient faults are commonly caused by lightning and
temporary contact with foreign objects. The immediate
tripping of one or more circuit breakers clears the fault.
Subsequent re-energisation of the line is usually successful.
A small tree branch falling on the line could cause a
semi-permanent fault. The cause of the fault would not
be removed by the immediate tripping of the circuit, but
could be burnt away during a time-delayed trip. HV
overhead lines in forest areas are prone to this type of
fault. Permanent faults, such as broken conductors, and
faults on underground cable sections, must be located
and repaired before the supply can be restored.
Use of an auto-reclose scheme to re-energise the line
after a fault trip permits successful re-energisation of
the line. Sufficient time must be allowed after tripping
for the fault arc to de-energise prior to reclosing
otherwise the arc will re-strike. Such schemes have been
the cause of a substantial improvement in continuity of
supply. A further benefit, particularly to EHV systems, is
the maintenance of system stability and synchronism.
A typical single-shot auto-reclose scheme is shown in
Figures 14.1 and 14.2. Figure 14.1 shows a successful
reclosure in the event of a transient fault, and Figure
14.2 an unsuccessful reclosure followed by lockout of the
circuit breaker if the fault is permanent.
14.2 APPLICATION OF AUTO-RECLOSING
The most important parameters of an auto-reclose
scheme are:
1. dead time
2. reclaim time
3. single or multi-shot
These parameters are influenced by:
a. type of protection
b. type of switchgear
c. possible stability problems
d. effects on the various types of consumer loads
219
Instant of fault
Operates
Resets
Protection
Operating
time
Arc
Trip coil Contacts
Contacts
energised separate extinguished fully open
Transient
fault
Closing circuit
energised
Contacts Contacts
make fully closed
Circuit
breaker
Closing
time
Opening Arcing
time
time
Operating time
Dead time
Auto-reclose relay
Dead time
Closing
pulse time
Reclaim time
Time
Operates
Reclose
on to fault
Resets
Operates
Resets
Protection
Operating
time
Trip coil Contacts
Arc
Contacts
energised separate extinguished fully open
Permanent
fault
Arc
Contacts
Contacts
fully closed separate Extinguished
Contacts fully
open
Auto-Reclosing
Circuit
breaker
Opening Arcing
time
time
Operating time
Reclose initiated
by protection
Closing
time
Trip coil
energised
Dead time
Auto-reclose
relay
Dead time
Closing
pulse time
Reclaim time
starts
Reclaim time
resets
Time
14
220
When instantaneous protection is used with autoreclosing, the scheme is normally arranged to inhibit the
instantaneous protection after the first trip. For a
permanent fault, the time-graded protection will give
discriminative tripping after reclosure, resulting in the
isolation of the faulted section. Some schemes allow a
number of reclosures and time-graded trips after the
first instantaneous trip, which may result in the burning
out and clearance of semi-permanent faults. A further
benefit of instantaneous tripping is a reduction in circuit
breaker maintenance by reducing pre-arc heating when
clearing transient faults.
When considering feeders that are partly overhead line
and partly underground cable, any decision to install
auto-reclosing would be influenced by any data known
on the frequency of transient faults. Where a significant
proportion of faults are permanent, the advantages of
auto-reclosing are small, particularly since reclosing on
to a faulty cable is likely to aggravate the damage.
14.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING HV AUTO-RECLOSE
SCHEMES
221
Auto-Reclosing
14
Contacts
separate
Tripp
initiation
Arc
extinguished
Breaker fully open:
closing circuit energised
Auto-Reclosing
t1
t2
14
t3
t1
t2
3
t4
t5
t6
Time (s)
Oil
11kV
0.06
0.1
0.08
0.16
0.24
0.02
Vacuum
15kV
0.038
0.053
0.023
0.048
0.28
0.07
Contacts
make
Breaker
fully
lly
closed
t4
t5
Oil
132kV
0.03
0.06
0.2
0.35
0.55
0.01
SF6
132kV
0.04
0.07
0.03
0.08
0.11
0.12
t6
Air
380kV
0.035
0.045
0.235
0.065
0.3
0.02
SF6
380kV
0.02
0.05
0.01
0.06
0.07
0.04
222
Fault
Loads
Loads
Z
Y
0 1
Fault condition
2
B
Phase displacement
223
Auto-Reclosing
Power
14
Auto-Reclosing
14
220
275
400
525
0.35
0.38
0.45
0.55
224
225
Auto-Reclosing
14
Auto-Reclosing
14
Zone 1(G)
End
Zone
H
Zone 2(H)
Zone 2 (G)
Zone 2(J)
Zone 1(J)
J
Zone 1(H)
Zone 1(K)
Zone 2(K)
Zone 3(K)
Zone 3(H)
226
&
AR lockout
S Q
R Q
ti
&
AR inhibit
time
Reclaim timer
tR
CB open
Protn. reset
CB healthy
System healthy
&
Dead time
td
&
CB close
command
S Q
R Q
AR
in progress
CB closed
227
Auto-Reclosing
If for any reason the line fails to dead line charge from
end A, reclosure from end B would take place after 15
seconds. The circuit breaker at A would then be given
the opportunity to reclose with a synchronism check.
14
14.10.1 Initiation
Modern auto-reclosing schemes are invariably initiated
by the tripping command of a protection relay function.
Some older schemes may employ a contact on the circuit
breaker. Modern digital or numerical relays often
incorporate a comprehensive auto-reclose facility within
the relay, thus eliminating the need for a separate autoreclose relay and any starter relays.
14.10.2 Type of Protection
Auto-Reclosing
14
fitted to oil, air blast and SF6 circuit breakers use a circuit
breaker auxiliary switch for terminating the closing pulse
applied by the auto-reclose relay.
14.10.5 Anti-Pumping Devices
The function of an anti-pumping device is to prevent the
circuit breaker closing and opening several times in quick
succession. This might be caused by the application of a
closing pulse while the circuit breaker is being tripped
via the protection relays. Alternatively, it may occur if
the circuit breaker is closed on to a fault and the closing
pulse is longer than the sum of protection relay and
circuit breaker operating times. Circuit breakers with
trip free mechanisms do not require this feature.
14.10.6 Reclaim Timer
Electromechanical, static or software-based timers are
used to provide the reclaim time, depending on the relay
technology used. If electromechanical timers are used, it
is convenient to employ two independently adjustable
timed contacts to obtain both the dead time and the
reclaim time on one timer. With static and softwarebased timers, separate timer elements are generally
provided.
14.10.7 CB Lockout
If reclosure is unsuccessful the auto-reclose relay locks
out the circuit breaker. Some schemes provide a lockout
relay with a flag, with provision of a contact for remote
alarm. The circuit breaker can then only be closed by
hand; this action can be arranged to reset the autoreclose relay element automatically. Alternatively, most
modern relays can be configured such that a lockout
condition can be reset only by operator action.
Circuit breaker manufacturers state the maximum
number of operations allowed before maintenance is
required. A number of schemes provide a fault trip
counting function and give a warning when the total
approaches the manufacturer's recommendation. These
schemes will lock out when the total number of fault
trips has reached the maximum value allowed.
14.10.8 Manual Closing
It is undesirable to permit auto-reclosing if circuit
breaker closing is manually initiated. Auto-reclose
schemes include the facility to inhibit auto-reclose
initiation for a set time following manual CB closure.
The time is typically in the range of 2-5 seconds.
228
T1
T2
T3
T4
(Standby)
CB1
CB2
CB3
CB4
with
auto-closing
L1
T1
IT2
CB2A
CB1
L3
L4
L5
L6
CB2
CB3
CB4
CB5
CB6
Main
EHV
Busbars
BC
Reserve
L2
IT1
T2
Bus C
229
Auto-Reclosing
14
Bus A
EHV Line 1
103
120
203
EHV Line 2
113
213
T1
T2
B1
B2
Auto-Reclosing
14
Bus B
G1A
G1B
T1A
T1B
113A
403
Line 1
MC1
120
420
mesh corner
320
MC3
Line 2
Line 4
MC4
220
303
Line 3
Auto-Reclosing
231
14
15
Busbar Protection
Introduction
15.1
Busbar faults
15.2
Protection requirements
15.3
15.4
15.5
Frame-earth protection
(Howard protection)
15.6
Differential protection
principles
15.7
High impedance
differential protection
15.8
15.9
15.10
References
15.11
15
Busbar P rotection
15.1 INTRODUCTION
The protection scheme for a power system should cover
the whole system against all probable types of fault.
Unrestricted forms of line protection, such as overcurrent
and distance systems, meet this requirement, although
faults in the busbar zone are cleared only after some
time delay. But if unit protection is applied to feeders
and plant, the busbars are not inherently protected.
Busbars have often been left without specific protection,
for one or more of the following reasons:
a. the busbars and switchgear have a high degree of
reliability, to the point of being regarded as
intrinsically safe
b. it was feared that accidental operation of busbar
protection might cause widespread dislocation of
the power system, which, if not quickly cleared,
would cause more loss than would the very
infrequent actual bus faults
c. it was hoped that system protection or back-up
protection would provide sufficient bus protection
if needed
It is true that the risk of a fault occurring on modern
metal-clad gear is very small, but it cannot be entirely
ignored. However, the damage resulting from one
uncleared fault, because of the concentration of fault
MVA, may be very extensive indeed, up to the complete
loss of the station by fire. Serious damage to or
destruction of the installation would probably result in
widespread and prolonged supply interruption.
Finally, system protection will frequently not provide the
cover required. Such protection may be good enough for
small distribution substations, but not for important
stations. Even if distance protection is applied to all
feeders, the busbar will lie in the second zone of all the
distance protections, so a bus fault will be cleared
relatively slowly, and the resultant duration of the
voltage dip imposed on the rest of the system may not be
tolerable.
With outdoor switchgear the case is less clear since,
although the likelihood of a fault is higher, the risk of
widespread damage resulting is much less. In general
then, busbar protection is required when the system
protection does not cover the busbars, or when, in order
233
1 5 . 3 P R OT E C T I O N R E Q U I R E M E N T S
Busbar P rotection
15
15.3.1 Speed
Busbar protection is primarily concerned with:
a. limitation of consequential damage
b. removal of busbar faults in less time than could be
achieved by back-up line protection, with the
object of maintaining system stability
Some early busbar protection schemes used a low
impedance differential system having a relatively long
operation time, of up to 0.5 seconds. The basis of most
modern schemes is a differential system using either low
impedance biased or high impedance unbiased relays
capable of operating in a time of the order of one cycle
at a very moderate multiple of fault setting. To this must
be added the operating time of the tripping relays, but an
overall tripping time of less than two cycles can be
achieved. With high-speed circuit breakers, complete
fault clearance may be obtained in approximately 0.1
seconds. When a frame-earth system is used, the
operating speed is comparable.
15.3.2 Stability
The stability of bus protection is of paramount
importance. Bearing in mind the low rate of fault
234
+
X
Trip
circuits
1 5 . 4 T Y P E S O F P R OT E C T I O N S Y S T E M
A number of busbar protection systems have been
devised:
a. system protection used to cover busbars
b. frame-earth protection
c. differential protection
d. phase comparison protection
e. directional blocking protection
Of these, (a) is suitable for small substations only, while
(d) and (e) are obsolete. Detailed discussion of types (b)
and (c) occupies most of this chapter.
Early forms of biased differential protection for busbars,
such as versions of 'Translay' protection and also a
scheme using harmonic restraint, were superseded by
unbiased high impedance differential protection.
The relative simplicity of the latter, and more importantly
the relative ease with which its performance can be
calculated, have ensured its success up to the present
day.
But more recently the advances in semiconductor
technology, coupled with a more pressing need to be able
to accommodate CT's of unequal ratio, have led to the
re-introduction of biased schemes, generally using static
relay designs, particularly for the most extensive and
onerous applications.
Frame-earth protection systems have been in use for
many years, mainly associated with smaller busbar
protection schemes at distribution voltages and for
metalclad busbars (e.g. SF6 insulated busbars). However,
it has often been quite common for a unit protection
scheme to be used in addition, to provide two separate
means of fault detection.
The different types of protection are described in the
following sections.
235
Busbar P rotection
15
1 5 . 5 S Y S T E M P R OT E C T I O N S C H E M E S
System protection that includes overcurrent or distance
systems will inherently give protection cover to the
busbars. Overcurrent protection will only be applied to
relatively simple distribution systems, or as a back-up
protection, set to give a considerable time delay.
Distance protection will provide cover for busbar faults
with its second and possibly subsequent zones. In both
cases the busbar protection obtained is slow and suitable
only for limiting the consequential damage.
Busbar P rotection
15
>
Neutral
check relay
>
Trip all
circuit
breaker
Figure 15.2: Single zone
frame-earth protection
1 5 . 6 F R A M E - E A R T H P R OT E C T I O N
( H O WA R D P R OT E C T I O N )
Frame-earth
fault relay
236
Switchgear frame
bonding bar
>
Zone G
frame leakage
relay
I1 + I2
I1
Zone H
frame leakage
relay
Earthing
electrode
resistance
Trip
relays
L1
L2
Trip L
Trip K
Trip M
Insulation
barrier
Zone G
Zone H
K
Zone G
>
I2
Frame
insulation
resistance to earth
System
earning
resistor
Earth
bar
Zone J
Generator
I1
Zone H
Zone G
237
Busbar P rotection
Frame-leakage
current
transformer
IF = I1 + I2
Insulation
barriers
Switchgear
frame
Outgoing
feeder
Trip
relays
Trip J
Zone H
>
K1
K2
Trip K
>
Trip L
15
In Out 64A-1 GH
CSS-G 64B-1
Trip relays
64CH-1
K
L1
CSS-H
L2
Insulation
barriers
Busbar P rotection
Zone J
15
L5
Zone G
j1
64CH-2
H
h1
j2
64A-2
>
64B-2
74-1
74-2
I
>
Zone G
relay
+
In
Zone H
relay
I
Out
L4
>
CSS-G
j1
CSS-H
L1
Tripping
relays
L2
h1
j2
GH
D.C. Zone bus wires
L6
M1
M2
L3
L4
g1
L3
N
Busbar
isolator
auxiliary switches
238
The phase and earth fault settings are identical, and this
scheme is recommended for its ease of application and
good performance.
15.7.1 Differential Protection
for Sectionalised and Duplicate Busbars
Each section of a divided bus is provided with a separate
circulating current system. The zones so formed are
over-lapped across the section switches, so that a fault
on the latter will trip the two adjacent zones. This is
illustrated in Figure 15.9.
Tripping two zones for a section switch fault can be
avoided by using the time-delayed technique of Section
15.6.2. However instantaneous operation is the
preferred choice.
Zone B
Zone A
G
BS
K
Id>
B
BC
Differen
f
tial
relay
Busbar P rotection
Zone C
H
Typical feeder circuits
Figure 15.9: Zones of protection
for double bus station
A
B
C
N
Differential relay
Id
I>
Id>
239
15
Busbar P rotection
(a)
(b)
Bus protection
Line
protection
relay
Note 1: Only 1 connection to the mesh corner permitted
(a) CT arrangements for protection including mesh corner
15
Fault
Transformer
protection
Mesh corner
(Note 2)
Circuit
protection
Line
protection
Mesh corner
protection
240
RLG
RCTG
RCTH
R
R
ZEG
ZEH
Id>
Vf
R R + R LH + R CTH
...Equation 15.1
I f ( R LH + R CTH )
R R + R LH + R CTH
...Equation 15.2
241
Busbar P rotection
15.8.1 Stability
RLH
15
IR
I
Vf
=
=
RR
(R
LH
+ R CTH )
RR
Equation 15.3
or alternatively:
I RRR = V f = I
( R LH + R CTH )
Equation 15.4
Busbar P rotection
15
K VS
R L + R CT
Equation 15.5
where:
ISL
= stability of scheme
VS
...Equation 15.6
where:
IR = effective setting
IS = relay circuit setting current
IeS = CT excitation current at relay setting voltage
n = number of parallel - connected CTs
Having established the relay setting voltage from
stability considerations, as shown in Section 15.8.1, and
knowing the excitation characteristic of the current
transformers, the effective setting can be computed. The
secondary setting is converted to the primary operating
current by multiplying by the turns ratio of the current
transformers. The operating current so determined
should be considered in terms of the conditions of the
application.
For a phase and earth fault scheme the setting can be
based on the fault current to be expected for minimum
plant and maximum system outage conditions. However,
it should be remembered that:
242
Busbar P rotection
Zone R
c1
c2
D
a1
Zone M1
Zone M2
b1
F
c1
Zone
M2
Zone R
Bus wires
Check zone
Bus wires
B
C
A
B
C
N
95 CHX-2
Zone relay
same as check
Zone M2 relay
same as check
Zone M1 relay
same as check
Stabilising Resistor
+
_
Id> Id
Supervision
Relay
Metrosil
o
(non-linear resistor)
Figure 15.13: A.C. circuits for high
impedance circulating current scheme for duplicate busbars
Network Protection & Automation Guide
243
High
g Impedance
p
Circulating Current
Relay
15
+
In Out
87M1-1
CSS-M1
87M2-1
CSS-M2
M1 M2 R
96
D2
a1
87R-1
96
E
c1
CSS-R
96
F1
96
F2
b1
96
G
c2
D.C. Buswires
87CH-2
87CH-1
96
D1
96
H1
96
H2
80
T
87M1-2
87M2-2
30
M2
87R-2
95M1-1
95
M1X
95M2-1
95R-1
95
RX
95CH-1
30M1-1
30M2-1
74-1
30R-1
30
M1
30
R
95
M2X
95
CHX
74
74-2
95M1X-1
95M2X-1
Busbar P rotection
95RX-1
95CHX-1
In
Out
L1
L2
CSS-M1
L1
L2
CSS-M2
L1
L2
15
CSS-R
30
74
80
87
95
80
I
Zone indicating relay
Alarm cancellation relay
D.C. volts supervision relay
High impedance circulating current relay
Bus wires supervision relay
95X
CSS
L1
L2
Figure 15.14: D.C. circuits for high impedance circulating current scheme
244
245
Busbar P rotection
15
VP =
VK * 2Vs
15.8.6.5 Effective setting (secondary)
Busbar P rotection
...Equation 15.8
VK
where:
V P = 2 2 V K (V F V K
I ek
If = fault current
IR = IS + nIeSIR
15
If
where:
...Equation 15.7
where:
VP = peak voltage developed
VK = knee-point voltage
VF = prospective voltage in absence of saturation
This formula does not hold for the open circuit condition
and is inaccurate for very high burden resistances that
approximate to an open circuit, because simplifying
assumptions used in the derivation of the formula are
not valid for the extreme condition.
Another approach applicable to the open circuit
246
(R
LH
+ R CTH )
IR
R LH + R CTH
B
It is interesting to note that the value of the stabilising
resistance is independent of current level, and that there
would appear to be no limit to the through faults
stability level. This has been identified [15.1] as The
Principle of Infinite Stability.
=
= N I S + B I eS
247
N = CT ratio
Iop
Busbar P rotection
Iop
IS
IS
Bia
e
Lin
(B%
B%
e(
in
as L
I'S
Bi
IB
IB
IB
IS
IS
IR =
+ BIIB
IR = I + I'
= I'
I'S
B
15
Busbar P rotection
15
Main
zone
Main
zone
Check
zone
Check
zone
248
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3a
Z1
Z3a
Zone 3b
Z2
Z3b
Check
Feeder 4 zone Bus coupler 2
249
Busbar P rotection
15
Supervision
Differential
Current
Buswire
Selection
Links
c
=1
1
CT Fault
Enable
Protection
fault
r
t
Alarm
OR
Supervision
c = Check
m = Main
r = Reserve
t = Transfer
Biased
Differential
Enable
=1
Bias
Trip
Buswire
Selection
Links
c
Trip
r
Biased
Differential
Trip
Out of service
Figure 15.18: Block diagram of measuring unit
Busbar P rotection
15
Main zone
+ ve
Check zone
S1
D1
S1
D1
S2
D2
S2
D2
Trip
250
Feeder 1
Feeder 2
CT
CT
PU
CB
PU
CB
CT
PU
CB
CT
CB
PU
Central Unit
CU
251
Busbar P rotection
1 5 . 10 N U M E R I C A L B U S B A R P R OT E C T I O N
SCHEMES
15
Busbar P rotection
15
16
Transformer and
Transformer-feeder Protection
Introduction
16.1
Winding faults
16.2
Magnetising inrush
16.3
Transformer overheating
16.4
16.5
16.6
16.7
Differential protection
16.8
16.9
16.10
16.11
Auto-transformer protection
16.12
Overfluxing protection
16.13
Tank-earth protection
16.14
16.15
Transformer-feeder protection
16.16
Intertripping
16.17
16.18
16.19
16
Transformer and
Transformer-Feeder P rotection
16.1 INTRODUCTION
The development of modern power systems has been
reflected in the advances in transformer design. This has
resulted in a wide range of transformers with sizes
ranging from a few kVA to several hundred MVA being
available for use in a wide variety of applications.
The considerations for a transformer protection package
vary with the application and importance of the
transformer. To reduce the effects of thermal stress and
electrodynamic forces, it is advisable to ensure that the
protection package used minimises the time for
disconnection in the event of a fault occurring within the
transformer. Small distribution transformers can be
protected satisfactorily, from both technical and
economic considerations, by the use of fuses or
overcurrent relays. This results in time-delayed
protection due to downstream co-ordination
requirements. However, time-delayed fault clearance is
unacceptable on larger power transformers used in
distribution, transmission and generator applications,
due to system operation/stability and cost of
repair/length of outage considerations.
Transformer faults are generally classified into six
categories:
a. winding and terminal faults
b. core faults
c. tank and transformer accessory faults
d. onload tap changer faults
e. abnormal operating conditions
f. sustained or uncleared external faults
For faults originating in the transformer itself, the
approximate proportion of faults due to each of the
causes listed above is shown in Figure 16.1.
255
1 6 . 2 W I N D I N G F A U LT S
A fault on a transformer winding is controlled in
magnitude by the following factors:
i. source impedance
ii. neutral earthing impedance
iii. transformer leakage reactance
iv. fault voltage
v. winding connection
16
15
Fault current
(IF)
70
20
Fault current
10
5
Primary current
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 100
60
50
40
30
20
10
p)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(percentage of winding)
Ip
IF
256
Fault current in
short circuited turns
80
60
6
Primary input
current
40
20
5
10
15
20
25
Turns short-circuited (percentage of winding)
Figure 16.4 Interturn fault current/number
of turns short-circuited
10
Primary current (multiples of rated current)
100
a. overload
b. system faults
c. overvoltage
d. reduced system frequency
16.2.8.1 Overload
Overload causes increased 'copper loss' and a consequent
temperature rise. Overloads can be carried for limited
periods and recommendations for oil-immersed
transformers are given in IEC 60354.
The thermal time constant of naturally cooled
transformers lies between 2.5-5 hours. Shorter time
constants apply in the case of force-cooled transformers.
257
16
16
Transformer reactance
(%)
Fault current
(Multiple of rating)
Permitted fault
duration (seconds)
4
5
6
7
25
20
16.6
14.2
2
2
2
2
Flux
Magnetising current
Slow decrement
Zero axis
(c) Typical inrush current
Zero axis
258
259
16
16
Fault Type
Protection Used
Differential; Overcurrent
Differential; Overcurrent
Differential
Differential;
Restricted Earth Fault
Differential, Buchholz
Differential, Buchholz
Differential, Buchholz; Tank-Earth
Overfluxing
Thermal
Interturn Fault
Core Fault
Tank Fault
Overfluxing
Overheating
Transformer rating
Fuse
kVA
100
5.25
16
Operating time
at 3 x rating(s)
3.0
200
315
500
1000
10.5
15.8
26.2
52.5
25
36
50
90
3.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
16.6.1 Fuses
Fuses commonly protect small distribution transformers
typically up to ratings of 1MVA at distribution voltages.
In many cases no circuit breaker is provided, making fuse
protection the only available means of automatic
isolation. The fuse must have a rating well above the
maximum transformer load current in order to withstand
the short duration overloads that may occur. Also, the
fuses must withstand the magnetising inrush currents
drawn when power transformers are energised. High
Rupturing Capacity (HRC) fuses, although very fast in
operation with large fault currents, are extremely slow
with currents of less than three times their rated value.
It follows that such fuses will do little to protect the
transformer, serving only to protect the system by
disconnecting a faulty transformer after the fault has
reached an advanced stage.
Table 16.3 shows typical ratings of fuses for use with
11kV transformers.
260
>
Figure 16.7: Principle of transformer
differential protection
261
Id>
16
16
A
B
C
Id>
Id>
Id>
Yy0
Zd0
0
0
0
Dz0
Dd0
Yz1
Zy1
-30
1
30
Yd1
Dy1
Yy6
Zd6
-180
6
180
Dz6
Dd6
Yz11
Zy11
30
11
-30
Yd11
Dy11
YyH
YzH
YdH
ZdH
(H / 12) x 360
Hour 'H'
-(H / 12) x 360
DzH
DyH
DdH
'H': phase displacement 'clock number', according to IEC 60076-1
Table 16.4: Current transformer connections for power transformers of various vector groups
262
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Source
Loads
Id>
(a) Three winding transformer (one power source)
Possible
fault
infeed
Source
Id>
(b) Three winding transformer (three power sources)
Possible
fault
infeed
Source
Id>
Operate
70%
slope
Setting range
(0.1 - 0.5Id) 0
30%
Restrain slope
3
4
Effective bias (x In)
263
16
16
The inrush current, although generally resembling an inzone fault current, differs greatly when the waveforms
are compared. The difference in the waveforms can be
used to distinguish between the conditions.
As stated before, the inrush current contains all harmonic
orders, but these are not all equally suitable for providing
bias. In practice, only the second harmonic is used.
This component is present in all inrush waveforms. It is
typical of waveforms in which successive half period portions
do not repeat with reversal of polarity but in which mirrorimage symmetry can be found about certain ordinates.
The proportion of second harmonic varies somewhat
with the degree of saturation of the core, but is always
present as long as the uni-directional component of flux
exists. The amount varies according to factors in the
transformer design. Normal fault currents do not
contain second or other even harmonics, nor do distorted
currents flowing in saturated iron cored coils under
steady state conditions.
The output current of a current transformer that is
energised into steady state saturation will contain odd
harmonics but not even harmonics. However, should the
current transformer be saturated by the transient
component of the fault current, the resulting saturation
is not symmetrical and even harmonics are introduced
into the output current. This can have the advantage of
improving the through fault stability performance of a
differential relay. faults.
