An Introduction to the Representation Theory

of Finite Groups
by
G. Hiss, R. Kessar and B. Klshammer
Last Updated: 30/05/2012

Introduction
These notes are adapted from three short courses given by the above at a summer school
entitled An Introduction to the Representation Theory of Finite Groups" held at RWTH
Aachen University between the 27th and 29th of September 2010. The three short courses
were entitled
An Introduction to Ordinary Representation Theory given by Hiss,
An Introduction to Modular Representation Theory given by Klshammer,
An Introduction to Block Theory given by Kessar.
The summer school was organised by Jrgen Mller, Natalie Naehrig and Gabriele
Nebe as part of the DFG priority program in representation theory. These notes follow
very closely the original lectures given by the above at this summer school, although some
changes have been made. Mainly these changes are in the addition of some background
material but also some of the proofs which were left as exercises have been fleshed out.
These notes are not officially endorsed by the three lecturers and are are merely the scribers
own notes.

Contents

Background Material
0.1 Algebras and Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.2 Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ordinary Representation Theory

1.1 Representations . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Characters . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Ordinary Representation Theory
1.4 The Ordinary Character Table .
1.5 Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6 Semisimple Group Algebras . . .
1.7 Integrality . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8 Representations and Subgroups .

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Modular Representation Theory

2.1 Modular Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Change of Coefficients . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Brauer Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Grothendieck Groups . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 The Decomposition Map . . . . . . . . .
2.6 Projective FG-modules . . . . . . . . . .
2.7 Projective OG-modules . . . . . . . . . .
2.8 p-Solvable Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.9 Relative Projectivity . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.10 Vertices and Sources . . . . . . . . . . .
2.11 The Green Correspondence . . . . . . . .
2.12 Sources of Simple Modules . . . . . . . .
2.13 Endopermutation Modules Over p-Groups
2.14 The Dade Group . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.15 The Green Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Block Theory
3.1 Measuring Semisimplicity . .
3.2 Module Decompositions . . .
3.3 Twisted Group Algebras . . .
3.4 b-Brauer Pairs . . . . . . . .
3.5 Brauers First Main Theorem

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33
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40

Contents
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18

ii
Brauers Third Main Theorem . . . . . .
Fusion System of a Block . . . . . . . . .
Structure of Centric Brauer Pairs . . . . .
Known Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alperins Weight Conjecture . . . . . . .
Brous Abelian Defect Group Conjecture
Finiteness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weak Donovan Conjecture . . . . . . . .
Blocks in Characteristic 0 . . . . . . . . .
Blocks and the cde Triangle . . . . . . .
Brauers Second Main Theorem . . . . .
Block Orthogonality Relations . . . . . .
Characters and Morita Equivalence . . . .

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41
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0. Background Material
In this section we will gather together some basic background material that may be unfamiliar. We also outline the notation that we will use for the remainder of these notes.

0.1

Algebras and Modules

Let F be a field, then we recall the definition of an algebra over a field.

Definition 0.1.1. Let A be a vector space over F then A is an F-algebra if A has a binary
operation : A A A such that for all x, y , z A and a, b F we have
(x + y ) z = x z + y z,
x (y + z) = x y + x z,
(ax) (by ) = (ab)(x y ),
x (y z) = (x y ) z,
there exists 1A A such that 1A x = x = x 1A .
In our definition of F-algebra we have assumed that it is associative and has a unit
element. Note that in particular A is a ring and hence we have the following definition of
an A-module.
Definition 0.1.2. A left A-module is an abelian group M, (whose group operation we
denote additively), together with an operation : A M M such that, for all a, b A
and m, n M we have
a (m + n) = a m + a n,
(a + b) m = a m + b m,
(ab) m = a (b m),
1A m = m.
We also say a subgroup N 6 M is a left A-submodule if for all a A, n N we have
a n N.

Section 0.1

Remark 0.1.3. We can define modules for an arbitrary ring but here we have chosen to
define them only for F-algebras as this is the only context in which we will need them. As
any F-algebra contains a copy of F we have any A-module is in fact an F-vector space. In
light of this we will refer to the dimension of M, sometimes denoted dim M or dimF (M),
as the dimension of M as an F-vector space.
Remark 0.1.4. We can also define right A-modules and right A-submodules in an analogous way. All A-modules and submodules are assumed to be left A-modules and submodules unless otherwise stated. If we wish to emphasise whether M is a left, (resp. right),
A-module then we will write M as A M, (resp. MA ).
Let M be an A-module and N 6 M a submodule of M. We can form the quotient
group M/N and indeed this is again an A-module called the quotient module.
Definition 0.1.5. Let A, B be two F-algebras. We say M is an (A, B)-bimodule if M is a
left A-module and a right B-module such that for all a A, b B and m M we have
a (m b) = (a m) b. We will emphasise this bimodule structure with the notation A MB .
If M and N are A-modules then we write HomA (M, N) for the abelian group of all
group homomorphisms f : M N, which respect the action of A. In other words we
have f (a m) = a f (m) for all m M, a A. Furthermore we denote HomA (M, M) by
EndA (M) the group of all endomorphisms of M.
Definition 0.1.6. Assume A is an F-algebra and M is an A-module. We say M is finitely
generated if there exists a finite subset {m1 , . . . , ms } M such that every element of M
P
is an A-linear combination of the mi , (in other words M = si=1 Ami ).
We will assume that all A-modules are finitely generated unless specifically stated
otherwise. In particular A itself is finitely generated. We recall the following fundamental
result concerning finitely generated modules.
Proposition 0.1.7. An A-module M is finitely generated if and only if for every ascending
chain
M1 6 M2 6 M3 6
of submodules Mi 6 M terminates. In other words there exists an index j such that
Mj = Mk for all k > j.
Let us now introduce a collection of A-modules which will be the building blocks for all
other modules.
Definition 0.1.8. An A-module S is called simple if S is non-zero and the only submodules
of S are {0} and S. Furthermore an A-module M has a composition series if there exists
a finite series of submodules
{0} = M0 < M1 < < Mk1 < Mk = M

Section 0.1

such that the quotient modules Mi /Mi1 are simple for all 1 6 i 6 k. The modules
{Mi /Mi1 | 1 6 i 6 s} are called the factors of the composition series and k is called the
length of the composition series.
Let us recall some basic results on modules, which are analogues of the usual isomorphism theorems for groups and rings. These are left as an easy exercise for the reader.
Theorem 0.1.9. Let A be an F-algebra and M and N two A-modules.
(i) Assume f : M N is an A-module homomorphism then Ker(f ) and Im(f ) are
submodules and we have an isomorphism M/ Ker(f ) Im(f ).
(ii) Assume M and N are submodules of a common A-module then we have an isomorphism (M + N)/M
= N/(M N).
(iii) Assume N is a submodule of M. There exists a one to one inclusion-preserving
correspondence, P 7 P/N, between submodules P of M which contain N and
submodules of M/N.
The existence of a composition series for a finitely generated A-module follows easily from
part (iii) of Theorem 0.1.9 and Proposition 0.1.7. There is a small caveat to the existence
of a composition series in that many composition series may exist for a module. However
the next result says at least that the length and factors are independent of the choice of
a composition series. We call the common length of a composition series the composition
length of M and the factors the composition factors of M.
Theorem 0.1.10 (Jordan-Hlder). Suppose that an A-module M has two composition
series
{0} = M0 < M1 < < Mk = M,
{0} = N0 < N1 < < N` = N,
then there exists a bijection
: {M1 /M0 , . . . , Mk /Mk1 } {N1 /N0 , . . . , N` /N`1 }
such that X and (X) are isomorphic for all X {M1 /M0 , . . . , Mk /Mk1 }.
Proof. We prove this by induction on the length of the composition series. Any module
having a composition series of length 1 must be simple and the theorem is trivially true
for simple modules. Let us now assume the theorem is true for all modules which have
a composition series whose length is less than k. There are two main cases to consider.
Firstly assume Mk1 = N`1 then removing M from the composition series gives a composition series for Mk1 = N`1 . By assumption we have k 1 = ` 1 k = ` and
Mi /Mi1
= Ni /Ni1 for all 1 6 i 6 k 1. Finally as Mk1 = N`1 we clearly have
M/Mk1 = M/N`1 so the theorem is proved.

Section 0.2

Now assume that Mk1 6= N`1 then we will consider the following submodule V =
Mk1 N`1 of M. As Mk1 6= N`1 we must have that V is a proper submodule of either
Mk1 or N`1 . Let us assume without loss of generality that Mk1 N`1 is a proper
submodule of Mk1 , in particular N`1 6 Mk1 . By (iii) of Theorem 0.1.9 we have Mk1
is a maximal submodule of M because the quotient M/Mk1 is simple. Therefore we have
Mk1 Mk1 + N`1 M which implies Mk1 + N`1 M because N`1 6 Mk1 . By (ii)
of Theorem 0.1.9 we have isomorphisms
M/Mk1
= N`1 /(Mk1 N`1 )

M/N`1
= Mk1 /(Mk1 N`1 ),

(0.1)

in particular the quotient modules N`1 /(Mk1 N`1 ) and Mk1 /(Mk1 N`1 ) are simple.
Let {0} = L0 < L1 < < Ls1 < Ls = Mk1 N`1 be a composition series for
Mk1 N`1 then by Eq. (0.1) we have composition series
{0} = L0 < L1 < < Ls1 < Mk1 N`1 < Mk1 ,
{0} = L0 < L1 < < Ls1 < Mk1 N`1 < N`1
of Mk1 and N`1 . We may now use the induction hypothesis because Mk1 and N`1
clearly have composition series whose length is less than k. Using this we have the above
composition series must have the same length as the composition series
{0} = M0 < M1 < < Mk2 < Mk1 ,
{0} = N0 < N1 < < N`2 < N`1 .
In particular we have k = `. Now again by Eq. (0.1) we have the following are composition
series
{0} = L0 < L1 < < Ls1 < Mk1 Nk1 < Mk1 < Mk ,
{0} = L0 < L1 < < Ls1 < Mk1 Nk1 < Nk1 < Nk
of M. The theorem then follows by comparing these composition series with the original
composition series using the induction hypothesis and Eq. (0.1).


0.2

Categories

In this section we will recall some of the fundamental terminology used in the language
of categories. We will not recall the notions of triangulated or derived categorories but
instead refer the reader to [Wei94, Chapter 10].
Definition 0.2.1. A category C consists of a class of objects Obj(C) and a set of morphisms HomC (M, N) defined for each pair of objects M, N Obj(C). For each object M
Obj(C) there must exist an identity morphism IdM HomC (M, M) and for any three objects L, M, N C there must exist a composition function HomC (L, M) HomC (M, N)
HomC (L, N). These composition functions must satisfy

Section 0.2

for all f : K L, g : L M and h : M N we have (hg)f = h(gf )

for all f : M N we have IdN f = f = f IdM .
Example 0.2.2. The standard example of a category Sets whose objects are sets and
whose morphisms are just set functions. Composition is then just given by the usual
composition of set functions. One can also form the category of groups (denoted Groups),
rings (denoted Rings) and finitely generated A-modules (denoted Amod) where A is an
F-algebra.
Remark 0.2.3. We will drop the notation Obj if it is clear that we are talking about an
object in the given category, i.e. we may write M Amod to mean M is a finitely
generated A-module.
Definition 0.2.4. If C is a category then a morphism f HomC (M, N) is an isomorphism
if there exists a morphism g HomC (N, M) such that gf = IdM and f g = IdN .
Example 0.2.5. An isomorphism in Sets is just a set bijection. In Groups and Rings this
term has its usual meaning.
Definition 0.2.6. If C and D are two categories then a functor F : C D is a rule that
associates to every object M Obj(C) an object F (C) Obj(D) and to every morphism
f HomC (M, N) a morphism F (f ) HomD (F (M), F (N)) such that F (IdM ) = IdF (M)
and F (gf ) = F (g)F (f ) for all f HomC (L, M) and g HomC (M, N).
Example 0.2.7. We have a functor F : Groups Sets called the forgetful functor. It is
such that for any group G Groups we have F (G) is simply G as a set with the additional
binary operation forgotten. Similarly any morphism f Hom(G, H) is such that F (f ) is
the underlying set function with the additional homomorphism property forgotten. One
can define a forgetful functor for any category whose objects are sets.
In representation theory we often want to know when Amod and Bmod are equivalent where A and B are two F-algebras. We now make this notion precise on a categorical
level.
Definition 0.2.8. Assume C and D are two categories and F : C D and G : C
D are two functors. A natural transformation : F G is a rule that associates a
morphism (M) HomD (F (M), G(M)) such that for every morphism f HomC (M, M 0 )
the following diagram commutes
F (f )

F (M)

(M 0 )

(M)

G(M)

F (M 0 )

G(f )

G(M 0 )

If (M) is an isomorphism for each M Obj(C) we call a natural isomorphism.

