The Nervous System

Week 3 after a human egg is fertilized, the nervous

system starts to form in an embryo.
Weeks 4-5 the heart begins to beat.

The "embryo" becomes a "fetus" after the 8th

week.
Week 25 is probably when the fetus may feel pain
as this is when the neurons have multiplied.

Name two kinds of cells in our

body
that
are
long
and
skinny

What is that common character

shared between them?

Can a Nerve cell divide?

At what stage of the cell cycle is
a neuron?

Do we develop more neurons

over time???

So lets delve deep

A Nerve Cell (Anatomy of a Neuron)

Nerve cells are specialized for carrying electrical

signals from one part of the body to another

What are Nerves then?

Nerves
Nerves: Nerves are
collection of Axons.
Inside Nerves group of
neurons are organized into
bundles:- Fasciculi.
Each Fasciculi is hold
together by Perineurium.
Neurons and Blood Vessels
are hold by loose connective
tissue: Endoneurium.
A layer of dense connective
tissue around all:
Epineurium.

Role of Myelin Sheath

Myelin is an electrically insulating material that
forms a layer, the myelin sheath, around only the
axon of a neuron.
Cholesterol is an essential constituent of myelin.
Myelin is about 40% water; the dry mass is about
7085% lipids and about 1530% proteins.
The main purpose of a myelin layer (or sheath) is to
increase the speed at which impulses propagate
along the myelinated fiber.
Myelinated fibers succeed in reducing sodium
leakage into the extracellular fluid

Myelin Sheath Continued

Non-myelinated, neurons have very slow conduction

rates, about 0.5 to 2 m/sec, compared to myelinated
neurons which conduct at around 300 - 400 m/ sec

Which Human Neurons Have Myelin Around Them

All neurons are myelinated with the single exception of C
fibres.
These are very small diameter 'primary afferent fibres
associated with detection of temperature change, noxious
cold and noxious heat. C fibres are often called 'pain fibres'
('slow pain).
Being small diameter and non-myelinated, they have very slow
conduction rates, about 0.5 to 2 m / second, compared to say,
large, myelinated motor neurons which conduct at around 300
- 400 metres / second.
We could not function if all CNS neurons conducted at that
rate. It would give us a reaction time in excess of 2 seconds as
opposed to the average human reaction time of 500ms (that
would select us out of the competition very quickly).

Multiple Sclerosis
is a progressive de-myelinating
disorder.

Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple Sclerosis

The Nature of Nerve Impulses

Information is transmitted through neurons in

the form of nerve impulses (Action Potential).
Involve a sequence of chemical events at the
cell membrane of the neuron.

The Polarization Chemical Event

The Na-K Pump

Why nervous tissue has one of the highest

rates of ATP consumption of any tissue in
the body, and why it demands so much
glucose and oxygen?
Can you relate with Obsessive Compulsive
Disorder

What happens when you smell a

perfume?
You keep stuffs and dont feel it?

How nerve impulse is

transmitted from one neuron to
another

What is a Synapse!!!!!
The synapse is the small space (20-40nm)
between the axon of one neuron and the
dendrite of another neuron.
Neurons communicate with one another
through the activities at the synapse.
When the nerve impulse in one neuron
reaches the synapse, chemicals are released
from the end of the axon.
Called neurotransmitters
Which bind to receptor sites on the
dendrite of the other neuron causing
depolarization.

Synaptic Transmission

What is the process

of release of
neurotransmitters
called as?

Why is destruction / re-uptake of

neurotransmitters important?
What could be the possible outcome?

Identify the disease

Identify the disease

Can occur due to excess retention of

neurotransmitters

A Probable cause to Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a chronic, severe, and

disabling brain disorder and one of the
world's greatest public health concerns.
People with the disorder may hear voices
other people don't hear. They may believe
other people are reading their minds,
controlling their thoughts, or plotting to harm
them. This can terrify the sufferers and make
them withdrawn or extremely agitated.

What Cocaine does?

Addiction

Neurotransmitter types
Excitatory and Inhibitory

Guess their mode(s) of action!!

 Why does drinking

coffee have a
stimulating effect?

Caffeine inhibits
GABA release and
inhibits Adenosine
action

 Why does
drinking alcohol
shuts everything
down?
Alcohol
stimulates
GABA release

Why does smoking cigarettes have a

stimulating effect?

ACh receptors stimulated by nicotine

Identify this disease associated with

old age

Why are chocolates everyones

favorite gift items?

 Is there any logic in Grandmas

advice to drink milk before sleeping
at night?