The second harmonic is therefore an attractive basis for a
stabilising bias against inrush effects, but care must be
taken to ensure that the current transformers are
sufficiently large so that the harmonics produced by
transient saturation do not delay normal operation of the
relay. The differential current is passed through a filter
that extracts the second harmonic; this component is then
applied to produce a restraining quantity sufficient to
Bias
Differential
Threshold
Differential Inhibit
comparator
Timer 1
t1 = 1
4f
Inhibit
Timer 2
t2 = 1
f
Trip
264
100
io
n
fa
rth
ea
ed
40
str
ict
on
20
ere
f
Dif
100
80
60
ial
nt
ti
tec
o
r
p
40
20
Restricted
earth
fault
relay
I d>
Id>
I d>
Differential relay
tp
ro
te
ct
ul
60
Re
80
Figure 16.13 Combined differential and earth fault protection using summation current transformer
Restricted earth
fault relay
Phase correcting
auxiliary current
transformers
Id>
Id>
Id>
Figure 16.14: Combined differential and restricted earth fault protection using auxiliary CTs
265
Differential relay
>
16
16
A
B
C
1/0.333
Earthing
transformer
Differential relay
Id>
Id>
Id>
I
>
Figure 16.15: Differential protection with in-zone earthing transformer, with restricted earth fault relay
A
B
C
Earthing
transformer
Differential relay
Id>
Id>
Id>
Figure 16.16: Differential protection with in-zone earthing transformer; no earth fault relay
266
A
B
C
>
Differential relay
Id>
Id>
Id>
A
B
C
I>
Earthing transformer
Earthing
transformer
267
16
B
C
16
High
Id> impedance
relay
t=
Operating
time (s)
1000
B
C
I d>
I>
0.8 + 0.18 x K
2
(M-1)
100
Id>
=63
=40
K 20
K=
10
=5
=1
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
M=
1.4
1.5
1.6
V/f
Setting
268
3 x Internal pipe
diameter (min)
Conservator
5 x Internal pipe
diameter (min)
76mm typical
Transformer
Figure 16.21: Buchholz relay
mounting arrangement
269
16
LV HV
HV LV
16
HV LV
IS IF
100%
IF
270
ZS
ZT
ZL
I>>
IF1
IF2
Setting ratio r =
IS
Transient
over-reach (%)
25
50
100
1.01
1.20
1.44
1.92
0.5
0.84
1.00
1.20
1.60
1.0
0.63
0.75
0.90
1.20
2.0
0.42
0.50
0.60
0.80
4.0
0.25
0.30
0.36
0.48
8.0
0.14
0.17
0.20
0.27
0.25
x=
ZT
ZS + Z L
where:
x =
IS = 1.2 (1 + t) IF2
where IF2 is the fault current under maximum source
conditions, that is, when ZS is minimum, and the factor
of 1.2 covers possible errors in the system impedance
details used for calculation of IF2 , together with relay
and CT errors.
As it is desirable for the instantaneous overcurrent
protection to clear all phase faults anywhere within the
feeder under varying system operating conditions, it is
necessary to have a relay setting less than IF1 in order to
ensure fast and reliable operation.
Let the setting ratio resulting from setting IS be
I
r = S
I F1
Therefore,
rIF1 = 1.2(1 + t)IF2
Hence,
ZS + Z L
r = 1.2 (1 + t )
ZS + Z L + ZT
r = 1.2 (1 + t )
=
ZS + Z L
(1 + x )( Z S + Z L )
1.2 (1 + t )
1+x
ZT
ZS + Z L
271
IF2
16
16
When the feeder is associated with an earthed starconnected winding, normal restricted earth fault
protection as described in Section 16.7 is not applicable
because of the remoteness of the transformer neutral.
A
B
C
Relay A
>
Relay B
I>
I>
I>
+
A
Trip
circuit
272
273
16
Feeder
D Bias winding
Differential relays
E Operating winding
(a) Circulating current system
16
Pilots
Relay electromagnets
(bias inherent)
(b) Balanced voltage system
Figure 16.25: Methods of protection for transformer-feeders using electromechanical static technology
274
Voltage
transformer
Ursd >
Residual voltage relay
A typical condition monitoring system for an oilimmersed transformer is capable of monitoring the
condition of various transformer components as shown
in Table 16.5. There can be some overlap with the
measurements available from a digital/numerical relay.
By the use of software to store and perform trend
analysis of the measured data, the operator can be
presented with information on the state of health of the
transformer, and alarms raised when measured values
exceed appropriate limits. This will normally provide the
Measured Quantity
Health Information
Voltage
Partial discharge measurement
(wideband voltage)
Bushings
Load current
Oil pressure
Oil temperature
Tank
Tap changer
Coolers
Conservator
Gas-in-oil content
Buchholz gas content
Moisture-in-oil content
Position
Drive power consumption
Total switched load current
OLTC oil temperature
Oil temperature difference
Cooling air temperature
Ambient temperature
Pump status
Oil level
275
Insulation quality
Loading
Permissible overload rating
Hot-spot temperature
Insulation quality
Hot-spot temperature
Permissible overload rating
Oil quality
Winding insulation condition
Oil quality
Winding insulation condition
Frequency of use of each tap position
OLTC health
OLTC contact wear
OLTC health
Cooler efficiency
Cooling plant health
Tank integrity
A
B
C
16
Primary CT's
Dyn 11
Secondary CT's
Primary CT's
Yy0, 250/1
Id >
16
Primary ICT's
Secondary ICT's
10MVA
33/11kV
Z=10%
Dyn11
Secondary CT's
Yy0, 600/1
FLC = 525A
FLC = 175A
600/1
276
R=1000 A
Rstab
Id>
Primary ICT's
Yy0
Unit Protection
Relay
Secondary ICT's
Yd1
VS
VK
IS
Rct
= CT winding resistance
Rl
RB
175/250
= 0.7
Ratio compensation = 1/0.7
= 1.428
Select nearest value = 1.43
LV secondary current = 525/600
= 0.875
Ratio compensation = 1/0.875
= 1.14
= 97V
Rct
= 3.7
Rl
= 0.057
For the relay used, the various factors are related by the
graph of Figure 16.30.
600
70
500
60
400
Operate
300
200
Restrain
100
0
200
Effective bias (A)
400
600
800
differential current
50
0.2
40
0.3
30
Overall op time
Unstable
20
Stable
K Factor
6
VK VS
277
0.4
0.5
10
0.1
K Factor
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
10
16
=4
= 0.5
16
However,
Actual
VK = 91V and
VK/VS = 4.77
Thus from Figure 16.30, with K = 0.5, the protection is
unstable.
IS
and
Rated Primary Current = 184A
Transformer HV full load current on secondary of main
CTs is:
184/250 = 0.737
Ratio compensation
= 1/0.737
= 1.357
LV secondary current
= 1.36
= 525/600
= 0.875
where:
VF = If (Rct + 2Rl + Rstab )
Ratio compensation
and
= 1/0.875
= 1.14
=166.6A primary
= 0.3904A
At the 15% tap,
= 0.906A
= 205.8 A
205.8 1.36
250
= 1.12 A
I bias =
( I RHV
+ I RLV
where:
IRHV = relay HV current
IRLV = relay LV current
Hence,
I biast1 =
(0.998 + 0.906 )
2
= 0.952A
and
I biast 2 =
10
33 1.05
(0.998 + 1.12 )
2
= 1.059A
279
16
17 Generator and
Generator Transformer Protection
Introduction
17.1
Generator earthing
17.2
17.3
17.4
Differential protection of
direct-connected generators
17.5
17.6
Overcurrent protection
17.7
17.8
Overvoltage protection
17.9
17.11
17 Generator and
Generator-Transformer P rotection
17.1 INTRODUCTION
The core of an electric power system is the generation.
With the exception of emerging fuel cell and solar-cell
technology for power systems, the conversion of the
fundamental energy into its electrical equivalent
normally requires a 'prime mover' to develop mechanical
power as an intermediate stage.
The nature of this machine depends upon the source of
energy and in turn this has some bearing on the design
of the generator. Generators based on steam, gas, water
or wind turbines, and reciprocating combustion engines
are all in use. Electrical ratings extend from a few
hundred kVA (or even less) for reciprocating engine and
renewable energy sets, up to steam turbine sets
exceeding 1200MVA.
Small and medium sized sets may be directly connected
to a power distribution system. A larger set may be
associated with an individual transformer, through
which it is coupled to the EHV primary transmission
system.
Switchgear may or may not be provided between the
generator and transformer. In some cases, operational
and economic advantages can be attained by providing
a generator circuit breaker in addition to a high voltage
circuit breaker, but special demands will be placed on
the generator circuit breaker for interruption of
generator fault current waveforms that do not have an
early zero crossing.
A unit transformer may be tapped off the
interconnection between generator and transformer for
the supply of power to auxiliary plant, as shown in
Figure 17.1. The unit transformer could be of the order
of 10% of the unit rating for a large fossil-fuelled steam
set with additional flue-gas desulphurisation plant, but
it may only be of the order of 1% of unit rating for a
hydro set.
281
Generator
Main transformer
HV busbars
Unit transformer
Auxiliary
supplies switchboard
c. overvoltage
d. unbalanced loading
e. overfluxing
f. inadvertent energisation
e. rotor electrical faults
f. loss of excitation
g. loss of synchronism
h. failure of prime mover
j. lubrication oil failure
l. overspeeding
m. rotor distortion
Utility
PCC
Generator
Rating: yMW
Industrial plant
main busbar
17
1. rated current
2. 200A-400A (low impedance earthing)
3. 10A-20A (high impedance earthing)
282
I>
Loading
resistor
U>
Loading
resistor
I>
(d) Distribution transformer earthing
with overcurrent relay
Figure 17.3: Methods of generator earthing
283
I>>
17
17
I2
B
C
Idiff
= I1+II2
IS1
Id>
Id>
Id>
Operate
K2
Restrain
K1
IS2
IBIAS =
I1+
284
Healthy CT
Saturated CT
Protected zone
Zm
RCT1
RCT2
If
RL1
Rst
Id>
RL2
RL3
Vr
RL4
17.5.3 CT Requirements
The CT requirements for differential protection will vary
according to the relay used. Modern numerical relays
may not require CTs specifically designed for differential
protection to IEC 60044-1 class PX (or BS 3938 class X).
However, requirements in respect of CT knee-point
voltage will still have to be checked for the specific
relays used. High impedance differential protection may
be more onerous in this respect than biased differential
protection.
Many factors affect this, including the other protection
functions fed by the CTs and the knee-point
requirements of the particular relay concerned. Relay
manufacturers are able to provide detailed guidance on
this matter.
NLR
NLR
Rst
NLR = Non-linear resistance
(Metrosil)
Figure 17.7: Relay connections for high
impedance differential protection
285
Ie = CT magnetising current at Vs
17
17
Main
transformer
Generator
Protected zone
Id>
HV
busbars
286
I>
Vs
KI>
Voltage level
287
17
considerations.
17.8.1.2 Sensitive earth fault protection
This method is used in the following situations:
a. direct-connected generators operating in parallel
b. generators with high-impedance neutral earthing,
the earth fault current being limited to a few tens
of amps
I>
17
VS2
VS1
Voltage level
288
sum residually.
Feeder
I >
I >
Ursd
I >
* Optional interlocked
earth-fault protection
if grading problems exist
I >>
I >
Block*
Ursd >
I >
Block*
Open
Re
Re
Va
Vb
Vn
1 Derived from phase neutral voltages
2 Measured from earth impedance
3 Measured from broken delta VT
Figure 17.12: Neutral voltage displacement
protection
289
Re
17
Loading
resistor
I>
17
a
If
Is
If =
aV
R
IsR
V
%covered 1-a
Loading
resistor
U>
amin =
in
) x 1100%
290
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
Neutral CT ratio
200/1
IBIAS =
(highest of IA
B,
Nx
scaling factor)
200
=
= 0.2
1000
(scaling factor
I )
N
291
17
17
292
Motoring Power
(% of rated)
Diesel Engine
5-25
Gas Turbine
Hydro
Steam Turbine
10-15
(split shaft)
>50%
(single shaft)
0.2-2
(blades out of water)
>2
(blades in water)
0.5-6
Possible Damage
Protection Setting
Fire/explosion due
to unburnt fuel
Mechanical damage
to gearbox/shafts
gearbox damage
50%
of motoring
power
293
I 22t = K
17
where:
I2R = negative sequence component
(per unit of MCR)
t = time (seconds)
K = constant proportional to the thermal capacity
of the generator rotor
17
I
M = 2 =
I2R
I2 t
1 e ( 2R )
where:
I2R = negative phase sequence continuous rating in
per unit of MCR
The heating characteristics of various designs of
generator are shown in Figure 17.16.
2 set
t = 2 log e 1
I 2 set
I 2
10000
Equation 17.1
where:
1000
I flc
I 2 set = I 2 cmr
Ip
I n
Kg
I2cmr = generator
continuouscontinuous
I2 withstandI 2
I 2cmr = maximum
generator maximum
0.01
0.01
t = time to trip
I flc
K = K g
Ip
100
Time (sec)
0.1
1
10
Negative sequence current (p.u.)
Figure 17.16: Typical negative phase sequence
current withstand of cylindrical
rotor generators
Iflc
= generator rated
primary current
withstand
Ip
= CT primary
current rated primary current
I flc = generator
IN
= relay Irated
current
p = CT primary current
294
295
17
F=
B2A
8
where:
A = area
B = flux density
Field Winding
Short Circuit
Field
winding
>
Exciter
17
Figure 17.18: Earth fault protection of field
circuit by potentiometer method
296
Generator
field
winding
Exciter
L.F. injection
supply
U>
Generator
field
winding
Exciter
Injection
supply
<
Z<
297
17
17
298
+jX
XG
1.8
ES
2.0
A
D
XG+
T+ZS
-R
XT
ZR
-R
Loss of field
locus
5.0
ZS
EG
1
ES
Load point
2.5
+jX
+R
EG
=1
ES
+R
XG
0.5
0.6
0.7
-jX
Figure 17.21: Swing curves and
loss of synchronism locus
-jX
( X G + X T + Z S )n (n cos j sin )
(n cos ) 2 + sin 2
XG
Equation 17.2
where:
n = EG
ES
generated
voltage
system
ZR =
( X G + X T + Z S )(1 j cot 2 ) X
2
299
EG
ZS
XT
17
17
X
Normal machine operating impedance
ZS
XT
-R
-X
Xa2
-X
Xa1
Xb2
Xb1
R
Alarm
angle
+R
'd
2X'd
Xd
Limiting
generation
point
Relay
Diameter =
d/ 2
-jX
300
kV 2
MVA
Xa2 = -0.5Xd
The time delay settings td2 and tdo2 are set to zero to give
instantaneous operation and reset.
17.17 POLE SLIPPING PROTECTION
A generator may pole-slip, or fall out of synchronism
with the power system for a number of reasons. The
principal causes are prolonged clearance of a heavy fault
on the power system, when the generator is operating at
a high load angle close to the stability limit, or partial or
complete loss of excitation. Weak transmission links
between the generator and the bulk of the power system
aggravate the situation. It can also occur with
embedded generators running in parallel with a strong
Utility network if the time for a fault clearance on the
Utility network slow, perhaps because only IDMT relays
are provided. Pole slipping is characterised by large and
rapid oscillations in active and reactive power. Rapid
disconnection of the generator from the network is
required to ensure that damage to the generator is
avoided and that loads supplied by the network are not
affected for very long.
Protection can be provided using several methods. The
choice of method will depend on the probability of pole
slipping occurring and on the consequences should it
occur.
Network Protection & Automation Guide
Element
301
17
17
Blinder
X
P
ZA
P'
+jX
ZS
Relaying
ing point
Lens
ZB
Slip locus
EG=ES
XG
-R
+R
The width of the lens is set by the angle and the line
PP, perpendicular to the axis of the lens, is used to
determine if the centre of the impedance swing during a
transient is located in the generator or power system.
-jX
Ohm relay 2
Ohm relay 1
302
Left-lens
A
ZS
Right-lens
B
Power Swing In System
O
P'
R4
R3 S
XT
T2
R2
R1
a
1
X
ZB
Pole Slipping
Characteristic
Blinder
If the impedance locus lies above line PP, the swing lies
far out in the power system i.e. one part of the power
system, including the protected generator, is swinging
against the rest of the network. Tripping may still occur,
but only if swinging is prolonged meaning that the
power system is in danger of complete break-up. Further
confidence checks are introduced by requiring that the
impedance locus spends a minimum time within each
zone for the pole-slipping condition to be valid. The trip
signal may also be delayed for a number of slip cycles
even if a generator pole-slip occurs this is to both
provide confirmation of a pole-slipping condition and
allow time for other relays to operate if the cause of the
pole slip lies somewhere in the power system. Should
the impedance locus traverse the zones in any other
sequence, tripping is blocked.
17.18 STATOR OVERHEATING
Overheating of the stator may result from:
i. overload
17.19.2 Overspeed
303
17
17
SCHEMES
Governor
trip
Loss of excitation
Stator winding temperature
Unbalanced loading
Under/overvoltage
Low power
interlock
Excitation
circuit
breaker
Generator
circuit
breaker
304
These units are generally of higher output than directconnected generators, and hence more comprehensive
protection is warranted. In addition, the generator
transformer also requires protection, for which the
protection detailed in Chapter 16 is appropriate
Overall biased generator/generator transformer
differential protection is commonly applied in addition,
or instead of, differential protection for the transformer
alone. A single protection relay may incorporate all of
the required functions, or the protection of the
transformer (including overall generator/generator
transformer differential protection) may utilise a
separate relay.
Governor
trip
5. undervoltage protection
Underfrequency
Pole slipping
Overfluxing
Inadvertent energisation
Excitation
circuit
breaker
Buchholz
HV overcurrent
HV restricted E/F
Generator
circuit
breaker
Low power
interlock
305
17
17
a. overvoltage
b. undervoltage
c. overfrequency
d. underfrequency
e. loss of Utility supply
In addition, particular circumstances may require
additional protection functions:
f. neutral voltage displacement
g. reverse power
h. directional overcurrent
In practice, it can be difficult to meet the protection
settings or performance demanded by the Utility without
a high risk of nuisance tripping caused by lack of coordination with normal power system faults and
disturbances that do not necessitate tripping of the
embedded generation. This is especially true when
applying protection specifically to detect loss of the
Utility supply (also called loss of mains) to cater for
operating conditions where there would be no
immediate excursion in voltage or frequency to cause
operation of conventional protection functions.
17.21.1 Protection Against Loss of Utility Supply
If the normal power infeed to a distribution system, or to
the part of it containing embedded generation is lost, the
effects may be as follows:
306
307
17
17
kW
PF
6250
5000
0.8
Generator type
Salient Pole
Rated
voltage
11000
Xd p.u.
2.349
Maximum earth
fault current
31.7
200A
200/1
Generator Parameters
Xd p.u.
CT Ratio
0.297
500/1
Earthing
resistor
CT Ratio
Rated
Rated
current frequency
328
50
Network Data
Minimum phase
fault current
TMS
0.176
Maximum downstream
phase fault current
Characteristic Setting
SI
48A
TMS
0.15
328
1.05
0.95
> 362.5 A
850A
145A
Existing Protection
Overcurrent Settings
Characteristic Setting
144A
SI
VT Ratio
11000/110
87.5
0.14
s
0.02
200
1
20
1.13
= 0.38 .
2.97
Use a setting of 0.4, nearest available setting.
=2.97s, so the required TMS is
V eff =
=
( I pe Z e ) 3
VT ratio
48 31.7 3
100
= 45.6 V
where:
= 3.01s
0.02
1.09
= 0.362
3.01
is required. Use 0.375, nearest available setting.
17.22.1.3 Stator earth fault protection
t = K/(M-1) sec
where:
V
M =
V snvd
and
= voltage seen by relay
309
17
= 227
17
The nearest settings provided by the relay are Xa = 14.5 Xb = 227. The time delay td1 should be set to
avoid relay element operation on power swings and a
typical setting of 3s is used. This value may need to be
modified in the light of operating experience. To prevent
cyclical pick-up of the relay element without tripping,
such as might occur during pole-slipping conditions, a
drop-off time delay tdo1 is provided and set to 0.5s.
17.22.1.6 Negative phase sequence current protection
This protection is required to guard against excessive
heating from negative phase sequence currents, whatever
the cause. The generator is of salient pole design, so from
IEC 60034-1, the continuous withstand is 8% of rating
and the I 22t value is 20s. Using Equation 17.1, the
required relay settings can found as I2>> = 0.05 and K =
8.6s. The nearest available values are I2>> = 0.05 and
K = 8.6s. The relay also has a cooling time constant
Kreset that is normally set equal to the value of K. To coordinate with clearance of heavy asymmetric system
faults, that might otherwise cause unnecessary operation
of this protection, a minimum operation time tmin should
be applied. It is recommended to set this to a value of 1.
Similarly, a maximum time can be applied to ensure that
the thermal rating of the generator is not exceeded (as
this is uncertain, data not available) and to take account
of the fact that the P343 characteristic is not identical
with that specified in IEC 60034. The recommended
setting for tmax is 600s.
17.22.1.7 Overvoltage protection
This is required to guard against various failure modes,
e.g. AVR failure, resulting in excessive stator voltage. A
two-stage protection is available, the first being a lowset time-delayed stage that should be set to grade with
transient overvoltages that can be tolerated following
load rejection. The second is a high-set stage used for
instantaneous tripping in the event of an intolerable
overvoltage condition arising.
Generators can normally withstand 105% of rated
voltage continuously, so the low-set stage should be set
higher than this value. A setting of 117.7V in secondary
CT ratio VT ratio
0.05 5 10 6
=
500 100
=5 W
310
Differential protection
Loss of excitation
Overvoltage
Underfrequency
Reverse Power
Quantity
Value
Is1
5%
Is2
K1
K2
Ise
TMS
Vsnvd
K
Xa
Xb
td1
tDO1
Ivcset
Vs
K
TMS
I2>>
K
Kreset
tmin
tmax
V> meas mode
V> operate mode
V>1 setting
V>1 function
V>1 time delay
V>2 setting
V>2 function
V>2 time delay
F<1 setting
F<1 time delay
F<2 setting
F<2 time delay
P1 function
P1 setting
P1 time delay
P1 DO time
120%
5%
150%
0.04
0.4
48V
3.5
-14.5
227
3s
0.5s
0.73
33
0.6
0.375
0.05
8.6s
8.6s
1.5s
600s
three-phase
Parameter
Value
any
107%
DT
10s
120%
DT
0sec
49Hz
20s
48Hz
0.5s
reverse power
5W
5s
0s
Unit
MVA
MW
kV
pu
pu
pu
pu
pu
pu
pu
s
pu
Hz
MVA
pu
pu
pu
m
deg
I flt =
where:
VN
( nR f ) + ( X d + X t + nX f ) 2
2
where :
r f = feeder resistan ce
Network Protection & Automation Guide
311
X f = feeder reactan ce
n = number of parallel g enerators
Protection
17
hence,
Iflt = 2893A
= 0.361N
and
V flt =
V N 3(( nR f ) 2 + ( X t + nX f ) 2 )
( nR f ) 2 + ( X d + X t + nX f ) 2
=1304 V
= 0.07U N
0.92 18 kV 0.1
3
17
= 956.1V
18 kV 0.02
3
= 207.8 V
Alarm: V f >1.1
Trip: V
time characteristic
Hence the alarm setting is 18000 1.05 60 = 315 V Hz .
X b2 =
X a 2 = 0.75 X d = 0.1406
Protection
Differential protection
Overvoltage
Underfrequency
Reverse Power
Inadvertent energisation
Forward reach, ZA = Zn + Zt
= 0.02 + 0.22
= 0.24
Reverse reach, ZB = ZGen
Reverse Power
= 2 x Xd
= 0.652
Reactance line, ZC = 0.9 x Z
Overfrequency
= 0.9 x 0.22
= 0.198
where:
Underfrequency
Quantity
Value
Is1
Is2
K1
K2
8%
100%
0%
150%
166.3V
0.5s
935.3V
0.5s
-0.245
1.666
5s
-0.1406
1.725
0.5s
0s
7200A
3
14400V
3000V
0.06
10
10
Vn3H<
Vn3H delay
Vsnvd
Time Delay
Xa1
Xb1
td1
Xa2
Xb2
td2
tDO1
Iset
K
V1set
V2set
I2>>
Kg
Kreset
tmin
tmax
V> meas mode
V> operate mode
V>1 setting
V>1 function
V>1 time delay
V>2 setting
V>2 function
V>2 time delay
P1 function
P1 setting
P1 time delay
P1 DO time
Dead Mach I>
Dead Mach V<
Za
Zb
Zc
T1
T2
F>1 setting
F>1 time delay
F>2 setting
F>2 time delay
P1 function
P1 setting
P1 time delay
P1 DO time
F<1 setting
F<1 time delay
F<2 setting
F<2 time delay
F<3 setting
F<3 time delay
1s
1300s
three-phase
any
19800V
DT
5s
23400V
DT
0.1s
reverse power
1.6MW
0.5s
0s
6000A
9000V
0.243
0.656
0.206
90
80
15ms
15ms
62Hz
30s
63.5Hz
10s
reverse power
1.6MW
0.5s
0s
59.3Hz
0.5s
58.7Hz
100s
58.2Hz
1s
313
17
1.54 R l min
min =180 o 2 tan 1
(Z A + Z B )
and, substituting values,
min = 62.5
17.23 REFERENCES
17.1 Survey of Rate Of Change of Frequency Relays
and Voltage Phase Shift Relays for Loss of Mains
Protection. ERA Report 95-0712R, 1995. ERA
Technology Ltd.
17
314
18
18.1
Busbar arrangement
18.2
Discrimination
18.3
HRC fuses
18.4
18.5
Protection relays
18.6
Co-ordination problems
18.7
18.8
18.9
18.10
18.11
Examples
18.12
References
18.13
18.1 INTRODUCTION
As industrial and commercial operations processes and
plants have become more complex and extensive (Figure
18.1), the requirement for improved reliability of
electrical power supplies has also increased. The
potential costs of outage time following a failure of the
power supply to a plant have risen dramatically as well.
The introduction of automation techniques into industry
and commerce has naturally led to a demand for the
deployment of more power system automation, to
improve reliability and efficiency.
317
110kV
33kV
NO
B 6kV
NO
EDG
NO
HV supply
1
HV supply
2
*
NO
NO
NC
0.4kV
6kV
*
Transformer
2
Transformer
1
NO
A
2 out of 3
mechanical or electrical
interlock
NC B
NO
0.4kV
NO
18
A
NO
Bus section C - Essential supplies
EDG - Emergency generator
* - Two out of three interlock
NC
B
0.4kV
318
18.3 DISCRIMINATION
Protection equipment works in conjunction with
switchgear. For a typical industrial system, feeders and
plant will be protected mainly by circuit breakers of
various types and by fused contactors. Circuit breakers
will have their associated overcurrent and earth fault
relays. A contactor may also be equipped with a
protection device (e.g. motor protection), but associated
fuses are provided to break fault currents in excess of the
contactor interrupting capability. The rating of fuses and
selection of relay settings is carried out to ensure that
discrimination is achieved i.e. the ability to select and
isolate only the faulty part of the system.
