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Intersections:Gender,HistoryandCultureintheAsianContext
Issue10,August2004

ReadingtheBaliPost:
WomenandRepresentation
inPostSuhartoBali
HelenCreese

1. Forwomenandwomen'sgroupsthroughoutIndonesia,thepostSuhartoeraofdemocratic
reform[reformasi]broughtwithitthehopeofnewopportunitiesforchangestolongstanding
genderrelationshipsandtosocialandpoliticalstructuralinequalities.Atthenationallevel,the
increaseinwomen'sactivismparticularlyatthegrassrootslevel,theestablishmentofelectoral
democracy,theappointmentofMegawatiSoekarnoputriasvicepresidentin1999andthenas
Presidentin2001,andmostrecentlytherecommended30percentquotaforfemale
candidatesinthe2004nationalelectionpointthewaytoimprovedopportunitiesandpolitical
representationforwomeninIndonesia.Nevertheless,thegainsforwomenhavebeenlargely
rhetoricalratherthanpracticalandthepoliticalpositionofwomenhasimprovedonlymarginally
since1998.[1]Viewedfromaregionalperspective,theoutlookforwomenappearsparticularly
bleak.

2. Justasinotherpartsofthenation,followingthefallofSuharto,therewasanunderlying
optimisminBalithattheproblemsfacedbywomengenerallyinNewOrderIndonesiamight
nowfindsolutions.AsaneditorialcommentintheApril2000issueoftheculturalmagazine
BaliLainproclaimed:'Whenthehallwaytodemocracyopened,itseemedwomenhadfounda
vastarenainwhichtogivevoicetoandstruggletowardswhatforsolonghadbeenjusta
dream.'[2]FormostBalinesewomen,however,thesegoalsremainadistantdream.
ThroughoutIndonesiadecentralisationsincethefalloftheNewOrderhasbeenlinkedwitha
riseinconcernaboutregionalculturalidentities.Thereconservatismandthereinforcementof
patriarchalvaluesthatstemfromthisnewfocusonregionalissueshavealreadyhad
considerablerepercussionsforIndonesianwomenonwhomtheburdenofrestrictivepractices
fallsmostheavily.ThisimpacthasbeenstrikinginstronglyIslamicareas,butisalsotrueinBali
whereissuesofgenderintersectcloselywithcallstoregionalidentity.

3. InBali,thenexusbetweenthequestforauniquelyregionalBalineseidentityandthereturn
toanostalgicandneologistictraditionalismpermeatescontemporaryrepresentationsof
Balinesefemaleidentity.Thisretraditionalisationisdrivenbothbytheforceofculturally
conservativevaluesinshapingtheagendasofidentityformationandbytheextenttowhich
thesevaluesarereiteratedandreinforcedinpublicdiscourse.Thisarticleseekstoexplorethe
definitionofgender,genderissuesandtherolesofBalinesewomeninpostSuhartoIndonesia
intheBalinesemassmediaintheperiodbetweenApril1999andOctober2003.[3]
IdentityDiscourseinBali

4. DecadesoftourismandparticipationinwiderglobalmarketshavemarkedBaliwithbotha
distinctivenationalandinternationalidentityandastrongsenseofregionalidentityandcultural
uniqueness.AlthoughthediscussionofBalineseculturalidentityhaslongbeenanintegralpart
ofmassmediaandseminarcultureinBali,thesocial,economicandpoliticalchangesthat
haveengulfedIndonesiasince1998,togetherwiththerisetoprominenceofregionalidentities
asacentralissueinpoliticalandsocialarenas,haveresultedinashifttowardsmoreintense
moralandsocialcodificationofBalinesecoreculturalvalues.[4]ThedownturnintheBalinese
economy,particularlyfromreducedtourismrevenuessincethe1997economiccrisisandasa
resultofthe2003SARSepidemic,butmostimportantlyasaresultoftheBalibombingsof12
October2002,haveallcreatedmomentsofculturalcrisistowhichBalinesepublicintellectuals
respondinthepressandmedia,particularlyintheDenpasarbaseddaily,theBaliPost,which
reportsonandhighlightsdiscussionsofBalineseidentity.Whilemostcontributorstothe
columnsoftheBaliPostareurbanintellectuals,thepaper'soutreachtothewidercommunity,
especiallythroughitssponsorshipandreportingofthepopularinteractivemediadiscussions
onlocalTVandradiostationsprovidesitwithconsiderablehegemonicspaceinshaping
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popularopinion.

5. Sincelate2002,themediacampaigntodefineBalineseidentityhascoalescedaroundthe
slogan'AjegBali.'Literally,ajegmeans'strong'butitalsoimpliestenacityandfirmnessit
encompassesallaspectsofBalinesetradition,religionandculture[adat,agama,budaya],and
representsadriveforstabilityandculturalcertaintyinachaoticworld.Discourseaboutajeg
BaliseekstodefineaforwardlookingagendaforBali'sfuturewhichinmanywaysignoresorat
leastmarginalisesbroadernationalconcerns.ImplicitinthisconceptistheideathatBali
cannotrelyonthecentralIndonesiangovernmenttoprotectitsculturalandreligiousinterests
andthatBalinese,andBalinesealone,areresponsiblefortheirownfuture.Justwhatthat
futuremightbeisahotlydebatedissue.Forsome,ajegBaliisseenasapowerfultoolinthe
fightforincreasedpoliticalandeconomicwelfarefortheBalinesecommunity.Forothers,it
representsaretraditionalisationandthenostalgicretreattoaperceivedauthenticand
unadulteratedBalinesepast.[5]

6. WhiletheterminologyajegBaliisaclearexampleofarecentlyinventedtradition,theconcept
ofaculturallyandmorallydistinctBalinesesocietyisoneoflongstanding,fosteredinitiallyby
Dutchcolonialpolicyintheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcenturyandbylaterpost
Independencenationalandregionalconcerns.[6]Bali'sidentityrestsonitsselfimageasa
monocultural,singlefaith,geographicallydistinctpartoftheIndonesiannationamonolithic
identitythatislargelytreatedasunproblematic,inspiteoftheincreasinglypluralisticcross
sectionofIndonesianswhomakeBalitheirhome.TheajegBalimediacampaigncontinuesto
definewhatBalinesecultureisratherthanwhatitisnot,settingasidereligiousandother
communaltensions.

7. InBali,identitydiscourseiscloselylinkedtoanongoingreligiousdiscoursethat,since
independence,hasinvolvedtheredefinitionandreinventionofBalineseHinduismasaworld
religioninthenationalcontextofthemodernnationstateandasamarkofBali'sseparateness
anduniqueheritageattheregionallevel.Moreover,inthemoreconservativelyfocused
definitionsofBalineseidentity,indigenous,frequentlyantiWestern,valuesalsoloomlarge.For
culturalconservatives,the'West'andmodernityareseenasinevitablyantagonisticto
fundamentalBalinesevalues.Inthecurrentclimateofuncertainty,conservativebehaviours
andtraditionalinstitutionsareseentosupportcommunitycohesion.Thus,theongoingclash
betweennotionsofBalinesenessandexpressionsofsecularmodernityhaveresultedinacall
tostrongculturalandethnicvaluesthatcanserveasadefenceagainstmoralchaosand
foreigninvasion.
GenderIdentityinBali

8. TheongoingtaskofreshapingcontemporaryBalineseidentitiesintermsofinnateBalinese
culturaltraitsinvolvesconsiderableattentiontogenderissuesandtotheprominentroleplayed
bywomeninthedefinitionandpreservationofBalinesevalues.Culturalexpectationsensure
thattheburdenoftheculturalconservatismthathasbecomeadefiningcharacteristicofmuch
Balineseidentitydiscoursefallsmainlyonwomen.AsMailaStivenshasrecentlysuggestedis
thecaseinmanypartsofAsia,womenhavebecomeafavouritesitefortheexpressionof
tensionandambivalenceaboutthecostofmodernityanddevelopment.[7]Callstoanostalgic
andauthenticculturalpastthusbecomeanexpressionofantiWesternmodernity,inwhich
autonomousmodernwomenrepresentadirectthreattotraditionalmaleandfemaleroles.[8]
GendercentredcallstoBalineseidentitythusparallelsimilarforceselsewhereinAsiasuchas
IslamicrevivalismandthereinventionofConfucianism.

9. Balinesetradition[adat]andascribedgenderroleshavelongbeenrecognisedbothby
outsidersandmanyBalinesethemselvesastheleadingcauseofwomen'sdailyburdenandas
themeansofpatriarchaloppression.[9]Anumberofrecentstudieshavedocumentedthe
impactofthemanyinstitutionalisedgenderinequalitiesthatBalinesewomenface.[10]AsLyn
ParkerhasshowninherbookonnationhoodandcitizenshipinBali,Balinesewomenarestill
preventedfromfullparticipationasequalcitizensbecauseofinherentlygenderedkinshipand
adatpractices.Theseadatpracticesdisadvantagewomenintermsofboththeirpersonal
freedomsandtheiraccesstopublicrolesandrights.Balinesewomencontinuetobeexcluded
fromparticipationinadatdecisionmaking(onlymensitandspeakinthelocalvillagelevel
hamlet[banjar]councils),theydonotenjoyequalinheritancerights(onlymencaninherit
sawah[irrigatedricefields]),andtheylosecustodyoftheirchildreninthecaseofdivorce.[11]
Women,particularlyruralwomen,havealsobeenshowntohavemorerestrictedaccessto
employmentopportunitiesoutsidethehome,tohavelowerliteracyratesasaresultofdecades
ofeducationaldisadvantage,andtoenjoyfewerbenefitsfromtourismsinceaccesstotourist
relatedindustriesisalsodividedalonggenderlinesthatfavourmen.[12]

10. Balinesewomenfacethedailytaskofaccommodatingtheirmanydomestic,employmentand
socialresponsibilities,whileatthesametimeconformingtothefamilybasedideological
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frameworkthatcametodefinetherolesandresponsibilitiesofwomenduringtheNewOrder
period.[13]NewOrdergenderideologydemandedthatmenandwomenplaydifferentroles,
rolesthatweredepictedascomplementaryandequal.Overmorethanthreedecades,
domesticandfamilydutiesandroleswereredefinedasimportantnationalsocialprogramsand
womencametobedepictedprimarilyasmothersandaswives.[14]InBali,thegendered
ideologyofthenationstatefoundanechoandwasbolsteredbyparallelswithBalinese
patriarchalculturalandsocialinstitutions.

