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HOME STUDY AND EXTENSION COURSES

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR METALS

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Constitution and I-Ieat

Treatment of
StaiIlless Steels
by
Paul G. Nel s on, B.S.
The Budd Company
Philadelphia, Pa.

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Course 10
Lesson, TestIS
Course 41
Lesson, Test 14

METALS ENGINEERING INSTITUTE

METALS PARK, OHIO

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.... -,:: . ''';~\.~<';:':> .-'<~:" :~7'-:' .n:"'":~::'::';:":~';:~~~:'~:t~,{~~~

iron-cemenlte phase diagram, fig. 14:1.

form to the gamma (')') or face-centered
This diagram shows that on heating from
cubic form at the A3 temperature. On
room temperature iron transforms from
further heating to ,the . A4 temperature
the alpha (ex) or body-center'e d cubic~, ,'.' the gamma form transforms' to the delta

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.... 1'.unCTIC

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...... [UT[CTIC
2040''''1.

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IRON CARBIDE

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EU1[CTO!O

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HYPO (UttCTO!O

----1 f r---

PER

C(NT

CARBON

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STEELS

[UTECTIC

.. HYPO(UT[GTIC

~+~ H'''[''[U1[(;TIC

CAST

'''ONS _ _ __

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_

~~~a~ ~
~w~~ ~'{j
'-'-..

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1,

2P"

----------~-- TYPICAL

.ANN[ALED

J.4 IC R O S T R U C T U R ( S - - - - - - - - - - -

Fig. 14:1. Th e Iron- Ce mentit e Phase Dia g ram :

The critical pOints (o r pure iron are shown on the l e ft. Changes appear as lines progreSSing to the ri~ht as carbon is anded. Note the location of the A, critical li ne and the
influ e nce of carbo n on the delta (,q fi el d.
Mel.l" EnRineerinr. In s lit ute-

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CONSTITUTION AND HEAT TREA"TMENTOFSTAINLESS STEELS ,

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By Paul O. Nelson, B.cS-~ -~ : " "

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Iron has been alloyed with practically every !mown ' element in an effort '
to improve Its . corr.osion resistance.
The discovery that relatively large additions of chromium (about 12% or more)
markedly improved the corrosion re-_
sistance of iron under atmospheric conditions resuited in the development of
the group of modern ' 3Jloys popularly
termed" stainless steels.' The classification "stainless" is not a precise one
but rather a relative one, because all of
these alloys will corrode under certain
conditions. However, this in no way reduces the industrial importance of these
alloys. They do have outstanding corros ion re s istance in a wide variety of environments, Under normal atmospheric
c onditi o ns co rrosive attack is so little
on many of the stainless steei alloys
th at it i s easy to und e rstand why they
have been te rmed stainless.'
Th e development of stainless steels
cannot be attributed to anyone individual
but mu st be share d by a numb e r of investigators, The production of low carbon fe rr oc hr omium
and chromium
m e tai by aluminothermic reduction was
ce rt ainly a tremendous fac tor. This
process, developed by Goldschmidt in
1895, is stilI' in use today. Later, using
Goldschmidt chromium, Guillet produced
all thr ee of the present-day important
cl asses of stainless ste el-martensitic,
ferr itic , and auste nitic- and examined
them metal lur gic ally and me chanically.

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His d1scoveri/ls were complemented by

Monnarti~ 'V{hose: observatiims of fac- tors affecting the"corrosive behaviorof
these -alloys were not fully appreCiated
until moore modern theories of corrosion
we re de'leloped. _. . CONSTITUTION

"

"

The three important classes of stainless steel which have been developed
ha ve been classified according to their
microstructure as follows :

1. Martensitic
2. Ferritic
3. Austenitic
A newcomer Into the stainless steel
family is a type of alloy known as preCipitation-hardening
stalnless steel.
These alloys will also be discussed.
Each of these classes contains a
minimum of 12 per c e nt chromium, that
amount being necess a ry to obtain the
unique pass ivity or stainless character
possessed' by these alloys. The baiance
of the composition has been modified
with other alloying elements to obtain
the characteristic microstructure and
desired mechanical properties.
Iron-Chromium Phase Diagram
To better understand the phase relationships In Iron-ch r omium alloys, it
is h.e lpful to ' refer once again to the

This material may not be reproduced In whole or In part In any form whatsoeve r.
~ Fully protected-by copyright.

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form smaller and smaller gaIIUll,;lloops .. those ' of",' chromium. " These
,elements
!\ .
as seen in Fig. 14:4.
lower :' A~' 'and" 'ralse 'A/. ' When Aa Is
' lowered , 5 ' 5ufflciently'",''' ~ oiily
' austenite" ... ~
,,~.,

.l.
There are , other alloying addltions ~ -- exists, even at room temperature. 'When '
which tend to stabilize ferrite because
A. Is raised sufficlently,- ferrite dls- ."
they form carbides and thus reduce the
appears entirely so that only austenite . '
austenite-forming effect of carbon. Howis present when the , melting point is
ever I before discussing them further it
,reached. The effect"of carbon in raising
will be well to consider the alloying
A. ' and lowering ' ' A-~ ' ,is shown in ,
elements which have ~ffects opposite to
Fig. 14:5. It . will be 'noted -that
--the 100
.
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3200
2800

2400

"r :

Alpha "

2000
LL
o

1600~=

OJ
"~

-01200
"OJ

Cl.

800
o

400

Ol
(f)

20

40.

60

Chromium-Per Cen t

80

100

Fig. 14: 3. Phas e Diagram for Carbon-Free Iron-Chromium Alloys_

Me t.h E n~i n e eri ng Insti tut e

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(0) form which persists until the melt- .

Ing point. The delta form, like the alpha
form, has a body-centered cubic lattice;,
in fact they are identical phases. They
have been given different names simply
because they form at different tem-
peratures . .
It will be noted from the Iron-cementite phase diagram that increasing
the carbon content raises the A, temperature but lowers the AJ temperature
until the delta phase has disappeared.
Unlike carbon, there are a number of
alloying elements which when added to
iron in increasing amounts have the
effect of lowering the A, temperature
and raising the A a temperature. Since
the phase existing below A, is ferrite
and that above A, Is also ferrite, these
alloying 'additions have the effect of
narrowing the temperature range in
which austenite can exist. When enough
of the proper alloying element Is added ,
A. merges with Aa; and there is no
transformation of the type ferrite to
au stenite (or austenite to ferrite). With
such co m positions the Only s olid phase
that c an exist is ferrite. This is shown
for c hromium additions to iron in
Fi g. 14:2.
Th e
ca rbon-free
iron-chromium
pha s e dia gram in Fig. 14:3 shows in
mOr e det ail how chr omium affects the
A 3 and A, criti cal points. It will a gain
be not ed that increasing chromium COnte nt lowe rs A, and rais e s A, until at a
chromium ' content exceeding 13 per ce nt,
th e two criti c al points disappear. Ironchromium alloys with less t.han 12 per
ce nt chromium, when heated to above
Aa but bel ow A" transform to austenite.
Wh e n cool ed at the proper rate from
this te m pe rature , assuming some carbon
i s pre se nt (usually 0.10 per cent or
more), transformation to martensite
Occu rs ,

stainless .teels thnt harden by such

martensitic transformation are known as
,) J.

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1.

.oF

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2552 '
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Auslenile
(Gamma) .

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Ferr lie
' (Alpha)

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Chromium, Weighl Per Cenl

Fig. 14:2 The Effect of Chromium on the