Serotonin is one of the most important brain chemicals, or

neurotransmitters, for regulating the sleep/wake cycle. Diets high in the
amino acid tryptophan can maintain healthy serotonin levels, but
lifestyle choices like constant travel and an erratic sleep schedule can
disrupt serotonin production. When serotonin levels are not normal,
sleep disturbances and other issues can result, including depression and
chronic fatigue syndrome.
Chapter 5 The Central Nervous System
Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood 2007 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning

Chapter 5 The Central Nervous System

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood 2007 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning

Nervous System: Structural Division

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood 2007 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning

Nervous System: Structural Division

Central Nervous System

(CNS)
Brain
Spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

(PNS)
Afferent Division
Efferent Division

Ganglion vs Nuclei
Ganglion is a group of nerve cell bodies located in the PNS.
In the periphery, cell bodies are not usually found in isolation.
Ganglia often interconnects with other ganglia to form a
complex system of ganglia known as a Plexus.

In the CNS, the same clusters of cell bodies are referred to as

nuclei, an unfortunate terminology.

Grey Matter Vs White Matter

The CNS has two kinds of tissue: grey matter and white
matter, Grey matter, which has a pinkish-grey color in the
living brain, contains the cell bodies, dendrites and axon
terminals of neurons, so it is where all synapses are. White
matter is made of axons connecting different parts of grey
matter to each other.

Grey Matter Vs White Matter

Nervous System Structural Organization

Afferent division
Sends information from internal and external
environment to CNS
Visceral afferent
Incoming pathway for information from internal viscera
(organs in body cavities)

Sensory afferent
Somatic (body sense) sensation
Sensation arising from body surface and proprioception
Special senses
Vision, hearing, taste, smell

Nervous System Organization

Efferent

division

Carries information away from CNS to effector organs

(muscles and glands)
Divided into
Somatic nervous system
Consists of fibers of motor neurons that supply
skeletal muscles
Autonomic nervous system
Consists of fibers that innervate smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, and glands
Two divisions:
Sympathetic nervous system
Parasympathetic nervous system

Nervous System Organization

Functional Classes of Neurons

Afferent neurons
Inform CNS about conditions in both the external
and internal environment

Efferent neurons
Carry instructions from CNS to effector organs
muscles and glands

Inter-neurons
Found entirely within CNS
Responsible for
Integrating afferent information and formulating an
efferent response
Higher mental functions associated with the mind

Functional Classes of Neurons

What are Inter-Neurons

An interneuron (also called relay neuron, association neuron,
connector neuron or local circuit neuron) is a neuron that forms a
connection between other neurons.
Inter-neurons are neither motor nor sensory. The term is also
applied to brain and spinal cord neurons whose axons connect only
with nearby neurons, to distinguish them from "projection" neurons,
whose axons project to more distant regions of the brain or spinal
cord.
There are more than 100 billion inter-neurons in the human body,
which makes them the most abundant of the three major neuron
types.
Typically, inter-neurons will release glutamate, an excitatory
neurotransmitter, similarly, they may utilize gamma-amino butyric
acid (GABA) when inhibition of a tissue is necessary.

Some Decisions May Require More Inter-Neurons

Not all Brain Cells are Neurons

How inter-neurons are supported?
Neurons are famous. They are the
stars of the brain show and get all the
attention (10% of all cells).
The types of cells that play the
supporting roles in the brain are
called glia. Because glia dont do
fancy electrical tricks, but they are
the glue that keeps the whole brain
working properly.
In fact, the word glia actually means
glue.
Neuroglial
cells
physically,
metabolically, and functionally
support interneurons.

Neurons are like the movie

star cells of the brain but
lets not forget the other
brain cells, GLIAL cells that
have important jobs in the
background.

Types of Glial Cells

Glia are more numerous than
nerve cells in the brain,
outnumbering them by a huge
ratio.
Four major types of cells in CNS
1. Astrocytes
2. Oligodendrocytes
3. Microglia
4. Ependymal cells

Neuroglial Cells

Astrocytes
They are involved in the physical
structuring of the brain.

Establishment of blood-brain barrier.

Take up excess K+ and Glutamate from
brain ECF.
Glycogen fuel reserve buffer.
Along with other glial cells enhance
synapse formation and modify synaptic
transmission (Tri-partite Synapse)

Can act as Stem Cells

Astrocytes--Video

Oligodendrogytes
Form myelin sheaths around
axons in CNS (Schwann Cell
Alternative)
All white matter tracts contain
oligodendrocytes to form myelin.
The most frequent disease
involving oligodendrocytes is MS.
It is caused by a loss of myelin in
defined areas of brain and spinal
cord and thus leads to an
impairment
of
axonal
conductance.