Arcing
time
Pre-arcing time
1 Cycle
Figure 18.4: HRC fuse cut-off feature
Since thefeature
electromagnetic forces on busbars and
connections carrying short circuit current are related to the
square of the current, it will be appreciated that cut-off
significantly reduces the mechanical forces produced by
the fault current and which may distort the busbars and
connections if not correctly rated. A typical example of
cut-off current characteristics is illustrated in Figure 18.5.
1000
1250A
710A 800A
500A 630A
400A
200A 315A
125A
80A
50A
35A
25A
16A
100
Time
Start of
short-circuit
10
6A
1.0
2A
0.1
0.1
1.0
10
100
500
18
320
321
18
Inverse
Very Inverse
Ultra Inverse
Short Circuit
18
1000
100
10
Time (s)
0.1
0.01
1
10
Current (multiple of setting)
20
CT
connections
B
Residualcurrent
elements
3Ph. 3w
Ph. - Ph.
3Ph. 3w
(b)
(c)
3Ph. 4w
(f)
* Earth-fault protection
only if earth-fault
current is not less
than twice primary
operating
current
3Ph. 3w
3Ph. 3w
Earth-fault settings
may be less than full
load
3Ph. 4w
Earth-fault settings
may be less than full
load, but must be
greater than largest
Ph. - N load
3Ph. 4w
Earth-fault settings
may be less than full
load
(e)
Notes
(d)
Type of
fault
(a)
System
(g)
Phase
elements
3Ph. 3w
or
3Ph. 4w
(h)
Ph. - E
Earth-fault settings
may be less than full
load
323
18
18
Cable gland
Cable box
I >
324
I >
(a) Incorrect
I >
Relay operates
(b) Correct
The co-ordination of earth fault relays protecting fourwire systems requires special consideration in the case of
low voltage, dual-fed installations. Horcher [18.1] has
suggested various methods of achieving optimum coordination. Problems in achieving optimum protection
for common configurations are described below.
A configuration sometimes adopted with four-wire dualfed substations where only a 3-pole bus section CB is
used is to use a single earth electrode connected to the
mid-point of the neutral busbar in the switchgear, as
shown in Figure 18.10. When operating with both
incoming main circuit breakers and the bus section
breaker closed, the bus section breaker must be opened
first should an earth fault occur, in order to achieve
discrimination. The co-ordination time between the
earth fault relays RF and RE should be established at
fault level F2 for a substation with both incoming supply
breakers and bus section breaker closed.
>
RS1
>
RS2
I
Supply 1
>
Supply 2
F1
N
IF/2
IF/2
RE1
RE2
IF
IF/2
>
RF
Supply 1
IF/2
Neutral busbar
Supply 2
Figure 18.10: Dual fed four-wire systems:
use of single point neutral earthing
Bus section CB
IF
F2
325
18
18
326
Standby
feeder
Phase
angle
relay
High speed
CB
<
Ursd <
Ursd <
Feeder No.1
327
18
18
Capacitor kvar
1
kV
A
V
2
kVA lo
2 a
with co d current
mpensa
tion
1 lo
co ad c
mp ur
en ren
sa t w
tio
n itho
ut
kW
kVA 1
= cos1
Corrected power factor =
Compensating kvar
kW
Magnetising kvar
kW
kVA 2
= cos2
Reduction in kVA = kVA1 - kVA2
If the kW load and uncorrected power factors are known,
then the capacitor rating in kvar to achieve a given
degree of correction may be calculated from:
Capacitor kvar
= kW x (tan cos1-tan cos2)
A spreadsheet can easily be constructed to calculate the
required amount of compensation to achieve a desired
power factor.
18.11.1 Capacitor Control
Where the plant load or the plant power factor varies
considerably, it is necessary to control the power factor
correction, since over-correction will result in excessive
system voltage and unnecessary losses. In a few
industrial systems, capacitors are switched in manually
when required, but automatic controllers are standard
practice. A controller provides automatic power factor
correction, by comparing the running power factor with
328
From
incoming transformer
Metering
Trip
11kV
Lockout
P1
I >> I >>
I> I >
Metering
U>
PFC/V
Controller
U<
Id>
P2
Capacitor bank
I>
I>
I>
I>>
I>>
I>>
* Element fuses
Network Protection & Automation Guide
329
18
18
A
B
C
Capacitor
bank
IU >
Alarm
Trip
330
Rating
1000A
I>
Rating
500A
Rating
500A
Rating
500A
Rating
400A
Rating
30A
each
C
F
(a) Incorrect layout giving rise to problems in discrimination
I>
Rating
1000A
Alarm
Trip
(a)
Rating
100A
Rating
400A
Rating
500A
B
Rating
500A
C
I>
Rating
30A
F
(b) Correct layout and discrimination
I>
I>
Alarm
(b)
Trip
331
I>
18
800A
400V
630A
Auxiliary circuits
Figure 18.17: Example of back-up protection
Fuse
1MVA
2000/1A
3300/415V
I>>
I>
= 0.583
10.0
LV board fault
level = 30kA
MCCB
400A
18
0.414
0.71
1.0
Fuse
The relay current setting chosen must not be less than the
full load current level and must have enough margin to
allow the relay to reset with full load current flowing. The
latter may be determined from the transformer rating:
FLC
=
=
kVA
kV x 3
1000
0.4
Fused contactor
0.1
MCCB
0.01
1000
10,000
100,000
Operating current (A) to 415V base
Revised relay characteristic
Original relay characteristic
= 1443 A
Relay C1
2500/1
Thermal element:
I >>
2500/1
2500/1 NO
>>
I >>
I>
1.6 MVA
11/0.4kV
Z=6.25%
>
I >>
Relay C2
A2 0.4kV
50kA rms
Instantaneous element:
current setting: 2.32kA
Trip
Relay B
>
I >>
300/1
Relay A
Motor cable
M
160kW
333
18
Relay
lay A
Relay
lay B
Relay C
I>
I>
I>>
Re-acceleration
Relay A setting
Relay B settingg
Relay C setting
15000
dinst
dinst
tdinst
Value
0
0.32s
0.62s
I>
I>>
0.1
0.01
100
I>
10000
1000
Current (A) referred to 0.4kV
(b) Grading curves
I>>
100000
100
Time (s)
18
Relay A
Relay B
Relay C
1000
Time (s)
motors are started simultaneously (but simultaneous reacceleration may well occur). What is essential is that
relay B does not issue a trip command under these
circumstances i.e. the relay current/time characteristic
is in excess of the current/time characteristic of the
worst-case starting/re-acceleration condition. It is
therefore assumed that 50% of the total bus load is
motor load, with an average starting current of 600% of
full load current (= 6930A), and that re-acceleration
takes 3s. A current setting of 3000A is therefore initially
used. The SI characteristic is used for grading the relay,
as co-ordination with fuses is not required. The TMS is
required to be set to grade with the thermal protection
of relay A under cold conditions, as this gives the
longest operation time of Relay A, and the reacceleration conditions. A TMS value of 0.41 is found to
provide satisfactory grading, being dictated by the motor
starting/re-acceleration transient. Adjustment of both
current and TMS settings may be required depending on
the exact re-acceleration conditions. Note that lower
current and TMS settings could be used if motor
starting/re-acceleration did not need to be considered.
10
1
0.1
0.01
100
1000
10000
100000
334
18.13 REFERENCES
335
18
19
19.1
19.2
19.3
Start/Stall protection
19.4
19.5
19.6
19.7
19.8
19.9
Bearing failures
19.10
Undervoltage protection
19.11
Loss-of-load protection
19.12
Additional protection
for synchronous motors
19.13
19.14
Internal faults
Bearing failures
Winding faults
Overloads
1 9 . 2 M O D E R N R E L AY D E S I G N
The design of a modern motor protection relay must be
adequate to cater for the protection needs of any one of
the vast range of motor designs in service, many of the
designs having no permissible allowance for overloads. A
relay offering comprehensive protection will have the
following set of features:
a. thermal protection
b. extended start protection
c. stalling protection
337
T = Tmax (1 - e-t/)
where:
i. undervoltage protection
k. out-of-step protection
T = KI R2 (1 e t
j. loss-of-load protection
19
where:
1 9 . 3 T H E R M A L ( O V E R L O A D ) P R OT E C T I O N
The majority of winding failures are either indirectly or
directly caused by overloading (either prolonged or
cyclic), operation on unbalanced supply voltage, or single
phasing, which all lead through excessive heating to the
deterioration of the winding insulation until an electrical
fault occurs. The generally accepted rule is that
insulation life is halved for each 10 C rise in
temperature above the rated value, modified by the
length of time spent at the higher temperature. As an
electrical machine has a relatively large heat storage
capacity, it follows that infrequent overloads of short
duration may not adversely affect the machine.
However, sustained overloads of only a few percent may
result in premature ageing and insulation failure.
Furthermore, the thermal withstand capability of the
motor is affected by heating in the winding prior to a
fault. It is therefore important that the relay
characteristic takes account of the extremes of zero and
full-load pre-fault current known respectively as the
'Cold' and 'Hot' conditions.
The variety of motor designs, diverse applications, variety
of possible abnormal operating conditions and resulting
modes of failure result in a complex thermal relationship.
A generic mathematical model that is accurate is
therefore impossible to create. However, it is possible to
develop an approximate model if it is assumed that the
motor is a homogeneous body, creating and dissipating
1
t = log e
2
1 (I R I )
I eq =
(I
2
1
+ KI 22
where
I1 = positive sequence current
I2 = negative sequence current
and
negative sequence rotor resistance
K = ---------
positive sequence rotor resistance
at rated speed. A typical value of K is 3.
Finally, the thermal replica model needs to take into
account the fact that the motor will tend to cool down
during periods of light load, and the initial state of the
motor. The motor will have a cooling time constant, r ,
that defines the rate of cooling. Hence, the final thermal
model can be expressed as:
338
t = log e k 2 A 2
) (k
Equation 19.1
1 9 . 4 S TA R T / S TA L L P R OT E C T I O N
I eq
I th
3 of the
100 000
10 000
Te1
=60min
e2
mechanical problems
Te1 Te2=54min
Te1=T
Te2=48min
1000
T =T =42min
e1 e2=36min
100
10
T =T
Te22=30min
Te1=T
Te2=24min
Te1
=12min
Te1 e2=6min
min
Te1
e2
=1min
1
thermal threshold I>
10
Ieq in terms of the current
where:
339
19
CB Closed
Current
Speed
Switch
Information
Trip
Command
Time
1
0
Time
1
0
Time
1
0
1
0
Time
1
0
1
0
Stall time
setting
1
0
Time
Time
Time (s)
19
0.1
0.1
1
Current (p.u. )
10
340
0
Time
No. of starts
0
Time
Supervising time
Supervising time
Start lockout
0
Time
Inhib. start time
341
19
1 9 . 5 S H O R T- C I R C U I T P R OT E C T I O N
19
Figure 19.5.
protection
c
a
b
c
Flow of
current
Ia
Ib
Ic
Ia+Ib+Ic
MiCOM
P241
Downstream
1 9 . 6 E A R T H F A U LT P R OT E C T I O N
R stab =
Upstream
a
where:
Ist
I0
Rstab
Rct
Rl
342
I st
IO
( Rct
+ kR l + R r
Equation 19.2
Cable box
SEF
(a) Connection
No operation
SEF
(b) Incorrect wiring
Time
Fuse
Contactor
breaking
capacity
E/F relay
Current
(a) Incorrect
Operation
SEF
(c) Correct wiring
Time
Fuse
Contactor
breaking
capacity
E/F relay
Current
(b) Correct
k = CT connection factor
(= 1 for star pt at CT
= 2 for star pt at relay)
Rr = relay input restistance (ohms)
19
Ia1
Ib1
IR1
-jXc1
IH1
Ia2
Ib2
IR2
-jXc2
IH2
19
Ia3
Ib3
IH1+IH2+IH3
IR3
-jXc3
IH1+IH2
Vaf
IR1
Restrain
Ib1
Operate
Ia1
Vbf
Vcpf
Vbpf
Vres
(=-3V
V o)
IR3
H1+ IH2)
Vapf
345
19
R
Z
F
Z
N
Z
A-G
A-G
A-G
G,F
V
C-G
G,F
G,F
V
B-G
C-G
B-G
C-G
B-G
19
V
RES
RES
B-G
A-G
RES
C-G
Z
=
2Z
S1
+Z
SO
SO
+3Z
+2Z
L1
B-G
A-G
C-G
RES
B-G
A-G
C-G
x3E
+Z
LO
+3Z
Figure 19.10: Residual voltage earth fault protection for resistance-earthed system.
346
(2 s )
) (
2
+ X 1 p + X 2' p
0.5
= R1 p + R 2' p
) + (X
2
1p
+ X 2' p
0.5
= R1n + R 2' n s
) + (X
2
1n
+ X 2' n
0.5
= R1n + R 2' n 2
) + (X
2
1n
+ X 2' n
0.5
where:
suffix p indicates positive sequence quantities
and
suffix n indicates negative sequence quantities
R1 + R'2
j(X1 + X'2)
[(1-s)/s] x R'2
(a) Positive phase sequence equivalent circuit
R1 + R'2
j(X1 + X'2)
[(s-1)/(2-s)] x R'2
347
= R1 p + R 2' p
19
1 9 . 10 B E A R I N G F A I L U R E S
19
1 9 . 11 U N D E R V O LTA G E P R OT E C T I O N
348
Quantity
Value
Rated output
Rated Voltage
Rated frequency
Rated power factor/efficiency
Stall withstand time cold/hot
Starting current
Permitted starts cold/hot
CT ratio
Start time@100% voltage
1000kW CMR
3.3kV
50Hz
5.5s
25/75 min
Solid
Circuit Breaker
0.9/0.92
20/7s
550% DOL
3/2
250/1
4s
I TH =
211
250
= 0.844
349
r = 3 x 1
19
Cold Thermal
Hot Thermal
S/C
Locked Rotor
Stall
Start Current (100%V)
Start Current (80%V)
100
Time (sec)
0.01
10
0.1
1
Ith/I (pu)
10
0.01
Time (sec)
10
0.1
1000
10
Current (A)
10000
350
Ib
I>t
I2
I2>t
<Ip
(b) Relay settings
Table 19.3: LV Motor protection setting example
Disabled
4.4
15
20
25
5
V
kW
kVA
A
%
s
A
A
250A
Contactor
P211
CT
A
Cable
Unit
A
s
%
s
s
M
(a) LV Motor Protection - contactor fed example
1000
100
19.14.2.1 CT ratio
The relay is set in secondary quantities, and therefore a
suitable CT ratio has to be calculated. From the relay
manual, a CT with 5A secondary rating and a motor rated
current in the range of 4-6A when referred to the
secondary of CT is required. Use of a 150/5A CT gives a
motor rated current of 4.4A when referred to the CT
secondary, so use this CT ratio.
10
4
I/Ib
trip time
start current
351
Overcurrent
Overload setting
Overload time delay
Unbalance
Unbalance time delay
Loss of phase time delay
Unit
Time
Parameter
Value
Standard
IEC 60034
Motor Voltage
400
Motor kW
75
Motor kVA
91.45
Motor FLC
132
Starting Current
670
Starting Time
4.5
Contactor rating
300
650
Contactor breaking capacity
Fuse rating
250
(a) LV motor example data
Symbol
Value
Parameter
where
19
20
Protection of A.C.
Electrified Railways
Introduction
20.1
Protection philosophy
20.2
20.3
20.4
20.5
Autotransformer feeding
20.6
20.7
20.8
20 P rotection of A.C.
Electrified Railways
20.1 INTRODUCTION
Many regional, urban and high-speed inter-urban rail
networks worldwide are electrified, to provide the
motive power for trains (Figure 20.1).
353
20
Return conductor
BT
Catenary
25kV
(nominal)
Rails
BT: Booster transformer
Figure 20.2: Classical 25kV feeding with
booster transformers
354
Grid supply
T2
T1
Feeder station
north
A
B
Feeding South
SS1
Direction of travel
SS2
C
E
D
MPSS
Direction of travel
BS2
Catenary section A
Fault current
contribution
Feeder
F
substation via CB A
355
20
20
Max normal
load area
Z3
Z2
Z1
R
Max regenerative load area
Figure 20.6: Polar impedance plot of
typical trip characteristics
356
Z = impedance of sections A, B, C, D
in parallel
The possibility of current following out and back along a
hairpin path to a fault has already been discussed and it
is essential that the relay does not overreach under these
conditions. The feeding scenario is shown in Figure 20.8.
Relay A
FS
SS1
Z<
A
Relay A
SS1
Hairpin
SS2
G
70% H
CB open
( A + R)
( Z + 0.7 H )
R
where:
( A + R)
( Z + 0.7 D )
R
1.15
Equation 20.2
where:
D = impedance of shortest hairpin fed
section
A = impedance of protected section
R = impedance of sections B and C
in parallel
Z = impedance of sections A, B, C, D
in parallel
Equation 20.1
CB failed
closed
1.15
F
CB open
Z2 =
feeding
70% D
CB failed
closed
A = Protected section impedance
H = Shortest following section
357
FS Z<
20
Relay A
FS
SS1
Z<
A
B
FS
SS1
Z<
SS2
100% D
20
Hairpin
Feeding
Relay A
CB open
A = Protected section
impedance
100% E
CB failed
closed
A = Protected section impedance
E = Longest following section
CB open
F
Equation 20.3
where:
E = impedance of lonest following section
A = protected section impedance
R = impedance of sections B, C, D in parallel
Z = impedance of sections A, B, C, D
in parallel
It can be appreciated that hairpin feeding scenarios too
must be considered, and this is depicted in Figure 20.10:
The equation for the minimum Zone 3 reach (hairpin
feeding) becomes:
( A + R)
Z 3 = 1.15 ( Z + D )
( A + R)
Z 3 = 1.15 ( Z + E )
CB failed
closed
Equation 20.4
where:
D = impedance of longest hairpin fed section
To avoid under-reaching for both normal feeding and
hairpin fed faults, the higher of the two calculated
impedances is used as the Zone 3 reach setting.
Occasionally the Zone 3 reach requirement may be raised
358
Cos-1
359
20
20
360
Supply
pp y
transformer
Feeder
Ic
AT
Catenary
Rails
AT: Autotransformer
: 1 unit of load current
Figure 20.13: 25-0-25kV autotransformer
feeding
361
20
25-0-25 kV
Feeder substation
I>
as
*
Z<
To
I>
as
*
Z<
I>
Section switch
protection
Z<
NO
NO
F
C C
Up
F
F - feeder
NO
1.20
Catenary wire
Contact wire
AEC
Feeder wire
5.08
5.50
7.25
Aerial earth
conductor
(AEC)
6.30
NO
To Track
via B
I>
as
Z<
1.34
3.57
3.25
4.50
Rail
level
750
CL
CL
Down
Up
0.3
Buried earth
conductor
(B.E.C)
362
V catenary
(I
catenary
<I
feeder
Z
12
11
Zmax
B
Zmin
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
0
FS
Solid line
shows Z
measured
SS2
8
10 12 14
Distance to fault (km)
16
18
363
20
20.6.3.1 Zone 1
20
275/26kV
10C
20C
23C
28C
38C
48C
56C
5 mins
7 mins
-18C to 38C
600/1
Off-load
voltage
26kV
TF1
Zt=10%88
Data
0.26+j0.681/km
0.051+j0.211
every 3km
900A
Vacuum
0.065 s
0.045 s
Z<
Busbar VT
26.4/11kV
Equipment
Catenary Impedance
Booster Transformer Impedance
Booster Transformer Spacing
Maximum Load Current
CB Type
CB trip time
Max Zone 1 protection trip time
Catenary Thermal Protection
Catenary design temperature range for correct tension
TF2
S1
S2
12.2km
S3
13.7km
(0.26 +
365
(0.051 + j 0.21 )
j 0.68 ) +
= 0.277 + j0.751/km
= 0.869.71/km
20
Distance protection relays are often set and injectiontested in terms of the impedance on the secondary side
of the CTs/VTs used. Therefore, it is helpful for testing
if the primary impedances on the system are converted
to secondary quantities. The equation to be used is:
Z sec
v t = Z sec t
CT ratio
VT ratio
Z2 =
where:
Zsect = system impedance referred
to primary
Hence,
600
Z sec
v t = Z sec t
26400
1.15
where:
( A + R)
.
Z
E
+
0
7
(
)
110
Hence,
= Z sec t 2.5
2
1.15
= 54.6 1
(0.7 24.4 )
Z2 = 24.4 +
1.15
= 36.1 1
For Zone 2 it is always the lower of the two calculated
results that is used. Therefore,
1.15
24.4 + 24.4
24.4
366
t2 = 65 + 45 + 50
I f1=
= 160ms
As all of the protection and circuit breakers are identical,
this value can be used for t2. If the downstream relays
were electromechanical (typically 40-70ms slower than
numerical), or the circuit breakers were oil insulated
(OCBs, typically 40 to 60ms slower than VCBs), then the
t2 delay would need to be extended accordingly. The
50ms margin allows for the reset time of the Z2 element.
Network Protection & Automation Guide
E
2 Z t +Z sp )
where:
367
20
Note that the fault current splits into two parallel paths,
fed via TF-1 and TF-2. Hence, the division by 2 in the
equation for calculating the per-track current measured
by the protection.
where:
Hence,
Hence,
I f 1 = 1.4kA
For the second configuration,
I f2=
E
Z t +Z s1
Hence,
I f 2 = 1.84kA
20.8.7.3 Overcurrent setting for BUOC
instantaneous stage
The thermal data for the catenary are also given in Table
20.1. The calculation of the thermal protection settings
is given in the following sections.
600
=3.68 A
Irefp = 540A
I ' oc =1100
600
I refs =
540
=0.9 A
600
20
=1.5 A
where:
600
=1.86 A
368
Parameter
Zone 1 forward reach
Zone 1 backward reach
Zone 2 forward reach
Zone 2 backward reach
Zone 3 forward reach
Zone 3 backward reach
Zone 1 time delay
Zone 2 time delay
Zone 3 time delay
Back-Up Overcurrent Instantaneous current setting
Back-Up Overcurrent IDMT current setting
Symbol
Z1fw
Z1bw
Z2fw
Z2bw
Z3fw
Z3bw
t1
t2
t3
I'inst
I'oc
369
Value
20.751
Blocked
36.11
Blocked
95.11
5.21
0s
160ms
500ms
3.68A
1.86A
250ms
1.5A
800ms
0.9A
20C
52C
44C
28C
20C
5 min
7 min
20
21
Relay Testing
and Commissioning
Introduction
21.1
21.2
21.3
21.4
21.5
21.6
21.7
Production testing
21.8
Commissioning tests
21.9
21.10
21.11
21 Relay Testing
and Commissioning
21.1 INTRODUCTION
The testing of protection equipment schemes presents a
number of problems. This is because the main function
of protection equipment is solely concerned with
operation under system fault conditions, and cannot
readily be tested under normal system operating
conditions. This situation is aggravated by the
increasing complexity of protection schemes and use of
relays containing software.
The testing of protection equipment may be divided into
four stages:
i. type tests
ii. routine factory production tests
iii. commissioning tests
iv. periodic maintenance tests
21.1.1 Type Tests
Type tests are required to prove that a relay meets the
published specification and complies with all relevant
standards. Since the principal function of a protection
relay is to operate correctly under abnormal power
conditions, it is essential that the performance be
assessed under such conditions. Comprehensive type
tests simulating the operational conditions are therefore
conducted at the manufacturer's works during the
development and certification of the equipment.
The standards that cover most aspects of relay
performance are IEC 60255 and ANSI C37.90. However
compliance may also involve consideration of the
requirements of IEC 61000, 60068 and 60529, while
products intended for use in the EEC also have to comply
with the requirements of Directives 89/336/EEC and
73/23/EEC. Since type testing of a digital or numerical
relay involves testing of software as well as hardware,
the type testing process is very complicated and more
involved than a static or electromechanical relay.
371
Range
0.08 - 4.00In
0.08 - 32In
Forward/Reverse/Non-directional
-95 to +95
DT/IDMT
0 - 100s
IEC Standard Inverse
IEC Very Inverse
IEC IDMT Time Delay
IEC Extremely Inverse
UK Long Time Inverse
Time Multiplier Setting (TMS)
0.025 - 1.2
IEEE Moderately Inverse
IEEE Very Inverse
IEEE IDMT Time Delay
IEEE Extremely Inverse
US-CO8 Inverse
US-CO2 Short Time Inverse
Time Dial (TD)
0.5 - 15
IEC Reset Time (DT only)
0 - 100s
IEEE Reset Time
IDMT/DT
IEEE DT Reset Time
0 - 100s
IEEE Moderately Inverse
IEEE Very Inverse
IEEE IDMT Reset Time
IEEE Extremely Inverse
US-CO8 Inverse
US-CO2 Short Time Inverse
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21
Step Size
0.01In
0.01In
1
0.01s
0.025
0.1
0.01s
0.01s
Test 1
Test 2
Test 3
Test 4
Test 5
Test 6
Test 7
Test 8
Test 9
Test 10
Test 11
Test 12
Test 13
Test 14
372
373
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21
21
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
1
88
175
262
349
436
523
610
697
784
871
958
1045
1132
1219
1306
1393
Voltage (V)
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
Time (ms)
374
t
V
Repetition period
Voltage
0
Time
375
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21
21
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
40 50
Time, ns
60
70
80
90
Frequency Range
Radiated
30 - 230MHz
230 - 1000MHz
0.15 - 0.5MHz
Conducted
0.5 - 30MHz
Specified Limits
30dB(V/m)
at 30m
37dB(V/m)
at 30m
79dB(V)
quasi-peak
66dB(V) average
73dB(V)
quasi-peak
60dB(V) average
Test Limits
40dB(V/m)
at 10m
47dB(V/m)
at 10m
79dB(V)
quasi-peak
66dB(V) average
73dB(V)
quasi-peak
60dB(V) average
376
100
90
Quasi-peak limits
80
Average limits
70
Typical trace
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.1
10
Frequency, MHz
100
Ante-chamber
E.U.T.
Access panel
Impedance network
Support/analysis
equipment
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
Screened room
Antenna
E.U.T.
Turntable
Earth Plane
377
21
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
= 500 m
21
Induction coil
Induction coil
E.U.T.
378
Ground plane
Voltage
5kV peak
Rise time (10 % to 90 %) = 1.2 s
Duration (50 %) = 50 s
Time
379
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21
21
100
90
80
70
96%
95%
95%
90%
80%
15min
End of temperature
rise
temperature
Time
+55C
1. temperature
Ambient Temperature C
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21.4.5 CE Marking
Relative humidity %
2. humidity
3. enclosure protection
4. mechanical
These tests are described in the following sections.