~onstitution of Iron.
Note that chromium (a) lowers the
freezing point only slightly, (b) rapidly
lowers A" and (e) first lowers, then
raises A 3 unUl It joins with A .. thus
closing off the field of austenite in what
Is termed "the
gamma loop."
..
martensitic stainl e ss steels . Low carbon compositions (0.10 per cent maximum) which exce e d 14 per cent chromium do not transform from ferrite to
auste nite bJt remain !erritic at all
temperatures. Th e se all oys and the ir
modifi c ation s which do not ha rden substantially bec ause they r emain ferritic
at all tempe r a tures are the class of
stainless s teels c ommonly known as
fe rritic stainl e ss steels or more prope rly ferrltlc stainless irons.
Effect of
Alloying Elements

Chr omium oft e n

is termed a ferrltlzlng element
because Incr easing amounts of chromium tend to Increase the amounts of
ferrite phase which are p r e s e nt. Th ere
are a number of other elements which
have a similar effect. Some examples
are the elements tungsten, molybdenum,
silicon, vanadium, and aluminum which
Me t_I II E n~ i neerinlt In"' i tute

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bon it is a substitutional-saUd-solution ",

alloying element in iron with. 'complete "
. solubility " in alloys from 100 per cent
iron to 100 per cent nickel. The com- '
plete iron-nickel phase diagram is presented in Fig. 14:6. Sufficient additions
of nickel to iron-chromium alloys containing 12 per cent or more chromium
will eventually stabilize the austenite
phase. However. the most important
alloys which have been developed have a ,
' minimum chromium content 'bf approximately 17 per cent. The alloys which
are essentialiy all austenite are known
as the austenitic stai nless steels.
Like the ferrltlc stainless steels. the
standardr ,austenitic stainless
steels gen'

' erally carmotbe hardened bY ,heat treat' ment. , However, as will be shown later,
the austenitic stainless' steels are particiIlarly advantageous for in any appl1ca- .
tions. Nickel, because of its effect in "
stab1Uzing ' austenite, is lmown as an .
austenitizlng element. There are other
elements which behave in a similar
_ manner. -The noble metals platinum,
'palladium, rhodium. and osmium which
are austenitizers are too costly t o have
Wide use. Cobalt, which ralses both A,
and A 4 is, also too expensive for wide '
use. Manganese and nitrogen have been
widely used to produce both chromiummanganese-nickel and chromium-man-'
ganese austenitic
stainless steels.
' These alloys have now assumed con-

2800~__ ..,.._

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Ferrite (8)

2400-

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1600

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Austenite (y)

LL

1200

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E
~

800
400

Magnetic Aus tenite (y)

Ferrite

(a)
__-L~~~~_ _~_~~~_ _- L_ _~~

OL-~

20

40

60

80

100

Nickel, Weight Per Cent

Fig. 14:6 . C ompie te Iron-Nic kel P hase Diag r am.
Austenite is the preferred form . With increaSing nickel content, the gamma phase becomes stable at room I temper ature. The area above the enclosed ferrite (el ) zone is a
, ne ce s sary two-phase !!eld; the cro.s-hatched bands Indicate actual measurements at
transformatlon On heatl ng and coollng .

.-,

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Cr

0-

E
~

NI
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. 10OO~~~-7-L~-L~J-~~~
o 2 4 6 8 10 12
Alloy Addition, WeiQhl Per Cenl

'

Fig. 14:4. Elements That Form a Gamma

Loop When Added to Iron.
Carbon-Iree Iron-base alloys are lacecentered cubic: (gamma) Inside each
loop. Outside the loops the alloys are
body-centered cubic.
per c e nt austenite range is extended to
1 B per cent chromium when 0.60 per
Co ent carbon is present. Incre asing the
carbon content further does not r e sult in
Inc reased austenite stabilization because the chromium forms carbide s In's tead of going into s olid solution. Other
elements which raise A, and lower A 3 ,
a s s een In Fig. 14: 4, are nickel and
manganese.
A phase of Interest and
Impo rtance particularly
In the higher chromium (27 per cent or
m or e ) stalniess steels, but also under
s ome circumstances in the more complicated alloy s of lesser chromium content, Is sigma phase. Referring to
Fig. 14:3, It will b e noted that sigma
phase appears In the Iron-chromium
syste m at chromium contents varying
fr om about 20 to 70 per cent chromium .
Sigma, a brittle phase, Is a compound
of Iron and chromium, Fe.Crb. The subscripts a and b represent the proportions of Iron and chromium. Th eo r etically, a and b tend toward equality but

sigma phase varies over a wide range of ,.

composition as seen in Fig. 14:3. Sigma
'phase . is usually objectionable because
.1 -"
of its brittle nature. However, one com- .
mercial alloy containing 24 per cent
chromium plus a few per cent molybdenum and nickel can be converted to
100 per cent sigma by suitable heat
treatment. This alloy finds extensive
use in special automotive valve. service
. . because of its ~nusual . reSistance to .,;. '." .
wear and burning
Iron-Nickel Phase Diagram
Because only limited amounts of c a rbon can be used in stabilizing austenite,
early investigators experimented with
many other elements in an effort to
stab!1lze the a,:!stenitlc -phase. ' Nickel
was found to have the desired effect of
lowering A3 and ralslng A,. Uniike car-

u.

Sigma 'Phase

,~
I

GOtntno Loop 0'

Pur. fe - Cr Alloyt

01 Expand e d by Corbon

300

Chromium, WeiQhl Per Cenl

Fig. 14:5. The Effect of Carbon on the
Gamma Loop of Iron-Chromium
Alloys.'
The Inner loop Is that for carbon-free
iron-chromium alloys. The outer loop .
shows the maximum expansion of the .
loop to about 18 per ce nt chrorr.ium
when 0.60 per cent carbon is added .

A similar plot showing the relatlonship between chromium, carbon , and the gamma Held
I. gi ven In the 1948 Metal. H",;,dboo k (Fig. 3, p. 459) .
Me t_I!II Encin"criui, Ins tit ute

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Table 14:1. . Types and Compositions ot the StandardW!9ught Stalnless Steels ,z, {; E
.

,~

Nominal Composltlon,- weight per. cenL . ,_ ..,-.:. ~ " : '~:': ",.,-, ,>' 1"
.
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Chromium
.Nlckel
. Manganese :-'~l\ Other Elements -,,~.

AISI

'. Type

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. ' Carbon

~~------------------~~------------~~~~---- r~

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C'"

Martensitlc Alloys

t- '

"
403 /

L:. ' \
" . :.', 0410
,, ' 414 . '
., ... 416
. . 416 Se
.!
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420

431
440A
440B
440C

0.15 max.

.' 11.5 to 13.0

0.15 max.
0.15 max.
0.15 max.
0.15 max.
over 0.15
(usually 0.30
to 0.40)
0.20 max.
0.60 to 0.75 .
0.75 to 0 .9 5.
0.95 to 1.20

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' . ::~~'~':';~:'.,(~ .'; : '~, o' ':; :;,";-.o\'! f.t:"t '.l :.~ ;; """,,, .. '-- " ..... Turbine quality .
1.0 max. ... .. 51 0 5 0 '

.; ;>-.; .:

~ '~~ "-. it~ !; : ':;'

,,,,ir

0.08
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.20

max.
max.
max.
max.
max.

. max.~>_

..

.. _,

15.0
16.0
16.0
16.0

to
to
to
to

17.0
18.0
18.0
18.0

'11.5
14.0
14.0
14.0
23.0

to
to
to
to
to

.~

, .'

" 'r

1.25 to 2.50 " 1.0 max;" ;. !f'i "''1~. ...:... " . . ",'.
1.0 max. ,:,'i : Mo ';, 0.75 max.
1.0 max. r , . ;Mo;'0.75 max.
1.0 'max."::T: . Mo'- 0.75 max. .-,'

Ferrltic Alloys
405
430
430F
. 430F Se
446

~~ ., -,

11.5 to 13.5 ." ' .

1 0 max. .
- ,.
r '
11.5 to 13 ..5
1.25 to 2.50
1:0 m3.x.~:'>::~~;;:;. -;,, '~;" ::~ :
12. 0 to 14.0 : '
. ;~. 1.25 max.'.:;;:,:S.,. 0.15 min" , "c' .
12.0 to 14.0 "
- "': '. 1.25 max..... , . Se .- 0.15 min<,: , :~
12.0 to 14.0 ' , - .... "::u.: , ~._.o.~.,a::~,,~:~;,;;;~ '.'_,: e;_ : :::'; ;"\ ::.:.:.
-: ~_ . _
.
cc. o.
' " '. ' ::1-. , "i:) ;:::: .11!i; ,;"')!::; . "" .:

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"

1.0 max.
Al ~ 0.10 to 0.30...
1.0 max.'
1.25 max. " . S . -". 0.15 min. ." I /
1.25 max. , : Se - 0.15 min
1.5 max. ' ~, .:: : N" - 0.25 max.

14.5
18.0
18.0
18.0
27.0 .
Austenitic Alloys

201
202
301
302
302B
r 303
303 Se
304
304L
'-. 305
308
309
309S
310
310S
314
' 316
316L
317
321