Like oligodendrocytes schwann cells

wrap themselves around nerve axons, but
the difference is that a single schwann cell
makes up a single segment of an axon's
myelin sheath. Oligodendrocytes on the
other hand, wrap themselves around
numerous axons at once.

Oligodendrogytes

Previous studies have shown abnormalities in the brains white

matterits
wiring
and
insulationassociated
with
Schizophrenia.

Microglia: The Constant Gardeners

Immune defense cells of the CNS
In resting state release low levels of
growth factors that help neurons
and other glial cells to survive and
thrive
They not only eat up invaders,
damaged tissue, misfolded protein,
but also trim away weak
connections,
or
synapses,
between neurons.
Neuro-developmental
disorders
such as schizophrenia are often
associated with faulty pruning.

Ependymal Cells
Line internal, fluid-filled cavities of the
CNS.
Ependymal cells possess tiny hair-like
structures called cilia on their surfaces
facing the open space of the cavities
they line.

The cilia beat in a coordinated pattern to

influence the direction of flow of CSF,
bringing nutrients and other substances to
neurons and filtering out molecules that
may be harmful to the cells.

Regeneration of Nerves
The CNS has limited ability to
fix its damaged nerves, in
contrast to the PNS.
CNS cannot generate new
neurons nor regenerate new
axons of previously severed
neurons.
Remarkably, almost 90% of
cells in the CNS are not even
neurons. Rather they are glial
cells.
In the CNS, two "glial culprits
oligodendrocytes
and
astrocytes
INHIBIT
axon
regeneration.

How body protects CNS?

Enclosed by hard, bony
structures
Wrapped by meninges
Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
Pia mater

Floats in cushioning fluid

(CSF)
Blood-brain barrier

Dura Mater is actually latin for Tough

Mother it literally has 2,000 pounds per
square inch of tensile strength

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

Surrounds and cushions brain and
spinal cord
Formed primarily by choroid plexuses.
It is responsible for pumping out about
500 ml per day. It also supplies nutrients
and hormones to the brain while
clearing waste. CSF changes with age.

During sleep, the flow of CSF

increases dramatically, washing away
harmful waste proteins that build up
between brain cells during waking
hours.

CSF is recycled (flushed) 4 times per day in

order to clean out metabolites and toxins
like beta amyloid. Hence the choroid plexus
must produce about 500 milliliters of CSF
daily (or 21 mL per hour).

Cerebrospinal Fluid

Cerebrospinal Fluid Circulation

1. Is choroid plexus the only place of exchange of nutrients in

brain?
2. So, is CSF the only carrier of nourishment in brain?

3. So isnt there blood flowing through brain/CNS? Or is it

only CSF?
4. What is blood brain barrier then, how stuffs are
exchanged?
5. So how do pain killers act then?
6. Can blood brain barrier be breached?

Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)

It acts as a gatekeeper
Prevent harmful blood-borne substances
to reach central nervous tissue
Prevents neurotransmitters from
reaching brain
Limits use of drugs for treatment of
brain and spinal cord disorders
Many drugs cannot penetrate BBB

Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)

Brain Anatomy
Brain components
Brain stem
Cerebellum
Forebrain
Diencephalon
Hypothalamus
Thalamus

Cerebrum
Basal nuclei
Cerebral cortex

Brain component

Cerebral cortex

Cerebral cortex
Basal nuclei
(lateral to thalamus)

Basal nuclei
Thalamus
(medial)

Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Hypothalamus
Cerebellum

Cerebellum

Midbrain

Brain stem

Brain stem
(midbrain, pons,
and medulla)

Pons
Medulla

Spinal cord

Major Functions
1. Sensory perception
2. Voluntary control of movement
3. Language
4. Personality traits
5. Sophisticated mental events, such as thinking memory,
decision making, creativity, and self-consciousness
1. Inhibition of muscle tone
2. Coordination of slow, sustained movements
3. Suppression of useless patterns of movements
1. Relay station for all synaptic input
2. Crude awareness of sensation
3. Some degree of consciousness
4. Role in motor control
1. Regulation of many homeostatic functions, such as temperature
control, thirst, urine output, and food intake
2. Important link between nervous and endocrine systems
3. Extensive involvement with emotion and basic behavioral patterns
1. Maintenance of balance
2. Enhancement of muscle tone
3. Coordination and planning of skilled voluntary muscle activity