11. LiketheircounterpartselsewhereinIndonesia,Balinesewomenareresponsibleforthe
educationandphysicalandmoralwellbeingoftheirfamilies,butlocalBalineseculture
demandsthattheyalsohaveprimaryresponsibilityfortheritualconcernsofthefamilyarole
thatinvolvestheminanonerouscycleofritualworkwhichhasagreaterimpactonwomen
thanonmen.Thisneverendingburdenofritualwork,whichisoftenseenasanextensionof
women'sdomesticwork,
contributestotheongoingstructural
subordinationofwomeninBali.[15]Women's
accesstoemploymentandindependentincome
isdirectlyaffectedbytheirritualobligations,as
theyareobligedtosetasidethedomesticand
employmentspheresoftheirlivestoperform
theritualworkandcommunaltasksrequiredof
them.[16]Thesecompetingroles,centred
aroundhome,paidworkandritual,havebeen
describedrecentlybyAyamaNakataniasa
'tripleburden'forBalinesewomen.[17]The
unenviablepositionofBalinesewomenin
jugglingtheirmultiplerolesishighlightedina
recentcartoonbyBalinesecartoonist,Surya
Darma(Figure1).Theirreproductiveroles
epitomisedintheirinherentsuitabilityaswives
andmothers[kodrat]andtheirengagementas
productivemembersofIndonesiansocietyin
theworkforce[karier]inthenewmillennium
mustbeperformedbeneaththeburdenof
Figure1.SuryaDarma,'ABalineseWoman's
tradition[tradisi].
BalancingAct.'[18]

12. TheintersectionsbetweenBalineseculturalvaluesandwomen'srolesandresponsibilities
haveemergedasthemesofcentralimportanceinthemassmediainBaliinthepostSuharto
period.ThefollowingsurveyofmediasourcespublishedintheBaliPostbetween1999and
2003revealsthatmediadiscourseispredominantlycouchedintermsofdefinitionsoffemale
identitythatperpetuateandreinforcetheinstitutionalandsocialrestrictionsBalinesewomen
havefacedforgenerations.Withinthisdiscourse,therealitiesoftheimpactonBalinese
womenofpatriarchalsocialandreligiousnormsareatbestglossedover,atworstignored,in
favourofanidealisedportrayalofBalinesewomenaskeyplayersinBali'sfuture.Withinthis
mediadiscourse,therealitiesofdailyexistenceforBalinesewomen,whicharesoclearly
documentedinthelongertermanthropologicalstudiesalreadynoted,areeffectivelysilenced.
Instead,coverageofwomen'sissuesresonateswithbroaderdefinitionsoftheimportanceof
traditionalBalinesecultureforcreatingandmaintainingaharmonious,prosperousandjust
society,andthecrucialrolesofwomenwithinthosewiderprocesses.
TheCoverageofWomen'sIssuesintheBaliPost19992003

13. TheprincipalsourceforthisarticleistheBaliPostArchive,anarchiveof5770articlesonbroad
topicsofcultureandsocietypublishedintheonlineeditionoftheBaliPostbetweenApril1999
andOctober2003.[19]ThearticlesthathavebeenincorporatedintotheBaliPostArchive
comprisefivemajorsubjectheadings:Religion,SocialIssues(includingtourism,politics,
educationandenvironment),Culture(includinglanguageandhistory),ArtsandLiterature,and
Women.[20]

14. Figure2showsthenumberoffeaturearticlesonwomenpublishedintheBaliPostovera
periodoffiftyfivemonthsbetweenApril1999andOctober2003.[21]Ananalysisofthenumber
ofarticlesdealingwithwomenindicatesmajorpeaksinAprileachyear,themonthtraditionally
devotedtowomen'sissuesintheIndonesianmediaintheleaduptothecelebrationofKartini
Dayon21April.PeaksinSeptember2001andAugust2002reflecttheprominenceofasingle
particularlynewsworthyissueatthetime:inSeptember2001,anumberofshortarticleson
sexuality,and,inAugust2002,acontroversysurroundingBalinesedancerswhohadbeen
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dupedintobecominghostessesinJapanesebars.TheNovember2002peakreflectsthe
publicationofanumberofstoriesconcerningtheplightoflocalwomenleftwidowedbythe
Kutabombing.

Figure2.NumberoffeaturearticlesintheBaliPostApril1999toOctober2003.

Theoverallcoverageofwomen'sissuesisquitelow,just4percent,or231ofthe5769articles
surveyedinthefourandahalfyearperiodfromApril1999toOctober2003.[22]SeeFigure3.

Figure3.PercentageofarticlesintheBaliPostdealingwithwomen.

15. Withtheexceptionof1999,whenthedatasetissmall,comprisingonlyeightarticles,andis
thereforelessindicativeoftrendsinthecoverageofwomen'sissues,thelevelofcoveragehas
remainedfairlyconsistentwiththenumberofarticlesonwomenfallingintherangeof3.6to
4.6percentofthetotalnumberofarticles.Table1andFigure4showthepercentageof
articlesdealingwithwomenineachofthefiveyearssurveyed.

Year

TotalNumberof
Articles

Articleson
Women

Percentages

1999

91

9.9

2000

539

21

3.9

2001

1650

76

4.6

2002

1788

64

3.6

2003

1611

62

3.8

Total

5679

232

Table1.PercentageofArticlesDealingwithWomen

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Figure4.CoverageofWomen'sIssuesasaPercentageofTotal,
19992003

16. TheBaliPostdoesnothavearegularcolumnspecificallydevotedto'women'sissues.'Articles
onwomenareinsteadpublishedinabroadcrosssectionofregularcolumns.TheBaliPost
publishesregularfeaturearticlesonwomenandgenderissues.Themajorityofcommentators
onwomenarethemselveswomen,exceptonmattersofinterpretationsofscripturalreligion,
traditionallythedomainofmen.Inmanycases,thegenderidentityofthewriterisnotclear
sinceBaliPoststaffreportersareidentifiedonlybytheirinitials.TheregularBaliPostMonday
toSaturdaycolumnsarelistedinTable2.TheSundayeditionhasthemagazineandhuman
interestfocuscommontomostSundaynewspapersanditsfeaturedcolumnsdifferfromthe
standardweekdaycoveragethesecolumnsarelistedinTable3.Thecoverageofwomen's
issuesineachofthecolumnsisshowninFigure5.Thelargestnumberofarticlesconcerning
womenarefoundintheregular'Bali'columnofthenewspaper(53articles,25percent),
althoughwomen'sissuesalsofeatureprominentlyintheSundayedition's'Apresiasi'column
(34,15percent).

Column

NumberofArticleson
Women19992003

Bali

Bali

53

Topik

Topic

16

Fenomena

Phenomena

15

SuratPembaca

LetterstotheEditor

12

Artikel

Article

Berita

News

TajukRencana

Editorial

Nusantara

Archipelago

Sisipan

Section

Budaya

Culture

Pariwisata

Tourism

Table2.MondaytoSaturdayColumnsintheBaliPost

Figure5.CoverageofWomen'sIssuesintheBaliPostColumns

Column
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NumberofArticleson
Women19992003
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Apresiasi

Appreciation

34

Gebyar

ShowTime

12

Keluarga

Family

11

Cermin

Reflection

Trend

Trend

Potret

Portrait

Hiburan

Entertainment

Kolom

Column

Kultur

Culture

MimbarBuddha

BuddhistViewpoint

Table3.SundayColumnsintheBaliPost

17. Thematically,featurearticlesonwomenpublishedintheBaliPostbetween1999and2003can
besubdividedintofivemajorgroups.Themostsignificantgroupscomprisearticlesdealingwith
generalissuesofwomen'srightsinIndonesia(77articles,33percent),andthosewhichmake
claimsforspecificallyBalinesenotionsoffemininityandgenderroles(67articles,28percent).
Thesetwomajorthematicconcernsrepresent61percentofthearticlesonwomenintheBali
PostArchive.Thereisalsoconsiderablecoverageofwomenaspractitionersandaudiencesof
literatureandthearts(27articles,11percent),andofhumanintereststories(32articles,13
percent).Adiverserangeofotherissuesincludinghealth,sexualityandtourism(37articles,
15percent)alsoreceiveattention(seeFigure6).Becauseitisnotpossibletocoverallthese
areaswithinasinglearticle,inthefollowingsections,Iwillfocusonthefirsttwogroupsof
articles,thosethatarespecificallyconcernedwithgenderandidentity.

Figure6.MajorThematicConcernsinCoverageof
Women'sIssues.

DefiningBalineseWomenintheMedia

18. InMarch2000,thenewlyestablishedBalineseculturalmagazineSaraddevoteditsthirdissue
tothetopic'WhoSaysBalineseWomenareOppressed?'[SiapaBilangWanitaBali
Tertindas?].Amonthlateranothernewmagazine,BaliLain,alsofocuseditssecondissueon
women,withitsmainfeaturearticleentitled'NotWomen'sFate'[BukanSuratanPerempuan].
Bothpublicationspresentedthemselvesasbeingconcernedwith'Balineseculture,'andthe
simultaneousappearanceoftwomagazinesdevotedexclusivelytogenderissuesunderlines
thecentralimportanceoftheplaceofwomeninBalineseidentitydiscourseatthattime.[23]
Thesetwomagazinesrepresentconcentratedversionsofthecoverageofwomen'sissues
moregenerallyinthedailypresssincethefallofSuharto,andareindicatorsofthefocusof
Balinesemediaattentiononwomen'sissuesinthecontextofculturalidentityformation.Sarad,
moreculturallyconservativethanBaliLain,wasparticularlyconcernedinitsspecialissuewith
refutinganysuggestionthatBalinesewomensufferedsystematicculturaloppressionby
demonstratingtheopenanddemocraticnatureofBalineseculture,atleastifviewedinitsown
terms.BaliLain,ontheotherhand,hintedatotherpossibilitiesandchoicesforBalinese
women,althoughsuchchoicesgenerallyrequirewomentoturntheirbacksonthe('repressive')
culturalpracticesinBaliandseekalternativesinnational,andoccasionallyinternational,
feministmodelsandarguments.