0.15 max.
0.15 max.
0.15 max.
0.15 max.
0. 15 max.
0.08 max.
0.08 max.
0.08 max.
0.03 max.
0.12 max.
0 .08 max.
0.20 max.
0.08 max.
0.2 5 max.
0.08 max.
0.25 max.
0.08 max . .
0.03 max.
0.08 max.
0.08 max.

IS.0 to 18.0
17.0 to 19.0
16.0 to 18.0
17.0 to.19.0
17.0 to 19.0
17.0 to 19.0
17.01019.0
18.0 to 20.0
18.0 to 20.0
17.0 to 19.0
19.0 to 21.0
22.0 to 24.0
22.0 to 24.0
24.0 10 26.0
24.0 to 26.0
23.0 to 26 ,0
16.0 to 18.0
16.0toI8. 0
18.0 to 20.0
17.0 to 19.0

3.5 to 5.5
4.0 to 6.0
6.0 to 8.0
8.0 to 10.0
8.0 to 10.0
8.0 to 10.0
8.0 to 10.0
8.0 to 12.0
8.0 to 12.0
10.0 to 13.0
10.0 to 12.0
12.0 to 15.0
12.0 to 15 .0
19.0 10 22.0
19.0 to 22 . 0
19,0 to 22 .0
10.0 to 14.0
10.0 to 14.0
11.01015.0
9.0 to 12.0

347

0.08 max.

17 .01019 .0

9.0 to 13.0

.'

..:. '

N 2 - 0.25 max.
5.5 to 7.5
7.5 to 10.0 ' N 2 - 0.25 max.
2. 0 max.
2.0 max.
2.0 max.
51 - 2.00 to 3.00
2.0 max.
S - 0. 15 min.
2.0 max.
Se - 0.15 min.
2.0 max.
2.0 max.
2.0 max.
2.0 max.
,.
2.0 max.
2.0 max.
. SI - 1.5 max . .
2.0 max.
2. 0 max.
SI ~ 1.50 max.
2.0 max.
S! - 1. 50 to 3.00
2.0 max.
Mo - 2.00 to 3.00
2.0 max.
Mo - 2.00 to 3.00
2.0 max.
Mo - 3. 00 to 4.00
2.0 max.
TI is 5 X carbon
(min.)
Cb
Is 10 x carbon
2.0 max.
(min.)

'Oniy principal elements are Indicated. Limits on sulfur, phosphorus, and silicon
can be obtained from AISI specifications.

.
.

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sider:ible commercial importance. How- ' :0 '>: ? <. . :; . ..:.. MARTENSITIC ALLOYS .
---- ....
ever, the role of nickel is a dominant
. . ... '' ,
one because it has been so widely used . ;,.;.~c; r. The' i,D-called martensitic 's talnie ss
and understood. Nickel also supplements
steels are identified by their martens1tlc microstructure in the hardened conand improves the excellent corrosion.
resistance of the high-chromium alloys.
dition. Referring back to Fig. 14:3 and
Fig. 14:5, it will be noted that typical
.martensitic
stalnless steels with comIn summary, It. can be seen that In ..
pOSitions
such
as Types 410 or 420
the stalniess steel ailoys there Is an '
freeze as ferrite from the melt. Careful' .
atomic balance between two classes of
elements which have been termed aus-
consideration of the .varlouscommerclal " . ',':'
'a nalyses will also show that th'e mar- '
tenitizers and ferrltizers. The principal
tens1tlc types are limited to the narrow..
austenllize'rs are carbon. nickel, nitrorange of 12 to 18 per cent chromium .
gen, and manganese; the prlnclpai
This Is' also evident from Fig. 14:5 beferrltlzers a.re chromium, aluminum,
cause only In this range can a fully.. '
phosphorus, and silicon. The carbldeaustenitic structure be obtained on reforming elements molybdenum, columbium, titanium. tantalum, tungsten,
heating. As with carbon and alloy steels,
vanadium, and zirconium also have a
lOOper cent austenite Is required prior .
lesser but sometimes Important role as
to quenching if full hardening response
Is to be obtained.
ferrllizers. A proper balance of these
elements must be maintained In proSince carbon and chromium. offset ducing any of the three Important
one another in the austenite-ferrite
classes of stainless steel-austenitic,
ferr1tlc, or martensitic.
struggle, a proper balance of carbon to
chromium ~s required If a fully marST AINLESS STEEL TYPES AND USES
tensitic structure is to be obtained. With
low carbon (0.15 per cent maximum), .
In present-day Industrial manufacthere cannot be more than about 13.5
ture and use, the American steel Indusper cent chromium, or excess ferrite
try refers to various types of stainless
will be present which will not transform
steel by their type numbers. These type
to austenite on heating. On the other
numbers were established by the Amerhand, if carbon is increased to a large
ican Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) to
value, for example one per cent, free define chemical composition limits. If
chromium carbides will be present
the stainless steels are purchased only
which do not go Into solution In the austo commercial specificalions the A1S!
tenite. Similarly when the chromium
has also established other commercial
content Is Increased to 18 per cent, carstandards for these steels. In the AISI
bon must be increased to apprOximately
series of stainless steels, the 200 series
0.60 per cent or free ferrite will be
present.
is reserved for chromium-manganese
or chromium-nickel-manganese types .
Basically, the 300 series is reserved
This atomic struggle is rather unfor chromium-nickel types, and the 400
fortunate in its effect on corrosion rese rie s for straight chromium stainless
sistance. RaiSing chromium content
steels.
Increases corrosion reSistance, but In-.
creasing carbon content lowers It.
Table 14:1 lists the type numbers
Therefore, one element tends to offset
and chemical compositions of the three
the other . .Principal advantages in usini
011... 808 of wrought stalnleu Iteel. Some
higher carbon, higher chromium alloys
typical uses are Indicated In Table 14:2:
are Increased hardness for cutting and
,

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,.-. ' .

structure of carbide particles In a fer- ' ,', T:l:ble14:3

, ouui~~s typical annealing
cycles
,
for,
the
martensltic types as well
rite matrix, a microstructure which
possesses the best ductility and maas the hardness ' v3.1ues to be expected
chinablllty , for
many
fabrlca!lon
from each treatment: ' i!'
>;" "
..._...... . ..
'.' processes. In the second method, called
- 1 ' . .. ..
process annealing, the martensltic alloy '
Hardening
As might be expected from
,
'~'
their
high' chromium con- '
is heated to a temperature , below A"
tents, the" hardemlbillty' of the martensheld for specified time, and then cooled '
itlc stainless steels , is ' quite high.
In alr, oil, or water. The resultant mi, Therefore, ','drastic quenching is not recrostructure Is a tempered martensite
quired. Oil cooling or marquenchlng are
which possesses sufficient ductility and
' usually adequate for the lower-carbon
machinability for many fabrication
grades such as Types ,4.03, 410, 414, and
processes.
'

.'

_ .' -

'

.:-;..

- - --:

'

: . ,~

-'

"

, ;. :

."

-- ~. ""

.,

..... .

r-'
'-- ",'
"

.~..

"

.,. - .

Table 14:3. Annealing Treatments and Resultant Hardness for Martensitic

Stainle~s Steels

AISI
Type

Type of
Anneal

Temperature,
OF

Time at
Temperature,
hours

403

Process
Full

1350 to 1450
1550 to 1650

, I to 3
1 to 3

410

Process
Full

414
416

Resultant
8rinell,
Hardness

Method of
Cooling
air, all or water
25 to 50F per hr
to 1l000E, then
air, oil, or water

T... '

170 to 195
135 to 160 "

Same as (or Type 403

Same as for Type 403
1200 to 1300

170 to 195
135 to 160

Process

4 to 8
air, oil or water
Same as for Type 403

Full

Same as for Type 403

' 235 to 2511

170 to 195
135 to 16&

420 .

Process
Full

1350 to 1450
1600 to 1650

2 to 6
1 to 2

air, oil or water , 205 to 225

25 to 50 F per hr 170 to 200
to 1100F then air,
oil or water

431
440A

1150 to 1225
1350 to 1450
1625 to 1675

4 to 8
2 to 6
1 to 2

225 to 240
air or oil
air, oil or water
230 to 245
25 to 50F per hr , 205 to 230
, to 11 00 F then air,
oil or water

Process
Full

~)

4408

Process
, Full

Same as [or Type 440A

Same as for Type, 440A

440C

Process
Full

Same as for Ty pe 440A

Same as for Type 440A

Does not respond to slow cooling from above the critical.

~"

..

235 to 250
215 to 240
"

250 to 270
230 to 255

~":'J.'

'

'

'"

,,',
; "

1;
' "
1 -,,:
,1Li, e

..

'"1,

i: ,'. ~ . J

Table 14:% (cont. d)

Table 14:2. Typtc:a.1 Uns of the 9andard Wrourht

stainlu. Steels

Typical Uees
Type

.. ..

TYPlcal Uses

403

Turbtne buckets and n.lvea.

410.414

Nut. and bolti, kitchen tools, tableware .. sprtngsrulu and tapes, tuf'n.2ce parts "nd hut rulstine
appUcaUons to UOO'F, eutlery, pump parts,
f:l5tenJngs, acrews, ate am turbIne parts, rage
parts, oU burner parts, selason. sh1pbeUa, etc.
~j

III'

lI
I

., AuatenlUe Alloy. (eant'd)

\,

Martenalttc Alloys .

41&

Bolts and nuts, acrews, Intricate machined parts

Nch as pump and valve parts, outboard motor
parts, etc.
!;....
,

420

Cutlery, heat treated springs, pump parts,

knives, dental and aur,lea.l Instrument., lieU
tapping acrews, etc.

431

Pump parts, steering wheel spokes, windshield