0.5h
+28C
+25C
3h
3h
12h0.5h
+22C
Time
6h
24h
380
6D = T2
D - duration of nominal pulse
A - peak acceleration of nominal pulse
T1- minimum time for monitoring of pulse when conventional
shock/bump machine is used
T2 - as T1 when a vibration generator is used
2.5D
2.4D = T1
2.5D
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
381
a. unit testing
b. integration testing
c. functional qualification testing
21
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21
382
383
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21
384
IA
IB
Linear
interpolation
circuits
D/A
conversion
CT
model
Current
amplifier
IC
Keyboard
VA
Computer
I/O
Subsystem
VB
VDU
Keyboard
Linear
interpolation
circuits
D/A
conversion
VC
Storage
CVT
model
Voltage
amplifier
Contact
status
monitor
Key :
CT - Current transformer
CVT - Capacitor voltage transformer
VDU - Visual display unit
Communications
link to second
RTDS
Equipment
under
test
(When required)
Signalling
Channel
Simulation
To second RTDS
power frequency
h. the use of direct coupled current amplifiers allows
time constants of any length
385
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
VDU
21
N
3G
4G
CB3
CT3
F3
F4
CT4
CB4
Infinite bus
Line 2
8G
9G
LR3
CT1
CB1
LR4
F1
load 1
F2
CT2
CB2
11G
Line 1
load 2
VT1
VT2
load 3
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
LR1
21
LR2
Relay 1
Relay 2
Ic
0
0.08
0.16
0.24
0.32
0.4
0.48
0.56
Because software is extensively tested at the typetesting stage, there is normally no need to check the
correct functioning of the software. Checks are limited
to determining that the analogue and digital I/O is
functioning correctly. This is achieved for inputs by
386
387
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21
P2
P1
S2
S1
To relay
coils
P1 S
1
250V
a.c. supply
Step-up transformer
if required
P2 S2
Variable transformer
250V 8A
Main circuit
breaker open
A
+
Figure 21.17: Testing current transformer
magnetising curve
388
VN
V
VL
V2
Phase rotation
meter
389
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21
390
V relay/source
Time
Saturation level of
magnetic circuit (current)
limited only by D.C.
resistance of
relay coil
Time
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
b) Undistorted relay current coil current distorted due to use of current source
391
21
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21
A
Coarse
control
reactor
Range
adjusting CT
K2
250V
a.c. supply
K1
Fine control
variable
transformer
I>
Start
timer
Backing
transformer
10% control
Medium
control
reactor
Injection
transformer
Relay
coil
Stop
timer
Relay short-circuiting
switch
Figure 21.22: Circuit diagram of traditional test set for overcurrent relays
392
Supply switch
A
B
C
N
Choke
Variable
transformer
22.5
20.0
17.5
15.0
12.5
Relay
control
adjusting CT
A
440/110V
pphase
shiftingg
transformer
PA
A
10.0
PA
A
7.5
To other voltage
elements
of relayy
under test
(if required)
Fault A-N
X( )
440V
3 pphase
4 wire supply
5.0
2.5
V Voltmeter
A Ammeter
PA Phase angle
meter
0.0
-2.5
-5.0
-7.5
-10.0
-15.0
-10.0
-5.0
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
R( )
Zn
R
PSB-Zone
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
393
21
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21
A
250V a.c.
supply
Variable transformer
40A
Injection transformer
250/10 + 10 + 10 + 10V
10kVA
Primary
injection
test set
Test plug
insulation
u
Relay
Temporary
short circuit
P1
P2
Relay
S1
S2
Relay or test block
contact fingers
A1
Primary injection
test set
250V
a.c. supply
Figure 21.28: Current transformer ratio check
395
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21
e. incorrect settings
f. known application shortcomings accepted as
improbable occurrences
g. pilot wire faults due to previous unrevealed
damage to a pilot cable
h. various other causes, such as switching errors,
testing errors, and relay operation due to
mechanical shock
The self-checking facilities of numerical relays assist in
minimising failures due to faulty relays. Defects in
secondary wiring and incorrect connections are virtually
eliminated if proper commissioning after scheme
installation/alteration is carried out. The possibility of
incorrect settings is minimised by regular reviews of
relay settings. Network fault levels change over time,
and hence setting calculations may need to be revised.
Switching and testing errors are minimised by adequate
training of personnel, use of proven software, and welldesigned systematic working procedures. All of these
can be said to be within the control of the user.
The remaining three causes are not controllable, while
two of these three are unavoidable engineering is not
science and there will always be situations that a
protection relay cannot reasonably be expected to cover
at an affordable cost.
396
397
R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g
21
22
Introduction
22.1
General characteristics
22.2
22.3
22.4
Transducer selection
22.5
Measurement centres
22.6
Tariff metering
22.7
Synchronisers
22.8
Disturbance recorders
22.9
22.1 INTRODUCTION
The accurate measurement of the voltage, current or
other parameter of a power system is a prerequisite to
any form of control, ranging from automatic closed-loop
control to the recording of data for statistical purposes.
Measurement of these parameters can be accomplished
in a variety of ways, including the use of direct-reading
instruments as well as electrical measuring transducers.
Transducers produce an accurate d.c. analogue output,
usually a current, which corresponds to the parameter
being measured (the measurand). They provide electrical
isolation by transformers, sometimes referred to as
Galvanic Isolation, between the input and the output.
This is primarily a safety feature, but also means that the
cabling from the output terminals to any receiving
equipment can be lightweight and have a lower
insulation specification. The advantages over discrete
measuring instruments are as follows:
a. mounted close to the source of the measurement,
reducing instrument transformer burdens and
increasing safety through elimination of long
wiring runs
b. ability to mount display equipment remote from
transducer
c. ability to use multiple display elements per transducer
d. the burden on CTs/VTs is considerably less
Outputs from transducers may be used in many ways
from simple presentation of measured values for an
operator, to being utilised by a network automation
scheme to determine the control strategy.
22.2 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Transducers may have single or multiple inputs and/or
outputs. The inputs, outputs and any auxiliary circuits
will all be isolated from each other. There may be more
than one input quantity and the measurand may be a
function of one or more of them.
399
22
Input voltage
Input quantity frequency
Unbalanced currents
Output load
Ambient temperature
Auxiliary supply frequency
Self heating
Common mode interference
400
Influence Quantity
Input current,In
Input voltage,Vn
Input frequency
Power factor
Unbalanced current
Interaction between measuring elements
Continuous operation
Self Heating
Output load
Waveform crest factor
Ambient temperature
Aux. supply
d.c. voltage
A.C. Aux. Supply frequency, fn
External magnetic fields
Output series mode interference
Output common mode interference
0.5%
0.25%
0.5%
0.25%
0.5%
0.25%
0.5%
0.5%
0.25%
0.5%
0.25%
0.25%
0.5%
0.5%
0-120%
0-120%
Cos = 01
1.21.8
-1060 C
19V-300V
-
0.5%
0.5%
0.5%
0.5%
1.0%
0.25%
-
0.5%
401
22
22
22.4 ANALOGUE TRANSDUCER TECHNOLOGY
All analogue transducers have the following essential
features:
a. an input circuit having impedance Zin
b. isolation (no electrical connection) between input
and output
c. an ideal current source generating an output
current, I1, which is an accurate and linear
function of Qin, the input quantity
d. a parallel output impedance, Zo. This represents
the actual output impedance of the current source
and shunts a small fraction, I2, of the ideal output
e. an output current, Io, equal to (I1 - I2)
I1
I2
Qin
Zin
Zin
Z0
I0
402
22.5.3 Frequency
Transducer
Transducer
Van
Vab
Vca
Ia
S1
S2
P1
P2
C
N
Ic
S1
S2
P1
P2
Ia
A
B
C
S2
P1
P2
To load
3 phase, 3 wire balanced load
V Transducer
Vb
Vc
Transducer
Ia
S1
To load
3 phase, 4 wire balanced load
Vab
Vca
Ia
B
S1
P1
S2
P2
S1
P1
Ic
Ib
S2
P2
S1
P1
A
S2
P2
S1
P1
To load
3 phase, 3 wire unbalanced load
Transducer
Van
Vcn
B
S2
P2
Ic
Ib
Ia
S1
S2
P1
P2
S1
S2
P1
P2
S1
S2
P1
P2
To load
3 phase, 4 wire unbalanced load
To load
3 phase, 4 wire unbalanced
(21/
el.) load
403
22
22.5.6 Scaling
22
404
405
22
Check
synchroniser
Close
Generator
Network
Busbar
(a) Application to generator
CB
close
controls
Check
synchroniser
Close
22.8 SYNCHRONISERS
22
Network
#2
Line A
Network
#1
CB 1
Busbar B
(b) Application to two networks
Figure 22.4: Check synchroniser applications
406
407
22
22
l. self-monitoring/diagnostics
Analogue channels are provided to record the important
currents and voltages at the fault recorder location.
High resolution is required to ensure accurate capture of
the waveforms, with 14 or 16 bit A/D conversion being
usual. Digital inputs are provided to capture signals such
as CB opening, protection relay operation, intertrip
signals, etc. so that a complete picture of the sequence
of events can be built up. The information can then be
used to check that the sequence of operations post-fault
is correct, or assist in determining the cause of an
unexpected sequence of operations. To avoid loss of the
disturbance data, sufficient memory is provided to
capture and store the data from several faults prior to
transfer of the data for analysis. Flexibility in the
triggering arrangements is extremely important, as it is
pointless to install a disturbance recorder, only for it to
miss recording events due to lack of appropriate
triggering facilities. It is normal for triggering to be
available if the relevant threshold is crossed on any
analogue or digital channel, or a quantity that can be
derived from a combination of inputs.
408
23
Power Quality
Introduction
23.1
23.2
23.3
23.4
Remedial measures
23.5
Examples
23.6
23 Power Quality
23.1 INTRODUCTION
Over the last thirty years or so, the amount of equipment
containing electronics has increased dramatically. Such
equipment can both cause and be affected by
electromagnetic disturbances. A disturbance that
affects a process control computer in a large industrial
complex could easily result in shutdown of the process.
The lost production and product loss/recycling during
start-up represents a large cost to the business.
Similarly, a protection relay affected by a disturbance
through conduction or radiation from nearby conductors
could trip a feeder or substation, causing loss of supply
to a large number of consumers. At the other end of the
scale, a domestic user of a PC has to re-boot the PC due
to a transient voltage dip, causing annoyance to that
and other similarly affected users.
Therefore,
transporters and users of electrical energy have become
much more interested in the nature and frequency of
disturbances in the power supply. The topic has become
known by the title of Power Quality.
23.2 CLASSIFICATION OF POWER SYSTEM
DISTURBANCES
To make the study of Power Quality problems useful, the
various types of disturbances need to be classified by
magnitude and duration. This is especially important for
manufacturers and users of equipment that may be at
risk. Manufacturers need to know what is expected of
their equipment, and users, through monitoring, can
determine if an equipment malfunction is due to a
disturbance or problems within the equipment itself.
Not surprisingly, standards have been introduced to
cover this field. They define the types and sizes of
disturbance, and the tolerance of various types of
equipment to the possible disturbances that may be
encountered.
The principal standards in this field are IEC 61000, EN
50160, and IEEE 1159. Standards are essential for
manufacturers and users alike, to define what is
411
Voltage dips
Power Quality
Voltage surges
23
Capacitor switching
Switch off of large loads
Phase faults
Short
Interruptions
Long
Interruptions
Transient
Overvoltage
Voltage
unbalance
Undervoltage
Impacts
Tripping of sensitive
equipment
Resetting of control
systems
Motor stalling/tripping
Tripping of sensitive
equipment
Damage to insulation
and windings
Damage to power
supplies for electronic
equipment
Overvoltage
Load switching
Capacitor switching
System voltage regulation
Harmonics
Industrial furnaces
Non-linear loads
Transformers/generators
Rectifier equipment
Mal-operation of sensitive
equipment and relays
Capacitor fuse or
capacitor failures
Telephone interference
Loss of generation
Extreme loading
conditions
Voltage
fluctuation
AC motor drives
Inter-harmonic current
components
Welding and arc furnaces
Flicker in:
Fluorescent lamps
Incandescent lamps
Rapid voltage
change
Motor starting
Transformer tap
changing
Light flicker
Tripping of
equipment
Voltage
imbalance
Unbalanced loads
Unbalanced
impedances
Overheating in
motors/generators
Interruption of 3-phase
operation
Loss of supply
to customer equipment
Computer shutdowns
Motor tripping
Undervoltage
All equipment
without backup
supply facilities
Transients
Lightning
Capacitive switching
Non linear switching loads
System voltage regulation
Power frequency
variation
Rapid voltage
changes
Voltage surge
Voltage
fluctuations
Frequency
variation
Harmonics
Limits from
EN50160
+/- 10%
Measurement
Typical Other applicable
period
duration
standards
95% of
1 week
10-1000/year 10ms 1sec
IEEE 1159
Several
Short
per day
duration
Short
Per day
IEEE 1159
duration
20-200
Up to 3 mins EN61000-4-11
per year
230V
5% to 10%
1kV-35kV
<6%
230V
>99%
230V
>99%
10-50
per year
>3 mins
IEEE 1159
230V
Generally
<6kV
Not specified
<1ms
IEEE 1159
<-10%
Not specified
<150%
of
230V nominal voltage Not specified
>1 min
IEEE 1159
>200ms
IEEE 1159
230V
<200ms
IEC 60827
230V
230V
3%
10 min
+/- 1%
+4%, -6%
THD<8% up
to 40th
Category
Type of
Voltage
disturbance Level
Voltage
230V
Variation
Voltage Dips 230V
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
Affected by disturbance
Withstand
disturbance
150
100
50
0
0.001 0.01 0.1
Affected by disturbance
1
10
100 1000 10000 100000
Duration of disturbance (ms)
Figure 23.1: ITI curve for equipment
susceptibility
412
Vrms
Nom. High
PQ Standards
User defined setpoints
Nom. Low
<0.5ms
PQ Standards
User defined setpoints
Retained Voltage
Duration of disturbance
Interruption
Time
91-100%
71-80%
51-60%
31-40%
11-20%
>10s
Nom. High
1-5s
5-10s
Vrms
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Retained voltage
413
Power Quality
Retained voltage
61-70%
0-10%
81-90%
41-50%
91-100%
51-60%
0.5-1s
Voltage dips due to the latter are usually due to poor design
of the network feeding the consumer. A voltage dip is the
most common supply disturbance causing interruption of
production in an industrial plant. Faults on a supply
network will always occur, and in industrial systems, it is
often practice to specify equipment to ride-through
voltage dips of up to 0.2s. The most common exception is
contactors, which may well drop out if the voltage dips
below 80% of rated voltage for more than 50-100ms.
Motor protection relays that have an undervoltage element
setting that is too sensitive is another cause. Since
contactors are commonly used in circuits supplying motors,
the impact of voltage dips on motor drives, and hence the
process concerned, requires consideration.
100-500ms
10-50ms
50-100ms
Time
1-5ms
5-10ms
Retained Voltage
Number of incidents/yr
Interruption
0.5-1ms
Nom. Low
x % below nominal
o a
Time
23
Vrms
Nom. High
Time
-50
Nom. Low
PQ Standards
-100
-150
Figure 23.7: Supply waveform distorted
due to the presence of harmonics
Interruption
23.3.3 Overvoltages
Time
Power Quality
23
23.3.4 Harmonics
This is a very common problem in the field of Power
Quality. The main causes are Power Electronic Devices,
such as rectifiers, inverters, UPS systems, static var
compensators, etc. Other sources are electric discharge
lamps, arc furnaces and arc welders. In fact, any nonlinear load will be a source of harmonics. Figure 23.7
illustrates a supply waveform that is distorted due to the
presence of harmonics. Harmonics usually lead to
heating in rotating equipment (generators and motors),
and transformers, leading to possible shutdown.
Capacitors may be similarly affected. If harmonic levels
414
23.3.9 Undervoltage
415
Power Quality
23
Power Quality
23
416
Application
Voltage variations
Supply interruptions
Frequency variations
Harmonics
Harmonics
Voltage variations
Supply interruptions
Power Quality
23
Rectifier/
Inverter
Supply
Load
Energy
storage
Load
Network
Coupling
inductance
Energy
storage
system
23
power section
DC-link capacitor
Figure 23.14: Active harmonic filter concept
D.C.-D.C.
D.C.-D.C.
A.C.-D.C.
A.C.-D.C.
Power Quality
D.C.-D.C.
418
(b)
Figure 23.16: Graphical view of voltage dip data
419
Power Quality
A detailed view of one dip shows clearly that the dips are
only just outside the normal supply voltage limits (Figure
23.17).
23
Power Quality
23
420
24
Substation Control
and Automation
Introduction
24.1
24.2
Hardware implementation
24.3
Communication protocols
24.4
24.5
24.6
24.7
24 Substation Control
and Automation
24.1 INTRODUCTION
The sometimes complex interlocking and sequence
control requirements that are to be found in a
substation of any significant size lend themselves
naturally to the application of automation. These
requirements can be readily expressed in mathematical
logic (truth tables, boolean algebra, etc.) and this branch
of mathematics is well-suited to the application of
computers and associated software. Hence, computers
have been applied to the control of electrical networks
for many years, and examples of them being applied to
substation control/automation were in use in the early
1970s. The first applications were naturally in the bulk
power transmission field, as a natural extension of a
trend to centralised control rooms for such systems. The
large capital investment in such systems and the
consequences of major system disruption made the cost
of such schemes justifiable. In the last ten years or so,
continuing cost pressures on Utilities and advances in
computing power and software have led to the
application of computers to substation control/
automation on a much wider basis.
This Chapter outlines the current technology and
provides examples of modern practice in the field.
24.2 TOPOLOGY AND FUNCTIONALITY
The topology of a substation control system is the
architecture of the computer system used. The
functionality of such a system is the complete set of
functions that can be implemented in the control system
but note that a particular substation may only utilise
a subset of the functionality possible.
All computer control systems utilise one of two basic
topologies:
a. centralised
b. distributed
and the basic concepts of each are illustrated in Figure
423
Control Centre
24
Outstations
(a) Centralised topology
Outstation
Control
centre
Control
centre
Control
centre
Outstation
Outstation
Outstation
Outstation
Outstation
(b) Distributed topology
424
Master clock
(GPS, radio)
SCADA
interface
Remote HMI
HMI
Station bus
Internet
or PSTN
Telecontrol or
bus interface
Bus interface
IED's
Legacy bus
Computer
IED's
The HMI, telecontrol interface, and the bus interface could be:
separate equipment
integrated into the same PC
425
SCADA
interface
HMI
Telecontrol or
bus interface
RTU
Bus interface
Master clock
(GPS, radio)
Legacy bus
IED's
I/O, devices
CT, VT
The RTU, telecontrol interface and the bus interface could be:
separate equipment
integrated into the same computer
Internet
or PSTN
24
HMI
computer
Bay
Modules
Bay
Modules
Bay
Modules
24
Master clock
(GPS, radio)
Remote HMI
HMI
Telecontrol or
bus interface
Internet
or PSTN
Computer
Station bus
Legacy
bus
Bay
Modules
Computer
IED's
I/O, devices
CT, VT
Figure 24.4: Decentralised topology
HMI
computer
Bay
Modules
Bay
Modules
Bay
Modules
Bay
Modules
426
Signal Type
Digital Input
Analogue Input
Digital Output
Disturbance Record File
I/O Type
Digital Input
Capacity
8196
Digital Output
2048
Analogue Input
2048
Analogue Output
512
Table 24.2: Typical I/O capacities for a substation
automation system
427
24
Master
station
24
1
1
25 core shielded
DC coupling
15m
20kbit/s
5V min, 15V max
3V
30V/sec
32
Shielded Twisted Pair
Differential
1200m
10Mbit/s
1.5V min
300mV
IED
IED
Terminating
resistor
IED
IED
32
IED
IED
OSI Layer
Physical
Data Link
Network
Transport
Session
Presentation
Application
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
429
24
24
Functional area
Interlocking
CB's
Tripping sequences
CB failure
Switching sequences
Automatic transformer changeover
Load management
Load shedding
Transformer supervision
OLTC control
Energy monitoring
Import/export control
Switchgear monitoring
AIS monitoring
Equipment status
Relay status
Parameter setting
Relays
Access control
HMI functionality
Trend curves
Interface to SCADA
Functionality
Isolators
Contactors
Intertripping
Automatic busbar changeover
Restoration of supply following fault
Load restoration
Generator despatch
Load management
Energy management
Power factor control
GIS monitoring
CB status
Isolator status
Transformers
Switching sequences
One-line views
System views
Harmonic analysis
Remote access
Alarm processing
512
Simultaneous trips
Network re-configuration
IED configuration
Event logging
Disturbance analysis
430
Select user
Operator/
authorised
person
Password
Senior
authorised
person
Password
Engineer
Password
System
engineer
Password
Administrator
Password
List of available
functions
List of
available
actions
Action
select
Action
confirm
Action
execute
Cancel
Device
select
431
24
24
432
Wall mimic
RTU
Sequence of events
Control
room
Marshalling cabinets
Protection 1
Protection 2
Protection 2
Cubicles
Auxiliary
relaying
3 cubicles/bay
Auxiliary
relaying
(a): Current situation
Wall mimic
New RTU
Sequence of events
Control
room
Marshalling cabinets
..........
Protection 1
Protection 1
Protection 2
Auxiliary
relaying
Protection 1
Cubicles
Protection 2
Auxiliary
relaying
3 cubicles/bay
(b): Step 1: RTU Renovation (HW obsolescence & new SCADA protocol)
433
..........
..........
..........
24
New RTU
New SOE
Substation control
HMI
Control
room
Marshalling cabinets
..........
..........
Protection 1
Protection 2
Protection 1
Cubicles
132kV network
Protection 2
Auxiliary
relaying
Auxiliary
relaying
3 cubicles/bay
(c): Step 2: SOE Renovation and wall mimic change
33kV
New SOE
New RTU
Substation control
HMI
Control
room
..........
Protection 1
Protection 2
Cubicles
Auxiliary
relaying
Protection 2
11kV
2 cubicles/bay
(d): Step 3: Progressive decentralisation and protection integration
11kV
Substation control
HMI
Control
room
..........
..........
24
11kV
Protection 1
Bay computer
Bay computer
Bay computer
Protection 1
..........
Marshalling cabinets
Cubicles
Protection 2
Protection 1
Protection 2
2 cubicles/bay
(e): Step 4: Full decentralisation
434
435
24
Modem
EOP-2
Hot stand by
EOP-1
Gateway
GPS
Network
control
centre
Data acquisition
24
345/138kV Transformers:
Lado de Alta
4 X BM9100
K-bus
MiCOM
M301
K-bus
MiCOM M301
345/138kV Transformers
345/20/20kV Transformers
2 X BM9100
K-bus
MiCOM
M301 K-series relays
IEC 60870-5-103
K-bus
Relay PQ741
MiCOM
M301
345kV: Bus section 1
1 X BM9100
K-series relays
K-bus
MiCOM
M301
EPAC
relays
K-bus
K-bus
345kV: Bus section 2
1 X BM9100
MiCOM
M301 K-series relays
MiCOM
M301 K-series relays
345kV: Reactor 1
1 X BM9100
K-bus
MiCOM
M301 K-series relays
MiCOM
M301
K-bus
MiCOM
M301
345kV: Bus coupler
1 X BM9100
EPAC
relays
K-series
relays
138kV Lines:
Ipiranga 1 & 2
2 X BM9100
K-bus
MiCOM
M301
20kV Busbar
2 X BM9100
K-bus
MiCOM
M301
K-bus
MiCOM
M301
EPAC
relays
K-bus
K-series relays
MiCOM
M301 K-series relays
Figure 24.14: System architecture: Utility substation automation project
436
345kV Busbar
(Future)
Transformer 1
345/88/138kV
Section 2C
Section 2D
Section D
Section C
345KV
Section 1D
Section 1C
Earthing transformers
Reactor 1
Transformer 1
345/20/20kV
1B
2B
1A
Transformer 2
345/20/20kV
2A
Figure 24.15: Single line diagram: Utility substation 345kV busbar (part)
138kV Busbar
Transformer 3
345/88/138kV
Transformer 2
345/88/138kV
(future)
Section 3A
Section 4A
Section A
Section B
138kV Line:
Ipiranga 2
(future)
138kV
Section 3B
Section 4B
138kV Line
Wilson 2
Earthing transformer 2
Figure 24.16: Single line diagram: Utility substation 138kV busbar (part)
437
24
438
GPS
55kV line b
Catenary/feeder
BM9200
BM9200
EFI.P
ring
BM9200
BM9200
BM9200
EFI.P
ring
BM9200
xxx
mer
P921
P921
xxx
BM920
GPS
BM9200
OPC server
PC
xxx
BM9200
xxx
OPC server
PC
Ethernet Network
Gateway T103/OPC
BM9200
GPS
Printer
Printer
Traction Substations
8 off
Intermediate Autotransformer
Substations
34 off
44-55 per traction substation
Track catenary/feeder
Track catenary/feeder
P632
Traction autotransformer
P632
c filter
e
Bus see
Buss
Auxiliary transformer
n
BM9200
BM9200
BM9200
BM9200
BM9200
BM9200
Intermediate Autotransformer
Substation
OPC server
Traction autotransformer
PC
P438
ming line
24
P139
P632
P632
P632
P632
Track catenary/feeder
action
ransformer
Traction
Traction
transformer
Traction
otransformer
BM9200
GPS
BM9200
BM9200
BM9200
BM9100
BM9200
ring
BM9200
x
xxx
OPC server
PC
Final Autotransformer
Substation
7 off
xxx
Bus section
Auxiliary
transformer
Auxiliary
transformer
Auxiliary
transformer
Auxiliary
SCADA
Harmonic filter
Maintenance Workstation:
Parameter settings and
disturbance analysis
439
24
24
441
24
25
Distribution System
Automation
Introduction
25.1
25.2
25.3
25.4
25.5
Communications
25.6
25.7
25 Distribution System
Automation
25.1 INTRODUCTION
Distribution systems are generally considered to be
supply networks operating at 132kV and below, and to
which consumers are normally connected. Within a
distribution system, a division into primary and secondary
distribution systems is often made, with primary
distribution systems having voltages above 22kV and
secondary distribution systems voltage below this value.
Automation of distribution systems has existed for many
years. The extent to which automation has been applied
has been determined by a combination of technology
and cost. For many years the available technology
limited the application of automation to those parts of
the distribution system where loss of supply had an
impact on large numbers of consumers. Technology was
not available to handle the large amount of
geographically dispersed data required for automation of
distribution systems in rural areas. Even when
developments in technology began to overcome these
problems, the cost of applying the technology was large
in relation to the benefits gained. Often, there was no
financial incentive to apply automation in rural
distribution systems, and consumers were not entitled to
compensation for loss of supply. As relatively few
consumers would be affected by a fault on a rural
distribution system, compared to a similar fault in an
urban distribution system, the number of customer
complaints received was not a sufficiently important
factor to justify investment in network reliability.
Interruptions to consumers in rural areas were treated as
being inevitable.