Section 0.2

Example 0.2.9. Let A be an F-algebra and M Amod a finitely generated A-module.

We have a functor M A : Amod Amod such that for any finitely generated
A-module N we have (M A )(N) = M A N and for any morphism f HomA (N, N 0 )
we define (M A )(f ) to be the morphism given by
(M A )(f )(m n) = m f (n)
for all m n M A N. Assume now that g Hom(M, M 0 ) is a morphism of finitely
generated A-modules then we have a natural transformation g : M A M 0 A .
This is such that for any finitely generated A-module N we have (g )(N) = g N
Hom(M A N, M 0 A N) is such that
(g N)(m n) = g(m) n
for all m n M A N.
Definition 0.2.10. If C and D are categories then a functor F : C D is an equivalence
of categories if there is a functor G : D C and natural isomorphisms IdC GF
and IdD F G. Here IdC denotes the identity functor on C, i.e. the functor such that
IdC (M) = M for all M Obj(C) and IdC (f ) = f for all morphisms f HomC (M, N).
Using the language of categories we can now give one precise meaning to the notion
that two F-algebras have the same representation theory. There are other notions which
encapsulate different levels of information
Definition 0.2.11. Assume A and B are two F-algebras. We say A and B are Morita
equivalent if there exists an (A, B)-bimodule P and a (B, A)-bimodule Q such that P B
Q
= A as (A, A)-bimodules and Q A P
= B as (B, B)-bimodules. If this is the case then
the functors Q A : Amod Bmod and P B : Bmod Amod are mututally
inverse equivalences of categories.
Remark 0.2.12. In the above definition one can replace A and B by arbitrary rings and
Amod and Bmod by the full module categories.

1. Ordinary Representation Theory

Let G be a finite group and F a field.

1.1

Representations

Definition 1.1.1. An F-representation of G of degree d is a homomorphism X : G

GL(V ) where V is a d-dimensional F-vector space. This may also be referred to as a
representation of G on V .
If we fix a choice of basis for our vector space V then we get an associated matrix
representation X0 such that the following diagram is commutative
X

GL(V )

X0

GLd (F)
Definition 1.1.2. A representation X : G GL(V ) is reducible if V = {0} or there exists
a proper G-invariant vector subspace {0} < W < V , (i.e. X(g)W 6 W for all g G).
Equivalently there exists a basis of V such that for all g G we have
"
#
0
X
(g)
0
W
,
X0 (g) =
0
X0V /W (g)
where XW , XV /W are representations of G on W , V /W with respective degrees dim W and
dim V /W . We say X is irreducible if it is not reducible.
Definition 1.1.3. Two representations X : G GL(V ), Y : G GL(V ) are equivalent if
there exists an isomorphism of vector spaces : V W such that the following diagram
is commutative for all g G.
V

X(g)

W
Facts 1.1.4.

Y(g)

Section 1.1

(1) If X : G GL(V ) is a representation then there exists a basis of V such that

?
X01 (g)

X02 (g)
0

X (g) =
...

0
0
Xr (g)
where the X0i : G GLdi (F), for 1 6 i 6 r are irreducible matrix representations.
The Xi are uniquely determined by X, (up to possible reordering and equivalence). We
will see once we have introduced the language of modules that this is a consequence
of 0.1.10.
(2) There exists only finitely many irredudible F-representations of G, (up to equivalence).
Example 1.1.5.
(1) Let V = F then this vector space is 1-dimensional and the map X01 : G GL1 (F)
=

F given by g 7 (1) is the trivial representation of G. This representation of G

is irreducible, (as are all 1-dimensional representations), as the vector space cannot
contain a proper subspace.
(2) Let : G Sn be a group homomorphism and take (g) to be the nn permutation
matrix of (g), for all g G. The map X0 : G GLn (F) given by g 7 (g) is a
representation of G called a permutation representation.
(3) Let G = S3 = h(12), (123)i and
representation given by

0 1

(12) 7 1 0
0 0

assume F = C. From (2) we get a permutation

0
1

0 0 1

(123) 7 1 0 0 .
0 1 0

Note that as these two elements generate the whole group, and our representation is
a group homomorphism, it is enough to specify the representation on the generating
set. Let {e1 , e2 , e3 } be the standard basis of V = C3 then W = he1 + e2 + e3 i is a
G-invariant subspace of B. Now take {e1 + e2 + e3 , e1 , e2 } to be a basis of V and
consider the change of basis matrix C. We get an equivalent representation given
by Y0 (g) = CX0 (g)C 1 which is given by

1 0 0

(12) 7 0 0 1
0 1 0

1 0 0

(123) 7 0 0 1 .
0 1 1

This equivalent representation has a diagonal block matrix decomposition. Therefore

Section 1.3

we have Y is reducible and its matrix representation is of the form

#
"
0
0
Y1 (g)
,
Y0 (g) =
0
0
Y2 (g)
where Y01 is the trivial representation and Y02 is the representation given by
"

0 1
(12) 7
1 0

#
"
0 1
.
(123) 7
1 1

It is left to the reader to check that this representation is irreducible.

(4) How can we make representations of a group G? Well, assume that G is also a finite
If X
is a representation,
group and that we have a group homorphism : G G.
over a vector space V of G then we can form a representation of G by composing
with . In other words we define a representation X : G GL(V ) by defining

X(g) = X((g))
for all g G.
(5) For example we have a surjective group homomorphism : S3 S2 , where S3 is
as in (3) and S2 = h(12)i, given by ((12)) = (12) and ((123)) = 1. We also
have an easy to describe 1-dimensional representation of S2 given by (12) 7 (1).
Therefore we get a 1-dimensional representation of S3 given by (12) 7 (1) and
(123) 7 (1), (which we call the sign representation of S3 ).

1.2

Characters

Definition 1.2.1. Let X : G GL(V ) be a representation of degree d. Then X : G F,

g 7 tr(X(g)) is the character of X. Furthermore X is irreducible if X is irreducible.
It is a worthwhile remark that if char(F) = 0 then we have X (1) = tr(Id ) = d =
degree of X, (where here Id is the d d identity matrix).
Facts 1.2.2.
(1) If X, Y are equivalent X = Y .
(2) X is a class function, i.e. we have if g = hxh1 for some g, h, x G then X (g) =
X (h).
(3) If char(F) = 0, then X, Y are equivalent if and only if X = Y .
Definition 1.2.3. We have the set of irreducible characters of G over the field F is defined
to be IrrF (G) := {X | X is an irreducible representation of G}. Furthemore we set
Irr(G) := IrrC (G).
By (2) of Facts 1.1.4 and (1) of Facts 1.2.2 we have IrrF (G) is finite.
Theorem 1.2.4. IrrF (G) is linearly independent in Maps(G, F).
We will see a proof of this theorem for the case F = C.

Section 1.4

1.3

10

Ordinary Representation Theory

For this section we assume F = C. We will now state some fundamental theorems of
ordinary representation thoery, which we will prove later.
Theorem 1.3.1. If Irr(G) is an irreducible character of G then (1) divides |G|.
P
2
Theorem 1.3.2.
Irr(G) (1) = |G|.
Theorem 1.3.3. | Irr(G)| is the same as the number of conjugacy classes of G.
Exercise 1.3.4. Let G be the alternating group A5 then |G| = 60 = 4 3 5. This group
has 5 conjugacy classes with representatives (1), (12)(34), (123), (12345), (13524).
Theorems 1.3.1 and 1.3.3 imply
{(1) | Irr(G)} = {1, 3, 3, 4, 5}.
Note that at least one of the irreducible characters has degree 1 because the trivial representation is always a 1-dimensional irreducible representation of G.

1.4

The Ordinary Character Table

We now restrict to the case that F = C is the field of complex numbers and we let
k := | Irr(G)|.
Definition 1.4.1. 1 = g1 , g2 , . . . , gk G be representatives of the conjugacy classes of G
then we have {1G = 1 , 2 , . . . , k } = Irr(G). The (square) matrix (i (gj ))16i6j6k is the
ordinary character table of G.
Example 1.4.2. Let G = S3 be the symmetric group on three letters. We have already
seen three irreducible representations of G, namely the trivial representation, sign representation and the 2-dimensional representation computed in (1.5)(3). As there are three
conjugacy classes in S3 this must be all the irreducible characters. We easily see from this
information that the character table of G is given by
1
2
3

1
1
1
2

(12)
1
1
0

(123)
1
1
1

Theorem 1.4.3 (Orthogonality Relations). Let us keep the notation of Definition 1.4.1.
For all 1 6 i, j, ` 6 k we have
1 X
i (g)j (g 1 ) = ij ,
|G| gG
k
X
i=1

i (gj )i (g` ) = |CG (gj )|j` ,

(1.1)
(1.2)

Section 1.5

11

where ij denotes the Kronecker delta.

To really work with characters in their most effective way, (and explain the name
orthogonality relations in the above theorem), we must introduce a complex vector space
in which they reside.
Definition 1.4.4. Assume F is a field then we define Cf F (G) := { : G F | (ghg 1 ) =
(h) for all g, h G} to be the set of all F-class functions, (this is the set of all functions
which are constant on conjugacy classes of G). This set naturally has the structure of an
F-vector space. Assume now that F = C then we can define the following inner product
on Cf C (G)
1 X
h, i :=
(g)(g 1 ),
|G| gG
for all , Cf C (G).
Theorem 1.4.3 asserts that Irr(G) is an orthonormal basis of Cf C (G) with respect to
the inner product h, i. In particular if Cf C (G) then
=

k
X

ai i ,

i=1

with ai = h, i i, i = 1, 2, . . . , k. Also Eq. (1.1) implies Theorem 1.2.4 in the case of

F = C.

1.5

Modules

Let X : G GL(V ) be a representation. We defined this to be a group homomorphism

but we can also think of this as defining an action of G on the vector space V . We define
such an action : G V V by
g v = X(g)(v ),
for all g G, v V .
Definition 1.5.1 (Group Algebra). We define the group algebra of G over F to the be
the F-algebra

(
)

X

FG :=
g g  g F .

gG

Formally we define FG to be the vector space of all maps Maps(G, F) whose multiplication
is given by the convolution product, (i.e. we define the product of two maps to be ( ?
P
)(x) = hg=x (h)(g) where g, h G).
Now FG is an F-vector space whose dimension is clearly dimF (FG) = |G|. Multiplication
is a distributive extension of multiplication in G.

Section 1.5

12

Example 1.5.2. Assume F = Q is the field of rational numbers and G = S3 . Two typical
elements of the group algebra QS3 are given by
1
1
1 + (12)
2
2

and

1
(23) (123)
2

and we can calculate their product in the group algebra to be




1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 + (12)
(23) (123) = (23) (123) + (12)(23) (12)(123),
2
2
2
4
2
4
2
1
1
1
1
= (23) (123) + (123) (23),
4
2
4
2
1
1
= (23) (123).
4
2
Remark 1.5.3. We now make some remarks as to the connections between FG-modules
and F-representations.
(1) If X : G GL(V ) is an F-representation then we can associate to X an FG-module
V such that the action of FG on V is given by
!
X
X
g g v :=
g X(g)(v ),
gG

gG

which is just the F-linear extension of the action of G on V .

(2) Given any FG-module V we can also associate an F-representation to V , namely this
is the representation XV such that XV (g) acts on V by XV (g)v = g v for all g G
and v V .
(3) If V is an FG-module then V := XV is the associated character of V . We sometimes
call V the character afforded by V .
The two remarks above show that the language of FG-modules is an equivalent reformulation of the language of representations of G. Hence we have a dictionary between
these two languages.
FG-modules
W a submodule of V
V /W a quotient module
V a simple module
V and W isomorphic FG-modules
V = U W a direct sum of modules

F-representations
XW appears in the reducible representation XV
XV /W
XV an irreducible representation
XV and
representations
 X0 W equivalent

XU 0
X0V =
0 X0W

Using the language of modules above we have Theorem 0.1.10 implies (1) of Facts 1.1.4.
Proposition 1.5.4. If S is a simple FG-module then S
= FG/U for some U 6 FG.