wiper arms, marine propeller sh211.1ng, aJrcralt
.trellll members, etc .

HOA,
4408,

Buahinga and bearings, cutlery valve auta and

trim, heat treated springs, gagea, 8UrJlcal :and
dental Instruments.

HOC

FerrUle Alloya
405

Cast-In-place turbine blades, lInIngll (or petroleum Industry, heat exchan.-:er tubes, welded
usembUes operating below HOO'F that C2.nnOt
be annea.led after welding.

406

Grid resistors (or starting heavy duty motors,

heaUng elmen18 for furnaces, touter', wa.Ule
Irons, etc.

430

Automotive trim and molding, Interior decorative work, refrigerator trays, chemical and
processing towers, condensers, bubble caps,
tanks and IICreens. FUrnace parts subject to
temperatures up to 15S0-F, trim on Irons, cabInets, mh:ers, toasters, etc.

430F

&'rew., nuts, bolte. fittings, and other machined

parts that require corrosion resistance almUar
to that of 430.

"45

Prlm:arlly for hed resisting applicaHonssuch:a.a

annealing boxes, balHe plates, glass molds,
heaters, oil burn~T parts, 111:11'1'1", rods, valves
and fittings, x-ray tube bases and lead-In wlrn.
Austenitic Alloy.

201, 202, Air-crall Indu~ry-&.rews, fuel Hne., engine

301,302, parts, lirewills, de.
304

ArchJtectur.u-UnUmJted applIcatiOn, store b.cIngs, {runes, rails. trim walls, etc.

Chemical Procel!lslng-T:mIcs, plp!nl towers,
heat exchangers, bubble caps, etc.
Food P r ocessing -Unlimited appUcationa, ketUes, Impellers, tanks. refrigerator cars, fermentation VOlta, pasteur-beTa, buckets, .hO'Vela.
barrela. etc.
HQlJ se hold Items-Tableware, cooking uten s ils,
mldng bo",ds, re(rlgeratorll. lleTaporators, wuhIng machine tuba, etc.
.
p~~~u~rl -Mllk CJflI!, pasteYrlnn, hnt

t,j.(.n'iiil'!rII,

aeparators.

',"Uri,

Textile Industry-Dye

@ool.,.,

tw.,

bleach equipment.

Ind

"

Transportation lndustry-TraUer bodies. n..l1way passenger cu., structures, pueenger car

Dnlah, automobile hub caps, bumpers and trim.
302B

Annealln,
part.

covera,' burner

secUons, fuma.ce

303

.... . :.:. Free-machlnln, 18-8 acrews, . ~lts and nuta,.

shafts, carburetor parts, and other m:ilchlned
'puta with corroslon r~sistance of 18-8.

305

Spun partll, drawn put_, coldheadln(operaUons.

308

Welding roda.

3M, 310

Chemical and photographic proceaslng ;equipment. Annealing boxes. covers, welding rods,
furnace parts resistors, retorts, for restatance
to oxidaUon to"2ooo F

318, 317

For chemJcal processinc equlpments which re- '

quires greater corrosion resistance than that of
18-8. Chemical processing. paper ,proeeuln&.
and lIOap manufacture equipment.

321. 347

stmtlar applicaUons to those (or 301, 302. and

304 where fabricatIon by welding wouid cause
harmful carbide preelpltaUon. They are also
used whe re considerable corrosion rest stance la
required and regular or intermittent heating In
the 800 to 1500 F range occurs.

wearing
applications or
improved
strength for applications such as bolts,
nuts, and other highly stressed parts,
In Types 414 and 431, the nickel content improves corrosion resistance and
toughness' while the alloys can still . be
made to transform to martensite, In
Type 431 the nickel content permits full
hardening in an alloy whose chromium
content is higher than that of other martensltlc alloys of similar carbon content. This alloy combination results In
the most corrosion resistant of the
martensitlc steels. The amount of nickel
added is restricted by the fact that
nickel lowers the M s temperature; with
too much nickel full hardening cannot
be achieved.
Annealing

The martensitic stainle ss '

steels are annealed or
softened by two principal methods. In
full annealing, they are heated to the

auslenltlzlng temperaturo !olloWQcI by

slow cooling to a temperature below the
austenite region. This results In a

-- -- ,,---- -_._ --

;~~;,:!~::
.

!:Z~.,.' ..

" C

. '

~:~ ~;; ~~~~~f!2~}'::':~S;?~"~~:.%r~~:~~~~~:~f?c(#fJ.'1f~~~;;~ " . ' ,

process which relaxes internillstresses '

without ' permitting ' important micro- '
structural changes to occur. In general,
this process is carded out at temperatures below those which are used for, =
tempering. Cotn.ffion stress relief treat- '
ments employ temperatures from about
300 to 700F for times of 1 to 3 hours ."
The variation in hardness and impact
strength of Type 420 mai-tensiticstain less steel at various stress-relief tem - '
peratures is shown in Fig. 14:7. It is
,
interesting to note that there is a Jump

,-:: f::'Sf:~~~-J" r~

erties. The effect ', of tempering tem-

perature " on~ the ' ''p roperties'- of ' s,everal ~,

.'

.d

common martensitic stainless, !lteels is -illustrated ' In ' Flg~" 14:B: lt wUl 'be' noted L
thaf theelfects ~e-- 'slinil'ar " to. those :,:
obtained In tempering low alloy"and car- ,
bon steel~' : ' Higher -tempering tempera- ..
ture ' reduces ha'rdness,:" yield ' strength, .
and tensUe strength; ': buLlncreases
elongaUonO'a ndimpact strength.
" .,
--" .", " "
". :.. :'- "'.I1:".:,r_ : , ' ,~.',','::-." .:. :"','': " : ":",'
~ j ;l:. l . :. '

'. .

.c ,,

'

~ ,'" '<:~~~-==:~'~_~~~e~s 20ci~

transformation of r etained austenite .

v;

Tempering
invol ves
higher temperatures than
stress relief (usually 1000 to 1400F)
<,t times of from 1 to 4 hours. Tempering treatme nts, uniike stress relieving,
result in marked changes in hardness,
microstructure, and mechanical prop-

T empering

..

55

,"
"
or

50

..

45

.;
~

"

uo

40
15
~

10
5

.;

"

20~
,!:
15~

'

Impact

~~

---- --____
----- __
----__ ____

O~

1200
Tempering Temperature, OF

10 ,2

(;

5g"
o

Ow

1400

Fig. 14:8. The Effect of Tempering Temperature on the Mechanical ProperUes of Several Martensitlc
Stainless Steels.

"0

100

1000

U
0
a.
E

25 '::
.c:

--,-

0:

1:

!. .

"o

H ard ness

.~

. ""d _
----__

- - - 416
431

,.

IV

-. -;:~:-:-"'-=-:-;=-:!-.'I-............ ~ __ :-.~ .-.

02%-::--

_ _ 403.410-

'"

-.; : .................

] ~ 100

a.
E

............. ~ -... ___ . TenSile S're~th.........

_ ...
- ' --- '

,~ ';;
>= oc.

'.

300:::

~:s~a;ndcnre::s:~sa~~~~~~~:~. r!~~~thf::~ "

~" ::II

~,--~\.,

S,<~'"
0

Note the close conformity of Type 4 16

(the free-machining grade) with . Type
410 except for impact strength. All
samples were tempered for four hours.

v'

,('

100
300 500
700 900
S tr ess - Relieving Temperature, OF

Fig. 14:7. The Elfect of Stress-Relieving

Te mperab,l re on the Hardnessand

Impact St r ength of Type 420

Stal nl ess SteeL
Sample s were held at temperature for
four hours and then cooled in air.

475C Brittleness

Of
considerable
importanc e
in
stress r e lieving and tempering martensitic steels is the phenomenon of 475 C
brittleness. The brittleness, whi c h is
also accompanied by some loss o f corrosion resistance, results whe n fe r ritic and martensitic steels are cooled
slowly through the temperature range

'.

Met.h En glneerinlit Insti t ute

. ....

,
I

..-,
:~

.' ::: ~.

i,.

.. .

11

I,

employed in bardening all types and is ..

416; the , higher-carbon grades such as
, almost mandatory for Types 420, 431,
Type 431 and th~ 440 series ~an also be
" 440A,440B, and 440C ((parts are large
alr cooled. A complication in hardening
these higher-chromium steels is the
or at all complex in I.1hape. Preheating
tendency for austenite retention after ' ' is , accomplished by beating slowly and
holding for ab,o ut one hour at 1000 to
quenching. This tendency is aggravated
1450F 'prior to 'austenitizing. ~
by using hardening temperatures which
are higher than necessary. Because of
' AIte r hardening, the martensitic
the sluggishness of these steels it is
steels are ' either stress relieved 'or
generally deSirable to use somewhat
tempered. It is extremely important that
longer holding ' times at hardening temthese steels are not quenched to. a tem- ,
perature than with plaln carbon steels '
perature, below 150F prior to either of
while keeping the hardening temperature
these treatments. Quenching to ,room ',:
on the, low side.
temperature may result in increased
distortion or cracking of the part.
Retained austenite is objectionable
because it reduces the hardness' of the
' Because the, higher-carbon , steels
part. In addition, it , may transform to
such as 440A, 440B, and HOC have
martensite when the alloy is in service.
rather low M r temperatures, double