Recent developments such as privatisation started to
focus attention on the cost to the consumer of a loss in
supply. Interruptions in supply began to be reflected in
cost penalties (directly or indirectly) to the Utility, thus
providing a financial incentive to improve matters. Rural
consumers gradually became more aware of the disparity
in the number of supply interruptions between rural and
urban distribution networks. This led, in conjunction
with an increasing emphasis on Power Quality issues (see
443
Transmission system
110kV
110/
11kV
110kV
110/
33kV
110/
33kV
110/
11kV
110kV
Large consumers
33kV
RMU
RMU
33/11kV
25
Urban
distribution
network
Load
RMU
33/11kV
33/11kV
Load
Load
RMU
RMU
33kV
RMU
33/11kV
Urban
Distribution
Network
Load
33/11kV
Load
Spur lines
33/11kV
Load
Spur lines
Main circuit
110kV
To Primary
distribution
substation
Large consumers
110/50kV
50kV
Feeders to secondary
distribution system
50kV
Feeders to secondary
distribution system
445
25
25
446
Ring
Ring
33kV
To Secondary
distribution 33/11kV
substation
33/11kV
Ring
Ring
11kV
RMU
M
I>
Remote
interface
RMU
RMU
11/0.4kV
RMU
11/0.4kV
11/0.4kV
11/0.4kV
Final distribution
RMU
RMU
11/0.4kV
11/0.4kV
RMU
RMU
11/0.4kV
RMU
11/0.4kV
11/0.4kV
Final distribution
Figure 25.3: Typical urban secondary
distribution system
Network Protection & Automation Guide
447
25
25
information
(position,
448
Normally
open
point
Normally
open
point
Sectionaliser operates
B
Fault
449
Normally
open
point
25
RTU
RTU
RTU
RTU
RTU
RTU
Normally
open
* point
RTU
*
RTU
RTU
RTU
RTU
RTU
RTU
RTU
RTU
Normally
open
point
450
25.6 COMMUNICATIONS
Perhaps the most difficult task in automating a
distribution network is selection of the appropriate
communications technique for implementation of the
remote control/reporting facilities. Several techniques
are available, as follows:
a. hard-wired
b. Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
c. mobile radio (packet switched data)
d. conventional or low-powered radio (including
Microwave)
e. Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC)
451
25
25
452
453
25
Appendix 1
Ter minolog y
Appendix 1
Terminolog y
455
Alarm
An alarm is any event (see below) tagged as an alarm
during the configuration phase
Bay
Set of LV, MV, or HV plant and devices, usually controlled
by a bay computer
All-or-nothing relay
An electrical relay which is intended to be energised by
a quantity, whose value is either higher than that at
which it picks up or lower than that at which it drops out
BC
Bay Computer. Computer dedicated to the control of one
or several bays within a substation
Anti-pumping device
A feature incorporated in a Circuit Breaker or reclosing
scheme to prevent repeated operation where the closing
impulse lasts longer than the sum of the relay and CB
operating times
AO
Analogue Output
AR
Auto Reclose: A function associated with CB,
implemented to carry out reclosure automatically to try
to clear a transient fault
A p p e n d i x 1 - Te r m i n o l o g y
ARBITER
Proprietary protocol for time synchronisation from
ARBITER Systems, Inc. Paso Robles, California USA
A1
Arcing time
The time between instant of separation of the CB
contacts and the instant of arc extinction
Auto-transformer
A power transformer that does not provide galvanic
isolation between primary and secondary windings
AUX
Auxiliary
Auxiliary circuit
A circuit which is usually energised by the auxiliary
supply but is sometimes energised by the measured
quantity
Auxiliary relay
An all-or-nothing relay energised via another relay, for
example a measuring relay, for the purpose of providing
higher rated contacts, or introducing a time delay, or
providing multiple outputs from a single input.
Auxiliary supply
An a.c. or d.c. electrical supply other than the measured
quantity which is necessary for the correct operation of
the transducer
AV R
Automatic Voltage Regulator
Back-up protection
A protection system intended to supplement the main
protection in case the latter should be ineffective, or to
deal with faults in those parts of the power system that
are not readily included in the operating zones of the
main protection
BCD
Binary Coded Decimal
BCP
Bay Control Point. A local keypad at bay level to control
the elements of a single bay
Biased relay
A relay in which the characteristics are modified by the
introduction of some quantity other than the actuating
quantity, and which is usually in opposition to the
actuating quantity
Bias current
The current used as a bias quantity in a biased relay
BIOS
Basic Input/Output System (of a computer or
microprocessor)
BT
Booster Transformer
B o o s t e r Tr a n s f o r m e r
A current transformer whose primary winding is in series
with the catenary and secondary winding in the return
conductor of a classically-fed a.c. overhead electrified
railway. Used at intervals to ensure that stray traction
return currents, with their potential to cause
interference in nearby communication circuits, are
minimised
Burden
The loading imposed by the circuits of the relay on the
energising power source or sources, expressed as the
product of voltage and current (volt-amperes, or watts if
d.c.) for a given condition, which may be either at
setting or at rated current or voltage. The rated output
of measuring transformers, expressed in VA, is always at
rated current or voltage and it is important, in assessing
the burden imposed by a relay, to ensure that the value
of burden at rated current is used
C
Capacitance
CAD
Computer Aided Design
Calibration
The set of operations which establish, under specified
conditions, the relationship between values indicated by
a transducer and the corresponding values of a quantity
realized by a reference standard. (This should not be
confused with adjustment, q.v.)
456
CBC
Compact Bay Controller. Small capacity bay computer
for Medium Voltage applications
CBCT
Core Balance Current Transformer
CCR
Central Control Room
CDM
Conceptual Data Modelling is an activity whose aims are:
to define objects and links and naming conventions for
their identifications
to guarantee interoperability between subsystems
to define standard exchange formats between system
configurator and subsystem configurators
Characteristic angle
The angle between the vectors representing two of the
energising quantities applied to a relay and used for the
declaration of the performance of the relay
Characteristic curve
The curve showing the operating value of the
characteristic quantity corresponding to various values
or combinations of the energising quantities
Characteristic Impedance Ratio (C.I.R.)
The maximum value of the System Impedance Ratio up
to which the relay performance remains within the
prescribed limits of accuracy
Characteristic quantity
A quantity, the value of which characterises the
operation of the relay, for example, current for an
overcurrent relay, voltage for a voltage relay, phase angle
for a directional relay, time for an independent time
delay relay, impedance for an impedance relay
Check protection system
An auxiliary protection system intended to prevent
tripping due to inadvertent operation of the main
protection system
CHP
Combined Heat and Power
Circuit insulation voltage
The highest circuit voltage to earth on which a circuit of
a transducer may be used and which determines its
voltage test
Class index
The number which designates the accuracy class
Closing Impulse time
The time during which a closing impulse is given to the
CB
Closing Time
The time for a CB to close, from the time of energisation
of the closing circuit to making of the CB contacts
Compliance voltage (accuracy limiting
output voltage)
For current output signals only, the output voltage up to
which the transducer meets its accuracy specification
Conjunctive test
A test of a protection system including all relevant
components and ancillary equipment appropriately
interconnected. The test may be parametric or specific
Conversion coefficient
The relationship of the value of the measurand to the
corresponding value of the output
C o r e B a l a n c e C u r r e n t Tr a n s f o r m e r
A ring-type Current Transformer in which all primary
conductors are passed through the aperture of the CBCT.
Hence the secondary current is proportional only to any
imbalance in current. Used for sensitive earth-fault
protection
Counting Relay
A relay that counts the number of times it is energised
and actuates an output after a desired count has been
reached.
A p p e n d i x 1 - Te r m i n o l o g y
CB
Circuit Breaker
CSV
Character (or Comma) Separated Values format. A
widely used format for the exchange of data between
different software, in which the individual data items a
separated by a known character usually a comma
CT
Current Transformer
Current transducer
A transducer used for the measurement of a.c. current
CVT
Capacitor Voltage Transformer. A voltage transformer
that uses capacitors to obtain a voltage divider effect.
Used at EHV voltages instead of an electromagnetic VT
for size/cost reasons
DAC
Digital to Analogue Converter
DAR
Delayed auto-reclose
D AT
Digital Audio Tape
DBMS
Data Base Management system
DCF77
LF transmitter located at Mainflingen, Germany,
broadcasting a time signal on a 77.5kHz frequency
457
A1
DCP
Device Control Point: local keypad on device level to
control the switchgear, often combined with
local/remote switch
DCS
Distributed Control System
Dead Time (auto-reclose)
The time between the fault arc being extinguished and
the CB contacts re-making
De-ionisation time (auto-reclose)
The time required for dispersion of ionised air after a
fault is cleared so that the arc will not re-strike on reenergisation
Delayed Auto-Reclose
An auto-reclosing scheme which has a time delay in
excess of the minimum required for successful operation
A p p e n d i x 1 - Te r m i n o l o g y
A1
Direct-on-Line
A method of motor starting, in which full line voltage is
applied to a stationary motor
Drop-out (or drop-off)
A relay drops out when it moves from the energised
position to the un-energised position
Drop-out/pick-up ratio
The ratio of the limiting values of the characteristic
quantity at which the relay resets and operates. This
value is sometimes called the differential of the relay
DSP
Digital Signal Processing
DT
Definite time
Earth fault protection system
A protection system which is designed to respond only to
faults to earth
DFT
Discrete Fourier Transform
Earthing transformer
A three-phase transformer intended essentially to
provide a neutral point to a power system for the
purpose of earthing
Effective range
The range of values of the characteristic quantity or
quantities, or of the energising quantities to which the
relay will respond and satisfy the requirements
concerning it, in particular those concerning precision
Effective setting
The setting of a protection system including the effects
of current transformers. The effective setting can be
expressed in terms of primary current or secondary
current from the current transformers and is so
designated as appropriate
Directional relay
A protection relay in which the tripping decision is
dependent in part upon the direction in which the
measured quantity is flowing
Electrical relay
A device designed to produce sudden predetermined
changes in one or more electrical circuits after the
appearance of certain conditions in the electrical circuit
or circuits controlling it
Discrimination
The ability of a protection system to distinguish between
power system conditions for which it is intended to
operate and those for which it is not intended to operate
Distortion factor
The ratio of the r.m.s. value of the harmonic content to
the r.m.s. value of the non-sinusoidal quantity
DNP
Distributed Network Protocol.
A proprietary
communication protocol used on secondary networks
between HMI, substation computers or Bay Computers
and protective devices
DOL
Direct-on-Line
458
Energising quantity
The electrical quantity, either current or voltage, which
along or in combination with other energising quantities,
must be applied to the relay to cause it to function
EPROM
Electrically Programmable Read Only Memory
Error (of a transducer)
The actual value of the output minus the intended value
of the output, expressed algebraically
G l o b a l Po s i t i o n i n g S y s t e m
A system used for locating objects on Earth precisely,
using a system of satellites in geostationary orbit in
Space. Used by some numerical relays to obtain accurate
time information
GMT
Greenwich Mean Time
GPS
Global Positioning System
G TO
Gate Turn-off Thyristor
Event
An event is any information acquired or produced by the
digital control system
F AT
Factory Acceptance Test.
Validation procedures
witnessed by the customer at the factory
High-speed reclosing
A reclosing scheme where re-closure is carried out
without any time delay other than that required for deionisation, etc.
F a u l t Pa s s a g e I n d i c a t o r
A sensor that detects the passage of current in excess of
a set value (i.e. current due to a fault) at the location of
the sensor. Hence, it indicates that the fault lies
downstream of the sensor
FBD
Functional Block Diagram:
programming languages
Fiducial value
A clearly specified value to which reference is made in
order to specify the accuracy of a transducer. (For
transducers, the fiducial value is the span, except for
transducers having a reversible and symmetrical output
when the fiducial value may be either the span or half
the span as specified by the manufacturer. It is still
common practice, however, for statements of accuracy
for frequency transducers to refer to percent of centrescale frequency and, for phase angle transducers, to an
error in electrical degrees.)
FPI
Fault Passage Indicator
Frequency transducer
A transducer used for the measurement of the frequency
of an a.c. electrical quantity
Full duplex communications
A communications system in which data can travel
simultaneously in both directions
Gateway
The Gateway is a computer which provides interfaces
between the local computer system and one or several
SCADA (or RCC) systems
GIS
Gas Insulated Switchgear (usually SF6)
HMI
Human Machine Interface. The means by which a human
inputs data to and receives data from a computer-based
system. Usually takes the form of a Personal Computer
(PC) (desktop or portable) with keyboard, screen and
pointing device
A p p e n d i x 1 - Te r m i n o l o g y
e.m.f.
Electro-motive Force ( or voltage)
HRC
High Rupturing Capacity (applicable to fuses)
HSR
High Speed Reclosing
HV
High Voltage
HVDC
High Voltage Direct Current
I
Current
ICCP
Term used for IEC 60870-6-603 protocol
ICT
Interposing Current Transformer (software implemented)
I . D . M . T.
Inverse Definite Minimum Time
I G BT
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
I/O
Input/Output
IED
Intelligent Electronic Device. Equipment containing a
microprocessor and software used to implement one or
more functions in relation to an item of electrical
459
A1
A p p e n d i x 1 - Te r m i n o l o g y
Instantaneous relay
A relay that operates and resets with no intentional time
delay.
A1
Knee-point e.m.f.
That sinusoidal e.m.f. applied to the secondary terminals
of a current transformer, which, when increased by 10%,
causes the exciting current to increase by 50%
L
Inductance
LAN
Local Area Network
LCD
Liquid Crystal Display
LED
Light Emitting Diode
LD
Ladder Diagram. One of the IEC 61131-3 programming
languages
LDC
Line drop compensator
Limiting value of the output current
The upper limit of output current which cannot, by
design, be exceeded under any conditions
Local Control Mode
When set for a given control point it means that the
commands can be issued from this point
Lock-out (auto-reclose)
Prevention of a CB reclosing after tripping
Long-term stability
The stability over a period of one year
Low-speed auto-reclose
See Delayed Auto-Reclose
LV
Low Voltage
Main protection
The protection system which is normally expected to
operate in response to a fault in the protected zone
Maximum permissible values of the input
current and voltage
Values of current and voltage assigned by the
manufacturer which the transducer will withstand
indefinitely without damage
MCB
Miniature Circuit Breaker
IRIG-B
An international standard for time synchronisation
MCCB
Moulded Case Circuit Breaker
ISO
International Standards Organisation
Mean-sensing transducer
A transducer which actually measures the mean
(average) value of the input waveform but which is
adjusted to give an output corresponding to the r.m.s.
value of the input when that input is sinusoidal
460
Measuring element
A unit or module of a transducer which converts the
measurand, or part of the measurand, into a
corresponding signal
Measuring range
That part of the span where the performance complies
with the accuracy requirements
Measuring relay
An electrical relay intended to switch when its
characteristic quantity, under specified conditions and
with a specified accuracy attains its operating value
Metering (non-tariff)
Values computed depending on the values of digital or
analogue inputs during variable periods
Metering (tariff)
Energy values computed from digital and/or analogue
inputs during variable periods and dedicated to energy
measurement for billing (tariff) purposes
M i d Po i n t S e c t i o n i n g S u b s t a t i o n
A substation located at the electrical interface of two
sections of electrified railway. It contains provision for
the coupling of the sections electrically in the event of
loss of supply to one section
ModBus
Proprietary communication protocol used on secondary
networks between HMI, substation computers or Bay
Computers and protective devices
MPSS
Mid Point Sectioning Substation (electrified railways)
Multi-element transducer
A transducer having two or more measuring elements.
The signals from the individual elements are combined to
produce an output signal corresponding to the
measurand
Multi-section transducer
A transducer having two or more independent measuring
circuits for one or more functions
Multi-shot reclosing
A reclosing scheme that permits more than one reclosing
operation of a CB after a fault occurs before lock-out
occurs
MV
Medium Voltage
N/C
Normally Closed
N/O
Normally Open
Network Protection & Automation Guide
A p p e n d i x 1 - Te r m i n o l o g y
Measurand
A quantity subjected to measurement
461
A1
OPGW
Optical Ground Wire a ground wire that includes
optical fibres to provide a communications link
OSI 7-layer model
The Open Systems Interconnection 7-layer model is a
model developed by ISO for modelling of a
communications network.
A p p e n d i x 1 - Te r m i n o l o g y
A1
Pick-up
A relay is said to pick-up when it changes from the deenergised position to the energised position
Pilot channel
A means of interconnection between relaying points for
the purpose of protection
PLC
Programmable Logic Controller. A specialised computer
for implementing control sequences using software
Output load
The total effective resistance of the circuits and
apparatus connected externally across the output
terminals
PLCC
Power Line Carrier Communication
Po i n t o f C o m m o n C o u p l i n g
The interface between an in-plant network containing
embedded generation and the utility distribution
network to which the in-plant network is connected
POW
Point-on- Wave. Point-on-wave switching is the process
to control moment of switching to minimise the effects
(inrush currents, overvoltages)
Po w e r E l e c t r o n i c D e v i c e
An electronic device (e.g. thyristor or IGBT) or assembly
of such devices (e.g. inverter). Typically used in a power
transmission system to provide smooth control of output
of an item of plant
Po w e r f a c t o r
The factor by which it is necessary to multiply the
product of the voltage and current to obtain the active
power
Po w e r L i n e C a r r i e r C o m m u n i c a t i o n
A mean of transmitting information over a power
transmission line by using a cariier fraquency
superimpozed on the normal power frequency.
PPS
Positive Phase Sequence
Protected zone
The portion of a power system protected by a given
protection system or a part of that protection system
Protection equipment
The apparatus, including protection relays, transformers
and ancillary equipment, for use in a protection system
Protection relay
A relay designed to initiate disconnection of a part of an
electrical installation or to operate a warning signal, in
the case of a fault or other abnormal condition in the
installation. A protection relay may include more than
one electrical element and accessories
462
PSM
Plug Setting Multiple a term used in conjunction with
electromechanical relays, denoting the ratio of the fault
current to the current setting of the relay
Reference value
A specified single value of an influence quantity at which
the transducer complies with the requirements
concerning intrinsic errors
PSTN
Public Switched Telephone Network
Relay
See Protection relay
P T 10 0
Platinum resistance temperature probe
Resetting value
The limiting value of the characteristic quantity at which
the relay returns to its initial position
R
Resistance
R.M.S.-sensing transducer
A transducer specifically designed to respond to the true
r.m.s. value of the input and which is characterised by
the manufacturer for use on a specified range of
waveforms
Ratio correction
A feature of digital/numerical relays that enables
compensation to be carried out for a CT or VT ratio that
is not ideal
Rating
The nominal value of an energising quantity that appears
in the designation of a relay. The nominal value usually
corresponds to the CT and VT secondary ratings
Residual current
The algebraic sum, in a multi-phase system, of all the
line currents
Residual voltage
The algebraic sum, in a multi-phase system, of all the
line-to-earth voltages
Response time
The time from the instant of application of a specified
change of the measurand until the output signal reaches
and remains at its final steady value or within a specified
band centred on this value
Reversible output current
An output current which reverses polarity in response to
a change of sign or direction of the measurand
RCD
Residual Current Device. A protection device which is
actuated by the residual current
RCP
Remote Control Point. The Remote Control Point is a
SCADA interface. Several RCPs may be managed with
different communication protocols.
Physical
connections are done at a Gateway or at substation
computers or at a substation HMI
r. m . s .
Root Mean Square
A p p e n d i x 1 - Te r m i n o l o g y
Protection scheme
RMU
Ring Main Unit
ROCOF
Rate Of Change Of Frequency (protection relay)
RSVC
Relocatable Static Var Compensator
463
A1
RTD
Resistance Temperature Detector
R TO S
Real Time Operating System
RTU
Remote Terminal Unit. An IED used specifically for
interfacing between a computer and other devices.
Sometimes may include control/monitoring/storage
functions
S AT
Site Acceptance Test. Validation procedures for
equipment executed with the customer on site
SCADA
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
SCL
Substation Configuration Language.
Normalised
configuration language for substation modelling (as
expected by IEC 61850-6)
A p p e n d i x 1 - Te r m i n o l o g y
SCP
Substation Control Point. HMI computers at substation
level allowing the operators to control the substation
SCS
Substation Control System
A1
Setting
The limiting value of a characteristic or energising
quantity at which the relay is designed to operate under
specified conditions. Such values are usually marked on
the relay and may be expressed as direct values,
percentages of rated values, or multiples
SFC
Sequential Function Chart:
programming languages
Short-term stability
The stability over a period of 24 hours
Single-shot reclosing
An auto-reclose sequence that provides only one
reclosing operation, lock-out of the CB occurring if it
subsequently trips
S.I.R.