Section 1.6

13

Proof. Let 0 6= v S then define a morphism : FG S by a 7 av , which is surjective


(since S is simple). Then set U
= ker().
Again using the language of modules above together with Theorem 0.1.10 and proposition 1.5.4 we have Facts 1.1.4((2)) is true.
Lemma 1.5.5 (Schurs Lemma). Assume F is algebraically closed and S is a simple FGmodule then EndFG (S) = F.
Proof. Exercise.

1.6

Semisimple Group Algebras

Definition 1.6.1. FG is semisimple if for all FG-modules V where V = i Si , where each

Si is simple.
Remark 1.6.2. There are other definitions of semisimplicity and to some degree they are
all equivalent but for our purposes we choose this definition.
Why is the notion of the group algebra being semisimple relevant to our discussion of
representations? Using our dictionary above we can see the following points.
If the group algebra is semisimple then if V is an FG-module we have V = `i=1 Si ,
where Si is a simple module for each 1 6 i 6 `. Hence our associated matrix
representation has the form

0
X01 (g)

X02 (g)
0
,

XV (g) =
..

0
0
X` (g)
for all g G where X0i is the corresponding matrix representation of the simple
module Si .
If we have two FG-modules V , W then we know V
= W V and W have the same
composition factors, (by the Jordan-Hlder theorem).
Also if char(F) = 0 then we have V
= W if and only if V = W . In other
words this is saying that the character of a representation uniquely determines that
representation up to isomorphism.
Theorem 1.6.3 (Maschkes Theorem). If |G| F then FG is semisimple.
Proof. Let V be an FG module and U 6 V a submodule. It suffices to show that there
exists a complementary submodule W 6 V such that we get a direct sum decomposition
V = U W as FG-modules. If this is true then we can repeat the argument until we have
expressed V as a direct sum of simple modules.
If we consider V as an F-vector space then we know any vector subspace U has a
complementary subspace W 0 such that V = U W 0 is a direct sum of vector spaces. What

Section 1.6

14

we aim to do is to use this decomposition of vector spaces to construct a complementary

FG-module. Let 0 EndF (V ) be the projection of V onto U, then we can define a new
map EndF (V ) by setting
(v ) :=

1 X 1 0
g (g v ).
|G| gG

We see that the condition of |G| F is critical as other wise this map is not defined.
We first claim that is an FG-homomorphism, i.e. that is a linear map which respects
the action of FG on V . By the linearity of 0 it is clear that is linear, hence we need only
show that (g v ) = g (v ) for all g G and v V . However its easy to see that we
have
1 X 1 0
h (h (g v )),
|G| hG
1 X 1 0
h (hg v ),
=
|G| hG
1 X
=
(hg 1 )1 0 ((hg 1 )g v ),
|G| hG
!
1 X 1 0
=g
h (h v ) .
|G| hG

(g v ) =

P
P
Note that for any g G we have hG h = hG hg and so we can replace h by hg 1 in
the above summation.
Next we claim that is a projection on to U as well, i.e. |U = IdU . Indeed for any
u U and g G we have g u U because U is an FG-module and so
(u) =

1 X 1
1 X
1 X 1 0
g (g u) =
g gu =
u = u,
|G| gG
|G| gG
|G| gG

because 0 is a projection onto U. We also claim that (V ) = U. Its clear that U (V )

by the above statement but we also have
(V ) =

1 X 1 0
1 X 1 0
1 X 1
1 X
g (g V )
g (V )
g U
U = U.
|G| gG
|G| gG
|G| gG
|G| gG

Therefore as a consequence of these facts we have 2 = . Its clear that Ker() =

Im(IdV ) and this gives us a direct sum decomposition V = Im() Ker() of FGmodules, so were done.

We wish to prove an important structural theorem for the group algebra CG known as
the Artin-Wedderburn theorem. However to do this it will be useful for us to introduce
the notion of idempotents and how they play a role in CG.
Definition 1.6.4. A non-zero element e FG is called an idempotent if e 2 = e. We
say two idempotents e1 , e2 FG are orthogonal if e1 e2 = 0 = e2 e1 . Finally we say an

Section 1.6

15

idempotent e is primitive in FG if it cannot be written as e = e 0 + e 00 where e 0 , e 00 are

orthogonal idempotents of FG.
The following Lemma shows why idempotents play an important role in the structure
of the group algebra.
Lemma 1.6.5. Assume FG is semisimple. Every non-zero left ideal L FG is generated
by an idempotent. In other words L = FGe for some idempotent e FG.
Proof. As FG is semisimple we can write FG = L L0 for some left ideal L0 and then
express 1 = e + e 0 with e L, (non-zero as L 6= {0}), and e 0 L0 . Now we have
e = e 2 + ee 0 e e 2 = ee 0 L L0 = {0} and so e 2 = e. Furthermore for all x L we
have x = xe + xe 0 x xe = xe 0 L L0 = {0} and so x = xe L = FGe.

Theorem 1.6.6 (Artin-Wedderburn). Let S1 , . . . , Sk be the simple CG-modules (up to
isomorphism), and let di := dimC Si be the dimension of each simple module. Then we
have the following isomorphism of C-algebras
CG
=

k
M

Matdi (C).

i=1

Proof. Recall that a submodule of CG is just a left ideal of the algebra and a simple
submodule is a minimal left ideal, (i.e. a non-zero ideal which contains no proper left
ideals). Then let us define
X
L
Ai :=
Si
=L6CG

to be the sum of all left ideals of CG isomorphic to Si . Now CG is itself a CG module,

(which we call the regular representation of G), and because CG is semisimple we have it is
a direct sum of simple submodules. Hence its clear that we get a direct sum decomposition
as a CG-module given by
k
M
Ai .
CG =
i=1

We claim that each Ai is a two-sided ideal of CG. For some distinct 1 6 i, j 6 k let
L Ai be a minimal left ideal contained in Ai and a Aj . As Aj is a left ideal we have
La Aj and either La = {0} or is a minimal left ideal isomorphic to Si . However Aj
cannot contain a left ideal isomorphic to Si and so we must have La = {0}. Therefore we
have Ai Aj = {0} unless i = j which means
Ai CG =

k
X

Ai Aj = Ai

j=1

and so Ai is a two-sided ideal.

L i
Write Ai = m
j=1 Lj where each Lj is a minimal left ideal isomorphic to Si . By some
general results regarding rings we have
Ai
= EndC (Ai )

Section 1.6

16

With this structural result we may now prove two of three big theorems that we stated
in Section 1.3. The remaining theorem will require slightly more work.
Proof (of Theorem 1.3.2). This is clear as G forms a basis of CG and the dimension of

Matdi (C) is di2 .
Lemma 1.6.7. Let Ci with 1 6 i 6 k be the conjugacy classes of G. We define the
corresponding class sums to be
Ci :=

x FG

xCi

then {Ci | 1 6 i 6 k} is a basis for Z(FG).

Proof. For any g G we have
g Ci g 1 =

gxg 1 =

y = Ci

y Ci

xCi

so clearly Ci Z(FG). Recall also that the conjugacy classes are pairwise disjoint and
hence the class sums will be linearly independent. Finally it is left to show that Z(FG) =
P
span{C1 , . . . , Ck }. Let hG h h Z(FG) then for any g G we have
!
g

X
hG

h h g 1 =

X
hG

h h

h (ghg 1 ) =

hG

h h.

hG

Hence for any h G we have ghg 1 = h , which means the map h 7 h is constant on
conjugacy classes so were done.

Proof (of Theorem 1.3.3). Let {S1 , . . . , Sk } be a set of representatives for the isomorphism classes of simple modules of G. By Theorem 1.6.6 we have Z(CG)
= ki=1 C so
dimC (Z(CG)) = k. However by Lemma 1.6.7 we also have dimC (Z(CG)) is the number
of conjugacy classes of G so were done.

The Artin-Wedderburn theorem will also allow us to now prove the orthogonality relations that appeared in Theorem 1.4.3.
Proof (of Theorem 1.4.3). Let i := Si , for 1 6 i 6 k, be the irreducible characters of
G. Recall from the proof of Theorem 1.6.6 that we have a direct sum decomposition
CG = ki=1 Ai .

(1.3)

Therefore we have a unique decomposition of the identity of CG into a sum of primitive

Pk
central idempotents, say 1 =
i=1 ei such that ei Ai and ei ej = ij ei for all i, j
{1, . . . , k}.
We want to now obtain an expression for the idempotents ei in terms of the character
i . Let := CG be the character of the regular representation then the values of this

Section 1.6

17

character are

|G|
(g) =
0

Let us write ej =

hG

g 1 ej =

if g = 1,
otherwise.

h h with h C then for a fixed g G we have

X

h g 1 h (g 1 ej ) =

hG

h (g 1 h) = g |G|.

hG

Pk

By the decomposition in Eq. (1.3) we have = i=1 i (1)i , where here we are using
the fact that Ai is a direct sum of dimC Si modules isomorphic to Si . Using the above
equality we have
k
X
i (1)i (g 1 ej ) = (g 1 ej ) = g |G|.
(1.4)
i=1

For any i and j we have ej Si = i,j Si which gives us

0
if i 6= j,
i (g 1 ej ) =
i (g 1 ) otherwise.
Putting this into Eq. (1.4) we obtain our desired formula for the idempotent ej , namely
we have
i (1)i (g 1 )
i (1) X
g =
ej =
i (h1 )h.
|G|
|G| hG
The orthogonality relation in Eq. (1.1) now follows from the orthogonality of the
idempotents and the expression we just obtained. In particular for each i, j {1, . . . , k}
we have
i (1)j (1) X X
i (1) X
1
1

(h
)
(k
)hk
=

i (h1 )h,
i
j
i,j
2
|G|
|G| hG
hG kG
X
i (1) X X

i (h1 )j (k 1 )hk = i,j

i (h1 )h.
|G| hG kG
hG

ei ej = i,j ei

Now comparing the coefficients of the basis element 1 G we obtain that

i (1) X
1 X
i (k)j (k 1 ) = i,j i (1)
i (k)j (k 1 ) = i,j
|G| hG
|G| hG
as hk = 1 h = k 1 , which is Eq. (1.1) as desired.
Let us now consider the orthogonality relation Eq. (1.2), which we will obtain from the
first. We denote by g1 , . . . , gk representatives for the conjugacy classes of G. Recall that
the inversion map x 7 x 1 permutes the conjugacy classes of G so we may rewrite the
relation in Eq. (1.1) as
k

X
1 X |G|
1
i (g` )j (g`1 ) = i,j
i (g` )j (g`1 ) = i,j
|G| `=1 |CG (g` )|
|CG (g` )|
`=1

Section 1.7

18

because |G| = |C` ||CG (g` )| by the orbit stabiliser theorem. Let us define two k k matrices
X and Y such that Xi,j = 1/|CG (gj )|i (gj ) and Yi,j = j (gi1 ). The above relation is then
just given by the matrix product XY = Ik . However as these matrices are clearly invertible
this is equivalent to YX = Ik which is simply
k
X
`=1

X
1
` (gi1 )` (gj ) = i,j
` (gj )` (gi1 ) = |CG (gj )|i,j .
|CG (gj )|
`=1

This is now Eq. (1.2) as desired.

1.7

Integrality

We will denote by A C the subring of algebraic integers. Recall that z C is defined to

be an algebraic integer if there exists a monic polynomial p(X) Z[X] with coefficients in
Z such that p(z) = 0.
Lemma 1.7.1. If V is a CG-module and g G then V (g) A.
Proof. Let A := XV (g) then An = I for some n which implies the eigenvalues of A are
nth roots of unity. As V (g) = Tr(A) is the sum of the eigenvalues of A this implies
V (g) A as A is a ring and nth roots of unity are algebraic integers.

We wish to now prove Theorem 1.3.1 but we will obtain this as a corollary of the
following result concerning ratios of character values.
Theorem 1.7.2. If Irr(G) is an irreducible character and g G then
(g)[G : CG (g)]
A.
(1)
Proof. Let Ci Z(CG) for 1 6 i 6 k be the class sums introduced in Lemma 1.6.7.
Assume X is a representation of G with X = . As the class sums are in the centre of
the group algebra we have X(Ci ) commutes with X(h) for all h G. By Schurs lemma
this means there exist complex numbers i C such that X(Ci ) = i I for all 1 6 i 6 k,
(where here I is the identity matrix).
Assume now that g Ci is a conjugacy class representative. Using the fact that
X(Ci ) = i I and taking traces we have
(1)i = Tr(X(Ci )) =

Tr X(x) = [G : CG (g)](g) i =

xCi

[G : CG (g)](g)
. (1.5)
(1)

As the class sums form a basis for Z(CG) we have for each 1 6 i, j 6 k that
Ci Cj =

k
X
`=1

ci,j,` C`

Section 1.8

19

for some ci,j,` C. However as Ci Cj is clearly contained in the subring ZG, comparing
basis elements we see that ci,j,` Z. Applying X and using Eq. (1.5) we have
X(Ci )X(Cj ) =

k
X

ci,j,` X(C` ) i j =

`=1

k
X

ci,j,` `

`=1

k
X
(j,` i ci,j,` )` = 0.