This phase transformation results in a
, tempering or double stress relieving
volume change which can cause considerable internal stress and possible
is particularly recommended to elimdistortion in the part. Retained austeninate retained austenite in these alloys.
ite, if permitted to occur, may be elimAfter 1be first treatment some retained
inated by subzero cooling to -100F or
austenite will transform to martensite
by multiple tempering of the hardened
accompanied , by internal stress. The
steel. These methods are similar to
second temper or 'stress relief relieves
those used for high speed steels.
these stresses.

, J"
j

Hardening treatments for the martensitic stainiess steels are listed in

Table 14:4. Preheating is frequently

stress Relief

The term stress relief

as applied
to
asquenched steels indicates a heattreating

Table 14:4. Hardening Treatments for Martensitic stainiess steels

,',

,Tempe rature ,

403
410
414

1700 to 1850
1700 to 1850
1800 to 1950

15 to 30
15 to 30
15 to 30

416
420
431
440A
440B
440C

1700
1800
1800
1850
1850
1850

15
15
15
15
15
15

Type

I,
I:

Time at
Austenitizlng
Temperature, OF

',)fW

to
to
to
to
to
to

1850
1900
1950
1950
1950
1950

minutes

to
to
to
to
to
to

30
30
30
30
30
30

Quenching
Medium
oil
oil
oil (air
for small sections)

oil

air
,air
air
air
air

Brinell
Hardness
380 to 415
380 to 415
400 to 450
380 to
530 to
400 to
550 to
570 to
600 to

415 '
560
440 "
580
590
620

Meta l. EnclneerlTlclnstitute

"

- - -- - - --- - - - - - -

;.

,.

"

~--:;.;~~: '. ~--: :,-;.. - 14

......j . - -

.~::r~~;'[r ~
"

~ ~ o,~~~_,,:-.;~;:rtr-/~~~ ~.:~;;~~,~:~~~j:~lt~.ft~~~7~~~tJ~.~,.~?l,~,'r
-_.o~ _:,~':,_Z,.f'~"~~- <''~~''',~_~,~,[,-:rj;/4~~:~..~5~~: .- ..:
...-

:~'.

and accounts for almost 75 per cent of

' ,' ' the tonnage of ferriti!: alloys. The an' nealed ferI'ltic alloys have better duc"
tility than the martensitic alloys and.lire
therefore more satisfactory for cold
forming applications.
Except for Type 430 there
is no application of hardening, or tempering and stress relieving
of ferrilic steels. The only commonly
used heat treating process Is ann ealint::.
Annealing is largely restricted to process annealing such as previously described for martensitic steels. A common treatment consists of heating , to
1450 to 1600' F, holding for 1 to 2 hours,
and cooling in air (or all or water ' to
avoid 475C embrlltlement). Cold-rolled
strip steels may be heated for shorter
periods of time (10 to 15 minutes). The
free-mac hining grade 430F Is annealed
at a som ewhat lower temperature (1250
to 1450 ' F).
Annealing

'-.

is stlUSubjeCt to-' g~'aiil' growth if heated

," above 1650F. :::;,,',;.. l."; , -: ' '
' "; '
' c~, ......
Hardening ' '" Except' lor modifications
' of Type ' 430 which are only
'partly ferritic above As; the ferritlc
stainless steels cannot be hardened by ', '
, heat tre atment. "" They are subject to
475C embrittlement, as previously described' for " martensitic steels. This
enibrlttlement is avoided and eliminated
In the same manner as with the mar, tensltlc ; steels. Ferritic alloys are also
subject to sigma phase formation as
.. , descrlb'e d earlier ."

)o->c':':':J<t :J,: . :

stainless
, Cold Working , Ferrltic
"
,j
' steels can be hardened
, by cold working. However, the rates of
. ' ' work hardening are much lower' than
' those ' obtained with austenitic stainless
,
steels. It Is possible to cold reduce
ferritic ' alloys as much as 90 per cent
prior to annealing. Because less annealing between stages is required, the
ferritic alloys are ,more economical to
Grain Growth
The
ferritlc alloys,
cold reduce than are the austenitic
when
heated
above
alloys.
1650F, are subject to grain co arsening
which greatly reduces notch ' toughness
as measured by such tests as the Izod
AUSTENITIC ALLOYS
impact te st. With m ost ferritic ailoys,
this coarse grain structure cannot be
The austenitic stainless steels are
refined by heat treatment because there
characterized by their austenitic (faceis no feriitic to austenitic transio rmac ent e red cubic ) structure . They are
tion as with the martensitic alloys .
also, with minor exceptions, nonhardWher e welding is performed, Type 430
enable by heat treatment and nonmagis often specified in the harde nable
netic . As previously explained, these
composition so that subsequent heat
alloys result from modifying the Irontreatment can be used to reduce the
chromium alloys with austenltizing elegrain size.
ments (nickel being the most important)
until the austenitic microstru cture is
retained at room temperature . Because
Be c ause large grain s ize has such a
detrimental eUect on notch toughness,
of the sluggishness of trans[ormation' in
these alloys, it is not necessary to add
it must be avoided in the fe rritic alloys.
Th e r e are no methods which reduce the
suHiclent austenitizers to produce an
equllibrl
um au s t e nite. Many aust e niti c
grain size in most alloys except hot Or
cold working , a nd these ar e not always
alloys are actually metastable alloys;
possible. In Type 44G. nitrogen Is u s'ed
that Is, they are "in unstable equilibrium

as

i!

grain

r~nnH, How~v~r,

thlll alloy

with

cilfbld~

In Ilolyllon amt tht! mar"

,
~-.

',~ ,

" ,

~,,-.-,,)

J
)

..... ..

."

13 '

600 to 400C (1100 to 750F). The ef- ', ' ferrltic . It .' w1ll be noted that these
fects are most noticeable on hlgh-chro- ':. alloys have not been defined as ' nonmium (16 per. cent or more) ferritic ,,';. hardening stainiess steels. ' Actually, In
steels but are also .observed to some
some of these alloys there are minor
extent in martensitic steels containing
proportions of austenite which can
13 per cent or more chromium. This
transform to martensite with accomphenomenon can be prevented by coolpanylng hardening. These alloys also
Ing rapidly through the 1100 to 750 F
work harden, although not as signHitemperature range. Air cooling is sufcantly as the austenitic alloys.
ficiently rapid for the martensitic and :. '
ferritic steels, and 475C brittleness' .
Referring to Flg . . 14:5; ' con';parison
can be eliminated In 'lhese steels by " of the composltiOriS of the ferritic alloys
heating to above 1100F and air cooling.
from Table 14: 1 will show that most
ferritic alloys are to the ' right of the
gamma lOOp. Type 430, however, has a
Corrosion
Although heat treatment
chromium and carbon range which can'
ReSistance
Is essential for providing
result In a mixture of martensite and
the wide range of meferrite. The chromium content can be
chanical properties in the martensitic
varied from 14 to 18 per cent. With
stainless steels, it is also important In
carbon on the low side and chromium
Its effect on corrosion -resistance. Alon the high side, the structure is largely
though this class of stainless steels is
ferritle and nonhardenable. On the other
not subject to the cz.rbide sensitization
encountered in austenitic steels, free
hand, with chromIum on the low side
and carbon on the high side, the alloy
carbides do reduce corrosion resistcan be hardened. Table 14:5 shows typance. Because the carbon Is dissolved
ical mechanical properties of the ferin hardening, the hardened steels have
ritic alloys. The hardened properties of
better corrosion resistance than the anType 430 are for compositions that will
n e al ed steels.
harden significantly.

FERRITIC ALLOYS
The ferrltlc stainless steels possess
a mlc rostructure which is primarlly -

Large quantities of the 430 alloy are

used In nitric acid manufacturlngplants.
Type 430 Is also a popular alloy for
automoti ve and other trim applications

Table 14:5, Mechanical Properties of Ferritlc stainless Steels

Type
and
Condition

Modulus of Ultimate
Elasticity, Tensile
million psi strength,
psi

405 (Annealed)
406 (Annealed)
430 (Annealed)
430 (Hardened)
430F (Anrie aled)
430F (H a rdened)
446 (Anneale d)

28 to 29
29.0
29 to 30
29.0
28 ,0

60,000
85,000
65,000
150,000
70, 000
150,000
80,000

0.2% Offset Elongation

Yield
In 2 Inches,
Strength, per cent
psi
35,000
35,000
110,000
45, 000
110,000
50,000

20
25
20 to 35
3
1 5 to 30
3
25 to 30

Brlnell
Hardness

Izod
Impact,
ft-Ib

160 to 180 . 20 to 35
130 to
255 to
150 to
275 to
160 to

165
300
190
300
185

15 to 35
15 t03 5
15 to 35

~\
)

- -- -- -- - -- . ._ - - .....

1 to 10