19. IntheirbylinesbothSaradandBaliLaindrawattentiontotheproblematicnatureofdefinitions
ofwomenandcultureinBali.Theircoverstorieshighlighttheoftencontradictory,almost
mutuallyexclusive,natureofmuchofthismediadiscoursewhichseekstorecognisewomen's
rightstoequalityinthemodernsense,andatthesametimetorestrictthatequalitytorigidly
defined,culturallyappropriateandgenderedspheres.Balinesegendervaluesandrolesare
presentedassupportiveandnurturing,providedwomenbehaveinculturallyappropriateways,
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althoughthereislittlethatisabletoreconcilethepracticesandattitudesadvocatedwiththe
goalsofpersonalfreedom.Withinthisculturallyfocuseddiscourse,rhetoricalquestionsabout
therepressivenatureofBalineseculturesuchasthatencapsulatedintheSaradheadline
questioningthetruthofclaimsofoppressionareinvariablyansweredinthenegative.This
tendencyisdemonstratedinthecoverageofregularseminarsfocusingonwomen'sissues
heldinBaliandreportedintheBaliPost.Articleswhichbytheirtitlesseemtosuggestcritique
insteaddeclarethatBalineseculturedoesnotoppresswomen.[24]

20. TheemphasisonculturaldefinitionsofwomeninthemediadoesnotmeanthatBalinese
writersdonotholdorpresentalternativeviews.AppealingtoBalinesetraditionalculturalvalues
virtuallyprecludesmoresecularformsofmodernity.Nevertheless,certainmediacommentators
recogniseonlytoowellthetensionsformodernBalinesewomeninjugglingthedemandsof
domesticduties,participationintheworkforce,andtheexhaustingdemandsoffull
participationinthetraditionalreligiousandculturaladatresponsibilitieswhichprovidesocial
andfamilycohesion.[25]OnfacingpagesoftheApril2000editionofBaliLainaretwo
interviewswithleadingproponentsofeachsideofthedebate,onewiththenotedpsychiatrist,
ProfLuhKetutSuryani,whodeclares'DiBaliTidakAdaPerbedaanLakilakidanPerempuan'
[InBaliThereisNoDifferenceBetweenMenandWomen]andtheotherwiththeSingaraja
basedacademicDraLuhPutuSendratari'PerempuanBaliPerluMelawanTradisi'[Balinese
WomenMustOpposeTradition].[26]Suryani'sroleinthedebatesongenderwillbediscussed
indetailbelow.LuhPutuSendratari,aregularcontributortoKartiniDaycommemorations,isa
persistentvoicecallingintoquestionmanyofthenormativeviewssetoutbyculturally
conservativewriterslikeSuryaniandcritiquingtheirspuriousargumentsabouttheinviolable
sanctityoftraditionsthatcontinuetorepresswomen.[27]

21. Nevertheless,evenwriterswhobegintheiressaysbycriticisingBalinesesocialpracticesas
repressiveforwomeninsimilartermstoSendratari,inevitablyturntheirargumentsquickly
awayfromthespecificsofBalineseculturetoexternal,nationalorinternationalarenas.Thus,
inthecoverageofwomen'sissuesintheBaliPostinthelastfiveyears,thereexistsaclear
divisionbetweenarticlesthatmightbestbedescribedasconcernedwithbroadissuesof
women'srightsandsocialandpoliticalemancipatoryneedsandgoalsakindof'secularview'
ofgenderandthosethatseektodefineBalinesewomenintermsoftheirinnatenatureand
thetraditionalculturalrolesthatdominatecurrentBalineseidentitydiscoursesanexclusively
'Balinese'religiousculturalview.Thisbifurcationsuggeststhatthepublicmediadefinitionofa
specificallyBalinesefemaleidentityisnotconnectedcloselytoideasaboutemancipationbutis
insteadtiedtoreligiousandculturalidentities.BelowIwillexamineindetaileachofthesetwo
kindsofwritingongender.
'Secular'Views:Women'sRightsandEmancipation

22. RegulararticlesappearintheBaliPostinsupportofgreaterhumanrightsforwomenin
Indonesia,andforreformsthatwillensuregreaterequality.EditorialcommentintheBaliPost
specificallyonwomen'sissuesisexclusivelytargetedatgeneralissuesofhumanrightsand
femaleparticipationratherthanatBalineseculture,althoughonlyeighteditorials[Tajuk
Rencana]weredevotedtowomen'sissuesinthefourandahalfyearperiodcoveredbythe
BaliPostArchive.[28]

23. Unflatteringparallelswithregardtofemaleparticipationinpoliticalandculturalinstitutionsare
drawnbetweenIndonesiaandcountriessuchasChinaandJapan('SoalJabatan,Wanita
IndonesiaKetinggalandenganCina,'[ProblemsofHighOffice,WomeninIndonesiaBeatenby
China],17January2002'PerempuanBawahTanah,'[WomenUnderground],22October
2000'IbuIbuRTSakurapunMenari,'[EvenJapaneseHousewivescanDance],30June
2003).ImplicitinthesearticlesisthenotionthatIndonesiaasanationmustbeonaparwith
otherAsian(althoughpointedlynotWestern)countriesinprovidingaccesstoopportunitiesfor
women.

24. Onthedomesticpoliticalscene,therecommendationforthe30percentquotaforfemale
candidatesinthe2004nationalelectionattractedwidespreadsupportwithanumberofarticles
andcommentsbetweenJanuaryandAugust2003.[29]Commentatorswhowereless
supportiveofthismeasure,challengednotsomuchtheprinciplebutthepracticalimplications
ofthenewlegislationparticularlyatthelocallevelbeforethe2009elections.Duringthetermof
thelastDPR(19992004),femalerepresentationinregionallegislativebodiesnationallywas
lessthan5percent,comparedwith8percentatthenationallevel.Withjusttwofemale
representativesinthenationalparliament,theDPR,onefromGolkarandonefromthePDIP,
andonerepresentativefromtheGolkarpartyintheregionalDPRD,Baliisincludedamongthe
districtsthathavethelowestregionallevelfemalerepresentationinIndonesia,
characteristicallydistrictswithstrongreligiousandculturalfoundations.[30]

25. ThereiswidespreadconsensusinthemediathatBalinesewomenhavetheabilitytofillhigh
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levelgovernmentandpoliticalroles,andthatimpedimentstoparticipationareinstitutionaland
cultural.Thereisasense,capturedsatiricallyintworecentBaliPostcartoonsbyGungunand
WiedNcommentingonthe30percentquota(Figures7and8),thatlegislationandaffirmative
actioninitiativestoimproveparticipationandaccessforwomenmaynotnecessarilysucceedin
thefaceofinstitutionalisedgenderinequalities,andmayevenstifleorlimitinitiatives.

Figure7.WiedN.,'Jeng'BaliPost.[31][1.'Tofillthe30percentquota,Iwantto
becomeacandidateandrepresentwomen.''Don'tdothat!'2.What!Doyoudoubtmy
ability?3.'No,it'snotthat.Butarethereanyhighlyplacedmenwho'dbewillingtogive
uptheirseatforyou?']

Figure8.Gungun,'Brewok,'BaliPost.[32][1.Womenonlyget30percent.2.What
percentagedoIgetDad?]

26. FrequentcallsaremadeintheBaliPostforthereformofadministrativestructurestoallow
womentoassumehighoffice,aswellastopreventtheautomaticassumptionthatwivesof
highofficialsshouldholdhighpositionsinwomen'sorganisationsbecauseoftheirhusbands'
positionsacornerstoneofNewOrderorganisationalstructurewithinwomen'sgroups,as
discussedin'PerempuanPimpinParisada?'[AWomantoHeadParisada?]'WanitaBaliPerlu
Berontak'[BalineseWomenMustFight]and'EIDukungTampilnyaWanitaBali,'[EISupports
theRiseofBalineseWomen].ArgumentsthatBalinesewomenhaveheldimportantpublic
rolesbothhistoricallyandinthepresentaresometimesadducedtosupportclaimstothe'high
status'ofwomenintraditionalBaliforexamplebyK.Margi,'SejarahWanitadiBalikBendung
Budaya,'[Women'sHistorybehindtheDamofCulture].Counterargumentsarealsovoicedto
suggestthatthesuccessofasmallnumberofexceptionalwomendoesnotprovethat
problemsofinequalityhavebeenovercome:MariaFebiola,'HentikanKekerasanPada
Perempuan,'[StopViolenceAgainstWomen].[33]InrealityinBali,womeninpowerful
positions,whetherintraditionalorinmodernroles,remainananomaly,andnearlyallpublic
officesareheldbymen.

27. TheneedformoreparticipationbyBalinesewomenisnotdisputed.Thedilemma,however,is
howthiscanbeaccomplishedwithintheframeworkofBalineseculture.Onerecentarticle
arguesthatBalinesewomen'sunwillingnesstoenterthe'dirty'worldofpoliticsisaffectedby
thenatureofpoliticsitself,aninstitutionalculturethatwouldviolatetheirsenseoffemininity
('WanitaBaliTakTertarikkePolitik,'BalineseWomenareNotAttractedtoPolitics,19July
2003),avisionofwomenthatresonatesloudlywithpanIndonesianideologiesaboutwomen's
innatenature(kodrat).AlthoughBalinesecommentatorsonpoliticalparticipationdrawontheir
localenvironmenttoexemplifyandexplainissues,inthesedebates,aswellasintheirpictorial
representationinthecartoonsincludedabove,overallthereisasensethatissuesconcerning
politicalrepresentationandparticipationareissuesthatbelongtothenationalratherthanthe
localagenda.Inotherwords,withoutdownplayingtheimportanceoftheissuesthemselves,
theyarerarelyseenasimpingingonfundamentalnotionsanddefinitionsofBalineseness.