(1.6)

`=1

Let us now define a matrix C by setting Cj,` = ci,j,` for all 1 6 j, ` 6 k. We can express
Eq. (1.6) as the matrix product

1
.
(i Ik C) .. = 0.
k
We may assume without loss of generality that C1 = {1} then X(C1 ) = I 1 = 1.
Therefore the system of equations determined by the matrix i Ik C has a non-trivial
solution, namely the column vector given above, so by a standard result in linear algebra
det(i Ik C) = 0. Hence i is a root of the characteristic polynomial p(X) = det(XIk C).
From linear algebra we know p(X) is monic and p(X) Z[X] as C takes values in Z, in
other words i is an algebraic integer.

Proof (of Theorem 1.3.1). Let g1 , . . . , gk be representatives for the conjugacy classes of
G. Using the orthogonality relation Eq. (1.1) we have
|G| =

(g)(g

)=

k
X

(gi )[G : CG (gi )](gi1 ).

i=1

gG

Dividing this expression by (1) we have

k

X (gi )[G : CG (gi )]

|G|
=
(gi1 )
(1)
(1)
i=1
which is an algebraic integer by Theorem 1.7.2. Clearly |G|/(1) is rational but Q A = Z
so were done.


1.8

Representations and Subgroups

Throughout this section F will be any field and H will be any subgroup of G.
Definition 1.8.1. Assume V is an FG-module and W is an FH-module.
We denote by VH the restriction of V to H, where the H action is given via the
embedding FH FG.
We define W G := FG FH W to be the induced module, (where W is induced from
H to G).
Note the second definition make sense as FH is naturally an (FG, FH)-bimodule.

Section 1.8

20

Remark 1.8.2.
(1) Let W = F with the trivial FH-action then W G affords a permutation representation
(over F) arising from the quotient map G G/H. Choose coset representative
g1 , . . . , g` such that we have a disjoint union
G=

`
G

gi H.

i=1

Clearly this gives us a disjoint union FG = t`i=1 gi FH so

FG FH F =

`
M

(gi FH FH F) =

i=1

`
M

(gi FH F).

i=1

(2) Let g G and C1 , . . . , C` be the conjugacy classes of H containing a G-conjugate

of G. Let = W be the character afforded by W and = W G be the character
afforded by the induced module W G . Furthermore let hi Ci be a class representative
for each 1 6 i 6 ` then for any g G we have
(g) =

`
X

[CG (hi ) : CH (hi )](hi ).

i=1

Proposition 1.8.3 (Frobenius Reciprocity). Let = W be the character afforded by

a CH-module W and G = W G be the character afforded by the induced module W G .
Assume = V is the character afforded by some CG-module V and H is the character
of the restricted module VH then
hG , iG = h, H iH .

2. Modular Representation Theory

2.1

Modular Systems

Throughout p will denote a prime number and G is a finite group.

Definition 2.1.1. A p-modular system is a triple (K, O, F) where K is a field of characteristic 0 with a complete discrete valuation : K Z {}, O = {x K | (x) > 0}
is the valuation ring of and F = O/J (O) is a field of characteristic p.
Remark 2.1.2. We have O is a principal ideal domain with a unique maximal ideal J (O) =
hi and K is the field of fractions of O.
Example 2.1.3. The triple (Qp , Zp , Fp ) where Qp is the field of p-adic numbers, Zp is the
ring of p-adic integers and Fp is the field with p elements.
Definition 2.1.4. A splitting p-modular system for a finite group G is a p-modular system
(K, O, F) where K and F are splitting fields for G, i.e. KG and FG/J(FG) are direct sums
of matrix algebras over K and F respectively.
Remark 2.1.5. In order to avoid division rings and field extensions one usually assumes
that (K, O, F) is a splitting p-modular system for all subgroups of G. Such a p-modular
system can be obtained by adjoining a primitive nth root of unity to Qp where n is the
exponent of G, (this is by Brauers Theorem on splitting fields), and extending the valuation
accordingly; note this extension is unique.
So our situation is now given by the following diagram
K

Qp

Zp

Fp

where the vertical arrows are given simply by inclusion. Sometimes it is useful to have F
algebraically closed and this can be achieved by extending further.
Exercise 2.1.6. It is impossible to have K and F algebraically closed and the valuation
discrete.
We now assume that p is fixed and (K, O, F) is a splitting p-modular system for all subgroups of G.

Section 2.3

2.2

22

Change of Coefficients

Representations over O provide a bridge between representations over fields of characteristic 0 and fields of characteristic p.
Definition 2.2.1. A finitely generated OG-module L is called an OG-lattice if it is projective as an O-module.
Remark 2.2.2. If L is such a module then KL := KO L is a finitely generated KG-module
and FL := F O L is a finitely generated FG-module.
In this way we get functors
KGmod OGlat FGmod
where KGmod denotes the category of finitely generated KG-modules.
A natural question to now ask is which KG-modules, respectively FG-modules, come
from OG-lattices? In the case of KG-modules we have the following result.
Proposition 2.2.3. For any finitely generated KG-module V there exists an OG-lattice L
such that V
= KL.
Remark 2.2.4.
(i) If V is a finitely generated KG-module and L is an OG-lattice such that V
= KL
then we call L an O-form of V . In general L is not unique up to isomorphism.
(ii) Let V : G GLn (K) and L : G GLn (O) be corresponding matrix representations then there is an element A GLn (K) such that
L (g) = AV (g)A1
for all g G. Suppose that L (g) = (ij (g)) for g G then
L : G GLn (F),
g 7 (ij (g))
is a matrix representation for FL where := + J (O) for O.
Definition 2.2.5. A finitely generated FG-module M is called liftable if M
= FL for some
OG-lattice L.
Remark 2.2.6. It is true that most FG-modules are not liftable.

2.3

Brauer Characters

Definition 2.3.1. An element g G is called a:

Section 2.4

23

p-element if its order is a power of p.

p 0 -element if its order is not divisible by p.
Let Gp = {g G | g is a p-element} and Gp0 = {g G | g is a p 0 -element}.
Remark 2.3.2. Clearly we have Gp Gp0 = {1} but in general Gp Gp0 6= G. Furthermore
Gp and Gp0 are not subgroups of G.
Lemma 2.3.3. Every element g G can be written uniquely as g = us where u Gp ,
s Gp0 such that us = su. In particular u, s are powers of g. We call u and s the p-factor
and p 0 -factor of g respectively.
The Brauer character of a finitely generated FG-module M is a function M : Gp0
O K and is defined as follows. Let g Gp0 then the group algebra Fhgi is semisimple
and split. The eigenvalues 1 , . . . , n , (where n = dimF M), of the linear map M M
given by m 7 gm are |hgi|th roots of unity in F. Each i lifts uniquely to an |hgi|th root
of unity, say i O, i.e. i + J (O) = i . Now set
M (g) := 1 + + n O
We now give a list of properties of Brauer characters that are known to hold.
(i) M = M 0 + M 00 whenever we have a short exact sequence
0 M 0 M M 00 0
in the category FGmod.
(ii) M1 M2 = M1 M2 where here we define the action of G on M1 M2 by g(m1 m2 ) =
gm1 gm2 .
(iii) M (g) = M (g 1 ) where M is the dual module of M defined to be HomF (M, F)
with the action of G given by (g f )(m) = f (g 1 m).
(iv) M is constant on conjugacy classes, i.e. it is an F-class function.
(v) If M1
= M2 then M1 = M2 , (however the converse does not hold in general).
(vi) If {S1 , . . . , S` } is a transversal for the isomorphism class of simple FG-modules then
the set of corresponding Brauer characters {1 , . . . , ` } forms a basis for the vector
space of all F-class functions Gp0 K. We denote this basis by IBr(G) which is in
turn called the set of irreducible Brauer characters.
(vii) `(G) = | IBr(G)| = the number of conjugacy classes of p 0 -elements in G, (we call
these p 0 -conjuagcy classes).

Section 2.5

2.4

24

Grothendieck Groups

We denote by R(KG) the Grothendieck ring of KG. This is defined to be the quotient
of the free abelian group generated by the isomorphism classes [M] of finitely generated
KG-modules M by the subgroup U generated by all expressions [M] [M 0 ] [M 00 ] such
that
0 M 0 M M 00 0
is a short exact sequence of finitely generated KG-modules.
The sum and product in R(KG) is given by the direct sum and tensor product K
respectively. The elements [[Vi ]] := [Vi ] + U, (for i = 1, . . . , k), where {V1 , . . . , Vk } is a
transversal for the isomorphism classes of simple KG-modules form a Z-basis of R(KG).
Recall that k = k(G) is the number of conjugacy classes of G. We then have 1R(KG) = [[K]]
where K = KG is the trivial KG-module. For finitely generated KG-modules M and N we
have [[M]] = [[N]] M
= N.
Moreover R(KG) can be identified with the character ring
Ch(G) := {1 2 | 1 , 2 are characters of finitely generated KG-modules}.
The Grothendieck ring of R(FG) is defined in a similar way. The set {[[S1 ]], . . . , [[S` ]]}
is a Z-basis for R(FG) where {S1 , . . . , S` } is a transversal for the isomorphism classes
of simple FG-modules. For finitely generated FG-modules M and N we have [[M]] =
[[N]] R(FG) M and N have the same composition factors (including multiplicities).
Moreover R(FG) can be identified with the Brauer character ring
BCh(G) := {1 2 | 2 , 2 are Brauer characters of finitely generated FG-modules}.
The elements in Ch(G) and BCh(G) are called virtual characters and virtual Brauer characters.

2.5

The Decomposition Map

Let V be a finitely generated KG-module then V

= KL for some OG-lattice L, (recall this
is not unique). The module FL is then a finitely generated FG-module but in general the
isomorphism type is not uniquely determined by V . However the element [[FL]] R(FG)
is uniquely determined by V . This defines a ring homomorphism
d : R(KG) R(FG)
called the decomposition map. It can be identified with the map
Ch(G) BCh(G),
7 |Gp0 .

Section 2.6

25

Let Irr(G) = {1 , . . . , k } be the irreducible characters of G over K and let IBr(G) =

{1 , . . . , ` }. We can then write
d(i ) =

`
X

dij j .

j=1

The decomposition number dij is the multiplicity of a simple FG-module Sj with the Brauer
character j as a composition factor of FLi where Li is an O-form of a simple KG-module
Vi with character i . In particular we have dij N. We can then form a matrix D Zk`
such that Dij = dij called the decomposition matrix.
Brauer proved that d is always surjective (via his characterisation of characters). Thus
there is X Z`k such that XD = 1` . Thus all the elementary divisors of D are equal.
Morever
R(FG) = {d(x) | x R(FG)}.

2.6

Projective FG-modules

Every indecomposable FG-module P has the form, (up to isomorphism), P = FGe where
e is an idempotent which is primitive because P is indecomposable. Then P has a unique
maximal submodule Rad(P ), (called the radical of P ), such that P/ Rad(P ) is a simple
FG-module. The map P 7 P/ Rad(P ) gives a bijection
(

)
isomorphism class of indecomposable
projective FG-modules

isomorphism classes of simple

)
.

FG-modules

Let P(FG) be the Grothendieck group of projective FG-modules. This is the free
abelian group generated by the isomorphism classes [P ] of the finitely generated projective
FG-modules quotiented by the subgroup generated by all expressions [P ] [P 0 ] [P 00 ] such
that
0 P 0 P P 00 0
is a (split) short exact sequence of projective FG-modules. Now P(FG) has a product
coming from F but in general it does not have an identity element. If {P1 , . . . , P` } is
a transversal for the isomorphism classes of indecomposable projective FG-modules then
[P1 ], . . . , [P` ] forms a Z-basis of P(FG).
There is a natural map c : P(FG) R(FG) defined by c([P ]) = [[P ]] which is called
the Cartan map. With P1 , . . . , P` as above set Si := Pi / Rad(Pi ) to be the simple quotient
of Pi then we write
`
X
[[Pi ]] =
cij [[Sj ]].
j=1

We can then form a matrix C Z`` such that Cij = cij called the Cartan matrix. Each
Cartan invariant cij is the multiplicity of Sj as a composition factor of Pi then cij N0 .