System Impedance Ratio
Single element transducer
A transducer having one measuring element
SOE
Sequence Of Events
S OT F
Switch on to Fault (protection)
464
Unit protection
A protection system that is designed to operate only for
abnormal conditions within a clearly defined zone of the
power system
Unrestricted protection
A protection system which has no clearly defined zone of
operation and which achieves selective operation only by
time grading
UCA
Utility Communications Architecture
UPS
Uninterruptible Power Supply
U TC
Universal Time Coordinates
V
Voltage
VCB
Vacuum Circuit Breaker
VDEW
Term used for IEC 60870-5-103 protocol. The VDEW
protocol is a subset of the IEC 60870-5-103 protocol
Ve c t o r g r o u p c o m p e n s a t i o n
A feature of digital and numerical relays that
compensates for the phase angle shift that occurs in
transformers (including VTs) due to use of dissimilar
winding connections e.g. transformers connected
delta/star
Vo l t a g e t r a n s d u c e r
A transducer used for the measurement of a.c. voltage
VT
Voltage Transformer
X
Reactance
Z
Impedance
TPI
Tap Position Indicator (for transformers)
Transducer
(electrical
measuring
transducer)
A device that provides a d.c. output quantity having a
definite relationship to the a.c. measurand
Tr a n s d u c e r w i t h o f f s e t z e r o ( l i v e z e r o )
A transducer which gives a predetermined output other
than zero when the measurand is zero
Tr a n s d u c e r w i t h s u p p r e s s e d z e r o
A transducer whose output is zero when the measurand
is less than a certain value
Unit electrical relay
A single relay that can be used alone or in combinations
with others
A p p e n d i x 1 - Te r m i n o l o g y
465
A1
Appendix 2
ANSI/IEC Relay Symbols
Appendix 2
ANSI/IEC Relay Symbols
ANSI
IEC 60617
Description
ANSI
Overspeed relay
12
>
51G
Underspeed relay
14
<
51N
Distance relay
21
<
Voltage restrained/controlled
overcurrent relay
51V
U I>
Overtemperature relay
26
>
55
cos >
Undervoltage relay
27
U<
Overvoltage relay
59
U>
Directional overpower
relay
32
P>
59N
Ursd >
Underpower relay
37
P<
Earth-fault relay
64
Undercurrent relay
37
I<
67
46
I2 >
67N
47
U2 >
78
>
Thermal relay
49
Autoreclose relay
79
Instantaneous overcurrent
relay
50
I >>
Underfrequency relay
81U
f<
51
I>
Overfrequency relay
81O
f>
Differential relay
87
Id>
>
467
IEC 60617
I
>
>
>
>
I>
>
>
Appendix 3
A p p l i c a t i o n Ta b l e s
Appendix 3
Application Tables
469
Plain Feeder
Overcurrent
Protection
25
X
X
X
X
46 46BC 47
X
X
32P 37P
27
X
X
X
X
N
N
N
59
59N
64 67W 78
79
81O 81U
X
X
VTS CTS
87
Single-phase sensing
N
N N
X
N
N N
X
N
N N
X
3P
Also includes Switch-on-to-Fault protection
N
N N
X
Compact case version, also includes Switch-on-to-Fault protection
N
N N
X
Self powered version
N
N N
X
3P
Dual powered version
D
D D
X X
X
Single-phase sensing
D
N D
X
X
3P
Also includes Switch-on-to-Fault protection
D
D D
X X
X
X
3P
N N
Thermal protection by PTC. DIN rail or flush mounted
N
N N
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
D: directional/non directional C: Control only M: Monitoring only 1P: Single pole 3P: Three poles
Compact case
X
X
X
X X
X X
X
D D
D D
X
X X
X
3P X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X X
X
D D
D D
X
X X
X
3P X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
One-box solution, including bay control/monitoring of up to 6 switching devices, 200 pre-programmed bay types, Switch-on-to-Fault protection, Transient Ground Fault Directional, PT100 RTD input
X
X X
X
X X
X
D D
D D
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X X
X
D D
D D
X X
X X
X
3P X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X X
X
D D
D D
X X
X X
X
3P X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Additional features: live line working, sequence co-ordination with downstream reclosing equipment
X
X
X X
X
X X
X
D D
D D
X X
X X
X
3P X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
As P143 with additional 10 functions keys + multicolor LEDs, user configurable
X N N
N N
X
X
X
X
1/3 pole CB fail protection, also includes dead zone and flash over protections
21
N: non-directional
P821
P145
P143
P141
P142
P139
P132
P130C
P127
P126
P125
P124D
P124S
P122C
P123
P121
P122
P120
P111
Product
Appendix 3
4
4
4
4
4
X
X
X
X
X
1
2
2
Dis
tan
ce
p
r
o
Che
tec
ck
tion
syn
c
h
Un
ron
d
e
isin
r
vol
g
tag
Rev
e
er
s
e
pow
Pha
er
se
und
e
r
Ne
cur
gat
ren
ive
t
s
equ
Bro
enc
ken
eo
c
o
v
n
e
duc
rcu
Ne
gat
rren
tor
ive
t
s
e
The
q
uen
rm
ce
al
ov
e
r
CB
vol
fail
tag
ure
e
I
n
s
tan
tan
eo
Ins
u
s
tan
pha
tan
se
e
o
o
v
Ti
u
e
s
m
rcu
n
e
eut
rren
del
ral
aye
t
ov
T
d
i
m
e
p
r
has
ed
cur
ela
eo
ren
y
v
t
e
e
V
d
rcu
o
n
l
tag
eut
rren
ed
ral
t
ep
o
v
Ove
e
e
n
rcu
den
rvo
rren
to
ltag
t
ve
e
r
Res
c
urr
idu
ent
al o
v
e
Res
rvo
tric
ltag
ted
e
/
s
Wa
ens
ttm
itiv
e
et
e
a
r
th
Pow ric ne
fau
utr
er s
al
lt
win
g
Au
blo
t
o
rec
cki
ng
los
e
Ove
r
f
r
equ
enc
Un
y
der
f
r
e
que
Cur
ncy
ren
td
if
f
VT
e
r
ent
su
ial
p
e
rvis
ion
CT
s
u
p
erv
isio
CT
n
v
ect
or
gro
VT
u
p
v
ect
/
rat
or
io c
gro
om
Tr
u
i
p
p
p
/rat
ens
Cir
cui
atio
io c
tS
o
n
C
m
u
B
p
pen
con
erv
sat
isio
tro
ion
l/m
n
M
o
e
nito
asu
r
ring
e
me
Eve
nts
nt
r
e
cor
din
Dis
g
tur
ban
c
e
Pro
rec
gra
ord
m
er
ma
Set
ble
tin
sc
h
g
e
Gro
me
ups
log
ic
A3
Application
471
Plain Feeder
Differential
Protection
Application
21
N: non-directional
MBCI
MHOA/B/C
P547
P592
P593
P594
P545
P546
P591
P544
P543
P542
P541
P521
Product
27
X
X
X
46 46BC 47
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
59N
64 67W 78
79
81O 81U
N
N N
X
N
N N
Suitable for 2 and 3 terminal lines, and transformer feeders
N
N N
3P
Suitable for 2 and 3 terminal lines, and transformer feeders
D
D D
X
X 1/3P
59
X
X
87
N
N
X
X
VTS CTS
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Pilot wire differential protection. Recommended for metallic pilot wire protection up to 2.5 , isolation up to 15kV
X
X
32P 37P
Appendix 3
D: directional/non directional C: Control only M: Monitoring only 1P: Single pole 3P: Three poles
25
X
X
X
X
X
X
2
4
Dis
tan
ce
p
r
o
Che
tec
ck
tion
syn
c
h
Un
ron
d
e
isin
r
vol
g
tag
Rev
e
er
s
e
pow
Pha
er
se
und
e
r
Ne
cur
gat
ren
ive
t
s
equ
Bro
enc
ken
eo
c
o
v
n
e
duc
rcu
Ne
gat
rren
tor
ive
t
s
e
The
q
uen
rm
ce
al
ov
e
r
CB
vol
fail
tag
ure
e
I
n
s
tan
tan
eo
Ins
u
s
tan
pha
tan
se
e
o
o
v
Ti
u
e
s
m
rcu
n
e
eut
rren
del
ral
aye
t
ov
T
d
i
m
e
p
r
has
ed
cur
ela
eo
ren
y
v
t
e
e
V
d
rcu
o
n
l
tag
eut
rren
ed
ral
t
ep
o
v
Ove
e
e
n
rcu
den
rvo
rren
to
ltag
t
ve
e
r
Res
c
urr
idu
ent
al o
v
e
Res
rvo
tric
ltag
ted
e
/
s
Wa
ens
ttm
itiv
e
et
e
a
r
th
Pow ric ne
fau
utr
er s
al
lt
win
g
Au
blo
t
o
rec
cki
ng
los
e
Ove
r
f
r
equ
enc
Un
y
der
f
r
e
que
Cur
ncy
ren
td
if
f
VT
e
r
ent
su
ial
p
e
rvis
ion
CT
s
u
p
erv
isio
CT
n
v
ect
or
gro
VT
u
p
v
ect
/
rat
or
io c
gro
om
Tr
u
i
p
p
p
/rat
ens
Cir
cui
atio
io c
tS
o
n
C
m
u
B
p
pen
con
erv
sat
isio
tro
ion
l/m
n
M
o
e
nito
asu
r
ring
e
me
Eve
nts
nt
r
e
cor
din
Dis
g
tur
ban
c
e
Pro
rec
gra
ord
m
er
ma
Set
ble
tin
sc
h
g
e
Gro
me
ups
log
ic
A3
472
Busbar Protection
Transformer Feeder
Overcurrent
/Differential
Transformer
Protection
and Control
21
N: non-directional
P740
MCAG34
MFAC34
P634
MBCI
P542
P541
P521
KVGC 202
P634
P633
P632
P631
P630C
Product
Appendix 3
64 67W 78
79
81O 81U
X
87
VTS CTS
X
N
N N
Suitable for 2 and 3 terminal lines, and transformer feeders
N
N N
3P
Suitable for 3 winding transformers. Harmonic/overfluxing/CT saturation restraint, additional PT100, overfluxing protection
X
X
N
N N
N
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
Suitable for 4 winding transformers. Harmonic/overfluxing/CT saturation restraint, additional PT100, overfluxing protection
X
Translay 'S' pilot wire differential protection. Recommended for metallic pilot wire protection up to 2.5k, isolation up to 15kV
X
X
X
N
N
N N
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
Suitable for mesh busbars, and fixed configuration zones with up to four biased inputs
X N
N
N N
X
X
X
High-impedance differential protection relay (current calibrated)
High-impedance differential protection relay (voltage calibrated)
59N
Compact case
59
N N N N
X
X
Suitable for 2 winding transformers. Harmonic/overfluxing/CT saturation restraint
X
X
N N N N
X
X
X
X X
X X
X
Suitable for 2 winding transformers. Harmonic/overfluxing/CT saturation restraint, additional PT100, overfluxing protection
X
X
N
N N
N
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
46 46BC 47
32P 37P
27
D: directional/non directional C: Control only M: Monitoring only 1P: Single pole 3P: Three poles
25
Dis
tan
ce
p
r
o
Che
tec
ck
tion
syn
c
h
Un
ron
d
e
isin
r
vol
g
tag
Rev
e
er
s
e
pow
Pha
er
se
und
e
r
Ne
cur
gat
ren
ive
t
s
equ
Bro
enc
ken
eo
c
o
v
n
e
duc
rcu
Ne
gat
rren
tor
ive
t
s
e
The
q
uen
rm
ce
al
ov
e
r
CB
vol
fail
tag
ure
e
I
n
s
tan
tan
eo
Ins
u
s
tan
pha
tan
se
e
o
o
v
Ti
u
e
s
m
rcu
n
e
eut
rren
del
ral
aye
t
ov
T
d
i
m
e
p
r
has
ed
cur
ela
eo
ren
y
v
t
e
e
V
d
rcu
o
n
l
tag
eut
rren
ed
ral
t
ep
o
v
Ove
e
e
n
rcu
den
rvo
rren
to
ltag
t
ve
e
r
Res
c
urr
idu
ent
al o
v
e
Res
rvo
tric
ltag
ted
e
/
s
Wa
ens
ttm
itiv
e
et
e
a
r
th
Pow ric ne
fau
utr
er s
al
lt
win
g
Au
blo
t
o
rec
cki
ng
los
e
Ove
r
f
r
equ
enc
Un
y
der
f
r
e
que
Cur
ncy
ren
td
if
f
VT
e
r
ent
su
ial
p
e
rvis
ion
CT
s
u
p
erv
isio
CT
n
v
ect
or
gro
VT
u
p
v
ect
/
rat
or
io c
gro
om
Tr
u
i
p
p
p
/rat
ens
Cir
cui
atio
io c
tS
o
n
C
m
u
B
p
pen
con
erv
sat
isio
tro
ion
l/m
n
M
o
e
nito
asu
r
ring
e
me
Eve
nts
nt
r
e
cor
din
Dis
g
tur
ban
c
e
Pro
rec
gra
ord
m
er
ma
Set
ble
tin
sc
h
g
e
Gro
me
ups
log
ic
A3
Application
473
Generator
Protection
Mains/Grid
Interface
Distance
Protection
Application
59
59N
64 67W 78
79
81O 81U
87
VTS CTS
3P
X
X
D
D
X 1/3P
Includes ROCOF and Voltage Vector Shift protection functions. 64 functions is either directional/non-directional SEF, or REF
X
X
X
X
X N
N N N
X
X
X
D X
X X
X
X
X
M X
Also includes loss of excitation, overfluxing, stator winding temperature using PT100 RTDs, 64 functions is either directional/non-directional SEF, or REF
X
X D
X
X
X
D
D
D D
X
X
X 1/3P
X
X
X X
X
X
MiCOMho subcycle distance and directional comparison protection. Full scheme protection with TOR, SOTF, DEF, and 1/3P reclosing. Mho and quadrilateral characteristics
Same as P441 - universal distance relay for single or three pole tripping
Appendix 3
D: directional/non directional C: Control only M: Monitoring only 1P: Single pole 3P: Three poles
X
X
X
X
X
X N
N N N
X
X
X
D X
X X
X X
X
X
M X
X
X
X
4
Also includes 100% Stator winding earth fault, loss of excitation, overfluxing, inadvertent energisation at standstill, stator winding temperature using PT100 RTDs, and enhanced pole-slipping protection
Rotor earth faultdetectionand DC over/undervoltage
X
X
X X
X
X
X X
4
Includes generator abnormal frequency protection, ROCOF and frequency supervision characteristics
Suitable for MV/HV applications where 3ph tripping/reclosing is required. Includes TOR, SOTF, DEF, Emergency Overcurrent on VT failure, and non conventional CT and VT inputs (option)
X
X
X
X
D
X
X
X
D
D D D
X
X
X 1/3P
X
X
X
X X
X
X
Same as P433, and in addition suitable for HV/EHV applications where PSB, 1/3ph tripping/reclosure and CS are required
X
X
D
D D D
X
X
X 1/3P X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
D
D
D D
X
X
X
3P X
X
X
X
Ideal for Peterson grounded or insulated MV networks. Includes Directional power protection, steady state and transient ground fault detection
X
X
X
D
D
D D
X
X
X X 1/3P X
X
X
X
X
X
X
D
D
D D
X
X
X
3P X
X
X
X C
Compact design case for MV/HV applications where 3ph tripping/reclosing is required. Includes protective signaling, SOTF and BU protection
X
X
X
D
D
D D
X
X
X 1/3P X
X
X
X X
EHV One-box solution, including bay control/monitoring of up to 6 switching devices, 200 pre-programmed bay types, SOTF detection
46 46BC 47
32P 37P
Comprehensive 1 pole/3 pole tripping schemes for all applications including EHV transmission
X
X
X
X
X
X
D
D D D
X
X
3P
X X
X
X
X X
X
One-box' solution for MV/HV, including bay control/monitoring of up to 6 switching devices, 3ph tripping/reclosing, switch-on-to-Fault detection, PT100 RTD input
27
25
21
N: non-directional
MX3IPG2A
P941/3
P343
P342
P341
P444
P443
P442
P441
P439
P437
P435
P433
P432
P430C
Product
Dis
tan
ce
p
r
o
Che
tec
ck
tion
syn
c
h
Un
ron
d
e
isin
r
vol
g
tag
Rev
e
er
s
e
pow
Pha
er
se
und
e
r
Ne
cur
gat
ren
ive
t
s
equ
Bro
enc
ken
eo
c
o
v
n
e
duc
rcu
Ne
gat
rren
tor
ive
t
s
e
The
q
uen
rm
ce
al
ov
e
r
CB
vol
fail
tag
ure
e
I
n
s
tan
tan
eo
Ins
u
s
tan
pha
tan
se
e
o
o
v
Ti
u
e
s
m
rcu
n
e
eut
rren
del
ral
aye
t
ov
T
d
i
m
e
p
r
has
ed
cur
ela
eo
ren
y
v
t
e
e
V
d
rcu
o
n
l
tag
eut
rren
ed
ral
t
ep
o
v
Ove
e
e
n
rcu
den
rvo
rren
to
ltag
t
ve
e
r
Res
c
urr
idu
ent
al o
v
e
Res
rvo
tric
ltag
ted
e
/
s
Wa
ens
ttm
itiv
e
et
e
a
r
th
Pow ric ne
fau
utr
er s
al
lt
win
g
Au
blo
t
o
rec
cki
ng
los
e
Ove
r
f
r
equ
enc
Un
y
der
f
r
e
que
Cur
ncy
ren
td
if
f
VT
e
r
ent
su
ial
p
e
rvis
ion
CT
s
u
p
erv
isio
CT
n
v
ect
or
gro
VT
u
p
v
ect
/
rat
or
io c
gro
om
Tr
u
i
p
p
p
/rat
ens
Cir
cui
atio
io c
tS
o
n
C
m
u
B
p
pen
con
erv
sat
isio
tro
ion
l/m
n
M
o
e
nito
asu
r
ring
e
me
Eve
nts
nt
r
e
cor
din
Dis
g
tur
ban
c
e
Pro
rec
gra
ord
m
er
ma
Set
ble
tin
sc
h
g
e
Gro
me
ups
log
ic
A3
474
Auto-reclose
Load Shedding
Under/Over Voltage/
Frequency
A.C. Electrified
Railway Protection
21
N: non-directional
P842
KAVR 130
P942
P943
P941
P923
P922
P921
P130C
P638
P138
P436
P438
Product
Appendix 3
X
X
27
46 46BC 47
59
59N
64 67W 78
79
81O 81U
87
VTS CTS
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1/3P
High speed 1-Pole/3-Pole auto-reclose/3 Pole delayed auto-reclose relay with check synchronism
3P
Delayed auto-reclose of 2/3 CB's in mesh-connected substation, including auto-isolation of circuit disconnectors
Frequency protection includes ROCOF and frequency supervision characteristics. Load restoration function also available
As P941 plus 7 outputs
As P941 plus 7 outputs and 8 inputs
X
X
Transformer protection. Includes Buchholz, tank-earth and overfluxing protection. Applicable for all system frequencies
X
X
X
Compact case; no CTs optional version of P130C
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
D
D
X
X
X M
Catenary Protection for 25, 50, 60Hz systems. Includes switch-on-to fault and defrost protection, train start-up restraint, wrong phase coupling
As P438, for 16 2/3Hz systems
X
N N
N N
X
M
Busbar/feeder protection. Applicable for all system frequencies
X
X
N N
N N
X
X
M
32P 37P
D: directional/non directional C: Control only M: Monitoring only 1P: Single pole 3P: Three poles
25
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
2
2
Dis
tan
ce
p
r
o
Che
tec
ck
tion
syn
c
h
Un
ron
d
e
isin
r
vol
g
tag
Rev
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s
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pow
Pha
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cur
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vol
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e
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n
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u
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r
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d
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ral
t
ep
o
v
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e
e
n
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den
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to
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t
ve
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r
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c
urr
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ent
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v
e
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ted
e
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s
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th
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al
lt
win
g
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blo
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o
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e
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r
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r
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enc
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f
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Cur
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ren
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f
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ent
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ial
p
e
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ion
CT
s
u
p
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isio
CT
n
v
ect
or
gro
VT
u
p
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ect
/
rat
or
io c
gro
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Tr
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i
p
p
p
/rat
ens
Cir
cui
atio
io c
tS
o
n
C
m
u
B
p
pen
con
erv
sat
isio
tro
ion
l/m
n
M
o
e
nito
asu
r
ring
e
me
Eve
nts
nt
r
e
cor
din
Dis
g
tur
ban
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e
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Set
ble
tin
sc
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e
Gro
me
ups
log
ic
A3
Application
475
Control module
Test Blocks/Plugs
Auxiliary Relays
Intertripping
Interposing Relays
Control/Tripping relays
Motor Protection
KAVS 100
Check Synch
21
N: non-directional
27
32P 37P
46 46BC 47
59
59N
64 67W 78
79
81O 81U
Appendix 3
D: directional/non directional C: Control only M: Monitoring only 1P: Single pole 3P: Three poles
25
87
VTS CTS
X
X
2
X
X
N N
X
1
P211
LV motors only. Also includes prolonged starting/stalled rotor motor, winding temperature tripping using PTC input. DIN rail or flush mounted
X X
X
N
N
N
X X
X
X
X
X
2
P220
Also includes protection against excessive start time, locked rotor, winding temperature measurement/trip, speed switch input. Facilities for number of starts limitation and re-acceleration
X
X X
X
X N
N N N
X
X X
X
X
X
X
2
P225
Also includes protection against excessive start time, locked rotor, reverse power, anti-backspin. Facilities for number of starts limitation, winding measurement/trip, speed switch input and re-acceleration
X
X X
X
X N
N N N
X
X X
X
X
X
X
2
P226C
Compact case; dual motor protection mode
X
X
X
X
X
X
X N
N N N
X
X
D
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
2
P241
Also includes protection against excessive start time, locked rotor, stalling, reverse power. Facilities for number of starts limitation, winding temperature measurement/trip using PT100 RTD's
speed switch input and re-acceleration. Out of step protection for synchronous motors
P242
X
X
X
X
X
X
X N
N N N
X
X
D
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
2
P243
X
X
X
X
X
X
X N
N N N
X
X
D
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
2
KVGC202
Tap change controller, including line drop compensation, circulating current control, reverse current blocking, runaway protection, tap changer maintenance monitor and failure detection, tap position indicator
MVTT
Digital time delay relay - either delay on pick-up or drop-off
MVAJ
Heavy duty electromechanical control/CB tripping/intertripping relays, available in a variety of configurations
GCMO5
High speed intertripping via pilot wires. Inbuilt pilot isolation
MVAW
Electromechanical interposing relays for remote control of CBs, etc. Insensitive to a.c. voltages. Hand reset flag available
PRIMA
Compact electromechanical auxiliary relays in hand, electrical and self reset versions, with or without flag
MVAA
Electromechanical auxiliary relays in hand, electrical and self reset versions, with or without flag. Greater current carrying/breaking capacity than Prima relays
MVUA
Time delayed version of the MVAA relay
MMLB
Test plug for use with MMLG test blocks. Single or multi/finger design
MMLG
Test block for use with all varieties of protection relays, particularly MiDOS series relays
Test block for use with all varieties of protection relays
P991
P992
Multi-finger test plug for use with P991. Visible automatic shorting of CT circuits on insertion into test blocks
Single finger test plug for use with P991. For CT circuit monitoring - isolated voltage output
P993
It can be combined with 4U protection modules, and provides independent tripping and closing functionality as well as CB position indication
P891
Product
Application
Dis
tan
ce
p
r
o
Che
tec
ck
tion
syn
c
h
Un
ron
d
e
isin
r
vol
g
tag
Rev
e
er
s
e
pow
Pha
er
se
und
e
r
Ne
cur
gat
ren
ive
t
s
equ
Bro
enc
ken
eo
c
o
v
n
e
duc
rcu
Ne
gat
rren
tor
ive
t
s
e
The
q
uen
rm
ce
al
ov
e
r
CB
vol
fail
tag
ure
e
I
n
s
tan
tan
eo
Ins
u
s
tan
pha
tan
se
e
o
o
v
Ti
u
e
s
m
rcu
n
e
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rren
del
ral
aye
t
ov
T
d
i
m
e
p
r
has
ed
cur
ela
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ren
y
v
t
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e
V
d
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o
n
l
tag
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rren
ed
ral
t
ep
o
v
Ove
e
e
n
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den
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rren
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t
ve
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r
Res
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urr
idu
ent
al o
v
e
Res
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tric
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ted
e
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s
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ens
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itiv
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a
r
th
Pow ric ne
fau
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er s
al
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g
Au
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Ove
r
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r
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enc
Un
y
der
f
r
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que
Cur
ncy
ren
td
if
f
VT
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ent
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ial
p
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ion
CT
s
u
p
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isio
CT
n
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ect
or
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VT
u
p
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ect
/
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or
io c
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om
Tr
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i
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ens
Cir
cui
atio
io c
tS
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n
C
m
u
B
p
pen
con
erv
sat
isio
tro
ion
l/m
n
M
o
e
nito
asu
r
ring
e
me
Eve
nts
nt
r
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cor
din
Dis
g
tur
ban
c
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Pro
rec
gra
ord
m
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ma
Set
ble
tin
sc
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Gro
me
ups
log
ic
A3
Index
Index
Section
Page
AREVA equipment application
tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A
A.C. electrified railway
protection . . . . . . . .
Acceleration scheme
(distance relays) . .
. . . . . . . 20.1-20.8 . . . . 353-369
. . . . . . . . . .
12.3.3 .
. . . 6.4.1
. . . . . . .
13.3.1
. . . . . . . 196
. . . . . . . . 85
. . . . . . . . 207
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 . . . . . . . . 107
. . . . 14.6.3.2 . . . . . . . . 224
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2
Analogue transducers
Section
. . . . . . . . 18
. . . . . . . . . . . 22.4 . . . . . . . . 402
. . . . 4.3
. . . . . . . . 33
Annunciator testing
. . . . . . . . . . . 21.14 . . . . . . . . 396
. . . . . . . . . . . . . A2 . . . . . . . . 467
Anti-pumping devices,
auto-reclose schemes .
. . . . . . . . 14.10.5 . . . . . . . . 228
. . . . . . . 13.4.1 . . . . . . . . 210
Application of auto-reclosing .
Application of directional
overcurrent relays . . . . .
. . . . . 14.2 . . . . . . . . 219
. . . . . . . 9.14.3 . . . . . . . . 134
. . . . . . . A3 . . . . 469-475
. . . . 10.8.2 . . . . . . . . 159
. . 10.8.2 . . . . . . . . 159
. . . . . . A3 . . . . 469-475
. . . . . . . . . 11.7.3 . . . . . . . . 178
Armature reaction,
of synchronous machines
. . . . . . . . . 5.3
Arrangement of
busbar protection schemes
Asymmetry of synchronous
machine . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 15.9.5 . . . . . . . . 248
. . . . . . . . 5.7
. . . . . . . . 53
. . . . . . . . 7.2.1 . . . . . . . . 100
. . . . . . . . . . . . 14.11 . . . . . . . . 229
. . 15.8.5 . . . . . . . . 245
. . . . . . . . . 17.16 . . . . . . . . 298
. . . . . . . . 49
. . . . . . . 15.7 . . . . . . . . 239
Arrangement of CT connections:
- in high impedance
busbar protection . . . . . . . . .
- in low impedance
busbar protection . . . . . . . . .
Asynchronous running
Page
. . . . 18.9 . . . . . . . . 326
. . . . . . . . . . . 25.5.2 . . . . . . . . 449
Automatic sectionalisers
. . . . . . . . 25.5.2 . . . . . . . . 449
Automation:
- application tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3
- distribution systems . . . . . . . 25.1-25.7
- substations . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.1-24.7
. . . . 469-475
. . . . 443-453
. . . . 423-441
Section
Page
Index
Auto-synchroniser
. . . . . . . . . . . . 22.8.2 . . . . . . . . 407
Auto-transformer:
- equivalent circuits . . . . . . . . . . . 5.16
- Feeding of a.c. electrified
railways: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.6 .
backup protection . . . . . . . . . 20.6.6 .
description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.6.1 .
distance protection zone
reaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.6.3 .
distance protection zone time
delay settings . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.6.4 .
implication of two-pole
switching
and auto-reclosure . . . . . . . . 20.6.5 .
protection philosophy . . . . . . . 20.6.2 .
- positive sequence equivalent
circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.16.1
- protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.12 .
- special conditions of neutral
earthing, zero sequence
reactance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.16.3
- zero sequence equivalent
circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.16.2
Section
Balanced voltage unit protection
scheme for Teed feeders . . . . .
Bar primary current
transformers . . . . .
. . . . . . . 361
. . . . . . . 365
. . . . . . . 361
. . . . . . . 363
. . . . . . . 364
. . . . . . . 364
. . . . . . . 363
. . . . . . . . 59
. . . . . . . 267
. . . . . . . . 60
. . . . . . . . 60
. . . . . . . . 10.4.2 . . . . . . . . 155
Boundary characteristic of
distance relay . . . . . . . .
Buchholz relay
20.5
. . . . . . . 198
. . . . . . . 199
. . . . . . . . 24
. . . . . . . 14.4.1.3 . . . . . . . . 221
. . . . . . . 6.2.6 . . . . . . . . . 81
. . . . . . . . . . 16.15.3 . . . . . . . . 269
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.15.3 . . . . . . . . 269
Busbar:
- faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2 . . . . . . . . 234
- principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.7 . . . . . . . . 239
- Protection: . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3-15.10 . . . . 234-251
- Differential . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.7-15.10 . . . . 239-251
high impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.8 . . . . . . . . 241
low impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.9 . . . . . . . . 246
numerical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.10 . . . . . . . . 251
- frame-earth (Howard) . . . . . . . . 15.6 . . . . . . . . 236
- mesh corner . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.7.2.1 . . . . . . . . 240
- schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.5 . . . . . . . . 236
- speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3.1 . . . . . . . . 234
- stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3.2 . . . . . . . . 234
- types of protection system . . . . . . . .15.4 . . . . . . . . 235
. . . . 6.4.5.2
. . . . . . . . 87
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.18
. . . . . . . . 62
5.24
. . . . . . . . 69
. . . . . 11-361
Cable circuits
. . . . . . . . 10.5 . . . . . . . . 156
. . . . . . . 213
. . . . . . . 199
. . . . . . . . 15.9.6.6 . . . . . . . . 250
. . . . . . . 198
. . . . . . . . 11.2 . . . . . . . . 172
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.1.1
B
. . . . . . . . . 2.9,
. . . 10.4.2 . . . . . . . . 155
Blocking schemes,
distance protection: . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4 .
- multi-ended feeders . . . . . . . . . 13.5.3 .
- using zone 1 element . . . . . . . 12.4.1.2 .
- using zone 2 element . . . . . . . 12.4.1.1 .
- weak infeed conditions . . . . . . . 12.4.2 .
Branch law
. . . . . . . . 24
. . . . 13.2.2.3 . . . . . . . . 204
Back-up protection
. . . . . . . 3.6
. . . . . . . . 87
. . . . . . . 19.10 . . . . . . . . 348
. . 13.3.2 . . . . . . . . 207
. . . . . . . . . . 6.4.5.2
Page
Cable data:
478
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Page
. . . . . . . 15.6.1 . . . . . . . . 236
Calculation of overcurrent
relay settings . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 9.13 . . . . . . . . 132
Choice of harmonic
(transformer protection)
. . .
5.19
. . . . . . . . 62
. . .
5.20
. . . . . . . . 63
4.4-4.6
. . . 31-35-41
Calculations, fault
. . . . . . . . 4.2,
Calculations, examples of
see example relay setting
calculations
Capacitor control
. . . . . . . . . . . . 18.11.1 . . . . . . . . 328
Capacitor protection
. . . . . . . . . . . 18.11 . . . . . . . . 328
Section
6.3
. . . . . . . . 83
. . . . 6.3.2
. . . . . . . . 84
. . . . 6.3.1
. . . . . . . . 84
8.6.3
. . . . . . . . 117
. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 10.9 . . . . . . . . 160
. . . . . 6.2.8
. . . . . . . . 82
. . . . . . .
Circuit breakers:
- Characteristics:
closing time . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4.1.3 . . . . . . . . 221
dead time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.6.4 . . . . . . . . 225
for auto-reclose
schemes . . . . . . . . . 14.4.1.3, 14.6.3, . . . 221-224
interrupting time . . . . 9.11.1, 14.4.1.3 . . . . 131-221
monitoring in
numerical relays . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6.3 . . . . . . . . 108
opening time . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4.1.3 . . . . . . . . 221
- Types:
air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.5.3 . . . . . . . . 322
miniature (MCB) . . . . . . . . . 18.5.1 . . . . . . . . 320
moulded case (MCCB) . . . . . . 18.5.2 . . . . . . . . 321
oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.5.4 . . . . . . . . 322
SF6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.5.6 . . . . . . . . 322
vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.5.5 . . . . . . . . 322
Circuit laws
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.1
. . . . . . . . 20
Circuit theorems
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.2
. . . . . . . . 24
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1
. . . . . . . . 20
Circuit variables
. . . . . . 20.5 . . . . . . . . 361
Characteristic time/current
curves of IDMT relays . . . .