28. Mediacommentonothercontemporaryissuesthathaveanimpactonwomenisuncommon.
Domesticviolence,forexample,onlyreceivesanoccasionalmention,usuallyfromnon
Balinesewriters,orinreportsofinterviewswithactivistsfromoutsideBali.[34]Similarly,the
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onlyreportsofdemonstrationsledbywomenactivistsarereportsofcampaignsbyfemale
activistsinJava,underliningtheabsenceofactivistwomen'sNGOsandgroupsin
contemporaryBali.[35]

29. Employmentissuesarealsorarelydebated.TheregionalBalinesegovernment'sofficial
responsetoemploymentissuesforwomenintheformalsectorhighlightstheconditionsfaced
bywomengenerally,whichrestricttheiraccesstoparticularformsofemployment.Nationaland
regionalideologicalintersectionsallowpaternalisticpoliciestobeinvokedinordertoprotect
womenwhenmoralcodesappearthreatened.InAugust2002,forexample,amajordebate
arosearoundthetreatmentoftwooverseasworkerswho,ratherthangaininganticipated
employmentasdancersinJapan,wereforcedtobecomebarhostesses.Inthiscase,a
commissionofenquiryeventuallyledtoarulingbytheTourismDepartmentthatentrepreneurs
wouldnolongerbeabletosendBalinesefemaledancerstoworkoverseas.[36]The
exploitationofmaleperformersdidnotformpartofthediscussion.

30. ResonanceswithNewOrdergenderideologies,however,canalsocallforthnationalrather
thanspecificallyBalineseresponses.BalinesewomenmuststillcomplywiththeUU11951law
thatrestrictswomen'sparticipationinnightworkwithoutpermissionfromtheLabour
Departmentdespitethedemandsofthetouristindustry[37]anissuethatresurfaces
intermittentlyindiscussionsabouttheperilsoftourismforBalinesewomen.

31. Thereislittletoseparatethediscussionofthese'secular'aspectsofmodernityand
participationinnationalandinternationalspheresintheBalinesemediafromsimilardiscourses
intheIndonesiapressmoregenerally.However,inthecontextofajegBaliandinthefaceof
whatappearstobewidelyheldperceptionsoftheincreasingburdensplacedonBalinese
womenbytheconflictbetweenmodernityandBalineseculturalvalues,themajorityofrecent
mediaarticlesonwomeninsteadseektodescribeandjustifythespecialplacewhichtraditional
Balinesecultureprovidesforwomen,apositionthateventhebenefitsofmodernitycannot
displace.
'Balinese'GenderIdeals

32. InseekingtostrengthenBalineseculturalnormsandtocounterthenegativeimpactofWestern
influenceonwomen,twomajorthemesemergeinthewritingsofculturallyconservativewriters
intheBaliPost:first,thatofBalinesewomenasthebearersoftradition,caregiversand
educators,andsecondlythethemeofBalinesewomenasalreadyemancipatedbytheirculture
andreligion.BysupportinggenderequalitybutlabellingitaBalinesemodel,Westernfeminist
modelscanberejectedasbothinappropriateandinferior.[38]Attheirmostextreme,manyof
theseculturallybasedargumentsdenytheexistenceofproblemsforwomenbecausethe
uniqueandsupportiveBalineseculturalcontextguaranteesthemalltherespect,equality,
socialandeconomicsupporttheycouldpossiblyneed.

33. ThestrongestvoiceforconservativeviewsinBaliinthelastfiveyearsisthatofLuhKetut
Suryani.Sherepresentsmodernexpertiseonwomen'sissuesandisactiveinanumberof
socialjusticeandwelfareprograms.Hermultiplerolesashighlyeducatedmedicalpractitioner,
meditationguru,socialactivistandBalineseculturalexpertallowherto'speakfor'Balinese
women.Herculturalpreservationiststandpoint,however,isapowerfulforceinshapingthe
debateaboutwomen'srights.ShehasaweeklyonehourprogramonBaliTV'PerempuanBali
Kini'[BalineseWomenToday]andhasrecentlypublishedabookwiththesametitlewhich
comprisesshortthinkpiecesrelatingtowomen,manyofwhichhadalreadyappearedinthe
BaliPostandMingguanBaliInfo.[39]HerstatedaiminthisbookistourgeBalinesewomen
'nottobedrawnalongbyWesternwaysofthinking'[janganterseretoleharuspemikiranBarat].
InSuryani'sview,thereisnofundamentalproblemwithassociatingwithforeigners,orin
studyingwiththeminordertotakewhatisusefulfromtheWest,butBalinesewomenmuststill
strivetoretaintheirBalineseidentity.[40]AswellaswritingfortheBaliPostherself,her
prominenceasapublicspeakermeansthatSuryani'sviewsareconsistentlyreported.

34. TheprimefocusofSuryani'sperspectiveisontheresponsibilitiesofwomenasmothers,
particularlytheirrolesascaregiversandprincipaleducatorsoftheirchildrenandsupportersof
thefamilyunit.EchoingNewOrdergenderideology,Balinesecultureisportrayedasgiving
prominencetoworkandfamilyculture.Balinesewomen,forexample,areexpectedtoaccept
responsibilityfortheeducationoftheirchildren.Womenmuststrivetotakebettercareoftheir
childrentoprotectthemfromsocialevils.[41]InthecontextoftheAjegBalicampaign,Suryani
recentlycalledonwomentopayearnestattentiontotheirmostimportantroleinensuringthe
productionofeachnewgenerationofBalinesechildrenof'highquality'.[42]Justhowthistask
shouldbedoneorwhatinfactmightconstitute'better'careisneitherdiscussednordebated.

35. Herconcernsareechoedbyothercontributors.AsHinduwomen,Balinesemothersmusttake
aproactiveroleinteachingtheirchildrenaboutreligion.Nomatterwhatotherdailypressures
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theyface,theyareurgedtobalanceritualwork,careerandfamily.Forexample,theyhavean
obligationtopassonthetheirknowledgeofmakingofferingstotheirdaughtersratherthan
buyingthemreadymadeandthusriskingthelossofirreplaceableculturalknowledge.[43]
Thereisawidelyheldbeliefthatritualworkhasitsowninherentvalue,thatthetakeaway
mentalityofthemodernsectorcannotreplace.Therecentexpansionofofferings'catering,'that
istheprofessionalprovisionofreadymadeofferingsinordertodecreasepersonal
commitmentsoftime,isregardedassomethingofanaffront.Apossiblecompromiseis
suggestedinarecentcartoonbyArditakenfroma2003issueoftheBalinesecartoon
magazineBogBogeditedbyJangoPramarthaandSuryaDarmawhichisdevotedtohumorous
representationsofBalinesewomen(seeFigure9).

Figure9.Ardi,'ModernityversusTradition.'[44]

36. WomenarebynatureanddutyobligedtopreserveandsafeguardBalinesereligionaccording
toAlitS.Rini,anotherfrequentBaliPostcontributorwhotakesastronglyconservativestance.
[45]TowomentoofallstheresponsibilityofpreservingtheholinessofNyepi[BalineseNew
Year]byeducatingtheirchildreninreligiousandritualmatters.[46]Itisstrikingthatmen,who
formtheformalvoiceoforganisedHindureligioninBali,appeartohavenoroleinthereligious
educationofthechildrenoftheirownfamilies.

37. Arecurrentthemeistheneedfortheexternalappearanceofwomentomatchtheirinnerpurity,
acallforcarefulattentiontowomen'snature,thekodratwanitaofnationalistgenderdiscourse.
Thisthemeisreflectedincommentssuchasthosestressingtheneedtocultivateinner
moralitytodealwithmaritalissues.Similarly,considerableimportanceisattachedtothe
banningofinappropriatemodernfashions,suchastransparentblousesandshorthair,from
religiouscontexts,aswellascallstoBalinesewomentocontinuetowearthetraditionalbunto
templeceremonies,afavouritetopicofusuallymalewritersofletterstotheeditor.[47]

38. BalinesewomenarefrequentlyremindedintheBaliPostthattheyshouldaccepttheircultural
roleswillinglyandindeedshouldconsiderthemselvesfortunatetobeabletoliveinasociety
thataccordsthemsuchhighlevelsofrespectandhonourforfulfillingtheirtraditionalroles.
Ratherthanaplaceofsubjugation,itisclaimedthemajorityofBalinesewomenbelieve
traditionbringsrespectandvalueitassomethingthatsetsthemapart.[48]Argumentsofthis
kindalsoinvokebeliefsabouttheinnatenatureofBalinesewomenthatbothrequires,and
allows,themtoacceptpassivelywhateverfateandlifehandsthem,eveniftotheirown
disadvantage,asnotedbyAlitS.Riniin'KekeliruanPerempuanMenguasakanPikirannya,'
[Women'sMistakesinAllowingDominationoftheirThoughts]andNMAAnitaDewiin
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'ApresiasiPerempuanBali,'[AppreciationofBalineseWomen].[49]

39. OnemanifestationoftheburdensofBalinesegenderrolesiscentredroundtheexploitationof
Balinesewomenasmanuallabourers.ThisimageisoneoftheearliestWesternstereotypesof
genderrelationsinBaliandonethatisstillprevalentinBali.Nevertheless,thefirstWestern
descriptionofthestatusofBalinesewomen,datingfrom1817,wasapositiveone.Itisan
imagethatmatcheswelltheviewsofcontemporaryculturallyconservativemedia
commentators.ThomasStamfordRafflesnotedthat:'Theirwomen,inparticular,whoarehere
onaperfectequalitywiththemen,andnotrequiredtoperformmanyofthesevereand
degradinglaboursimposedontheminJava,arefrankandunreserved.Intheirdomestic
relationstheirmannersareamicable,respectful,anddecorous.'[50]BythetimethefirstDutch
accountofBaliwaspublished,however,thisassessmenthadbeenreversed:'Theconditionof
womeninthatcountryisvirtualslaveryandmostunhappy,'remarkedtheDutchassistant
residentH.vandenBroekin1834,ashelamentedthelaboriousphysicaltoilexpectedof
Balinesewomenastheirmensataroundgamblingandtalking.[51]Subsequentnineteenth
centuryDutchandBritishaccountsdeploredtheconditionsunderwhichordinaryBalinese
womenlivedandworked,conditionsthateventodayshockandremainthetopicofcomment,
asdepictedinthis2003cartoonbyChuks(seeFigure10).