Section 2.8

26

We will see that C is symmetric and positive definite. Brauer proved that the elementary
divisors of C are given in the following way.
Let {g1 , . . . , g` } be a transversal for the p 0 -conjugacy classes of G. For j = 1, . . . , ` let
Tj be a Sylow p-subgroup of CG (gj ) then |T1 |, . . . , |T` | are the elementary divisors of C.
In particular
`
Y
det C =
|Tj |
j=1

is a power of p. Thus, if two finitely generated projective FG-modules P and P 0 have the
same composition factors (including multiplicities) then P
= P 0.

2.7

Projective OG-modules

Let P be a finitely generated OG-module then P is an OG-lattice and FP is a finitely generated projective FG-module. Moreover if P is indecomposable then FP is indecomposable.
This gives a bijection
(

)
isomorphism class of indecomposable
projective OG-modules

)
isomorphism classes of indecomposable
projective FG-modules

One can define a Grothendieck group P(OG) in the usual way and then one can identify
P(OG) and P(FG) by tensoring with F. There is a natural map e : P(OG) R(KG)
defined by e([P ]) = [KP ]. Brauer proved the following reciprocity theorem.
Theorem 2.7.1. If Pj is an indecomposable projective OG-module and Sj = FPj / Rad(FPj )
is the corresponding simple FG-module then
e([Pj ]) =

k
X

dij [[Vi ]]

i=1

where {V1 , . . . , Vk } is a transversal for the isomorphism classes of simple KG-modules and
dij are the decomposition numbers.
Corollary 2.7.2.
(i) C = DT D where C is the Cartan matrix.
(ii) e is injective and the image of e : P(OG) R(KG) = Ch(G) consists of all
Ch(G) such that |G\Gp0 = 0. Moreover the following diagram commutes
P(OG)

P(FG)
This diagram is called the cde-triangle.

R(KG)
d

R(FG)

Section 2.9

2.8

27

p-Solvable Groups

Definition 2.8.1. A finite group G is called p-solvable if every composition factor of G is

either a p-group or a p 0 -group.
Remark 2.8.2.
(i) Subgroups and factor groups of p-solvable groups are again p-solvable groups.
(ii) A group is solvable if and only if it is p-solvable for all primes p.
Theorem 2.8.3 (FongSwan). Let G be p-solvable and IBr(G) then there exists a
character Irr(G) such that = |Gp0 . Thus every simple FG-module is liftable.
Remark 2.8.4. This provides an easy way to compute IBr(G) from the character table of
G. If G is not p-solvable then the construction of the IBr(G) is often a very difficult task,
(even for Sn ).

2.9

Relative Projectivity

In this section we will only work with FG-modules but similar results also hold for OGlattices.
Theorem 2.9.1 (KrullSchmidt). Every finitely generated FG-module M has a decomposition M = M1 Mt where M1 , . . . , Mt are indecomposable FG-modules. Moreover
M1 , . . . , Mt are unique up to isomorphism and reordering.
For H 6 G a subgroup of G we have functors
Restriction: ResGH : FGmod FHmod given by M 7 M.
Induction: IndGH : FHmod FGmod given by N 7 FG FH N.
For K, H 6 G two subgroups of G and a finitely generated FH-module N we have a
Mackey decomposition. Namely
ResGK (IndGH (N)) =

gHg
IndK
KgHg 1 (ResKgHg 1 (g N))

KgHK\G/H

where here g N is the conjugate F[gHg 1 ]-module whose action is given by

(ghg 1 ) (g n) = g hn
for all g G, h H and n N.
Definition 2.9.2. A finitely generated FG-module M is called relatively H-projective if
M| IndGH (ResGH (M)), i.e. M is isomorphic to a direct summand of IndGH (ResGH (M)).
Example 2.9.3. An FG-module is relatively {1}-projective if and only if it is projective.

Section 2.11

28

Definition 2.9.4. Let M and N be finitely generated FG-modules then the linear map
TrGH : HomFH (M, N) HomFG (M, N) defined by
f 7

gHG/H

where g f (m) = gf (g 1 m) for all g G, f HomFH (M, N) and m M is called the

relative trace map.
Proposition 2.9.5 (Higmans Criterion). Let H 6 G be a subgroup of G and let M be
a finitely generated FG-module then the following are equivalent:
(1) M is relatively H-projective.
(2) M| IndGH (N) for some FH-module N.
(3) IdM Im(TrGH : EndFH (M) EndFG (M)).
(4) An epimorphism of FG-modules L M splits if its restriction to H splits.

2.10

Vertices and Sources

Definition 2.10.1. Let M be an indecomposable FG-module. A subgroup Q 6 G is called

a vertex of M if Q is minimal, (with respect to inclusion), in the set of all subgroups
H 6 G such that M is relatively H-projective.
Remark 2.10.2. If Q is a vertex of M then we have Q 6G H, (i.e. Q gHg 1 for some
g G), for every subgroup H 6 G for which M is relatively H-projective. In particular any
two vertices of M are conjugate in G. Moreover vertices are always p-subgroups of G.
Example 2.10.3.
The module M has vertex {1} if and only if M is projective.
The vertices of the trivial FG-module F are the Sylow p-subgroups of G.
Proposition 2.10.4. Let M be an indecomposable FG-module with vertex Q and let P be
a Sylow p-subgroup of G such that Q P then [P : Q] divides dimF (M). In particular if
M is projective then |P | divides dim M.
Proposition 2.10.5. Let M be an indecomposable FG-module with vertex Q then there
is an indecomposable FQ-module S such that M | IndGQ (S). The module S is called a
Q-source of M. If S 0 is another source then S 0
= g S for some g NG (Q). Thus S is
unique up to isomorphism and conjugation in NG (Q).
Example 2.10.6. If Q is a Sylow p-subgroup of G then the trivial FQ-module FQ is a
source of the trivial module FG .

Section 2.13

2.11

29

The Green Correspondence

Let Q 6 G be a p-subgroup of G and let NG (Q) 6 H 6 G be a subgroup of G containing

the normaliser of Q in G. We define
x := {R 6 Q | R 6 Q sQs 1 for some s G/H},
y := {R 6 Q | R 6 Q gHg 1 for some g G/H},
z := {R 6 Q | R 6 x}.
Note that the definition of z implies Q z.
Theorem 2.11.1 (Green).
(i) If M is an indecomposable FG-module with vertex R z then ResGH (M) has a unique,
(up to isomorphism), indecomposable direct summand N with vertex R. It appears
with multiplicity 1 and all other indecomposable direct summands have vertex in y.
(ii) If N is an indecomposable FH-module with vertex R z then IndGH (N) has a unique,
(up to isomorphism), indecomposable summand M with vertex R. It appears with
multiplicity 1 and the other indecomposable direct summands have a vertex in x.
(iii) By (i) and (ii) we obtain mutually inverse bijections between the sets of isomorphism
classes of indecomposable FG-modules with vertex in z and the set of indecomposable
FH-modules with vertex in z. These bijections are called the Green correspondence.
Corresponding modules have a common vertex and a common source.
Theorem 2.11.2 (BurryCarlsonPuig). Let G, Q, H, x, y, z be as above, let M be an
indecomposable FG-module and let N | ResGH (M) be an indecomposable summand with
vertex Q. Then M has vertex Q and N is the Green correspondent of M in NG (Q).

2.12

Sources of Simple Modules

Warning: If M is a simple FG-module with vertex Q then its Green correspondent is not
in general simple.
Conjecture 2.12.1 (Feit,79). Let Q be a finite p-group then there are only finitely many
isomorphism classes of indecomposable FQ-modules which are sources of simple FGmodules for overgroups G > Q.
Theorem 2.12.2. Let Q be a finite p-group and let n N then there are only finitely many
isomorphism classes of (indecomposable) FQ-modules of dimension n which are sources
of simple FG-modules for overgroups G > Q.

2.13

Endopermutation Modules Over p-Groups

Let P be a finite p-group.

Section 2.14

30

Definition 2.13.1.
(i) A finitely generated FP -module is called a permutation module if it has an F-basis
X permuted by the action of P , (i.e. gx X for all g P and x X).
(ii) A finitely generated FP -module M is called an endopermutation FP -module if EndF (M)
is a permutation module. note that we define a module structure on EndF (M) by
(g f )(m) = gf (g 1 m) for all g G, f EndF (M) and m M.
Remark 2.13.2. We have EndF (M)
= M M where M = HomF (M, F) is the dual of
M.
Example 2.13.3. Let FP be the trivial module for P then IndGH (FP ) is an endopermutation
module.
We now give a list of properties of endopermutation modules that are known to hold.
(i) Permutation modules are endopermutation modules.
(ii) If M is an endopermutation FP -module then so are M and M where
0 M PM M 0
is a short exact sequence and PM M is a projective cover of M.
(iii) Let M be a permutation FP -module with permutation basis X and let : M F
be the augmentation map given by
X
xX

x x 7

xX

then Ker() is an endopermutation module, (this result is due to Alperin).

A natural question one may ask is why bother considering endopermutation modules at
all?
Theorem 2.13.4. If G is a p-solvable group and if S is a simple FG-module then the
sources of S are endo-permutation modules.
Theorem 2.13.5. If B is a nilpotent block of a finite group G and S is the unique, (up to
isomorphism), simple FG-module in B then the sources of S are endopermutation modules.

2.14

The Dade Group

Let P be a finite group.

Definition 2.14.1.
(i) An endopermutation module M is called capped if M has an indecomposable direct
summand N with vertex P and we call N a cap of M. Note that N is unique up to
isomorphism.

Section 2.14

31

(ii) Two endopermutation FP -modules are called compatible if M N is an endopermutation module.

Remark 2.14.2. Compatibility is an equivalence relation and we denote by [M] the equivalence class of M.
Theorem 2.14.3. Let us denote by D(FP ) the set {[M] | M is a capped endopermutation
FP -module}. If we set [M] + [N] := [M F N] then D(FP ) is a group called the Dade
group of FP . In D(FP ) we have the identity is 0D(FP ) = [F] and the inverse of an element
[M] is given by [M] := [M ].
Now that we know that D(FP ) is a group a natural question to ask is what is the
structure of D(FP )? This has been studied by various people such as Alperin, Bouc,
Carlson, Dade, Puig and Thvenaz.
Theorem 2.14.4 (Puig). D(FP ) is a finitely generated abelian group.
0
Theorem 2.14.5 (Dade). If P is abelian then D(FP )
= Zn (Z/2Z)c where n is the
number of subgroups Q 6 P such that P/Q is not cyclic and c 0 is the number of subgroups
Q 6 P such that Q/P is cyclic and |P/Q| > 3.

Definition 2.14.6. A finite p-group Q is said to have normal p-rank 1 if every normal
abelian subgroup of Q is cyclic.
Remark 2.14.7. Such a group is either cyclic, a quarternion group such that |Q| > 8, a
dihedral group of order |Q| > 16 or a semidihedral group such that |Q| > 16.
Definition 2.14.8 (Bouc). A subgroup S 6 P is called genetic if NP (S)/S has normal
p-rank 1. In this case ZP (S) is defined by the equality ZP (S)/S = Z(NP (S)/S).
Definition 2.14.9. For genetic subgroups S, T 6 P one writes S lP T if there are
x, y P such that x T ZP (S) 6 S and y S ZP (T ) 6 T .
Remark 2.14.10. The relation lP is an equivalence relation. A transversal for the equivalence classes is called a genetic basis of P .
Theorem 2.14.11 (Bouc). Let G be a genetic basis of P then
0

D(FP ) = Zn (Z/4Z)q (Z/2Z)c +s+q

where
n = |{S G | NP (S)/S is not cyclic}|,
c 0 = |{S G | NP (S)/S is cyclic of order > 3}|,
q = |{S G | NP (S)/S is quarternion of order > 83}|,
s = |{S G | NP (S)/S is semidihedral of order > 16}|,

|{S G | N (S)/S is quarternion of order > 16}|

P
0
q =
q

if F4 6 F,
otherwise.

Section 2.15

32

Remark 2.14.12. Boucs proof makes use of connections with the Burnside ring of P ,
i.e. the Grothendieck ring of finite P -sets and the Grothendieck ring R(QP ) which was
investigated before (Roquette, RitterSegal).
Theorem 2.14.13. If G is a p-solvable group then the sources of the simple FG-modules
are torsion endopermutation modules so their classes belong to the torsion subgroup of
the relevant Dade group.