. . . . 9.14.2 . . . . . . . . 133
. . . . . . . . 9.4 . . . . . . . . 126
Characteristics:
- of circuit breakers . . . . . . . . . 14.4.1.3 . . . . . . . . 221
- of distance relays . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7 . . . . . . . . 175
- of generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2-5.6 . . . . . . 47-51
- of motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2-19.7 . . . . 337-346
- of overcurrent relays . . . . 9.4-9.8, 9.14, 126-129-133
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.16 . . . . . . . . 136
Check feature for frame-earth
busbar protection . . . . . . . .
Check synchroniser
. . . . 15.6.4 . . . . . . . . 238
. . . . . . 14.9.2,
Check system:
- for frame-earth protection . .
- for high impedance
busbar protection . . . . . . . . .
- for low impedance protection
Choice of dead time
22.8.1
. . . . 227-406
. . 15.6.4 . . . . . . . . 238
. . 15.8.3 . . . . . . . . 244
. . 15.9.3 . . . . . . . . 248
. . . . . . . . . . 14.6.4 . . . . . . . . 225
. . . . . . . . 24
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4
Circuit quantities
. . . . . . 20.4 . . . . . . . . 360
. . . . . . . 264
. . . . . . . . . 14.6.5 . . . . . . . . 225
16.9.2 .
Page
. . . . . . . 10.4 . . . . . . . . 154
. . . . . . . 356
. . . . . . . 354
. . . . . . . 359
. . . . . . . 359
. . . . . . . 359
. . . . . . . 355
. . . . . 23.2 . . . . . . . . 411
. . . . . . 6.4.4
. . . . . . . . 86
. . . . . . . . 6.4.4
. . . . . . . . 86
. . . . . . . . . 14.10.4 . . . . . . . . 228
. . . . . . . 354
Index
Section
. . 14.4.1.3 . . . . . . . . 221
. . . . . . 18.7 . . . . . . . . 324
Section
Combined differential and
restricted earth fault
protection of transformers
. . . . . . . 16.10 . . . . . . . . 264
. . . . 9.5 . . . . . . . . 127
. . . . . . . . . . . 21.9 . . . . . . . . 387
Commissioning tests
Communication links
. . . . 8.1,
. . . . . . . . 24.4 . . . . . . . . 427
Communication protocols
. . . 25.6 . . . . . . . . 451
. . . . . . . 12.6 . . . . . . . . 200
Complex numbers
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2
. . . . . . . . 19
Complex variables
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1
. . . . . . . . 19
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3
. . . . . . . . 18
. . . . 203-215
Complex quantities
Index
. . . . . . . . 86
. . . . . . . 6.4.2
Condition monitoring:
- of circuit breakers . . . . . . . . . . 24.5.1
- of generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.5.1
- of switchgear . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.5.1
- of transformers . . . . . . . 16.18, 24.5.1
. . . . . . . . 431
. . . . . . . . 431
. . . . . . . . 431
. . . . 273-431
. . . . . . . 10.3 . . . . . . . . 154
. . 9.14,
9.17.1
. . . . 133-139
. . . . . . 2.10.1
. . . . . . . . 12
. . . . . . A3 . . . . 469-475
Convention of direction of
current flow, unit protection
. . . . . . 10.2 . . . . . . . . 154
. . . . . 18.7.2 . . . . . . . . 325
Co-ordination procedure
for overcurrent protection relays
. . . . 9.2 . . . . . . . . 123
. . . . . . . 132
Core-balance current
transformers . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 87
. . . . . . . . . 6.4.5.3
Core faults:
- in generators . . . . . .
- in power transformers
Section
Page
. . . . . . 4.4.6
. . . . . . . . 37
. . . . 158-160
Page
. . . . . . . . . 17.3 . . . . . . . . 283
. . . . . . . 16.2.6 . . . . . . . . 257
. . . . . . . . . . 4.5
. . . . . . . 4.5.1
. . . . . . . . 38
. . . . . . . . 39
. . . . . . . 139
. . . . . . . . . . 13.2.2.1 . . . . . . . . 204
. . . . . . . . 9.10 . . . . . . . . 129
D
D.C. ramp tests
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3.3 . . . . . . . . 375
. . . . . . . . . . 8.7.1 . . . . . . . . 120
. . . . . . 14.9.2,
Dead time in
auto-reclose schemes
. . 14.4.1,
. . . . . . . . . . 2.2
. . . . . . . . . . 2.2
. . . . . . . . . . 2.2
. . . . . . . . .7
. . . . . . . . .7
14.6.2
. . . . 222-224
. . . . . 14.9 . . . . . . . . 226
. . . 16.2.3,
16.7
. . . . 256-260
. . . . . . . . . . 16.6 . . . . . . . . 260
. . . . . . . . .7
. . . . . . . . . A1 . . . . 455-465
. . . . . . . 14.4.1.4,
Delta/star transformer
overcurrent protection
. . . . 227-406
. . . . . . . . . 9.9 . . . . . . . . 129
22.8.1
Page
. . . . . . . . 21.16 . . . . . . . . 397
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4
. . . . . . . . 35
. . . . . . . A2 . . . . . . . . 467
Differential protection:
- digital systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.8 . . . . . . . . 158
- electromechanical systems . . . . . . 10.7 . . . . . . . . 156
- for sectionalised and
duplicate busbars . . . . . . . . . . . 15.7.1 . . . . . . . . 239
- numerical systems . . . . . . . . . . . 10.8 . . . . . . . . 158
- of busbars . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.7-15.10 . . . . 239-251
- of direct connected
generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.5 . . . . . . . . 284
- of generator-transformers . . . . . . 17.6 . . . . . . . . 285
- of multi-ended feeders . . . . . . . . 13.3 . . . . . . . . 207
- of parallel feeders . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.1 . . . . . . . . 204
- of transformer feeders . . . . . . . 10.12.2 . . . . . . . . 168
- static systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7 . . . . . . . . 156
- using high impedance relays . . . . . 10.5 . . . . . . . . 156
- using low impedance relays . . . . . 10.4 . . . . . . . . 154
- using optical fibre signalling . . . 10.8.1 . . . . . . . . 158
Digital relays
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 . . . . . . . . 102
. . . . . . . . 10.8 . . . . . . . . 158
. . . . . 22.3 . . . . . . . . 401
. . . . . . 53-55
Section
Page
Directional comparison
blocking schemes . . .
. . . . . 12.4,
Directional comparison
unblocking scheme . .
. . . . . . . . . . 12.5 . . . . . . . . 199
Directional control of
impedance type distance relays
13.5.5
. . . . 198-213
. . . 11.7.2 . . . . . . . . 176
Directional relays:
- connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.17.1 . . . . . . . . 139
- earth fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.17-9.19 . . . . 138-141
- phase fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.14 . . . . . . . . 133
- overcurrent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.14 . . . . . . . . 133
Discrimination:
- by current . . . .
- by time . . . . . .
- time and current
. . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.2 . . . . . . . . 124
. . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.1 . . . . . . . . 124
. . . . . . . . 9.3.3,
9.11
. . . . 125-130
Distance relay:
- apparent impedance seen by . . . 13.4.1 . . . . . . . . 210
- application example . . . . . . . . . 11.12 . . . . . . . . 189
- application problems . 11.10, 13.4, 14.8 186-210-226
- Application to:
a.c. electrified railways . . . 20.2, 20.6 . . . . 354-361
multi-ended feeders . . . . . . . . . 13.5 . . . . . . . . 212
plain feeders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.6 . . . . . . . . 174
parallel feeders . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.2 . . . . . . . . 204
- Characteristics: . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7 . . . . . . . . 175
amplitude and phase
comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7.1 . . . . . . . . 176
fully cross-polarised mho . . . . 11.7.5 . . . . . . . . 179
lenticular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7.4.3 . . . . . . . . 179
offset mho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7.4 . . . . . . . . 178
other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7.9 . . . . . . . . 182
partially cross-polarised mho . . 11.7.6 . . . . . . . . 180
plain impedance . . . . . . . . . . 11.7.2 . . . . . . . . 176
quadrilateral . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7.7 . . . . . . . . 181
self polarised mho . . . . . . . . . 11.7.3 . . . . . . . . 177
- current reversal on double
circuit lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.2.1 . . . . . . . . 204
- earth fault impedance
measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.9.2 . . . . . . . . 185
- effect of source impedance . . . . . 11.9 . . . . . . . . 184
- effect of earthing method . . . . . . 11.9 . . . . . . . . 184
- example setting calculation . . . . 11.12 . . . . . . . . 189
- features of . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7, 11.11 . . . . 175-188
- forward reach limitations . . . . . 11.10.5 . . . . . . . . 187
- implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8 . . . . . . . . 182
- minimum length of line . . . . . . 11.10.2 . . . . . . . . 186
- minimum voltage at
relay terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.10.1 . . . . . . . . 186
- multi-ended feeders . . . . . . . . . . 13.4 . . . . . . . . 210
- over-reach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.10.4 . . . . . . . . 187
- parallel feeders . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.2 . . . . . . . . 204
- percentage over-reach . . . . . . . 11.10.4 . . . . . . . . 187
481
Index
Section
Section
Index
- percentage under-reach . .
- Performance of:
digital types . . . . . . . .
electromechanical types
numerical types . . . . . .
static types . . . . . . . . .
Page
Section
. . . . 11.10.3 . . . . . . . . 187
. . . . . 11.3.2 . . . . . . . . 173
. . . . . 11.3.1 . . . . . . . . 172
. . . . . 11.3.2 . . . . . . . . 173
. . . . . 11.3.1 . . . . . . . . 172
Page
Distribution transformer
earthing of generators . .
. . 17.2,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Disturbance recorder
17.8.2.2,
17.8.2.3 .
. . .
282-290
. . . . . . . 290
. . . . . . . . . . . 22.9 . . . . . . . . 407
. . . . . 7.6.4 . . . . . . . . 108
. . . 14.12.1 . . . . . . . . 229
. . . . 13.2.2.1 . . . . . . . . 204
. . . . . . . . . . . 8.6.3 . . . . . . . . 117
. . . . . . . . 18.7.2 . . . . . . . . 325
. . . . 21.7 . . . . . . . . 383
E
Earth fault impedance
measurement using
distance relays . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 11.9.2 . . . . . . . . 185
. . . 17.8.4 . . . . . . . . 291
. . . . . . 15.6.1 . . . . . . . . 236
. . . . . . . 4.6 . . . . . . . . . 41
Earthing of distribution
transformers used for
generator earthing . . . . 17.8.2.2, 17.8.2.3
482
. . . . 290-290
Earthing transformer
protection . . . . . . . .
Effective setting of
earth fault relays . .
Page
. . . . . . . . . . . 9.16.1 . . . . . . . . 136
. . . 9.16.1.2 . . . . . . . . 137
Effect of:
- earthing methods on
distance relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.9 . . . . . . . . 184
- fault current on distance
relays, multi-ended feeders . . . . 13.4.3 . . . . . . . . 211
- pre-fault load on distance
relays, multi-ended feeders . . . . 13.4.2 . . . . . . . . 211
- saturation on machine
reactances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.12 . . . . . . . . 55
- source impedance on
distance relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.9 . . . . . . . . 184
- system earthing on zero
sequence quantities . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 . . . . . . . . . 41
Electrical faults in stator
windings . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 17.3,
19.6
. . . . 283-342
. . . . . . . . . . . . 21.2 . . . . . . . . 372
Electromagnetic compatibility
type tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 21.3 . . . . . . . . 373
Electromagnetic voltage
transformers: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2
- cascade type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.8
- construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.5 .
- errors in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1
- protection of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.4 .
- residual connection of . . . . . . . . 6.2.6 .
- transient performance . . . . . . . . 6.2.7
- voltage factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2 .
Electromechanical relays
Electromechanical unit
protection systems . . .
Embedded generation
. . . . . . . . . 7.2
. . . . . . . . 80
Event recorder
. . . . . . . . 81
Examples of static
unit protection systems
. . . . . . . . 82
. . . . . . . . 81
. . . . . . . . 99
. . .
12.1 .
. . . . . . . 193
. . . . . . . . . 21.5 . . . . . . . . 380
Factors influencing HV
auto-reclose schemes .
. . . . . . . 308
. . . . . . . 349
. . . . . . . 330
. . . . . . . 143
. . . . . . . 215
. . . . . . . 149
. . . . . . . 143
. . . . . . . 150
. . . . . . . 276
. . . . . . . 167
. . . . 10.7 . . . . . . . . 156
. . . 23.6 . . . . . . . . 419
. . . . . . 9.7 . . . . . . . . 128
. . . . . 17.19.1 . . . . . . . . 303
. . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3.5 . . . . . . . . 375
Fault calculations
. . . . . . . . . . . 4.2-4.6 . . . . . . 31-41
. . . . . . . . . . 5.16
. . . . . . . . 59
. . . . . . . . 85
. . . . . . . 189
. . . . . . . . 21.8 . . . . . . . . 386
. . . . . . . . 35
. . . . . . . . . . . 6.4
. . . . . . . 215
. . . . . . . . . . 14.4 . . . . . . . . 221
. . . . . . . . . . 4.4
. . . . . . . . 68
. . . . . . . 148
. . . . . . . . . . 5.23
. . . . . . . 365
. . . . . . . . . 10.7 . . . . . . . . 156
. . . . . . . . . . 10.7 . . . . . . . . 156
. . . . . . . . 80
. . . . . . 14.12 . . . . . . . . 229
. . . . . . . . 80
. . . . . . . . 81
. . . . . . . . 85
. . . . . . . . 131
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.9 . . . . . . . . 407
Examples of electromechanical
unit protection systems . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 17.21 . . . . . . . . 306
Equivalent circuits:
- auto-transformer . .
- cables . . . . . . . . .
- current transformer
Errors:
- in current transformers . . . . . . . . 6.4.1
- in relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.11.2
- in voltage transformers . . . . . . . . 6.2.1
. . . . . . . . 82
. . . . . . . . 81
Page
. . . . . . . . . . 16.11 . . . . . . . . 267
Effective setting of
electromechanical earth fault
relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section
483
. . . . . . . . 18.8 . . . . . . . . 326
. . . . . .
25.4 .
. . . . . . . 447
Index
Section
Section
Feeder substation protection
for a.c. electrified railways . .
Ferro-resonance
Section
. . . . . . . . 84
. . . . . . . . 17.15.5 . . . . . . . . 298
. . . . . . . . 13
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10.2
. . . . . . 11.10.5 . . . . . . . . 187
. . . 14.12.3 . . . . . . . . 230
. . . 18.7.2 . . . . . . . . 325
Frame-earth protection
(Howard protection): . . . . . . . . . . . 15.6 .
- check system . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.6.4 .
- scheme for double bus station . . 15.6.3 .
- single busbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.6.1 .
- with sectioned busbars . . . . . . . 15.6.2 .
Frequency shift keyed signals,
protection signalling using . .
Frequency variations )
Power quality) . . . . .
Index
Fundamental theory
. . . . . . . 238
. . . . . . . 238
. . . . . . . 236
. . . . . . . 237
23.3.5
. . . . . . . . 414
. . . 11.7.5 . . . . . . . . 179
. . . . 2.1-2.12 . . . . . . . 5-14
. . . . . . . . . . 3.1-3.7 . . . . . . 17-28
. . . . . . . 236
. . . . . 8.7.3 . . . . . . . . 121
. . . . . . . . .
. . . . 16.6.1 . . . . . . . . 260
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.3 . . . . . . . . 320
G
Gas and oil surge relay
(Buchholz relay)
for transformers . . . .
. . . . . . . . 16.15.3 . . . . . . . . 269
. . . . . . . 16.15 . . . . . . . . 268
Page
. . . . . . 20.7 . . . . . . . . 365
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.3
Field suppression of
synchronous machine .
Flags
Page
Generator-transformer protection
Grading margins
for overcurrent relays:
- earth fault relays . .
- fuse to fuse . . . . .
- fuse to relay . . . . .
484
. . . . . .
. . . 17.6 . . . . . . . . 285
9.11-9.12
. . . . 130-131
. . . . . . . . . 9.16.2 . . . . . . . . 137
. . . . . . . . . 9.12.2 . . . . . . . . 132
. . . . . . . . . 9.12.3 . . . . . . . . 132
- relay to relay
Page
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.12.1 . . . . . . . . 131
. . . . . . 9.15,
. . . . 135-150
9.20.4
H
Hardware architecture
of numerical relays . .
. . . . . . . . . . 7.5.1 . . . . . . . . 104
23.3.4
. . . . . . . . 414
. . . . . . . . . . 6.4.11
. . . . . . . . 92
. . . . . 16.3.1 . . . . . . . . 259
. . . . .
. . . 19.3,
19.7
. . . . 338-346
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3.4 . . . . . . . . 375
. . . . . . . 241
. . . . . . . 244
. . . . . . . 245
. . . . . . . 242
. . . . . . . 245
. . . . . . . 242
. . . . . . . 241
. . . . . . . . . . 15.8 . . . . . . . . 241
. . . . . . . . . 17.2 . . . . . . . . 282
. . . . . . . 8.6.3 . . . . . . . . 117
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . 16.6.1,
15.6 .
18.4
. . . . . . . 236
. . . . 260-319
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4 . . . . . . . . 319
Hysteresis effect
. . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.10.2 . . . . . . . . . 91
I
IDMT overcurrent relay
IEC relay symbols
. . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 . . . . . . . . 126
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A2 . . . . . . . . 467
. . . . . . . . . 23.3 . . . . . . . . 413
Impedance notation .
Section
Page
. . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5
. . . . . . . . 23
Impedances:
- Generator:
direct-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.11 . . . . . . . . 55
negative sequence . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9 . . . . . . . . 54
positive sequence . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8 . . . . . . . . 53
quadrature axis . . . . . . . . . 5.5, 5.11 . . . . . . 50-55
zero sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10 . . . . . . . . 55
- Induction motor:
negative sequence . . . . . . . . . . 19.7 . . . . . . . . 346
positive sequence . . . . . . . . . . . 19.7 . . . . . . . . 346
- Transformer:
positive sequence . . . . . . . 5.14, 5.17 . . . . . . 56-60
zero sequence . . . . . . . . . 5.15, 5.17 . . . . . . 57-60
Implementation of distance
relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 11.8 . . . . . . . . 182
. . . . . 21.5.5 . . . . . . . . 381
2.4
. . . . . . . . .9
. . . . 2.10.2
. . . . . . . . 13
. . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10.2
. . . . . . . . 13
. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 19.3-19.7 . . . . 338-346
. . . . . . . 19.7 . . . . . . . . 346
Induction motor
protection: . . . . . . . . 19.2-19.12, 19.14 337-348-349
- bearing failures . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.10 . . . . . . . . 348
- earth fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.6 . . . . . . . . 342
- examples of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.14 . . . . . . . . 349
- fault current contribution from . . . 18.8 . . . . . . . . 326
- faults in rotor windings . . . . . . . . 19.8 . . . . . . . . 347
- locked rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.4 . . . . . . . . 339
- loss of load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.12 . . . . . . . . 348
- modern relay design . . . . . . . . . . 19.2 . . . . . . . . 337
- negative phase sequence . . . . . . . 19.7 . . . . . . . . 346
- overcurrent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.5 . . . . . . . . 342
- stalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.4.2 . . . . . . . . 340
- starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.4.1 . . . . . . . . 339
- thermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.3 . . . . . . . . 338
- undervoltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.11 . . . . . . . . 348
Industrial and commercial
power system protection:
- automatic changeover
systems . . . . . . . . . .
- busbar arrangement . .
- capacitor control . . . .
- co-ordination problems
485
. . .
18.1-18.13
. . . . 317-335
. . . . . . . . 18.9 . . . . . . . . 326
. . . . . . . . 18.2 . . . . . . . . 318
. . . . . . 18.11.1 . . . . . . . . 328
. . . . . . . . 18.7 . . . . . . . . 324
Index
Section
Section
Page
- discrimination in . . . . . . . . . . . 18.3 .
- examples of protection . . . . . . . 18.12 .
- fault current contribution
from induction motors . . . . . . . . 18.8 .
- HRC fuses: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4 .
- characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.1 .
- discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.2 .
- effect of ambient temperature . . 18.4.4 .
- fusing factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.3 .
- protection of cables by . . . . . . . 18.4.3 .
- protection of motors by . . . . . . 18.4.5 .
- motor power factor correction . 18.11.2 .
- power factor correction . . . . . . . 18.11 .
- protection against overvoltage . . 18.10 .
- protection against reverse
phase sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.10 .
- protection against
undervoltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.10 .
- protection of capacitors . . . . . . 18.11.3 .
Industrial consumers,
auto-reclosing requirements
Initial commissioning tests
Injection test equipment,
secondary . . . . . . . . . .
Injection tests, primary
Index
. . . . . . . 326
. . . . . . . 319
. . . . . . . 319
. . . . . . . 320
. . . . . . . 320
. . . . . . . 320
. . . . . . . 320
. . . . . . . 320
. . . . . . . 329
. . . . . . . 328
. . . . . . . 327
. . . . . . . 327
. . . . . . . 327
. . . . . . . 330
. . . 16.2 . . . . . . . . 256
. . . . 9.5 . . . . . . . . 127
. . . . . . . . 80
. . . . . . . . 92
. . . . 9.18 . . . . . . . . 139
. . . 21.9.1 . . . . . . . . 387
. . . . 8.6 . . . . . . . . 116
Junction law
. . . . . 8.4.3 . . . . . . . . 115
. . . . . 8.7.1 . . . . . . . . 120
. . . . . 8.4.1 . . . . . . . . 115
. . . . . . . 115
. . . . . . . 114
. . 17.3.3 . . . . . . . . 283
. . . . . . . . 9.6 . . . . . . . . 128
. . . . . . . 7.7 . . . . . . . . 109
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.1.2
. . . . . . . . 24
K
. . . . 3.6.2.3
. . . . . . . . 25
. . . . . . . . . . 6.4.4
. . . . . . . . 86
L
Lenticular characteristic
of distance relay . . . . .
. . . . . . . 11.7.4.3 . . . . . . . . 179
. . . . . . 8.6.3 . . . . . . . . 117
. . . 9.18.2,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6.3 . . . . . . . . 117
. . . . . 8.5.3 . . . . . . . . 116
. . . . . . . 115
. . . . . . . . 9.4 . . . . . . . . 126
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 85
. . . . . . . 114
. . . . . . 79-92
. . . . . . . . 83
. . . . . . . 115
. . . . . . . . 9.7 . . . . . . . . 128
. . . . . . . . 21.10 . . . . . . . . 389
. . . . . . . . 21.11 . . . . . . . . 392
. . . . . . . 212
. . . . . . . 273
. . . . . . . 16.2.5 . . . . . . . . 257
. . . . 14.4.1.2 . . . . . . . . 221
. . . . . . . 21.9 . . . . . . . . 387
Page
. . . . . . . . . 21.12 . . . . . . . . 394
. . . . . . . 319
. . . . . . . 330
. . . . . . . . 18.5 . . . . . . . . 320
Section
Load shedding .
. . . . . . . A2 . . . . . . . . 467
. . . . . . A2 . . . . . . . . 467
. . . . . . . . . . . . 14.9.1 . . . . . . . . 227
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.5 . . . . . . . . 430
Lock-out in auto-reclosing
schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.6.6, 14.10.7
Logic systems
486
. . . . 225-228
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6.6 . . . . . . . . 109
Page
. . . . . 17.16 . . . . . . . . 298
. . . . 19.13.1 . . . . . . . . 348
Mathematical operators
. . . . . 17.19.3 . . . . . . . . 304
. . . 17.11.1 . . . . . . . . 293
. . . . . . . . . . .
14.9 .
. . . . . . . 246
. . . . . . . 248
. . . . . . . 248
. . . . . . . 247
. . . . . . . 247
. . . . . . . 247
. . . . . . . 284
. . . . . . . 261
. . . . . . . 226
Magnetically polarised
armature relays . . . .
Maintenance of
protection equipment
. . . . . .
. . . . . . 49-55
5.4-5.12
. . . . . . . . 55
. . . . . . . . . . . 5.12
. . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 . . . . . . . . 100
Magnetisation curve of
a current transformer .
Magnetising inrush
in power transformers
. . . . . . . . 19
. . . . . . . . 86
. . . . . . . . . 6.4.4
. . . . . . . . . . 16.3 . . . . . . . . 258
. . . . . . . . . . 21.15 . . . . . . . . 396
. . . . . . . . . 3.3
. . . . . . . . 80
. . . . . . . . 92
. .
Mho relay:
- fully cross-polarised . .
- lenticular . . . . . . . . .
- offset mho . . . . . . . .
- partially cross-polarised
- self-polarised . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 230
Microprocessor-based
simulation equipment
. . . . 8.7 . . . . . . . . 120
. . . . . . . 11.7.5 . . . . . . . . 179
. . . . . . . 11.7.4 . . . . . . . . 178
. . . . . . . 11.7.4 . . . . . . . . 178
. . . . . . . 11.7.6 . . . . . . . . 180
. . . . . . . 11.7.3 . . . . . . . . 177
Microprocessor-based portable
test sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 21.10.2 . . . . . . . . 390
. . . . . . . . . 21.7.2 . . . . . . . . 383
Microwave communications
for rural distribution systems
. . . . . 25.6.5 . . . . . . . . 451
. . . . . .
18.5.1 .
. . . . . . . 320
. . . . . 11.10.2 . . . . . . . . 186
. . . . . . . 228
. . . . . . . . . . . 11.10.1 . . . . . . . . 186
14.12.3 .
. . . . . . . . 24
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.7 . . . . . . . . 405
Minimum voltage
at relay terminals .
. . . . . . . . 85
. . . . . 10.1 . . . . . . . . 153
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.1.3
. . . . . . . . 18
. . . . 130-131
. . . . . . . . 83
. . . . . . 79-92
. . . . . . . . . . . 22.6 . . . . . . . . 404
Machine reactances
(synchronous machines)
Machine reactances,
effect of saturation .
. . . . . . . . . 3.3.3
Metering, tariff
Page
Measurement centres
. . . . . . 15.9.6 . . . . . . . . 248
Section
. . . . 25.6.3 . . . . . . . . 451
. . . . . . 23.4 . . . . . . . . 415
Index
Section
Section
Page
Numerical busbar protection
. . . . . 15.10 . . . . . . . . 251
. . . . . . . . . . 19.4 . . . . . . . . 339
. . . . 15.10.1 . . . . . . . . 252
. . . 18.11.2 . . . . . . . . 329
. . . . . . . . . 19.1-19.14 . . . . 337-351
. . . . . . . 19.3 . . . . . . . . 338
. . .