Figure10.Panca,'ModernityversusTradition.'[52]

40. Balinesewomenhaveareputationforbeingpreparedtoundertakegruellingphysicallabour
deemedinappropriatetowomenmoregenerally.Whiletherecentanthropologicalstudies
discussedaboveshowclearlythatlabouringfallsonlytothosewithoutincome,contactsor
otheralternatives,argumentsarepresentedinthemediathatinsistBalinesewomenshouldbe
happytoundertakephysicallabournotjustbecauseofeconomicneedbuttohonourthelife
givingprinciplethroughtheirlabour.[53]

41. Similarargumentsareadducedforritualwork.Howeverheavytheburdenoftheirmultipleroles
maybe,thereisanonusonwomentoundertakelaboriousrolesinreligiousceremonies
withoutcomplaintandwithappropriateconsiderationfortheproperfunctioningofsociety.
Moreover,becauseBalinesewomenaresaidtogainasenseofprideinbeinginvolvedinadat
theirtoilcannotthereforeberegardedasexploitation,asexemplifiedbyLuhKetutSuryaniin
'Yadnya,BentukKeterpanggilanOrangBali,'[Ceremonies:ABalineseCalling].[54]

42. Althoughcaste,acrucialdeterminantinthechoiceofmarriagepartners,remainsoneofthe
mostformidablebarrierstowomen's(andmen's)personalchoice,argumentsthatcentreon
traditionandreligionallowissuesofclassandcasteandsocioeconomicstatustobesetaside.
[55]ThereisonlyoneidealBalinese'woman,'andalthoughurbanintellectualsandcontributors
tonewspapercolumnsareessentiallymiddleclasswomenwhosedailyactivitiesaresupported
bydomestichelpandmaterialresources,theheaviereconomicanddomesticburdensofrural
andpoorwomenarenotaddressedinthemediaanalyses.Bycontrast,alargenumberof
humanintereststoriesfocusonwomenfromthelowestsocioeconomicsectorsasillustrative
ofthemoralandsocialvalueofBalinesecustomaryrolesinspiteofterriblepersonal
circumstances.ThemoralbeingdrawnisthatBalinesewomencanalwaysdrawsufficient
comfortfromtheirreligionandculturetoriseabovegrindingpovertyandadversity.This
tendencyhasbeenparticularlyevidentinthetreatmentofthesocialconsequencesfor
BalinesewomenoftheBalibombings.TheonlyspecificallygendernuancedstoriesintheBali
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PostaftertheKutabombingwereahandfulofpersonalportraitsthathighlightedtheplightof
widowsdrawnfromthelowestsocioeconomicgroupsandleftwithoutsupportbythedeathsof
theirhusbands.

43. Culturallyconservativeviewsofwomenstresstheindivisibilityofreligion[agama],tradition
[adat]andculture[budaya]inpreservingBalineseidentity.Sincethe1970s,definitionsof
BalinesereligiousidentityhavedrawnincreasinglyonthespiritualauthorityofimportedIndian
Hindutradition,particularlyasitisdefinedinHindutextssuchastheVedas,theMahabaharata
andRamayanaepics,theBhagavadgitaandthePuranas.Thereisanalmostunquestioning
acceptanceofthetruthandvalidityofreligiousinstructioneventhough,inmostcases,the
Hindutextsthathavebecomecentraltothedocumentationofreligiousidentitywereunknown
inBalibeforethesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury,sothattheancient,authentic,traditional
basesformoralguidanceareoftenofcomparativelyrecentorigin.[56]

44. AncientHinduscriptures,includingtheRamayana,MahabharataandManawadharmasastra,
arerepletewithexamplesofwomenaccordedrespectfortheirfemininity,devotiontotheir
husbandsandfamilies,andfortheirattentiontotheirreligiousandtraditionalduties.Hindu
goddessesfromtheVedasserveasmodels,asreadersareremindedbyKetutSemadi,
'MemegangKonsepRwaBhineda,'[GraspingtheConceptofRwaBhineda].[57]Throughtheir
actions,femaledeitiesillustratetheHinduconceptofTriKayaParisudha[purityinthought
wordanddeed]andthecentralityoftraditionalfamilyandfemalevaluesthatallmodern
Balinesewomencan,andshould,emulateasdiscussedin:'MewacanakanKarakteristik
WanitaHindu,'[OntheSubjectofHinduWomen'sCharacter].[58]IMadePrabaswaraargues
thattraditionalgenderrolesareexemplifiedbytheconsortofSiwa,DewiSaktiin'Kesadaran
PuitisSpiritualKepadaIbuSakti'[PoeticalSpiritualAwarenessofGoddessSakti],[59]while
NyomanWiratadrawsparallelswithfolktaleheroinesin'WanitaAtasDebuBernamaILubang
Kuri'[AWomanintheDustNamedILubangKuri].[60]

45. Parallelingthisscripturalsupportofwomen'spositionisanotherlineofargumentthatdenies
inequalitiesexistatallbecauseinHinduismand,consequentlyinBalinesetraditionalsociety,
menandwomenareequalpartnersasdiscussedbyAlitSRini,'Emansipasi:Memperjuangkan
PerempuanSebagaiManusia,'[Emancipation:FightingforWomenasHumanBeings].The
viewthatBalinesewomenarealreadyemancipatedintraditionalsocietyisexpressedin
'WanitaBaliMandiri?'[AreBalineseWomenIndependent].[61]Hinduscriptures,thewedas
[Vedas]donotnominateonegenderasdominantaccordingtotheauthorsof'Kesetaraan
GenderDiakuiDalamWeda,'[GenderEqualityAcknowledgedintheWedas]and'Salah
MenganggapWanitaUmatKelasDua,'[WrongtoRegardWomenasASecondClassGroup].
[62]Theseviewsareunderpinnedbythenotionthatinrecognisingtheessentialhumanityofall
humans,equalityfollowsnaturallyasarguedbyNiDesiASAGita,'EmansipasiKhas
PerempuanBali,'[BalineseWomen'sSpecialEmancipation]).[63]InHinduism,women'sroles
arehonouredandmalefemalerelationshipsaresetdownaspartnerships,justifyingtraditional
viewsofhardworkasrightandfair,thusrenderingunnecessarythestruggleforequalityas
KetutSemadiclaimsin'MemegangKonsepRwaBhineda,'[SeizingtheConceptofRwa
Bhineda].[64]Similarly,AlitSRiniarguesthattheHinduconceptofardhaneswari[thedivine
coupleSiwaandUmainasinglebody]isbothsymbolandproofofthisequality.Insteadof
dividingthesexes,thespiritofardhaneswariservesasacountertothematerialismthat
threatenstraditionalvaluesin'Profesi,PerempuandanSpiritFemininMaskulin,'[Professions,
WomenandtheFemaleMaleSpirit]).[65]Intheseinterpretationsofgenderrelationships,
women'sperceivednaturaltalentsareseparatebutequaltothoseofmen.Thecomplementary
rolesofmenandwomenwithinfamilyandsocialnetworksguaranteedbyBalineseHindu
religionisathemefamiliarfromNewOrderdefinitionsoffamilylifeandwelfare.

46. InherinterviewforBaliLain,Suryaniarguesstronglythatratherthanembodyinginequality,
Balinesetraditionalsocialstructureisinsteadmarkedbytheabsenceofthegendereddivision
oflabour.Evidenceforthisclaimincludesthefactthatmencookthetraditionalritualdishlawar
andwomenareactiveinmarketinglongstandingfemaleemancipationintheeconomycanbe
seeninthefactthatwhileitistruethatforreligiousritualswomenmaketheelaborateofferings
[banten],mensacrificetheanimals.Apparentinequalities,shesuggests,resultfrom
misconceptionsaboutgenderrelationsinBalinesesociety.Argumentsthatwomen'svoicesare
muzzledbyadatbecausetheyhavenoformalroleincommunitydecisionmakingare
counteredwiththeresponsethatwomenarerepresentedbytheirhusbands,andbecauseadat
isadirectreflectionofthescriptures,apparentinequalitiescannotbeconsideredassocial
injustice.OtherevidencebroughtforwardtoprovethatBalinesewomenenjoyequalitywith
men,includethepracticeofwomennottakingtheirhusband'snameatmarriagebutthatof
theirchildren.[66]

47. Womenareurgedtoseetheirexclusionfrominheritancerightsandtheirlackofaccessto
educationalopportunitiesintermsofBalineseculturalvalues.Inheritancelaws,whichexclude
womenfrominheritingland,mightseemunfairbutmenhavetocarryonthefamilylineso
thereforethepracticeisbothdecreedbyandjustifiedbyadat.[67]Suryanidismissesclaims
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thatBalinesewomenaredeniededucationalopportunities.Shenotesthat,althoughtheymay
seemtobedisadvantagedintermsofaccesstoeducation,themostimportantpartsofagirl's
educationtakeplaceintheinformalcontextofthedomestichouseholdratherthaninschools,
thusBalinesesocietyintrinsicallyequipsthemwithskillsthatareequaltothoseofboys.Inany
case,shearguesboys'deserve'bettertreatmentbecausetheybeartheresponsibilityof
carryingonthefamilyline.[68]Thisfailuretorecognisetheeffectsofsocialpracticeobviates
theneedforculturallyconservativecommentatorstoengagecriticallywithissuesofgender
inequality.ThepossibilitythathomebasededucationforBalinesegirlsmaynotequipthemfor
fullparticipationinthemodernworldiscapturedwrylyinPanca'scartoonfromBogBog(Figure
11).

Figure11.Panca,'ModernityversusTradition.'[69]

Conclusion

48. SincethefallofSuhartoin1998,articlespublishedintheBaliPosthaveengagedregularly
withissuesofregionalgenderidentityinBali.Inthebroadercontext,thegendereddiscourse
concerningtherolesandresponsibilitiesofBalinesewomenthatisobservableintheBaliPost
andotherBalineseculturalmagazinessuchasSaradandBaliLainresonateswiththefamily
centredpolicyofthelateNewOrderstate.Althoughtherepresentationsofwomen'sroles
espousedintheBalinesemediasincethefallofSuhartoin1998owemuchtodecadesofNew
Ordergenderideology,theseviewsareredefinedinthespecificallyBalineseculturaland
religioustermsthathavebeendocumentedabove.InarticlesonwomenpublishedintheBali
Postbetween1999and2003,therehasbeenamarkedfocusontheinherentvaluefor
Balinesewomenofembracingthetraditionalrolesaccordedtothemandontheimportanceof
theircentralrolesinpreservingBalinesetraditionalvalues,particularlythoseauthenticatedby
HindureligioustextsandpracticesandbyBalinesetradition.