2.15

The Green Ring

Let A(FG) be the Green ring of FG. This is defined to be the Grothendieck ring of all
finitely generated FG-modules quotiented by the subgroup generated by relations [M]
[M 0 ] [M 00 ] where
0 M 0 M M 00 0
is a split short exact sequence in FGmod. We have A(FG) is a commutative ring which
in general is not Noetherian.
Definition 2.15.1. An FG-module M is called algebraic if there are a0 , . . . , ak Z such
that
a0 + a1 [M] + + an [M]n = 0
and the ai are not all 0.
Remark 2.15.2. This means that the tensor powers F, M, M M, M M M, . . . have
altogether only finitely many indecomposable direct summands (up to isomorphism).
Theorem 2.15.3 (BergerFeit). If G is a p-solvable group then the simple FG-modules
are algebraic.
Remark 2.15.4. The proof of this result needs a consequence of the classification of finite
simple groups.
This result of BergerFeit implies Theorem 2.14.13. A corollary of their result is that
Feits conjecture holds for the subclass of p-solvable groups.

3. Block Theory

3.1

Measuring Semisimplicity

Let p be a prime number, F = F an algebraically closed field of characteristic p and G

a finite group. The group algebra FG is a finite dimensional algebra and decomposes
uniquely into a sum
FG = B1 B2 Br
(3.1)
where Bi is an indecomposable (FG, FG)-bimodule. We can then write
1FG = b1 + b2 + + br

(3.2)

uniquely for some bi Bi . Each bi Bi is the identity of Bi , is an idempotent and

lies in Z(FG). Furthemore the bi are primitive idempotents in Z(FG) and satisfy the
orthogonality condition bi bj = i,j bi for all 1 6 i, j 6 r . In particular we have Eq. (3.2)
is the unique decomposition of the identity as a sum of primitive pairwise orthogonal
idempotents of Z(FG).
Definition 3.1.1. For each 1 6 i 6 r we say bi is a block of FG and Bi = FGbi = bi FG =
bi FGbi is the corresponding block algebra.
It was seen in Section 1 that the semisimplicity of the group algebra FG dramatically
affected the representation theory of G. The object which measures the failure of an
algebra to be semisimple is the Jacobson radical.
Definition 3.1.2. If A is an F-algebra then we define
J(A) = {a A | aS = 0 for all simple A-modules S}.
to be the Jacobson radical of A. This is a left ideal hence a submodule of A.
The following proposition encompasses the basic results about the Jacobson radical
that we will need.
Proposition 3.1.3. Let A be an F-algebra then the following hold:
(i) J(A) is a two-sided ideal of A and is the intersection of all left ideals of A.
(ii) J(A) is a nilpotent ideal, i.e. J(A)n = 0. In other words there exists an n N such
that for any n elements a1 , . . . , an J(A) we have a1 an = 0. Furthermore J(A)
is the largest nilpotent ideal of A.

Section 3.2

34

(iii) J(A) is the smallest submodule of A such that A/J(A) is semisimple.

By Theorem 1.6.3 we have FG is semisimple whenever |G| F . In particular by part (iii)
of Proposition 3.1.3 this is equivalent to saying that J(FG) = 0 whenever |G| F .
Let us now consider the Jacbson radical of the block algebras Bi . Again by part (iii)
i)
of Proposition 3.1.3 we have Bi /J(Bi ) is semisimple so is isomorphic to `(b
j=1 Matni,j (F).
Let Vi,j be the set of column vectors over F with ni,j rows then we have Vi,j
= Fni,j . This is
a module for Matni,j (k) called the natural module but we also have Vi,j is a Bi -module via
the surjective homomorphism Bi Bi /J(Bi ) Matni,j (F) and {Vi,j | 1 6 j 6 `(bi )} is a
set of representatives for the isomorphism classes of the simple Bi -modules. In particular
`(bi ) gives the number of simple Bi -modules up to isomorphism.

3.2

Module Decompositions

Suppose V is a Bi -module then V is an FG-module via the surjective homomorphism

FG Bi and as such bi acts as the identity on V , in particular bi V = V . Conversely
if V is an FG-module such that bi V = V then V is a bi -module. In general if V is an
FG-module then V = b1 V b2 V br V where bi V is a Bi -module. For notation we
say an FG-module V belongs to Bi or bi if bi V = V or in this case we may also say bi
contains V .
Example 3.2.1.
(a) Assume G is a p-group, (i.e. |G| = p n for some n N), then we have
J(FG) = spank {g 1 | g G}.
This reason for this is that the trivial FG-module is the only simple FG-module.
(b) Assume G is a p 0 -group, i.e. |G| is coprime to p. By Theorem 1.6.3 we have J(FG) =
0 and FG
= Matn1 (F) Matnr (F) so each block is isomorphic to a matrix algebra,
in other words `(bi ) = 1. In particular the number of blocks of FG is the same as
the number of conjugacy classes of G by Theorem 1.3.3.
(c) Note that the following example is some what unfair as it uses a large amount
of machinery which is likely to be unknown to the reader. Assume p = 2 and
G = GLn (q) is the general linear group over the finite field Fq where 2 - q. Then we
have a bijection
(

{blocks of FG}

conjugacy classes of semisimple elements of G

whose order is not divisible by 2

denoted by b(s) (s). By standard results in linear algebra we have if s is

semisimple then the centraliser CG (s) is isomorphic to GLm1 (q d1 ) GLm2 (q d2 )

Section 3.2

35

GLmt (q dt ) such that

Pt

i=1

mi di = n. We then have

`(b(s) ) = |{(1 , . . . , t ) | i is a partition of mi }|.

From now on b is a block of FG and B = FGb. For any subgroup H 6 G we have B
is also a (B, kH)-bimodule and a (kH, B)-bimodule. In particular B FH B is a (B, B)bimodule. The map H : B kH B B given by H (x y ) = xy is a (B, B)-bimodule
homomorphism which is surjective.
Definition 3.2.2. Assume : M N is an A-module homomorphism then we say
splits if there exists an A-module homomorphism : N M such that = 1.
Proposition 3.2.3. If p - [G : H] then H splits as a map of (B, B)-bimodules.
Proof. Consider the map H : B B FH B given by
H (x) =

X
1
xg g 1 b.
[G : H]
gG/H

Applying H to this we have

X
1
H (xg g 1 b),
[G : H]
gG/H
X
1
=
xb,
[G : H]

H H (x) =

gG/H

= xb,
which is x becuase b is the identity of the block algebra B and x B. Hence H H = 1
so H splits as required.

Definition 3.2.4 (Brauer). A defect group of b (or B) is a p-subgroup P of G which is
minimal with respect to the property that P splits.
Proposition 3.2.5. We have {1} : B F B B is split if and only if B is a semisimple
algebra if and only if B
= Matn (F) for some n.
Proof. Omitted.

Corollary 3.2.6. {1} is a defect group of B if and only if B

= Matn (k).
An open problem in block theory is to determine B in terms of its defect group P
together with some other information. For example it was shown by Puig that if p = 2
and P is cyclic then B
= Matn (F) F FP
= Matn (FP ).
Example 3.2.7.
(a) If G is a p-group then G is the defect group of FG.

Section 3.3

36

(b) If G is a p 0 -group then Bi has a trivial defect group for all i .

(c) If p = 2 and G = GLn (q) with 2 - q then any Sylow p-subgroup of CG (s) 6 P is a
defect group of b(s) .

3.3

Twisted Group Algebras

Definition 3.3.1. A twisted group algebra of G over F is an F-algebra F G with binary

operation : F G F G F G such that:
F G = FG as an F-vector space.
for all x, y G there exists (x, y ) F such that x y = (x, y )xy . Furthermore
: G G F satisfies (x, y )(xy , z) = (y , z)(x, y z) for all x, y , z G, in
other words is a 2-cocycle of G in F .
We will also denote this twisted group algebra by F G.
Assume , 0 are 2-cocycles of G into F such that there exists a map : G F
satisfying 0 (x, y ) = (x, y )(x)(y )(xy )1 for all x, y G. If this is the case then we
call and 0 cohomologous 2-cocycles of G into F and such 2-cocycles have isomorphic
twisted groups algebras. In other words the map 7 F G gives us a bijection
(

H 2 (G, F )

isomorphism classes of

twisted group algebras of G over F

where H 2 (G, F ) denotes the second cohomology group.

Twisted group algebras arise naturally in block theory. Let C C N be a normal subgroup
of N then N acts by conjugation on FC, (i.e. a 7 x a = xax 1 for x N, a C), hence
N acts on the blocks of FC. Assume e is a block of FC which is N-stable and suppose
that FCe
= Matn (F), i.e. FCe has a trivial defect group. Now N acts on FCe and this
action can be described using the following result.
Theorem 3.3.2 (Noether-Skolem). Assume R and S are simple rings and let K = Z(S)
be the centre of S, which is necessarily a field as S is simple. Furthermore assume S has
finite dimension as a K-algebra. Given two K-algebra homomorphisms f , g : R S there
exists a unit s S such that g(r ) = sf (r )s 1 for all r R.
In particular the Noether-Skolem implies that every element of N acts as an inner automorphism of FCe.
Now define a function s : N (FCe) as follows. Choose a set of coset representatives
I of C in N and for each x I choose s(x) (FCe) such that x a = s(x)as(x)1 for
all a FCe. Set s(xy ) = s(x)y e for x I and y C. This choice of s(x) is then well
defined up to scalars.
We would like to choose s(x) so that s is a ring homomorphism but this is not always
possible! However s(x)s(y ) and s(xy ) induce the same automorphism on FCe so for
all x, y N we have s(xy ) = (x, y )s(x)s(y ) for some (x, y ) k . The map :

Section 3.4

37

N/C N/C F defined by (xC, y C) 7 (x, y ) for x, y I is a well defined 2-cocycle

of N/C into F . Furthermore different choices of I and s give rise to cohomologous
2-cocycles.
Definition 3.3.3. We denote by N,C,e the class of the 2-cocycle defined above in the
cohomology group H 2 (N/C, F ).
Recall that as e is N-stable we have e is a central idempotent of FN so is a sum of blocks
of FN.
Theorem 3.3.4. Let C C N be a normal subgroup of N and suppose e is an N-stable block
of FC with trivial defect group. Let be a representative of the class of 2-cocycles N,C,e
then the k-linear map f : FCe F F [N/C] FNe defined by v x 7 v s(x)1 xe for all
v FCe and x N is an isomorphism of F-algebras.
Corollary 3.3.5. We have an isomorphism FNe
= Matn (F [N/C]).

3.4

b-Brauer Pairs

We clearly have an action of G on the group algebra FG by conjugation where we denote

by g a the conjugate gag 1 for all g G and a FG. If H 6 G is a subgroup of G then
we denote by ClH (G) the H-conjugacy classes of G. We can also define the following
subalgebra
(FG)H := {a FG | h a = a for all h H}
P
of FG with respect to H. A k-basis of (FG)H is given by the set of class sums C = xC x
where C ClH (G). A special case of this subalgebra is when H = G then (FG)G = Z(FG)
which we have already seen has a basis given by class sums in Lemma 1.6.7.
Remark 3.4.1. Assume C ClH (G) is a H-conjugacy class of G and let x C. We have
|C| = 1 if and only if C = {x} if and only if x CG (H).
Definition 3.4.2. Let P 6 G be a p-subgroup of G. The Brauer homomorphism BrP :
(FG)P FCG (P ) is defined to be the k-linear extension of the map

0 if C Cl (G) is such that |C| > 1,

P

BrP (C) :=
x if C = {x}.
Proposition 3.4.3. BrP is a surjective homomorphism of k-algebras.
Proof. Let Ci , Cj ClP (G) be two arbitrary P -conjugacy classes of G then there exist
integers ci,j,k Z such that
`
X

Ci Cj =
ci,j,k Ck ,
(3.3)
k=1

where ` = | ClP (G)|. This follows from the fact that the class sums form an F-basis of
(FG)P and the structure constants are in Z by the same argument used in the proof of

Section 3.4

38

Theorem 1.7.2. Let us denote by g1 , . . . , g` a set of representatives for the classes in

ClP (G).
The class sums form an F-basis of (FG)P hence to show BrP is a homomorphism we
need only show that BrP (Ci Cj ) = BrP (Ci ) BrP (Cj ) for all 1 6 i, j 6 `. By the definition
of BrP we also have

g g if |C | = |C | = 1,
i j
i
j

BrP (Ci ) BrP (Cj ) =

0
otherwise.
On the other hand using Eq. (3.3) we have
BrP (Ci Cj ) =

`
X

ci,j,k BrP (Ck ) =

k=1

ci,j,k gk .

|Ck |=1

Let 1 6 k 6 ` be such that |Ck | = 1 then we have ci,j,k = |Xi,j,k | where

Xi,j,k = {(a, b) Ci Cj | ab = gk }.
Assume |Ci | = |Cj | = 1 then gi gj lies in a unique conjugacy class Ck 0 so ci,j,k 6= 0 k = k 0 .
On the other hand gi gj CG (P ) because gi , gj CG (P ) so |Ck 0 | = 1 which means
gi gj = gk 0 and this proves the equality in this case.
Assume now that either |Ci | > 1 or |Cj | > 1 then we claim ci,j,k 0 (mod p) for all
k with |Ck | = 1. We have an action of P on Xi,j,k by conjugation because for any p P
and (a, b) Xi,j,k we have
(pap 1 )(pbp 1 ) = pabp 1 = pgk p 1 = gk
because |Ck | = 1 and Ck is a P -conjugacy class of G. In particular Xi,j,k is a union of
orbits under this action. If Xi,j,k = then the result is clear so we can assume this is not
the case. Assume (a, b) Xi,j,k lies in an orbit of cardinality one under this action then
we would have pap 1 = a and pbp 1 = b for all p P . However this can only happen if
a, b CG (P ) but this implies |Ci | = |Cj | = 1 which we have assumed is not the case. As
P is a p-group every orbit in Xi,j,k has order divisible by p hence |Xi,j,k | is divisible by p so
were done.