~~~~;.~O .~. ".;.;. "

......
- .
.
c')'- ila~ in properties to Type 301, its nickel
counterpart, whereas 202 is >similar to
302. Types 303 and 303 Se are freemachining alloy s to whi.ch sUlfur or >>
selenium has been added to improve
machinablllty. Similar improvement to
that observed in martensltic alloys 416
and >416Se and ferrltic alloy 430F results. Alloys 309 and 310 are wideiy
used In high temperarure applications.
Their higher chromium and nickel con~
tents give higher strength and higher
. ; .~O~ ~~
. - .. '
resistance to scaling at elevated tem'
Fig.
14:9.
Sensitization
In 18-8 Austenitic >
perarures.
Stainless Steel. 400X.
Types 316 and 317 contain molybNote grain boundary areas which have
been corroded alter electrolytic-oxalic
denum, which is added to improve the >
acid etc h. >
con:osion resistance of these alloys (as
compared to regular 18-8 alloys) in
many >applications. High tempe rature
strength is also improved by the molyblieved that precipitation of the carbide
denum addition. Because molybdenum
depletes the grain boundary area of
disturbs the austenitic balance, the
chromium, thus making it less corronickel content of these alloys must be
sion resistant.
increase>d appreciably to insure a fully
austenitic structure.
>The rate of preCipitation, which is a >
time-temperature phenomenon and oc Sensitization
curs over a temperature range of 850
to 1475'F, is most rapid in the range of
The overall c or rosio n resistance of
900
to 1300F. With alloys such as Type
aust enitic stainless steels and factors
302, oniy a few seconds to minutes at
alfeeting it are complex subjects which
1200'F are required to. reduce corroare too lengthy to discuss fully in this
sion
resistance drastically under cerless en. However, the greatest threat to
tain
conditions.
Numerous tests such as
the cor rosion resistance of austenitic
th
e
Huey
nitric
acid test, the Strauss
alloi's is senSi tization, which is a harmcopper
sulfate-sulfuric >acid
test,
ful precipitation of a graln boundary
microexamination
and
more
r
ecently
the
constituent in a certain temperature
ferric
sulfate-sulfuric
acid
and
elecrange. This phenomenon, as seen in
trolytic-oxalic acid etch tests have been
Fig . 14:9, reduces grain boundary cor used to determine the extent of harmfui
rosion r esistance so that under many
precipitation that occurs during sencorrosive conditions rapid and prefersitization.
ential corrosion may occur in those
general areas.
There are a number of
Eliminat~
The precipitated constituent in the
Sensltlzatlon
methods
which have
past has been Identified as a nitride and
been employed to elimas a metallic phase, but now is usually
inate se nsitiz ation or prevent lls harmconceded to be a complex carbide of
. ful effects. In Types 321 and 347 stainchromium, iron, and carbon. It is beless steels, titanium or columbium has
~