49. Themediadiscussionanddefinitionofwomen'srolesinBalitakesplaceattwolevelsone
whichevokesnationalissuesandconcernsforgreaterfemaleparticipationinandaccessto
publicandpoliticallife,andtheotherwhichseeksBalineseculturalexplanationsand
justificationsfortheplaceofwomeninsociety.Theargumentspresentedinthemedia
thereforeclusteraroundtwobroadthemes:secular,politicalcallsforgreaterwomen'srightson
theonehand,andanoverwhelminglynonpolitical,evenapoliticalculturalfocusontheother.
Thelattercontributestotheperpetuationofareifiedandlargelyuncriticalimageoftheinnate
valueofbeingaBalinesewoman.Moreover,theseculturallyfocuseddiscussionsofgenderin
theBaliPostmasktherealitiesofinequalityandlackofopportunityforBalinesewomen.

50. Althoughissuessurroundingthe'burden'ofcultureareclearlyrecognisedandpointtotheneed
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forchange,norealsolutionsemerge.Thereiswidespreadacceptanceofgenderdifferencesin
Baliandquestioningthefundamental'truth'ofkodratandadatcanbereadilycriticisedasa
rejectionofthevaluesthatunderpinBalineseidentity.AsLynParkerhasrecentlyargued
Balinesetraditionalsocialstructuresareseenbysomewomenasimmutableandimpossibleto
change.[70]TheforceofculturethuscontinuestorelegatetheemancipatoryneedsofBalinese
womentothemarginsofthedebate.

51. Contemporarydefinitionsofwomen'srolesinBaliarearguablymoreconservativethaninthe
past.[71]Inspiteofcounterargumentstoconservativeandtraditionalviewsofwomen'sroles
andresponsibilities,thestrongestvoiceinthemediabelongstotheculturalpreservationists.
Dissentandcritiquehavebeeneffectivelymutedbytherenewedcalltoregionalidentity
epitomisedintheajegBalicampaign.TheconflictbetweentraditionalBalinesecultureand
secularmodernitywillcontinuetopresentparticularobstaclestofemaleautonomyinBaliinthe
postSuhartoperiod,asthedemandsofmodernityaremarginalisedinfavourofcultural
cohesion.ThisstudyofrepresentationsofwomenandgenderintheBaliPostinthefiveyears
sincethefallofSuhartosuggeststhatinformalpublicdiscourseatleastBalinesetraditionand
culturecontinuetoconstrainwomen.[72]Thereseemslittlereasontoconcludethatgreater
democracyhasledtochangesinrepresentationsofBalinesewomeninBali.Itisperhapsto
nationalratherthanlocalagendasandinitiativesthatBalinesewomenwillhavetoturnintheir
searchforequality.
Acknowledgments
IwouldliketothanktheartistsandeditorsofBogBog:BaliCartoonMagazine,JangoPramartha,SuryaDarma,Ardi,
PancaandChuksforpermissiontousetheircartoonsinthisarticle,aswellasBaliPostcartoonistsGungun
(WayanGunasta)andWiedN(IG.N.Widnyana)forallowingmetousetheircreativework.IamalsogratefultoI
NyomanDarmaPutraforrapidandhelpfulresponsestomymanyquestionsonpointsofdetail.