1. Origin of majority of peripheral cranial nerves

2. Cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive control centers
3. Regulation of muscle reflexes involved with equilibrium and posture
4. Reception and integration of all synaptic input from spinal cord;
Chapter 5 The Central Nervous System
arousal and activation of Human
cerebral
cortex
Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood 2007 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning
5. Role in sleep-wake cycle

Brain component
Cerebral cortex

Basal nuclei

Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Cerebellum

Brain stem
(midbrain, pons,
and medulla)

Brain Stem
Oldest region of the brain
Continuous with spinal cord
Consists of
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla

It controls breathing, heart rate, body

temperature, wake and sleep cycles, digestion,
sneezing, coughing, vomiting, swallowing and
co-ordinates motor signals.

Brain Stem
Some other Functions
Most of cranial nerves arise from brain stem

RETICULAR FORMATION
(wakefulness centre / radar / RAS) within brain stem
receives and integrates all incoming sensory
synaptic input (controls sub-conscious mind (40
million bits of data/sec).

Centers that govern sleep are in brain stem

(evidence suggests center promoting slow-wave sleep
lies in hypothalamus).

The part of the brain that keeps you ALERT

Helps you pay attention to new stimulus

At the most rudimentary level, information from the senses

makes a stop-over in a structure called the reticular
formation of the brainstem. The reticular formation is a
cluster of interconnected neurons similar to a web of fiber
optics. This structure sends signals to far-reaching parts
of the brain, influencing the general sense of alertness.
Pain, light touch, head movement, smell, sound, and
light stop over here in the reticular formation on its way
to the cortex.

Your Sub-conscious Desire is

therefore Important
It will start putting the
path/resources to get to your
desire
So tuning ON your reticular is
important

Brain Stem: Sleep Control

Active process consisting of

two
types
of
sleep
characterized by different EEG
patterns
and
different
behaviors:1. Slow-wave sleep
2. Paradoxical or REM Sleep

It has been observed that mental activity is present

during all stages of sleep, though from different
regions in the brain. So, contrary to popular
understanding, the brain never completely shuts
down during sleep.

Comparison of Slow-Wave and Paradoxical

Sleep

Active and Inactive Areas in Sleep

Neuronal Control of Sleep

Hypothalamus and Sleep

The brainstem and hypothalamus promote wakefulness by sending
arousal signals to the cerebral cortex, the brains largest region.

One area of the brain that promotes arousal is the tubero-mammillary

nucleus (TMN). Here, neurons release histamine as one of their
neurotransmitters.
Other neurons produce a neurotransmitter called orexin (also known
as hypocretin), which directly stimulates the arousal centers as well as
the cerebral cortex itself.
Neurons in a part of the hypothalamus called the ventrolateral preoptic
nucleus (VLPO) connect directly to the many arousal-promoting
centers. Rather than stimulating activity in these areas, signals from
VLPO neurons inhibit their activity

Diencephalon
Houses two brain
components
Thalamus
sensory processing

Hypothalamus
homeostatic functions
important in maintaining
stability of internal
environment

Thalamus (The relay station)

Serves to relay sensory to cerebral cortex
Along with brain stem and cortical association
areas, important in ability to direct attention to
stimuli of interest
Capable of crude awareness of various types of
sensation (hot/cold).

Apart from smell all sensory inputs pass

through Thalamus

The ultimate reality is that without thalamus, the cortex is

useless, it's not receiving any information in the first place.

Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus gland has a very important job to
connect the nervous system with the endocrine system.

Functions
body homeostatic system
Say temperature (deeper functions by cortex)
thirst and urine output
food intake
Produces posterior pituitary hormones
uterine contractions and milk ejection
Participates in sleep-wake cycle.

The Limbic System

Includes two major portions:
o Amygdala: almond shaped mass of nuclei
involved in emotional responses, hormonal
secretions, and memory.
o Hippocampus: a tiny nub that acts as a
memory indexer -- sending memories out to
the appropriate part of the cerebral
hemisphere for long-term storage and
retrieving them when necessary.
Responsible for
Emotion (some may last for 4-5hrs)
Motivation and learning

The amygdala is a key coordinator of

emotional behavior

The Amygdala and Kluver-Bucy Syndrome

The first good evidence linking the amygdala to emotion
was obtained in 1939 by Heinrich Kluver and Paul
Bucy.
They removed the amygdala bilaterally in monkeys.
They observed a dramatic change in emotional behavior:
Monkeys became tame, fearless, and had blunted
emotions.
Increased oral activity, including placing inedible
objects in their mouth.
Micro-stimulation of the amygdala produces feelings
of fear and apprehension.