Remark 3.4.4. If a =

gG

g g (FG)P then BrP (a) =

gCG (P )

g g.

Recall our block decomposition 1 = b1 + b2 + + br of 1 FG. Now bi Z(FG) =

(FG)G (FG)P so BrP (bi ) is defined. As BrP is multiplicative we have
BrP (bi ) BrP (bi ) = BrP (bi2 ) = BrP (bi ).

(3.4)

BrP (bi ) BrP (bj ) = 0

(3.5)

If i 6= j then

Section 3.4

39

so bi Z((FG)P ) and as BrP is surjective we have BrP (bi ) Z(FCG (P )). In particular
we have
1 = BrP (1) = BrP (b1 ) + + BrP (br ),
(3.6)
which is an orthogonal idempotent decomposition of 1 in Z(FCG (P )). Comparing this
with a block decomposition 1 = e1 + + es of 1 in FCG (P ) we have a partition
{blocks of FCG (P )} =

E(bi )

16i6r

where BrP (bi ) =

p-subgroup P .

eE(bi )

e. We will often denote E(bi ) by EP (bi ) to emphasise the

Definition 3.4.5. Let b be a block of FG. A b-Brauer pair is a pair (P, e) where P is a
p-subgroup of G and e is a block of FCG (P ) such that e EP (b).
Let us define B(b) to be the set of all b-Brauer pairs. Note that this set can never be
empty because ({1}, b) B(b)! If e is a block of FCG (P ) then g e is a block of FCG (g P )
and if
X
BrP (b) =
e
eE)P (b)

then we have
X

Brg P (b) = Brg P (g b) = g BrP (b) =

e.

eEP (b)

If (P, e) B(b) then g (P, e) := (g P, g e) B(b) so B(b) is a G-set.

Definition 3.4.6 (Inclusion of Brauer Pairs). If (Q, f ), (P, e) B(b) are two b-Brauer
pairs then we define (Q, f ) 6 (P, e) if Q 6 P and the following holds. If i is a primitive
idempotent of (FG)P such that BrP (i )e 6= 0 then BrQ (i )f 6= 0. This condition can be
visualised using the following diagram.
(FG)P

(FG)Q

BrP

BrQ

FCG (P )

FCG (Q)

Theorem 3.4.7. Assume b is a block of FG then the following hold.

(a) B(b) is a G-poset.
(b) For any b-Brauer pair (P, e) B(b) and any subgroup Q 6 P there exists a unique
block f of FCG (Q) such that (Q, f ) B(b) and (Q, f ) 6 (P, e).
(c) ({1}, b) is the unique minimal element of B(b) and G acts transitively on the maximal
elements of B(b).
(d) Let P 6 G be a p-subgroup of G then the following are equivalent:

Section 3.6

40

(i) P is a defect group of FGb

(ii) P is a maximal amongst p-subgroups of G such that BrP (b) 6= 0
(iii) There exists a maximal element of B(b) with first component P and any element
of B(b) with first component P is maximal.
Corollary 3.4.8. G acts transitively by conjugation on the set of defect groups of FGb.
For any b-Brauer pair (P, e) B(b) we define NG (P, e) to be {x G | x (P, e) = (P, e)}
which is certainly a group and in fact
P CG (P ) 6 NG (P, e) 6 NG (P ).
Let e be a block of FCG (P ) then the canonical surjection
FCG (P ) FCG (P )/Z(P ),
X
X
g g 7
g g
gCG (P )

gCG (P )

is an algebra homomorphism which we denote by a 7 a. Furthermore 0 6= e is a central

idempotent of the quotient F[CG (P )/Z(P )]. In particular
e (FCG (P ))NG (P,e) (FNG (P, e))NG (P,e) = Z(FNG (P, e))
is a central idempotent of FNG (P, e).
Proposition 3.4.9. e is a block of F[CG (P )/Z(P )] and e is a block of FNG (P, e).
If BrP (b) 6= 0 then BrP (b) is a central idempotent of FNG (P ).

3.5

Brauers First Main Theorem

Let P 6 G be a p-subgroup of G then P is a defect group of FGb if and only if any Brauer
pair (P, e) of the block e of F[CG (P )/Z(P )] has trivial defect group and p - [NG (P, e) :
P CG (P )].
Theorem 3.5.1. If P is a defect group of FGb then BrP (b) is a block of FNG (P ) with
defect group P and the map C 7 BrP (C) is a bijection between the set of blocks of FG
with defect group P and the set of blocks of FNG (P ) with defect group P .
Definition 3.5.2. The principal block of FG is the (unique) block of FG containing the
trivial FG-module. Equivalently it is the block not contained in the kernel of the augmentation map FG k given by
X
X
g g 7
g .
gG

gG

Section 3.8

3.6

41

Brauers Third Main Theorem

Suppose that b is the principal block of FG then B(b) = {(P, e) | P 6 G is a p-subgroup

and e is the principal block of FCG (P )}. Furthermore we have a bijection

B(b) {p-subgroups of G}
of G-posets and the defect groups of FGb are the Sylow p-subgroups of G.
Example 3.6.1. Assume p = 2 and let G be GLn (q) such that 2 - q then we have a
bijection
(

{blocks of FG}

conjugacy classes of semisimple elements of G

whose order is not divisible by 2

denoted b(s) (s). The Sylow p-subgroups of CG (s) are defect groups of b(s) . Suppose
the defect group P of FGb(s) is cyclic. If n is odd there exists a unique element of B(b(s) )
whose first component is P . If n is even then there are n elements of B(b(s) ) whose first
component is P .
Definition 3.6.2. If P is a defect group of FGb then the block BrP (b) of FNG (P ) is called
the Brauer correspondent of b.

3.7

Fusion System of a Block

Assume (P, eP ) is a maximal b-Brauer pair. For each subgroup Q 6 P denote by eQ the
unique block of FCG (Q) such that (Q, eQ ) B(b) is a b-Brauer pair and (Q, eQ ) 6 (P, eP ).
Definition 3.7.1. The fusion system of FGb is the category F := F(P,eP ) (G, b) whose objects are the p-subgroups of P and whose morphisms are defined in the following way. Let
Q, R 6 P be subgroups of P then we define HomF (Q, R) to be the set of all homomorphism : Q R such that there exists g G with g (Q, eQ ) 6 (R, eR ) and (x) = gxg 1
for all x Q.
Remark 3.7.2. We note that HomF (Q, R) is contained in the set of all injective group
homomorphisms Q R. Also composition in F is just given by composition of functions.
The fusion system F has many nice properties. For instance it is a result of Puig that
F is a saturated fusion system on P . In particular if Q 6 P then we have AutF (Q) =
HomF (Q, Q) 6 Aut(Q). Define OutF (Q) to be the image of AutF (Q) under the canonical
map Aut(Q) Out(Q) then OutF (P ) is a p 0 -group. The reason for this is that
AutF (Q) = NG (Q, eQ )/CG (Q)

OutF (Q)
= NG (Q, eQ )/QCG (Q).

Section 3.8

3.8

42

Structure of Centric Brauer Pairs

Let (P, eP ) be a maximal b-Brauer pair and denote by F the fusion system F(P,eP ) (G, b).
Definition 3.8.1. We say a subgroup Q 6 P is F-centric if CP (R) = Z(R) for any
subgroup R 6 P in the F-isomorphism class of Q. This is also sometimes called selfcentralising.
Example 3.8.2. The group P itself is F-centric.
Proposition 3.8.3. A subgroup Q is F-centric if and only if F[CG (Q)/Z(Q)]
eQ has trivial
defect group.
The above result then says that Q is F-centric if and only if F[CG (P )/Z(Q)]
eQ is a
matrix algebra over k. Let us define
C := CG (Q)/Z(Q)
= QCG (Q)/Q C NG (Q, eQ )/Q =: N

then eQ is an N-stable
block of FC with trivial group. Therefore we have a corre2
sponding 2-cocycle class N,
C, F ) = H 2 (OutF (Q), F ) because
C,
eQ = Q H (N/
C
N/
= OutF (Q). By Theorem 3.3.4 we have FN e is a matrix algebra over FQ (OutF (Q)).
Theorem 3.8.4 (KlshammerPuig). Suppose that Q 6 P is F-centric. There exists a
finite group LQ such that we have a short exact sequence
1 Q LQ OutF (Q) 1
and an equivalence of categories mod(FNG (Q, eQ )eQ ) mod(FQ LQ ) where Q also
denotes the pull back of Q to an element of H 2 (LQ , F ).
Let us consider the special case of this result when Q = P which we have already
said is F-centric. The group OutF (P ) is a p 0 -group so P is a Sylow p-subgroup of LP .
By the SchurZassenhaus theorem we have LP is a semidirect product P o E where E is
isomorphic to OutF (P ).
Theorem 3.8.5. We have equivalences of categories
mod(FNG (P ) BrP (b)) mod(FNG (P, eP )eP ) mod(FP (P o E))
where E is a p 0 subgroup of Out(P ).
Theorem 3.8.6. If P CG is a normal subgroup of G then we have an equivalence mod(FGb)
mod(FP (P o E)) for some subgroup E 6 Out(P ).
Theorem 3.8.7 (KlshammerPuig,Dade). Suppose G is a p-solvable group then there
exists a subgroup Q of P and a subgroup E of Out(Q) such that we have an equivalence
mod(FGb) mod(F (L)) for some L and H 2 (L, F ) such that
1 Q L Out(Q) 1

Section 3.10

43

is a short exact sequence.

Suppose now that A is a finite dimensional F-algebra and `(A) is the number of isomorphism classes of simple A-modules. If B is another finite dimensional F-algebra then
we write A M B if A and B are Mortia equivalent and A D B if A and B are derived
equivalent, (this means the derived bounded categories of Amod and Bmod are equivalent as triangulated categories). We then have for any two finite dimensional F-algebras
A and B that
A M B A D B `(A) = `(B).

3.9

Known Results

Remark 3.9.1. In the following cases Alperins Weight Conjecture and Brous Abelian
Defect Group Conjecture are known to hold, (we will state these conjectures below).
Assume b is a block of G then we consider the local datum of the block algebra FGb
to be the set {P, F, Q | Q 6 P is an F-centric subgroup}.
(i) If P = {1} then FGb M F and `(FGb) = 1.
(ii) If OutF (Q) is a p-group for every Q 6 P which is F-centric then FGb M FP and
`(FGb) = 1. This comes from the Nilpotent block theorem of Puig, BrouPuig Source algebra of FGb.
(iii) If P is cyclic then FGb M some Brauer tree algebra and `(FGb) = | OutF (P )|.
Note we also always have
FGb D FNG (P ) BrP (b).
This is due to BrauerDadeThomsonJanezGreenReidtman and Richard by the
Green correspondence.
(iv) Assume p = 2 and P is either isomorphic to C2 C2 , a dihedral, semidihedral or
generalised group then
FGb M (some) Erdmann algebra
and `(FGb) = 1, 2 or 3. This is due to BrauerOlsson and Erdmann by Auslander
Reiten theory.