Endnotes
[1]Forexample,sixtyonewomen(11.1%)wereelectedtothe550seatDPRintherecentApril2004elections,
restoringthenumberoffemalerepresentativesinthenationalparliamenttothesamelevelasin199799.Female
representationinthenationallegislaturefell3.4percentbetweenthe1997and1999elections.In1997,womenheld
fiftysevenofthe500seats(11.4percent)inthelastDPR,therewerefortyfemalerepresentatives,just8percent
ofthetotalnumber.AccordingtoInterparliamentaryUniondataasof12July2004,intermsoffemaleparticipation,
Indonesiacurrentlyranksseventyfirstintheworld(upfromninetiethplacepriortotheApril2004election).The
worldaverageforfemalerepresentationiscurrently15.4percent.SeeInterparliamentaryUnion,'WomeninNational
Parliaments,'URL:http://www.ipu.org/wmne/classif.htm,siteaccessed12July2004.SeealsoKathrynRobinson
'IndonesianWomenfromOrdreBarutoReformasi,'inWomeninAsia:TraditionModernityandGlobalisation,ed.
LouiseEdwardsandMinaRoces,StLeonards:AllenandUnwin,2000,pp.13969.
[2]Editorialcomment,'BukanSuratanPerempuan,'BaliLain,vol.2,April2000,p.11.
[3]EarlierversionsofthisarticlewerepresentedattheSocietyforBalineseStudiesConferenceheldinDenpasarin
2000andattheAsianStudiesAssociationofAustraliaConferenceinHobartinJuly2002.
[4]Asearlyasthe1920sand1930s,discussionanddebateaboutthemeaningofBalineseidentitybecamean
importantpartofpublicdiscourseintheprintmedia.SeeINyomanDarmaPutra,'ALiteraryMirror:Balinese
ReflectionsonModernityandIdentityintheTwentiethCentury,'PhDThesis,UniversityofQueensland,2003.
[5]SeeINyomanDarmaPutra,'BaliPascaBom:Konflik,KekerasandanRekonstruksiIdentitasBudayaMenuju
"AjegBali",'PaperpresentedattheKongresKebudayaanVTahun2003,Bukittinggi,1923October2003.
[6]SeeMichelPicard,Bali:CulturalTourismandTouristicCulture,Singapore:ArchipelagoPress,1996.
[7]MailaStivens,'TheorisingGender,PowerandModernity,'inGenderandPowerinAffluentAsia,eds.Krishna
SenandMailaStivens,London:Routledge,1998,pp.134,p.18.
[8]ForabriefhistoricaloverviewofsimilarargumentspertainingtogenderrolesinBaliinthetwentiethcentury,see
LauraBellows,'LiketheWest:NewSexualPracticesandModernThreatstoBalineseness,'inRIMAvol.37,no.1,
2003,pp.71106,pp.7279.AsBellowsnotes,Balinesewomencarryanunfairshareoftheburdentopreserve
Balinesenessthroughtheirsexuality.ShecitesargumentsputforwardbyLuhKetutSuryaniata1999seminar
callingonBalinesewomentodefendtheBalinesenationagainstthethreatsofmodernityandwesterncultureby
embracingchildbearinginordertomaintainaparticularnotionoftraditionalBalineseidentity,ethnicityandHindu
religion.Bydisconnectingfertilityandsexuality,womenpotentiallybecomethedestroyersofBalineseethnicity
traditionalcultureandnation,pp.71,8791.Suryani'sculturallyconservativeviewsarediscussedindetailbelow.
[9]LynetteParker,FromSubjectstoCitizens:BalineseVillagersintheIndonesianNationState,Copenhagen:
NordicInstituteofAsianStudies,2003,pp.17172.
[10]SeeParker,SubjectstoCitizensMeganJennaway,SistersandLovers:WomenandDesireinBali,Lanham,
Maryland:RowmanandLittlefield,2002AyamiNakatani,'EatingThreads:BrocadesasCashCropforWeaving
MothersandDaughtersinBali,'inStayingLocalintheGlobalVillage:BaliintheTwentiethCentury,ed.Linda
ConnorandRaechelleRubinstein,Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,1999andAyamaNakatani,'Ritualas
Work:TheInvisibilityofWomen'sSocioEconomicRolesinAChangingBalineseSociety',inInequality,Crisisand
SocialChangeinIndonesia:TheMutedWorldsofBali,ed.ThomasA.Reuter,London:RoutledgeCurzon,2003,
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pp.11842.
[11]Parker,SubjectstoCitizens,p.171.
[12]LynetteParkersearlierresearchhasshownclearlythatinBali,girlseducationlagsbehindthatofboysand
alsobehindthatofwomeninotherareasofIndonesia.Balinesesocietydiscourageschoiceparticularlyinhigher
educationwheremobilitybecomesanimportantfactor.SeeLynetteParker,'TheIntroductionofWesternStyle
EducationtoBali:DominationbyConsent?'inToChangeBali:EssaysinHonourofIGustiNgurahBagus,ed.
AdrianVickers,DarmaPutraandMichelleFord,Denpasar:BaliPost,2000and'DomesticScienceandtheModern
BalineseWoman',inLove,SexandPower:WomeninSoutheastAsia,ed.SusanBlackburn,Clayton:MonashAsia
Institute,2001,pp.5774.OntouristcultureseeJennaway,SistersandLovers.
[13]Parker,SubjectstoCitizens,p.9.
[14]NewOrdergenderpolicieshavebeenwidelydocumentedinthepastdecade.Seeforexample,NormaSulivan,
'GenderandPoliticsinIndonesia,'inMailaStivens(ed.),WhyGenderMattersinSoutheastAsia,Clayton:Monash
CentreofSoutheastAsianStudies,1991,pp.6186.Oneofthepioneeringdiscussionsonthistopic,Sullivan's
essayremainsavaluablestudywhoseconclusionshavebeenborneoutbylaterwork,including,theessaysin
LaurieJ.Sears(ed.),FantasizingtheFeminineinIndonesia,Durham:DukeUniversityPress,1996,andBlackburn
(ed.),Love,SexandPower.SeealsoSuzanneBrenner,TheDomesticationofDesire:Women,Wealthand
ModernityinJava,Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1998JuliaSuryakusuma'TheStateandSexualityinNew
OrderIndonesian,inSears(ed.),FantasizingtheFeminine,pp.92119Stivens,'TheorisingGender,'p.10
[15]Sullivan,'GenderandPolitics,'p.81.
[16]Parker,SubjectstoCitizens,p.169Nakatani,'RitualasWork,'pp.119,122.
[17]Nakatani,'EatingThreads,'p.222.
[18]SuryaDarma,inSarad,3,March2000,p.7.
[19]The'BaliPostArchive'contains5770htmlfilesofBaliPostarticles,withanindexoftitlesandsubject
keywords.Althoughthisdatasetissizeable,itslimitationsmustbeacknowledged.Ibegantocompilethisarchive
inthecourseofotherresearchprojectsinApril1999andstoppedinOctober2003.Thearchivecoversarticleson
broadtopicsofculturalinterestclassifiedundermajorkeywordsofArts,Culture,Religion,Language,History,Social
Issues,Literature,Politics,Tourism,andWomen.Thecollectionwasnecessarilysomewhatarbitrary,andbecause
theunderlyingthemeofmyresearchwas'traditional'Balineseliteratureandculture,fewarticlesconcerningongoing
politicalprocess,economicandenvironmentalissues,andtourismwerearchived,unlesstheymadedirectreference
toculturalmatters.Anumberofresearchassistantsplayedaroleincompilingthearchiveincluding,Rebecca
Rimmer,JoSbeghenandAshleyGill.Theirinputisgratefullyacknowledged.IamespeciallyindebtedtoINyoman
DarmaPutrawhoworkedcloselywithmefornearlytwoyearsincompilingthearchive.
[20]Referencesinthetexttoarchivedfilesinthepresentarticleincludeauthordetails(whereavailable),Indonesian
titleswithEnglishtranslationsandtheoriginaldateofpublicationintheBaliPost.CurrentissuesoftheBaliPost
Onlinecanbeaccessedathttp://www.balipost.co.id.TheBaliPostOnlinewebsitehasasearchfacilityforaccess
tobackissuesfromDecember2002.
[21]ThereisnodataforJuly2002,whichwasinadvertently'missed'andisnolongeravailableinelectronicformat
evenfromtheBaliPostofficesinDenpasar.
[22]Thelimitationsofthe'BaliPostArchive'mayskewthisresultslightly.Incompilingthearchive,noarticleswere
gatheredfromtheregularEkonomi[Economics],Mancanegara[ForeignNews],Nusatenggara[EasternIndonesia]or
Olahraga[Sports]columns.SomecolumnstowardstheendofTables2and3,inwhichonlyoneortwoarticles
appear,arenolongerinuse.ProblempagesintheBaliPostincludingthosedealingwithsexualandbeautyadvice
werenotincludedinthe'Archive',althoughthesetopicsoftendealwithwomen'sissuesandappearregularlyinthe
KeluargaandTrendcolumnsoftheSundayedition.Inherrecentarticle,however,LauraBellowsfillsthisgapinmy
ownresearchinherdiscussionofculturalpreservationagendasinsexualpracticesincontemporaryBali,which
includesdiscussionofsomeoftheadviceprovidedbytheBaliPost'sresidentsexologist,WimpiePangkahila.See
Bellows,'LiketheWest.'
[23]TheMarchandAprilpublicationdateswerepresumablydesignedtocoincidewithKartinicelebrations.Other
recentBalibasedAprilpublicationshavealsofeaturedissuesonwomen.ThetouristindustrymagazineBaliEcho
devotedanumberofrelatedarticlesinitsApril/May1999editiontowomen'sissuesincludingitscoverstory
'FreedomFighters:TheUniqueStruggleofBalineseWomen'andfeaturearticlesentitled'BowingtoTradition'and
'BalineseWomenintheTourismIndustry.'ThethemeofApril2001editionofthemagazineLatitudeswas'Womenin
Indonesia.'ThesemagazinesarenotconsideredhereastheyarewritteninEnglishwithanintendedaudienceof
nonBalinesereaders.
[24]Forexample,thereportofaseminaronBalineseWomen'sEqualityandtheConflictingRolesinAdatand
CulturalLife'[KesetaraanPerempuanBalidanKonflikPerandalamKehidupanAdatdanBudaya]entitled
'PerempuanBaliTerkungkungAdatdanBudaya?'[AreBalineseWomenShackledbyAdatandBudaya?],BaliPost,
7January2002,arguesthatbecauseofthesenseofprideBalinesewomenfeelinbeinginvolvedinadatandritual,
theirlabourcannotbeconsidered'exploitation'.SimilarlythereportofaseminarheldaweekearlieronRevitalising
theRolesofWomeninCulture,TraditionandReligion[RevitaliasiPeranPerempuanBalidalamBudaya,Adatdan
Agama]organisedbytheBaliPost,LBHBaliandGlobalFM99,15,reinforcestraditionalgenderstereotypes,and
'KehormatanPerempuanHanyaTerselipdiKitabKitabLama,'[RespectforWomenOnlyIncorporatedinAncient
Books],BaliPost,20April2002,emphasisesthecomplementary(andthusinherentlyequal)rolesofmaleand
femaleinHinduthoughtandpracticeintheconceptofpurusaandpradana[maleandfemaleprinciplesthattogether
createlife].
[25]Seeforexample,CokSawitri'PerempuanBaliKini,'[BalineseWomenToday]inSarad,3,2000,p.47Putu
Suasta,'PembangkanganPolitisKaumPerempuan,'[Women'sPoliticalOpposition],inBaliLain,2,2000,pp.2425.
[26]BaliLain,April2000,pp.1415.
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[27]KartiniDayCelebrations,'PotretBopengPerempuan,'[PortraitofWomen'sInjustice],20April2000'Mitos
TentangKepasifanPerempuan,'[MythsConcerningWomen'sPassivity],BaliPost,18April2001'PriaWanita
MenujuOrbitKemitrasejajaran,'[MenandWomenMovingintotheOrbitofEquality],BaliPost,21April2003.
[28]TheeditorialsintheBaliPostdealtwiththefollowingissues:'MenghargaiWanita,MenghargaiManusia'
[ValuingWomenValuingHumans],24April2000inwhichitisarguedthatwomen'ssubordinationwillonlyendwith
theacknowledgementoftheirbasichumanity'PosisiWanitaDalamMasyarakatKita'[ThePositionofWomenin
OurSociety],26May2000dealingwiththeissueoffemalepresidents,powerfulwomeninhistoryandwomen's
fundamentalpoliticalrights'KontroversiTentangWanitaBukanHanyadiIndonesia'[TheControversyaboutWomen
isNotJustinIndonesia],8September2000ontheuniversalityoftheproblemoffemalerepresentationin
government'WapresTolakBacaSambutanPresiden'[VicePresidentRefusestoReadthePresident'sWelcome],1
June2001aneditorialcriticalofMegawati'slackofleadershipandherabsorptionofgendervaluesregardingthe