~.

..

'\

.,J 'if"
1
.
. .
'....- .-~

Met_Is Enlli:inel!'.ing Inslitull!'

-\
\.

I ;. .,_.

', .-

II

. ; -:

"

ten site transformation suppressed : to ,.'

well below room' temperature.
"

" .'

In the ' b~~derline - alloys, . such as

Type 301 and Type 201, the nickel content is so low that the austenite is relatively unstable and transforms readily
to martensite when cold worked. The
combination of cold work and transformation results in considerable strengthening as indicated for .' Type301 in Table
14:6. Types 304, 202, and ' 302 behave
similarly but . to a lesser extent. These
-cold worked alloys have found wide use
Table 14.:8. Variation or Mechanical Properties of
Type 301 with Cold Worldng
0.2% Offset

Condition

Ultimate
Tensile
Strength,
psi

1/ 4 hard
1/2 hard
Full hard
Ext 'ra full hnd
Ma xi mum hnd

135,000
165,000
195,000
240,000
29 5,000

90,000
120,000
155,000
200,000
260,000

" Yil"l.d

strength,
p,1

Elongation
In 2 Inches,
pe-r cent

35
25
15
4

..

, . 15 . . "

as . strucfural:<,' materials In railway.

eqUipment, trallers, alrcraIt compo~' .nents,--and other highly stressed parts . .' .
. The higher-nickel steels, particularly those . with 1,0 per cent or more
nickel, lUldergo almost no work hardeniJlg from austenite transformation and
are termed free spinning because of
their improved behavior in this operation. Typical mechanical ' properties of
the common . austeriitic steels in the annealed condition are given in Table 14:7.
The austenitic alloys are widely.used
because of their SUperior ductility,
toughness, and weldability as compared
to the fe rritic and martensitic alloys.
They are also more corrosion resistant
,. " .
in many applications.
The 200 series of austenitic alloys
are high in manganese, the manganese
being used in place of part of the required nickel content. Type 201 is sim-

Table 14:7, Typical Mechanical Properties of Armealed Austenitic

stalnless steels

":''' .:("'~ ' - ~18

-~~~~V~~!~~~

"C;""';':"

':

~- . .~.~

.~'~~.- :".,

-,-..- ><~::.~,:-- -.:~:~ 7;.<f": ~~- ~ ':<~~E~f{;.~;??~~

,_:~J~,"-,'-",': :,: ',i_:~L,"
I- _.

' , '

,~ _

,'.''Cp'~e~ip't~t!Onto co~tinue until compllited.