3.10

Alperins Weight Conjecture

Assume A is an F-algebra then we denote by `0 (A) the number of isomorphism classes of

A-modules which are both simple and projective. We say two subgroups Q, R 6 P are
F-isomorphic if HomF (Q, R) 6= and |Q| = |R|.

Section 3.12

44

Conjecture 3.10.1 (87). We have

`(FGB) =

`0 (FQ (OutF (Q)))

Q6P

where the sum is taken over a set of representatives of the F-isomorphism classes of
F-centric subgroups.
The usual formulation of this conjecture is
`(FGb) =

`0 (F[NG (Q)/Q]BrQ (b))

where the sum runs over a set of representatives for the G-conjugacy classes of p-subgroups
of G.
Assume now that Q is trivial for all Q. If P is abelian then P is the only F-centric
subgroup so Alperins Weight Conjecture in this case becomes
`(FGb) = `0 (FP (OutF (P )))
which reformulating states that
`(FGb) = `0 (FNG (P ) BrP (b)).
Alperins Weight Conjecture is also know when p = 2 and P is a metacyclic group, (i.e.
P contains a cyclic normal subgroup whose corresponding quotient group is also cyclic), by
Benjamin Sambale (2010). Also when P
= C2 C2 C2 this is also known to hold by work
of KessarKoshitaniLinckelmann which uses the classification of finite simple groups.

3.11

Brous Abelian Defect Group Conjecture

Conjecture 3.11.1 (Brou,88). If P is abelian then FGb D FP (P o OutF (P )).

This conjecture is often reformulated as FGb D FNG (P ) BrP (b). It is known that two
blocks b and b0 with the same local data, (as defined above), are not necessarily derived
equivalent!
Theorem 3.11.2 (ChuangRouqier, 02). If b and b0 are blocks of finite symmetric groups
Sn and Sn0 with isomorphic defect groups then FSn b D FSn0 b0 .

3.12

Finiteness

Say b is a P -block if P is a finite group such that the defect groups of FGb are isomorphic
to P .
Theorem 3.12.1 (BrauerFeit,56). If b is a P -block then we have
`(FGb) 6 dimF (Z(FGb)) 6 |P |2 .

Section 3.14

45

Theorem 3.12.2 (CliffPleskenWeiss,80s). Z(FGb) has an Fp -form. That is there

exists an Fp -algebra Z 0 with dimF Z(FGb) = dimFp (Z 0 ) such that Z(FGb)
= F Fp Z 0 . In
other words there exists an F-basis of Z(FGb) such that the corresponding multiplication
constants all lie in Fp .
Putting these two theorems together we easily obtain the following result.
3

Theorem 3.12.3. Let a = |P |2 then there are at most p a F-algebras which occur as
centres of P -blocks.
The centre of a finite dimensional F-algebra is an invariant of the Morita equivalence
class of the algebra.
Conjecture 3.12.4 (Donovan). There are only finitely many Morita equivalence classes
of P -blocks.
This conjecture is known when P is cyclic, C2 C2 , Q8 and is almost known for the
groups given in part (iv) of Section 3.9.

3.13

Weak Donovan Conjecture

It is a fact that every indecomposable projective FG-module Pi belongs to a unique block

of FG. Every simple FG-module Si then belongs to a unique block of FG. If Pj and Si are
in different blocks then the corresponding Cartan number cij = 0. In particular the Cartan
matrix has the form

C(b1 )
0
...
0

..
0
C(b
)
.
2

C=

..
...
.
0
0
...
0 C(br )
where b1 , . . . , br are the blocks of FG and C(bi ) is an `(bi ) `(bi ) matrix, (where `(bi ) 6
|P |2 ). The matrix C(b) is called the Cartan matrix of the block algebra FGb.
Conjecture 3.13.1 (Weak Donovan Conjecture). There are only finitely many Cartan
matrices of P -blocks.
Conjecture 3.13.2 (Rationality Conjecture). There exists a natural number d, depending only on P , such that any P -block is Mortia equivalent to an algebra which has an
Fp -form.
It is known that Conjecture 3.12.4 is equivalent to knowing Conjecture 3.13.1 and
Conjecture 3.13.2.

3.14

Blocks in Characteristic 0

Let (K, O, F) be a p-modular system which is a splitting p-modular system for all subgroups
of G and let us denote by J (O) the maximal ideal of O. Then we have the following
sequence of ring homomorphisms

Section 3.14

46

If O then we denote by
the element + J (O) F. These ring homomorphisms
then extend to homomorphisms
KG

OG

FG

P
P
where the map OG FG is given simply by gG g g 7 gG
g g. A block of OG
is a primitive idempotent of Z(OG). Note that the surjective homomorphism OG FG
restricts to a surjective homomorphism
Z(OG)

Z(FG)

of OG such
Idempotent Lifting: For each block b of FG there exists a unique block b

and the map b 7 b

is a bijection between the blocks of FG and the blocks of
that b = b
OG. Thus our surjection OG FG respects the block decomposition
1 OG b
r
OG = OG b

FG

= FGb1 FGbr

i is indecomposable as an (OG, OG)-bimodule.

For all 1 6 i 6 r the block algebra OG b
i is a central primitive idempotent of KG but it is not usually primitive in
The block b
Z(KG). In particular we have
1 KG b
r
KG = KG b
i is a (KG, KG)-bimodule but this is not usually indecomposable. Recall from
where KG b
Theorem 1.6.6 that
KG
= Irr(G) Mat(1) (K).
Therefore as both sums are direct we must have
Irr(G) =

Irr(G, b)

16i6r

i = Irr(G,b) Mat(1) (K).

such that KG b
be the lift of the idempotent b to Z(OG). We then
Let b be a block of KG and b
have the following are true.
acts as the identity on any
For any Irr(G) we have Irr(G, b) if and only if b
KG-module affording .

Section 3.14

47

Recall from the proof of Theorem 1.4.3 we have the central primitive idempotent
corresponding to is given by
e =

(1) X
(g 1 )g Z(KG).
|G| gG

We then have
=
b

X
Irr(G,b)

X
X
1

e =
|G| gG

(1)(g 1 ) g.

(3.7)

Irr(G,b)

Recall from Theorem 1.7.2 that for each C ClG (G) and x C we have
:=
(C)

|G|(x)
O.
(1)|CG (x)|

Theorem 3.14.1. We have two characters , 0 Irr(G) belong to the same block of FG
0 (C)
(mod J (O)) for all p 0 -conjugacy classes C of G.
if and only if (C)
For any natural number n N let p (n) denote the number a such that p a is the
highest power of p dividing n.
Definition 3.14.2. Let b be a block of FG and Irr(G). The defect of is the value
p (|G|) p ((1)) N {0}.
The defect of b is then the value
b = max{p (|G|) p ((1)) | Irr(G, b)}.
For any Irr(G, b) the height of is defined to be
ht() = p ((1)) + b p (|G|) > 0
From the definitions we see that for any character Irr(G, b), (where b is a block of
FG), we have ht() = 0 is of maximal defect amongst all the elements of Irr(G, b).
In particular Irr(G, b) always contains a character of height 0.
Proposition 3.14.3. If P is a defect group of a block b of FG then |P | = p b .
Proposition 3.14.4. Let b be a block of FG and Irr(G, b) then the following are
equivalent.
(i) b = 0,
(ii) P = {1},
(iii) FGb is a matrix algebra,

Section 3.15

48

is a matrix algebra,
(iv) OG b
(v) (x) = 0 for all g G Gp0 ,
(vi) | Irr(G, b)| = 1.

3.15

Blocks and the cde Triangle

Recall the notation of Section 2 regarding Grothendieck groups. If b is a block of FG then

we define the Grothendieck group R(KG, b) of b to be the subgroup of R(KG) generated

by the images [V ] of KG b-modules.

We define Ch(G, b) to be the subgroup of Ch(G)
generated by the elements of Irr(G, b). Similarly we may define IBr(G, b), P(FG, b),
P(OG, b), BCh(G, b) and so on.
We then have direct sum decompositions for example R(KG) = b R(KG, b) and
R(FG) = b R(FG, b) where the direct sums are as abelian groups. Furthemore all the
maps c, d and e commute with these decompositions.
Remark 3.15.1. Note that we lose the ring structure in R(KG, b) because the tensor
product of two modules in b may not have summands lying in b.
Recall from Corollary 2.7.2 that we have the cde-triangle
P(OG)

R(KG)

P(FG)

d
c

R(FG)

At the level of virtual characters we can think of this as the triangle of maps
7

{ Ch(G, b) | |GGp0 = 0}

Ch(G, b)

BCh(G, b)
Proposition 3.15.2. For Ch(G, b) we define
: G K by

p b (g) if g G 0 ,
p
(g)

=
0
if g G \ Gp0 ,
for all g G. The followng hold
(i)
Ch(G, b)

Section 3.17

49

(ii) Suppose 0 Irr(G, b) is of height 0 then

X

0 =

Irr(G,b)

for Z and 6= 0 for any Irr(G, b).

Proposition 3.15.2 means that we can now prove the theorem of Brauer and Feit.
Proof (of Theorem 3.12.1). Let 0 Irr(G, b) be a character of height 0 such that
P

0 = Irr(G,b) then we have

h
0 ,
0 i = h

X
Irr(G,b)

i =

Irr(G,b)

2 > | Irr(G, b)|

Irr(G,b)

where the last inequality is obtained from part (ii) of Proposition 3.15.2. Calculating from
the definition we see that
h
0 ,
0 i =

p 2b X
0 (g)0 (g 1 ),
|G| gG
p0

2b

p
|G|

=p

2b

0 (g)0 (g 1 ),

gG

h0 , 0 i,

= |P |2 .
Finally we need only notice that | Irr(G, b)| = dimF (Z(FGb)).

3.16

Brauers Second Main Theorem

Let c Gp then for any Cl(G) we let dx () : CG (x)|p0 K be the map given by
y 7 (xy ).
The resulting map dx : Ch(G) {class functions CG (x)p0 K} is the generalised decomposition map with respect to x. For Irr(G) we write
dx () =

x
d,

IBr(CG (x))

for the generalised decomposition number, (note that this may not be an integer).
Theorem 3.16.1. Let b be a block of FG and e a block of FCG (x). If (hxi, e) B(b) is
x
not a b-Brauer pair then d,
= 0 for all Irr(G, b) and all IBr(CG (x), e).

3.17

Block Orthogonality Relations

Theorem 3.17.1.

Section 3.18

50

(i) Suppose that x, y G are such that xp and yp are not G-conjugate then
X

(x)(y 1 ) = 0

Irr(G,b)

for any block b of FG.

(ii) For a p-element x of G let s(x) be the p-section of x, i.e. s(x) is the set {y G | yp
is G-conjugate to x}. Suppose , 0 Irr(G) belong to different blocks of FG then
for any p-element x of G we have
X

(y )0 (y 1 ) = 0.

s(x)

Let (P, eP ) be a maximal b-Brauer pair (Q, eQ ) 6 (P, eP ) for all Q 6 P and F the corresponding Fusion system. Say x, y P are F-isomorphic if there exists an automorphism
: hxi hy i in F such that (x) = y .
Theorem 3.17.2. For any block b of FG we have
| Irr(G, b)| =

`(FCG (x)ehxi )

xP/F

Conjecture 3.17.3. Given any block b of FG the number of height 0 characters in b is

the same as the number of height zero characters in the Brauer correspondent of b.

3.18

Characters and Morita Equivalence

c the respective
Let H 6 G be a subgroup of G, b a block of FG, c a block of FH and b,
lifts. We define the truncated induction functor

IndO : OH cmod OG bmod

given by V 7 b IndGH (V ). Similarly we can also define truncated induction functors IndK ,
g K : Ch(H, c) Ch(G, b) be the map induced by IndK on the Grothendieck
IndF . Let Ind
g K is a
group of KG. It is easy to see that if IndO is an equivalence of categories then Ind
bijection between Irr(H, c) and Irr(G, b).
g K is a bijection between Irr(H, c) and Irr(G, b) then IndO
Theorem 3.18.1 (Brou). If Ind
and IndF are equivalences of categories.

References
[Wei94] Charles A. Weibel. An introduction to homological algebra, volume 38 of Cambridge Studies in Advanced Mathematics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
1994. ISBN 0-521-43500-5; 0-521-55987-1. xiv+450 pp.