secondarystatusofwomen'SeksBebasMakinMeningkat'[FreeSexontheRise],3July2001discussingthe
needforeducationinthefaceofrisingabortionratesparticularlyamongteenagers'TerlaluBanyakPrasangka
TerhadapWanita'[TooMuchPrejudiceagainstWomen],20April2002discussingtheunderrepresentationof
womeninrepresentativecouncils'MerombakPolaPikirWanita'[ChangingWomen'sAttitudes],29April2003calling
forwomentochangetheirthinkingabouttheirstatusassecondclasscitizensinspiteofculturalandreligious
impediments'MendorongPerempuankeDuniaPolitik'[SupportingWomenintheWorldofPolitics],11August2003
ontheneedforinstitutionalsupportforwomen'spoliticalparticipation.
[29]'PerempuanMasihTerpinggirkandiParpol'[WomenStillMarginalisedinPoliticalParties],BaliPost,9January
2003'Porsi30percentPerempuandiLegislatif,'[30percentWomenintheLegislature],BaliPost,20February
2003'Priatak''Legowo''BerikanPeranpadaPerempuan'[MenNotWillingtoGiveRolestoWomen],BaliPost,21
February2003'Dipertanyakan,KemampuanPolitikPraktisWanita'[QueryingWomen'sPracticalPoliticalAbility],
BaliPost,22February2003'KuotaPerempuanSebagai"AffirmativeAction"'[Women'sQuotaasAffirmative
Action],BaliPost,13March2003'SoalWakilPerempuandiDewan'[ProblemofFemaleRepresentativesinthe
Chamber],BaliPost,21April2003'PerempuanDimintaIkutKritisiAPBD'[WomenAskedtoCriticiseAPBD],Bali
Post,2June2003'Bumerang,PaksakanWanitaPenuhiKuota30Persen'[Boomerang,ForcingtheWomen's
Quota],BaliPost,26June2003'Sistem,PasungPerempuandiDuniaPolitik'[SystemRepressingWomeninthe
WorldofPolitics],BaliPost,8August2003'Pemilu2004,KebangkitanPolitikusPerempuan'[2004Elections,The
PoliticalRiseofWomen],BaliPost,8August2003.
[30]Statisticscitedin'BaliMasukKelompokTerendah'[BaliAmongtheLowestGroup],BaliPost25June2003
givethefigureof1.8percentforBali,thesamelevelofrepresentationasinRiauonlyMalukuislowerwithno
femalerepresentation.IamgratefultoDarmaPutraforprovidingmewiththenumberofBalinesewomencurrentlyin
theDPRandDPRD.FiguresfromtherecentApril2004electionsforfemalerepresentationinlocallegislativebodies
arenotyetavailable.
[31]WiedN.,'Jeng,'BaliPost,21December2003.
[32]Gungun,'Brewok,'BaliPost,7December2003.
[33]'PerempuanPimpinParisada?'[AWomantoHeadParisada?],BaliPost5September2001'WanitaBaliPerlu
'Berontak'[BalineseWomenMustFight],BaliPost,8December2001'EIDukungTampilnyaWanitaBali,'[EI
SupportstheRiseofBalineseWomen],BaliPost,4January2003KMargi,'SejarahWanitadiBalikBendung
Budaya,'[Women'sHistorybehindtheDamofCulture],BaliPost,23April2002MariaFebiola,'HentikanKekerasan
PadaPerempuan,'[StopViolenceAgainstWomen],BaliPost,23April2001.
[34]'Meningkat,TingkatKekerasanTerhadapIstri'[LevelsofViolenceAgainstWomenOntheRise],BaliPost,7
November1999'HentikanKekerasanPadaPerempuan'[StopViolenceAgainstWomen],BaliPost,23April2001
'PerempuanSelaluMenjadiKorban'[WomenareAlwaystheVictims],BaliPost,9September2001'Tinggi,
KekerasanPerempuanDalamRumahSasak'[HighLevelsofViolenceAgainstWomeninSasakHomes],BaliPost,
29September2001'PerlindunganPerempuanHarusDiprioritaskan'[TheProtectionofWomenMustbeGiven
Priority],BaliPost,27May2002.
[35]'SuaraIbuPeduli'[VoiceofConcernedMothers],BaliPost,20January2003'IbuibudiYogyakartaBerunjuk
Rasa'[MothersinYogyaVenttheirFeelings],BaliPost,18January2003'IbuIbuDemoIstana:KeluhanHarga
LipstikNaik'[WomeninPalaceDemoLamenttheRisingPriceofLipstick],BaliPost15January2003.Theserious
effortsoftheSuaraIbuPeduligrouparetrivialisedbythereporterhighlightingthereferencetothepriceoflipstick
whenthemainpurposeofthedemonstrationswastoprotestagainstthesocioeconomicconsequencesforfamilies
ofpricerisesinbasiccommoditiesorthehighlightingofthedistractionofchildrenforthedemonstrators.
[36]'DipardaLarangImpresariatKirimSenimankeLN,'[TourismDepartmentProhibitsImpresariosSendingArtists
Overseas],BaliPost,9August2002.
[37]'BisaDiciduk,WanitaPekerjaMalamTanpaIzin,'[AbletobeArrested:WomenWorkingatNightWithout
Permission],BaliPost,25September2002.
[38]ThispointismadebyChristineCampbellinherdiscussionoffeminismincontemporaryMalaysianwomen's
fiction.ThesameargumentscanalsobeharnessedintheBalinesecase.SeeChristineCampbell,'Contrary
Visions:WomenandWorkinMalayWomenauthoredNovelsaftertheIndependencePeriod(19601995),'PhD
thesis,AustralianNationalUniversity,2000,pp.16869.
[39]LuhKetutSuryani,PerempuanBaliKini,Denpasar:BaliPost,2003.
[40]Suryani,PerempuanBali,p.x.
[41]LuhKetutSuryani:'PerempuanBali,MaukahBerjuanguntukBali,'[BalineseWomen,WillTheyFightforBali?],
BaliPost,19December2001).
[42]Penting,PeranPerempuandalamAjegBali,'[Crucial,TheRoleofWomeninAjegBali],BaliPost,25December
2003.
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[43]'PerempuanHinduDituntutTransformasikanNilaiNilaiAgama,'[HinduWomenCalledontoTransformReligious
Values],BaliPost,18April2001.
[44]Ardi,inBogBog:BaliCartoonMagazine,No.16,2003.
[45]AlitS.Rini,'MenjagaTradisi,BertanyaPadaPerempuan,'[ToGuardTradition,AskWomen],BaliPost,23
December2001.
[46]'Strategis,PeranPerempuandalamPelaksanaanBrataPenyepian,'[Strategy,TheRoleofWomenin
ConductingNyepi],BaliPost,21March2001'CaraPerempuanMemaknaiNyepi,'[WaysforWomentoBring
MeaningtoNyepi],BaliPost,21March2001.
[47]'CegahSelingkuh:BangkitkanInnerBeauty,'[PreventAdultery:IncreaseYourInnerBeauty],BaliPost,27
August2001'BusanaTransparanTandaDegredasiEtika,'[TransparentBlousesASignoftheDeclineinEthical
Standards],BaliPost,18September2000'PakaianIbadahPerempuanBali,'[BalineseWomen'sReligious
Clothing],BaliPost,23November2002'WanitaBalidanMaknaSimbolikSanggulPusung,'[BalineseWomenand
theSymbolicMeaningoftheSanggul(Bun)],BaliPost,14April2001'Mapusungan,'[TheSanggul],BaliPost,14
April2001and18April2001NiPutuVivi'Lestari:DanYangBernamaPerempuan'[AndThoseCalledWoman...],
BaliPost,8April2001.
Moregeneralandpracticaladviceonhowtokeepahusbandhappyandondeportmentandsocialetiquetteis
frequentlydealtwithintheKeluarga[Family]andCermin[Reflections]sectionsoftheSundayBaliPostwhichdid
notformpartofthecollectionofthe'BaliPostArchive.'
[48]Editorialcomment,'TuahWanitaBali'[BalineseWomen'sRespect],Sarad,3,March2000,p.3.
[49]AlitS.Rini,'KekeliruanPerempuanMenguasakanPikirannya,'[Women'sMistakesinAllowingDominationof
theirThoughts],BaliPost,17December2000AnitaDewi'ApresiasiPerempuanBali,'[AppreciationofBalinese
Women],BaliPost,21October2001.
[50]ThomasStamfordRaffles(originallypublished1817),TheHistoryofJava,2vols,reprintwithaforewordby
JohnBastin,KualaLumpur:OxfordUniversityPress,1978,pp.ccxxxiccxxxii.
[51]H.A.vandenBroek,'VerslagNopenshetEilandBali,'DeOosterling,1,1834,pp.199200.
[52]Panca,inBogBog:BaliCartoonMagazine,No.16,2003.
[53]'YangTuyuhBekerjaDemiKemuliaanHidup'[ThosewhoLabourHardfortheSakeofHonouringLife],Sarad,3,
March2000,pp.1415.
[54]LuhKetutSuryani,'Yadnya,BentukKeterpanggilanOrangBali,'[Ceremonies:ABalineseCalling],BaliPost,22
April2002.
[55]BycontrasttheburdenofcasteisanextremelyprominentthemeinmodernBalinesefiction,particularlyinthe
workofOkaRusmini.SeeDarmaPutra,'ALiteraryMirror,'Chapters6and7.
[56]ForaninterestingparalleloncontemporaryinfluencefromIndianHindismondiscussionsofsexualityand
sexualpracticesincontemporaryBali,seeBellows,'LiketheWest.'
[57]KetutSemadi,'MemegangKonsepRwaBhineda,'[GraspingtheConceptofRwaBhineda],BaliPost,23May
2001.
[58]'MewacanakanKarakteristikWanitaHindu,'[OntheSubjectofHinduWomen'sCharacter],BaliPost,23May
2001.
[59]IMadePrabaswara,'KesadaranPuitisSpiritualKepadaIbuSakti[PoeticalSpiritualAwarenessofGoddess
Sakti],BaliPost,22December2001.
[60]NyomanWirata,'WanitaAtasDebuBernamaILubangKuri,'[AWomanintheDustNamedILubangKuri],Bali
Post,23December2001.
[61]AlitSRini,'Emansipasi:MemperjuangkanPerempuanSebagaiManusia,'[Emancipation:FightingforWomenas
HumanBeings],BaliPost,11April1999'WanitaBaliMandiri?'[AreBalineseWomenIndependent],BaliPost,19
October2000.
[62]'KesetaraanGenderDiakuiDalamWeda,'[GenderEqualityAcknowledgedintheWedas],BaliPost,7January
2002SalahMenganggapWanitaUmatKelasDua,'[WrongtoRegardWomenasASecondClassGroup],BaliPost,
15March2003.
[63]NiDesiASAGita,'EmansipasiKhasPerempuanBali,'[BalineseWomen'sSpecialEmancipation],BaliPost,18
April1999.
[64]RwabhinedareferstotheHinduprincipleofopposing,butcomplementaryforceswhichmustexistinharmony
andbalance.Itisusedalsotorefertogenderrelationships.SeeKetutSemadi,'MemegangKonsepRwaBhineda,'
[SeizingtheConceptofRwaBhineda],BaliPost,23May2001.
[65]Siwainhisardhaneswariformishalfmaleandhalffemale.Theconceptrepresentstheunionofmaleand
femaleprinciplesasessentialtocreation.SeeAlitSRini,'Profesi,PerempuandanSpiritFemininMaskulin,'
[Professions,WomenandtheFemaleMaleSpirit],BaliPost,22April2001.
[66]InterviewwithSuryani,BaliLain,2,April2000,p.14.
[67]'TanahPustakaJanganDiwariskan,'[SacredLandCannotbeInherited],BaliPost,13July2000GedeBudiana,
'WanitaDalamHukumAdatBali:MeskiLemah,PerlahanAdaPerubahanMenujuKesetaraan,'[WomeninTraditional
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BalineseLaw:StillWeakbutAdvancesTowardsEquality],BaliPost,13July2000Subagiadnya,'Pembagian
Warisan,TergantungBebanTanggungJawab,'[DivisionofInheritance:DependentontheLevelofResponsibility],
BaliPost,13July2000.
[68]InterviewwithSuryani,BaliLain,2,April2000,p.14.
[69]Panca,inBogBog:BaliCartoonMagazine,No.16,2003.
[70]Parker,SubjectstoCitizens,p.170.
[71]Women'srights,particularlywithinthecontextofintercastemarriage,becameasitefordebateandcontention
intheearliestmediadefinitionsofBalinesemodernityandidentity,andwereamajorfactorinthedebatebetween
acquiredandascribedstatusinBali'scastebasedsocialhierarchy.Strongviewswereputforwardbywomenand
women'sorganisationsestablishedtopromoteeducationandimprovedsocialconditionsforwomen.Inthetwenty
firstcentury,however,thispioneeringfireseemstohavegoneout.See,I.NyomanDarmaPutra,WanitaBali
TempoDoeloe:PerspektifMasaKini,Bali:BaliJani,2003.
[72]Itwillbesometimeofcoursebeforeanadequateanddetailedanalysisoftheeffectsofreformasionwomen's
livesinBalicanbepresented.Inthiscontext,itisperhapsworthnotingthattheanthropologicalstudiesonwhich
theearlierdiscussionofgenderidentityinBaliwasbasedarethemselvesbasedonfieldworkgoingbackasfaras
thelate1980s.Theadvantageofacurrent,ifnecessarilysomewhatsuperficial,analysisofcontemporarymedia
discourseliesinthefactthatitdoesencapsulateimmediateviews,whosevaliditymaybetestedatalatertime.

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