18.5.2
. . . . . . . . 321
. . . . . . . . 13.313.5 . . . . 207-212
Multi-shot auto-reclosing
. . 13.2 . . . . . . . . 203
. . . . . . . . . . . 16.1 . . . . . . . . 255
. . . . . . . 17.12 . . . . . . . . 293
. . . . . . . . 19.7 . . . . . . . . 346
Index
. . . . . . 4.3.2
. . . . . . . . 34
O
Offset mho distance relay
Ohm distance relay
. . . . . . . 11.7.4 . . . . . . . . 178
. . . . . . . . . . . 11.7.2 . . . . . . . . 176
. . . . . . . . . 16.15 . . . . . . . . 268
. . . . . 19.7 . . . . . . . . 346
. . . . . . . . 54
. . . . . . . . . 4.4
. . . . . . . . 35
. . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.3
. . . . . . . . 25
. . . . 289-290
. . . . . 8.6 . . . . . . . . 116
. . . 15.8.6.7 . . . . . . . . 246
. . . . . 16.16.1 . . . . . . . . 270
. . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5
. . . . . 6.5
. . . 14.4.3,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.6.6,
14.10.9 .
. . . . . . . . 23
. . . . . . . . 92
. . .
223-225
. . . . . . . 229
. . . . . .
18.5.4 .
. . . . . . . 322
. . . . . . . . 221
Operating features of
auto-reclose schemes
. . . . . . . . . . 14.10 . . . . . . . . 227
Operation indicators
. . . . . . . . . . 2.10.2
. . . . . . 5.9
Notation, impedance
. . . . . . . . 7.5.2 . . . . . . . . 106
Network reduction
. . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-7.7 . . . . 102-109
. . . 10.8 . . . . . . . . 158
. . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 . . . . . . . . 109
. . . . . . 14.10.9 . . . . . . . . 229
. . . . . . . . . 13.2.2 . . . . . . . . 204
Mutual compensation
Page
. . . . . . . 339
Section
. . . . . 19.7 . . . . . . . . 346
. . . . . . . 3.3.3
. . . . . . . . 19
. . . . . . . . . . 8.6.5 . . . . . . . . 119
17.17
. . . . 181-301
. . . . . . . . . 2.10
. . . . . . . . 12
. . . . . . 11.7.8,
. . . . . . . . 13
. . . . . . . 9.1-9.21 . . . . 123-151
Overcurrent relay:
- 90 quadrature connection . . . . 9.14.2 . . . . . . . . 133
- calculation of settings . . . . . 9.13, 9.16 . . . . 132-136
- definite time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9 . . . . . . . . 129
- directional earth fault . . . . . . . . . 9.17 . . . . . . . . 138
- directional phase fault . . . . . . . . 9.14 . . . . . . . . 133
- earth fault protection . . . . . . . . . 9.16 . . . . . . . . 136
- extremely inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7 . . . . . . . . 128
- grading margin . . . . . . . . . . 9.11-9.12 . . . . 130-131
- instantaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5 . . . . . . . . 127
- inverse definite minimum time . . . . 9.4 . . . . . . . . 126
- other characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8 . . . . . . . . 129
- timing error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.11.1 . . . . . . . . 131
- transient over-reach . . . . . . . . . . 9.5.1 . . . . . . . . 128
- very inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6 . . . . . . . . 128
488
. . . . . . . . 11.8.1 . . . . . . . . 183
. . . 16.2.8.3,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2.8.4,
. . 16.13 .
Page
. . .
. . .
258-258
. . . . 268
. . . . . . 62-67
. . . . . . 62-63
. . . . . . . . 69
. . . . . . 66-67
. . . . . . . . 66
. . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4 . . . . . . . . 259
Overheating of generators
. . . . . . . 17.18 . . . . . . . . 303
Overload protection:
- of generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.18 . . . . . . . . 303
- of motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.3 . . . . . . . . 338
- of transformers . . . . . . . 16.2.8.1, 16.4 . . . . 257-259
Over-reach, transient,
of a relay . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 9.5.1 . . . . . . . . 128
. . . 11.10.4 . . . . . . . . 187
. . . 9.11.3 . . . . . . . . 131
. . . . . . . 17.14.2 . . . . . . . . 295
. . . . . . . . . . 17.9 . . . . . . . . 292
. . . .
23.3.3
. . . . . . . . 414
Section
Permissive intertrip
over-reaching scheme
Permissive intertrip
under-reaching scheme
. . . . . . . . . 12.3.4 . . . . . . . . 196
. . . . . . . . 12.3.2 . . . . . . . . 195
9.19
. . . . . . . . 141
. . . . 160-162
. . . . . . . . . 13.2.2 . . . . . . . . 204
Parallel feeders,
unit protection of
. . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.1 . . . . . . . . 204
. . . . . 9.14.3 . . . . . . . . 134
. . . . . . . . . 17.21 . . . . . . . . 306
. . . . . 11.7.6 . . . . . . . . 180
. . . . 6.4,
Percentage under-reach of
distance relays . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 85-246
. . . . . 11.10.3 . . . . . . . . 187
15.8.6.7
. . . . . 11.3 . . . . . . . . 172
. . . . . . 21.15 . . . . . . . . 396
. . . . 13.3.3 . . . . . . . . 208
. . . . . . . . . 11.9.1 . . . . . . . . 184
. . . . . . 9.13 . . . . . . . . 132
. . . . . . . 4.4.2
. . . . . . . . 36
. . . . . . . . 4.4.3
. . . . . . . . 36
. . . . . . . 18.10 . . . . . . . . 327
. . . . . . 10.11.1 . . . . . . . . 162
. . . . . . . . . . 19.7 . . . . . . . . 346
. . . . . . . . . 11.7.2 . . . . . . . . 176
Parallel feeders,
distance protection of
. . . . . .
Page
Polyphase systems .
. . . . . . . 8.7.2 . . . . . . . . 120
. . . . . . 17.17 . . . . . . . . 301
. . . . . . . . 22
. . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.4
. . . . . . . . 59
. . . . . . . . 68
. . . . . . . 346
. . . . . . . . 67
. . . . . . . . 53
. . . . . . . . 56
. . . . . . 49-53
. . . . . . . . 34
. . . . . . . 223
. . . . . . . 328
. . . . . . . . 117
Index
Section
Section
Power Line Carrier
Communications in rural
distribution networks . . .
Power Line Carrier
unit protection phase
comparison schemes
Page
Section
. . . . . . . 25.6.6 . . . . . . . . 452
. . . . . . . . . . 13.3.3 . . . . . . . . 208
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.3
. . . . . . . . 22
. . . . . . . . . 11.10.6 . . . . . . . . 188
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1
. . . . . . . . 47
. . . . . . . 25.3 . . . . . . . . 445
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 . . . . . . . . . 11
. . . . . . . . 21.12 . . . . . . . . 394
. . . . . . . . 17.19.1 . . . . . . . . 303
. . . . . . . 11.2 . . . . . . . . 172
Index
. . . 9.3 . . . . . . . . 124
. . . . . . 10.1 . . . . . . . . 153
. . . 8.6.1 . . . . . . . . 116
. . . . . . . 21.8 . . . . . . . . 386
. . . . 7.6.6 . . . . . . . . 109
Protection against:
- asynchronous operation
for generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.16 .
- loss of Utility supply . . . . . . . . 17.21.1 .
- pole slipping for generators . . . . 17.17 .
- power swings distance relays . . 11.7.8 .
- sudden restoration of supply . . 19.13.2 .
Protection equipment,
definition of . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 2.4.6
. . . . . . . 306
. . . . . . . 301
. . . . . . . 181
. . . . . . . 349
. . . . . . . . .7
. . . . 371-397
. . . . . 20.1-20.8 . . . . 353-369
. . . . . . . . .9
. . . . . . . . . 15.3 . . . . . . . . 234
. . . . . . . . 14.4.1.5 . . . . . . . . 222
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
. . . . . . . . .7
. . . . . 2.2
. . . . . . . . .7
. . . . . . . 19.13.1 . . . . . . . . 348
. . . . . . . 298
. . . . . . . . . . . 2.2
Protection of:
- a.c. electrified railways
Protection performance
Protection requirements
for busbars . . . . . . . . .
Page
. . . . . . 5.5,
5.11
. . . . . . 50-55
. . . . . 9.14.2 . . . . . . . . 133
. . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7.7 . . . . . . . . 181
R
Radio channels,
protection signalling
490
. . . . . . . . . . . 8.6.4 . . . . . . . . 119
Radio communications
for distribution systems
. . . 25.6.3,
25.6.4
Page
Section
. . . . 451-451
5.17 . . . . . . 59-60
. . . . 5.18-5.20, 5.23, . . . 62-63-68
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.24 . . . . . . . . 69
- induction motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.7 . . . . . . . . 346
- overhead transmission
lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.18-5.22, 5.24 . . . 62-67-69
- synchronous machine . . . 5.4, 5.8-5.12 . . . 49-53-55
- transformer . . . . . . . . 5.14-5.15, 5.17 . . . 56-57-60
. . . . . . . . 5.16,
Reaction, armature,
of synchronous machines
Reclaim time in
auto-reclosing .
. . . . . . . . . 5.3
. . . . . . . . 14.4.2,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reclosers, automatic
14.6.5,
14.10.6 .
. . . . . . . . 49
. . .
. . .
222-225
. . . . 228
. . . . . . . . . . 25.5.2 . . . . . . . . 449
Reclosing:
- delayed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.9 . . . . . . . . 226
- high-speed . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.6-14.8 . . . . 223-226
- of EHV networks . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5 . . . . . . . . 223
- of HV networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 . . . . . . . . 220
- of live lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.9.1 . . . . . . . . 227
Recommended grading margins
. . . . 9.12 . . . . . . . . 131
. . . 22.9 . . . . . . . . 407
Relay:
- application of directional
overcurrent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.14.3 . . . . . . . . 134
- application tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3 . . . . 469-475
- bias (of differential relays) . . . . 10.4.2 . . . . . . . . 155
- characteristic angle
(RCA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.14.2, 11.7.3 . . . . 133-177
- Characteristics:
ANSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 . . . . . . . . 126
custom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8 . . . . . . . . 129
definite time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9 . . . . . . . . 129
distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7 . . . . . . . . 175
IDMT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 . . . . . . . . 126
extremely inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7 . . . . . . . . 128
Page
491
Index
Section
Section
Page
. . . . . . . . . . 2.4
. . . . . . . . 15.10.1 . . . . . . . . 252
Index
. . . . . 6.4.10.2 . . . . . . . . . 91
. . . . . . . . . 23.5 . . . . . . . . 417
. . . . . . . . . . . 8.6.2 . . . . . . . . 116
. . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 . . . . . . . . 115
Residual compensation
in distance relays . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 11.9.2 . . . . . . . . 185
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.1 . . . . . . . . . 41
. . . . . . . 6.4.10.2 . . . . . . . . . 91
. . . . . 6.2.6 . . . . . . . . . 81
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.1 . . . . . . . . . 41
. . 17.8.3 . . . . . . . . 291
. . . 16.7 . . . . . . . . 260
. . . 13.4.4 . . . . . . . . 212
ROCOF relay
. . . . . . . 198
. . . . . . 17.11.2 . . . . . . . . 293
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.4 . . . . . . . . 447
Ring mains:
- example of grading
- grading of . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 9.20.4 . . . . . . . . 150
. . . . . . . . . . 9.15 . . . . . . . . 135
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.21.2 . . . . . . . . 307
Page
. . . . 17.15.1 . . . . . . . . 296
. . . . .
17.15 .
. . . . . . . 296
. . . . . . 25.5 . . . . . . . . 449
S
Salient pole rotor,
synchronous machine
Saturation of
current transformers
. . . . . . . . . . . 5.5
. . . . . . . . 50
. . . . . . . . . . 6.4.10
. . . . . . . . 89
Secondary distribution
system automation . . .
. . . . . . 25.4-25.5 . . . . 447-449
. . . . . . . . 21.10 . . . . . . . . 389
. . . . . . 21.11 . . . . . . . . 392
. . . . . . . 25.5.2 . . . . . . . . 449
Sectionalisers, automatic
Selectivity of protection
equipment . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 2.5 . . . . . . . . . 10
. . .
7.5
. . . . . . . . 102
Requirements of
the signalling channel
Residual current
. . . . . . . . .9
Section
. . . . . . . . . . 2.8 . . . . . . . . . 11
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3
. . . . . . . . 33
Sequence reactances:
- auto-transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.16 . . . . . . . . 59
- cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.23 . . . . . . . . 68
- induction motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.7 . . . . . . . . 346
- overhead transmission lines . 5.18-5.22 . . . . . . 62-67
- synchronous generator . . . . . . 5.8-5.10 . . . . . . 53-55
- transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.14-5.15 . . . . . . 56-57
Series compensated lines,
protection of . . . . . . . .
Series sealing,
relay tripping circuits
13.6
. . . . . . . . 214
. . . . . . . . . . 2.11.1
. . . . . . . . 14
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 9.10 . . . . . . . . 129
. . . . 14.6.3.3 . . . . . . . . 225
. . . . . . . . . . . 4.4
. . . . . . . . 35
. . . . . . . . . . 2.11.2
. . . . . . . . 14
Sign conventions
. . . . 2.11.3
. . . . . . . . 14
. . . . . . . . . 8.1-8.7 . . . . 113-120
Signalling performance
requirements . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 8.5 . . . . . . . . 115
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 . . . . . . . . . 21
. . . . . . . . 8.6.3 . . . . . . . . 117
. . . . . . 14.7 . . . . . . . . 225
Single-phase auto-reclosing
Single phase open circuit
fault analysis . . . . . . . .
Single phase
to earth fault analysis
Single phase systems
. . . . . . . . 4.4.5
. . . . . . . . 37
. . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1
. . . . . . . . 36
. . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.4
. . . . . . . . 22
. 14.4.3,
. . . . 223-225
. . . . . . . 7.7.1 . . . . . . . . 109
14.6.6
. . . . . . 14.12.2 . . . . . . . . 230
. . . . . 25.7 . . . . . . . . 452
. . . . . . . . . . . . 21.6 . . . . . . . . 381
. . . . . 2.7 . . . . . . . . . 10
. . . . 2.6 . . . . . . . . . 10
. . . . . . . . . . 10.4.1 . . . . . . . . 155
. . . . . 19.4.2 . . . . . . . . 340
. . . 9.4 . . . . . . . . 126
. . . . . . . . . 14.11.1 . . . . . . . . 229
Star-connected winding of
a transformer, impedance earthed . 16.2.1 .
. . . . . . . 256
Star-connected winding of
a transformer, solidly earthed
. . . . 16.2.2 . . . . . . . . 256
. . . . 3.6.2.3
Starting protection
for induction motors
Static relays
. . . . . . . . 25
. . . . . . . . . . 19.4.1 . . . . . . . . 339
. . . . . . 11.8.1 . . . . . . . . 183
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 . . . . . . . . 101
Section
induction motors
Page
. . . . . . 10.7 . . . . . . . . 156
. . . . . . . . . . 17.4-17.5 . . 284-28-
for
. . . . . . . . . 19.3,
Page
. . . . 338-342
19.6
. . . . . . . . 49
. . . . . . . . . . . 5.4
. . . . . . 5.8,
. . . 19.13.2 . . . . . . . . 349
. . . . . . . 10.6 . . . . . . . . 156
. . . . . . . . 25
. . . . . . . . 14
23.3.8
. . . . . . . . 415
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 11.6.4 . . . . . . . . 175
. . . . . 4.3
. . . . . . . . 33
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.8 . . . . . . . . 406
55
. . . . . . . . 2.12
Switch-on-to-Fault feature
Synchronisers
. . . . . . 53,
. . . . . . . . 3.6.2.1
5.11
. . . . 14.9.2,
22.8
. . . . 227-406
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.8 . . . . . . . . 406
Index
Section
. . . . . . . 348
. . . . . . . 349
. . . . . . . 348
Section
- protection against sudden
restoration of supply . . . .
- underfrequency protection
. . 19.13.2.1 . . . . . . . . 349
. . . 24.6 . . . . . . . . 432
. . . 25.7.4 . . . . . . . . 453
. . . . . . . 4.6 . . . . . . . . . 41
. . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5
. . . . . . . . 38
. . 24.6 . . . . . . . . 432
. . . . . . . 10.11.2 . . . . . . . . 164
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.2 . . . . . . . . . 41
. . . . . . . 11.4 . . . . . . . . 173
Index
Theorems, circuit
. . . . . . A3 . . . . 469-475
. . . . . . . . .
16.14 .
. . . . . . . 268
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.7 . . . . . . . . 405
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10.2
. . . . . . . . 13
. . . . 207-209
. . . . 116-116
Teleprotection
signalling systems
Terminology
Test block
Test plug
8.6.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 . . . . . . . . 114
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1 . . . . 455-465
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.10.1 . . . . . . . . 390
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.10.1 . . . . . . . . 390
Tests:
- commissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.9 .
- equipment, secondary
injection tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.10 .
- maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.15 .
- primary injection . . . . . . . . . . . 21.12 .
- production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.8 .
- protection scheme logic . . . . . . . 21.13 .
- secondary injection . . . . . . . . . . 21.11 .
- substation control and
automation systems . . . . . . . . . . 24.6 .
- tripping and alarm
annunciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.14 .
Page
21.2-21.7
. . . . 372-383
. . . . . . . . . . 21.7 . . . . . . . . 383
. . . . . . . . . . 21.2 . . . . . . . . 372
. . . . . . . . . . 21.3 . . . . . . . . 373
. . . . . . . . . . 21.5 . . . . . . . . 380
. . . . . . . . . . 21.4 . . . . . . . . 379
. . . . . . . . . . 21.6 . . . . . . . . 381
Theory:
- current transformer . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4
- synchronous machine . . . . . . 5.2-5.12
- transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.14-5.16
- voltage transformer . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2
. . . . . . . 387
. . . . . . . 389
. . . . . . . 396
. . . . . . . 394
. . . . . . . 386
. . . . . . . 395
. . . . . . . 392
. . . . . . . 432
. . . . . . . 396
. . . . . . . . 24
. . . . . . . . 85
. . . . . . 47-55
. . . . . . 56-59
. . . . . . . . 80
Thermal protection:
- of a.c. electrified railway
catenary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.4 . . . . . . . . 360
- of generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.18 . . . . . . . . 303
- of motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.3 . . . . . . . . 338
- of transformer . . . . . . . . . 16.4, 16.18 . . . . 259-273
Three-phase
auto-reclosing .
. . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.2.2
. . . . . . . . 14.3,
. . . . . . 4.2 . . . . . . . . . 31
. . . . . . . 4.4.4
. . . . . . 4.2 . . . . . . . . . 31
. . 13.3 . . . . . . . . 207
. . . . . . 9.16.2 . . . . . . . . 137
. . . . . .
. . . . . . 7.6.5,
9.4 .
10.8.1
. . . . . . . 126
. . . . 108-158
. . . . . 24.2 . . . . . . . . 423
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5 . . . . . . . . 156
Transducers: . . . . . . . .
- analogue . . . . . . . .
- digital . . . . . . . . . .
- measurement centres
- selection of . . . . . . .
. . . . .
22.3-22.6
. . . . 401-404
. . . . . . . . . 22.4 . . . . . . . . 402
. . . . . . . . . 22.3 . . . . . . . . 401
. . . . . . . . . 22.6 . . . . . . . . 404
. . . . . . . . . 22.5 . . . . . . . . 402
. . . . . . . . 37
. . . . . . . 9.4 . . . . . . . . 126
. . . . . . . . 25
. . . . . .
Section
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.2
Thvenin's theorem
Targets
- Type: . . . . . . . . . .
dynamic validation
electrical . . . . . .
electromagnetic
compatibility . . . .
environmental . . .
product safety . . .
software . . . . . . .
. . . . 19.13.2 . . . . . . . . 349
Page
. . . . . . . 195
. . . . . . . 195
. . . . . . . 196
- permissive under-reaching
acceleration scheme . . . .
- permissive under-reach
scheme . . . . . . . . . . . .
- weak infeed conditions . .
Page
Transient over-reach of a relay
. . . . . 12.3.3 . . . . . . . . 196
. . . . . 12.3.2 . . . . . . . . 195
. . . . . 12.3.5 . . . . . . . . 197
Transformer:
- condition monitoring . . . . . . . . 16.18 . . . . . . . . 273
- core faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2.6 . . . . . . . . 257
- equivalent circuits . . . . . . . . 5.14-5.15 . . . . . . 56-57
- faults, nature and effect . . . . . . . 16.2 . . . . . . . . 256
- impedances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.17 . . . . . . . . 60
- Instrument: . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1-6.5 . . . . . . 79-92
capacitor voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 . . . . . . . . 83
current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 . . . . . . . . 85
electromagnetic voltage . . . . . . . 6.2 . . . . . . . . 80
magnetising inrush . . . . . . . . . . 16.3 . . . . . . . . 258
novel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 . . . . . . . . 92
overheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4 . . . . . . . . 259
overload conditions . . . . . . . 16.2.8.1 . . . . . . . . 257
overvoltage conditions . . . . . 16.2.8.3 . . . . . . . . 258
positive sequence equivalent
circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.14 . . . . . . . . 56
- Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.5-16.15 . . . . 260-268
Buchholz relay . . . . . . . . . . 16.15.3 . . . . . . . . 269
combined differential and
earthfault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.10 . . . . . . . . 264
delta-connected windings . . . . . 16.7 . . . . . . . . 260
delta/star connected . . . . . . . . . 16.8 . . . . . . . . 261
differential . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8-16.10 . . . . 261-264
examples of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.19 . . . . . . . . 276
intertripping . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.17 . . . . . . . . 273
oil and gas devices . . . . . . . . . 16.15 . . . . . . . . 268
overcurrent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.6 . . . . . . . . 260
overfluxing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.13 . . . . . . . . 268
overload protection . . . . . . . 16.2.8.1 . . . . . . . . 257
restricted earth fault . . . . . . . . 16.7 . . . . . . . . 260
tank-earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.14 . . . . . . . . 268
thermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4, 16.18 . . . . 259-273
- zero sequence equivalent circuit . . 5.15 . . . . . . . . 57
- Reactances:
positive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.14, 5.17 . . . . . . 56-60
zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.15, 5.17 . . . . . . 57-60
Transformer-feeder
protection of . . . .
. . . . . . 10.12.2,
16.16
. . . . 168-260
Transient analysis of
synchronous machines
. . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 . . . . . . . . . 51
Transient factor of
a current transformer
. . . . . . . . . . 6.4.8
Transient fault
. . . . . . . . 88
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.1 . . . . . . . . 219
Transient instability in
unit protection systems
Section
. . . . . . . . 10.4.1 . . . . . . . . 155
Transient reactance
of generator . . . . .
Page
. . . . 9.5.1 . . . . . . . . 128
5.8.2
. . . . . . 51-54
Transient response:
- of a capacitor voltage
transformer . . . . . . . .
- of a current transformer
- of a voltage transformer
. . . . . . . 6.3.2
. . . . . . . . 84
. . . . . . 6.4.10
. . . . . . . . 89
. . . . . . . 6.2.7
. . . . . . . . 82
. . . . .
23.3.10
. . . . . . . . 415
. . . . . . . . . 5.6,
. . . . . . . 10.7.1 . . . . . . . . 156
. . . . . 10.7.2 . . . . . . . . 157
. . . . . . . . 5.21
. . . . . . . . 66
. . . . . . . . . . . . 5.24
. . . . . . . . 69
. . . . . . . . 5.18-5.22 . . . . . . 62-67
. . . . . . . . 5.19,
. . . . . . 62,
. . . . . . .
. . . . .
5.22
. 5.20, 5.22
Transmission media
interference and noise: . . . . . . . . . . 8.6
- optical fibre channels . . . . . . . . . 8.6.5
- power line carrier
communications techniques . . . . 8.6.3
- private pilot wires
and channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6.1
- radio channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6.4
- rented pilot wires
and channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6.2
. . . . . . . . 116
. . . . . . . . 119
. . . . . . . . 117
. . . . . . . . 116
. . . . . . . . 119
. . . . . . . . 116
. . . . . . . . . . 2.12
. . . . . . . . 14
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11
. . . . . . . . 13
67
. 63, 67
. . . . . . . . . . . . 21.14 . . . . . . . . 396
Turns compensation of
a current transformer .
Turns compensation of
a voltage transformer
. . . . . . . . 6.4.1.2
. . . . . . . . 85
. . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1
. . . . . . . . 80
Index
Section
Section
Types of busbar protection systems
Typical examples of time
and current grading,
overcurrent relays . . . .
Page
. . 15.4 . . . . . . . . 235
. . . . . 17.14.2 . . . . . . . . 295
. . . . . . . 17.11.1 . . . . . . . . 293
Index
. . . . 4.6.3
. . . . . . . . 42
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2
. . . . . . . . 18
. . 11.10.3 . . . . . . . . 187
. . . 13.2.2.2 . . . . . . . . 204
. . . .
23.3.9
. . . . . . . . 415
. . . . . . 9.6 . . . . . . . . 128
. . . . . . . . . . . . 21.5.5 . . . . . . . . 381
Under-power protection
of generators . . . . . . .
Page
. . . . . . . . . 9.20 . . . . . . . . 143
Section
. . . . . . 18.10 . . . . . . . . 327
. . . 24.5 . . . . . . . . 430
. . 17.7.2.1 . . . . . . . . 287
. . . 17.7.2 . . . . . . . . 287
23.3.1
. . . . . . . . 413
. . . . . . . 4.5.2
. . . . . . . . 40
. . . . . . . 6.2.2 . . . . . . . . . 81
. . . .
. . . . .
17.6.2 .
. . . . . . . 286
. . . . . . 25.4 . . . . . . . . 447
. . . . . . . . 415
. . . . 11.5 . . . . . . . . 174
. . 17.7.2.2 . . . . . . . . 287
. . .
23.3.2
. . . . . . . . 413
. .
23.3.2
. . . . . . . . 413
Voltage unbalance
(Power Quality) . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
23.3.7
. . . . . . . . 415
. . . . . . 17.21.3 . . . . . . . . 307
V
Vacuum circuit breakers (VCBs)
Van Warrington formula
for arc resistance . . . . .
. .
18.5.5 .
. . . . . . . 322
. . . . . . . . 11.7.3 . . . . . . . . 177
. . . . . . . 11.7.3 . . . . . . . . 177
Section
Wattmetric protection, sensitive
Wound primary current
transformer . . . . . . . .
Page
Section
Page
. . 9.19.2 . . . . . . . . 142
. . . . . . . . 6.4.5.1
. . . . . . . . 87
Z
Zero sequence equivalent circuits:
- auto-transformer . . . . . . . . . . . 5.16.2
- synchronous generator . . . . . . . . 5.10
- transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.15
Zero sequence network
. . . . . . . . . 4.3.3
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 55
. . . . . . . . 57
. . . . . . . . 35
. . . . . . . 4.6 . . . . . . . . . 41
. . . . . . . . 60
12.2 .
. . . . . . . . 69
. . . . . . . . 55
. . . . . . 66-69
. . . . . . 57-60
. . . . . . . 194
. . . . . 14.8.2 . . . . . . . . 226
. . . . . . . . .8
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3
Zones of protection,
distance relay . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 11.6 . . . . . . . . 174
Index
Zones of protection
497