How could I do that, what could I have

possibly been thinking?
Well in reality you werent thinking you
were overwhelmed with an emotional
reaction. You were hijacked.

The Amygdala and Emotional Processing

Imaging studies have revealed that the amygdala is activated
differentially by emotional facial expressions. Other functional
imaging studies have shown the amygdala to respond to
emotionally arousing stimuli.

In most people, the amygdala rapidly habituates, or

decreases its response, to repeated social stimuli. But
scientists have discovered for the first time that the amygdala
of people with autism does not adapt to repeated viewings of
faces.

A schematic model for how hormonal systems can

modulate memory storage via the amygdala
Emotionally
arousing
events
activate the sympathetic nervous
system and the HPA axis,
resulting in the release of
epinephrine and glucocorticoids,
which have been shown to enhance
emotional memory.
Lesions of the amygdala block this
memory-enhancing
neuromodulatory function.
The amygdala is reciprocally
connected with the hippocampus
and
the
neo-cortex,
both
implicated in memory processes.

The Hippocampus

Cerebral Cortex
Previously formed memories are stored in the cerebral cortex.
Thalamus
Areas of the thalamus are considered to have a role in the formation of new memories
partly through their connections with the hippocampus, and partly because the thalamus
is considered to be important for mental alertness.
Hippocampus
The hippocampus is believed to have a critical role in the formation of new memories. It
functions as a memory "gateway" through which new memories must pass before
entering permanent storage in the brain. It is one of the first brain areas to show
damage in Alzheimer's disease. (Declarative Memory OFF; Procedural On)

Memory
Different stages of human memory function as a sort of filter
that helps to protect us from the flood of information that
confront us on a daily basis, avoiding an overload of
information and helping to keep us sane. Storage of acquired
knowledge for later recall
Short-term memory/ Consolidation/ Long-term memory
The more the information is repeated or used, the more likely
it is to be retained in long-term memory.

Memory Storage
After consolidation, long-term memories are stored throughout the
brain as groups of neurons that are primed to fire together in
the same pattern that created the original experience, and each
component of a memory is stored in the brain area that initiated it
(e.g. groups of neurons in the visual cortex store a sight, neurons in
the amygdala store the associated emotion, etc).
Indeed, it seems that they may even be encoded redundantly,
several times, in various parts of the cortex, so that, if one memory
trace is wiped out, there are duplicates, or alternative pathways,
elsewhere, through which the memory may still be retrieved.
Antero-grade
Amnesia
(inability
memories/cannot recall recent past)

to

create

new

Retrograde Amnesia (inability to recall past events happened

before amnesia)

Cerebrum
Highly developed
Makes up about 80% of total
brain weight (largest portion of
brain)

Outer surface is highly convoluted

cerebral cortex
Highest, most complex integrating
area of the brain
Plays key role in most
sophisticated neural functions

Cerebral Cortex
Outer most layer of
cerebrum
Each half of cortex
divided into four
major lobes

Occipital
Temporal
Parietal
Frontal

Cerebral Pre-Frontal Cortex Maturation

A homunculus is a sensory map of your body, so it looks like an oddly

proportioned human. The reason it's oddly proportioned is that a homunculus
represents each part of the body in proportion to its number of sensory neural
connections and not its actual size. The layout of the sensory neural
connections throughout your body determines the level of sensitivity each area
of your body has, so the hands on a sensory homunculus are its largest body
parts, exaggerated to an almost comical degree, while the arms are skinny.

Speaking and Language

Primary areas of cortical specialization for
language
Brocas area
Governs speaking ability (understanding but not able
to speak/express) (Stammering/Stuttering)

Wernickes area
Can speak fluently but speaks Non-sense.
Concerned with language comprehension
Responsible for formulating coherent patterns of speech

Language disorders
Aphasias (Brocas or Wenickes Lesion)
Speech impediments
Dyslexia (disability in reading and arranging infosdevelopmental disorder)

Cerebral Hemispheres
Left cerebral hemisphere
Excels in logical, analytic, sequential, and verbal
tasks
Math, language forms, philosophy

Right cerebral hemisphere

Excels in nonlanguage skills
Spatial perception and artistic and musical talents

Cerebellum
Attached at top rear portion of brain stem
Balancing
Subconscious coordination of motor activity
(movement)
Plays key role in learning skilled motor tasks