Further holding at temperature , then
permits chromium from the chromiwnrich ,austenite to diffuse into the chro-'
mium-depleted areas, thus largely re~
storing corrosion resistance. The treatment, unfortunately, is generally not
very practical because of the extensive
time that It takes to complete it.
Sigma Phase,
There have been some ' reported
cases in which sigma phase' has occurred in fully austenitic alloys. Generally
these alloys had undergone considerable
cold work prior to heating in the temperaiure range in which sigma phase
was formed. However, in mostlnstances
ferrite is present prior to sigma [0'-mation in the austenitic alloys. It would,
therefore, be expected that alloying
elements which are [e rriUze rs, as mentioned before, might unbalance austenitic alloys sufficiently to promote
sigma formation. Such elements are
silicon, chromium, molybdenwn, iungsten, titanium, and columbiwn.
Actually, Type 309 (25 per ~ent
chromium and 12 pe r cent nickel) Is
more susceptible to sigma formation
than Is Type 310, which contains 25 per
cent chromium,. 20 per cent nickel, and
higher carbon. Similarly, a m odified
Type 317, which contained 3 per r.ent
molybdenum and 0.3 per cent titanium,
developed sigma phase rather readily. It
is evident that sigma will occur at
rather low chromium contents in the
auste nitic all oys if ferritizers are not
offset bY'austenitizing additions such as
nickel and carbon.
An excellent contribution in establishing the relative r ole of each element
In pr omo tin g the p rese nce of 100 per
cent austenite Is that of Schaeffler. His
complete equation, which is based on
weld metal, Is as follows:
Me lah En,lneerin&: Institu t e

~'T~:~;'~,:~~1r;. -::~.:~.:,'~' ..

': ': " ~. ': ~ ~;::!~r +'i:~:~~ +2:;'51 :' ~C~ ; I~)' < 12
Ni + - Mn .. 30 C - -, - - .
:.
.~
..
, "
""" " "ii.'i!;<: , ,1,~ .
' oc; "
.: '
, c':; )"
Thil! equation 'indicates ' the minimum,
amounts of nickel + manganese + carbon
reqtrlred , to, assure ' thaI' weld deposits
:!I!ebr:~~~p~etelYc~~stenit!c and contain
-

I.

. 1 . ...

.'-:<:'~t~~!7.5?~::;.: . :~ ~~
"

'

": .'\. . -

,' ,

Unfortunately .. this equation does not

include nitrogen which is particularly
important in the chromium-manganese- .
nickel and chromium-manganese stain, less , 's teels. Experimental work indicates the effect of nitrogen to be about
equal , to that of carbon. It will be noted
from this equation that some possible
compositions of ' alloys such as' 304
would have free ferrite in weld metal.
Wrought ailoys require less nickel or
other austenitizer content than do castIngs or weld metal to produce a 100 per
cent austenitic condition. Hot working
operations serve to help break ' down
delta ferrite into austenite.
Most commercial: austenitic alloys
are properly balanced to produce 100
per cent austenite. This Is done not only
to avoid sigma [ormation but also to improve hot working operations, since
two-phase alloys are more difficult to
roll. The presence of delta ferrite is
highly und e sirable, particularly in hot
working operations such as continuous
hot rolling of strip. On the other hand,
arc welding manufacturers often have
deliberately designed welding electrodes
to produce weld deposits which contain
appreciable ferrite. In arc welding, the
presence of ferrite helps prevent crackIng of weld deposits. Unfortunately such
weld deposits are susceptible to sigma
formation. In high temperature applica ~ '
tions, the ferrite content is often restricted to 1 to 4 pe r cent, and some
sigma is tolerated.
Sigma [ormation, Is austenitic alloys
can occur in the temperature range of
Q25 to 1775F, with maximum [ormation

"

' ~

;~

:t', ';

- --

.,!" '

.'

J. ,

been ' added for this ' purpose. These

,elements combine with carbon to ' f01:m
titanium or columbium carbides which
are much more stable than chromium
carbide. When carbon Is tied up In the
form of a strong carbide, the posslbUity of forming chromium carbide later
when the alloy is heated to sensitization
temperatures is greatly ,reduced. Because carbon is an austenitizer, its rem0val by these additions makes it necessary to increase the nickel cOlltent if
ferrite is to be avoided. This method of
ellmlnating sensitization Is particularly
Important in welding appllcations where
post-weld heat treatments cannot be
used.
Frequently with the stabilized steels,
a stabilization heat treatment Is given
after the normal solution anneal Is employed, By heating Type 347 to approxImately 1600 to 1800F for several
hours all of the carbon Is converted to
COlumbium carbide. Similarly, titanium
can be converted to titanium carbide by
h e ating at 1550 to 1650F for a similar
period of time. Later heating In the
s e nsitization range then fails to affect
corrosion resistance because the carbon
Is already tied up as columbium or
titanium carbide, and chromium carbide
cannot form.
Another approach to ellmlnatlng sensitization, or at least to minimizing Its
effect, Is lowering the carbon content.
The Idea here Is that the lower the carbon content the lowe r the amount of
chromium carbide that can be formed.
Type 304, which has a maximum carbon
content of 0.08 per cent, Is widely use d
In moderately corrosive environments
after heating, as In arc welding for example. Even lower-carbon 18-8 steels,
such as 316L and 304L (0.03 per cent
maximum carbon), are being used for
s e vere corrosive conditions after relatively short s ensitization times such
as in arc welding . They are not rec-

ommended where the alloys are heated

for :' extensive periods of time In the
sensitization range and. then intermittently exposed to severe corrosion condltions. Types 321 or 347 with stabllization heat treatment after welding would
be preferred for these applications.
Sensitization can and often is ellm.!nated through the use of the solution
anneal. By heating well above the senSitization range, usually 1850 to 2000F,
and ' cooling rapidly (air or" wilte r de- ",
pendent on section and analysis), all
chromium carbides can be taken Into
solld solution and retalned there. This
treatment also eliminates cold 'work
and most internal stresses. The microstructure of properly solution heat
treated 18-8 Is shown in Fig. 14:10.
(Compare with the sensitized sample in
Fig . 14:9.). All mill annealed austenitic
stalniess steel is given a solution anneallng treatment.
It Is also possible to eliminate sen-

sitization of 18-8 steels" such as 301

and 302, by holding at temperatures :>f
1200 OF for extensive periods. This,
method merely permits the damaging

Fig. 14 :10. Mlcrostruclure

of
Properly ,
Solution Heat Trealed 18-8 Austenitic Sta inless Steel. 400X . ..
Th ere is no evidence of sens iti zation
after electrolyflc -oxallc acId etch .
Me t . l. E n c in t'er ing In s t itute

'-

.-,

' :;~~;.: 'mfO

;~'~ ~ 1~

,.

...

' Q

!:

.; '

,'"
";-

~~

', ; -

:','.'

";':(.

;-

";~

2
;;

Table 14:8. Compositions of Representative Commercial Preclpltatlon-Hardenable StaI.nless steels .

Nominal Composition,' weight per cent
Alloy

Mn

Sl

Cr

Nt

....
AI

Other Elements

Ma

Fe

.,

Marlensltlc Types
Sb.Wess W

0.12 max.

1.0 max.

1.0 max.

16.0 to 18.0

6.0 to 8.0

17-4 PH

0.07 max.

1.0 max.

1.0 max.

15.5 to 17.5

3.0 to 5.0

1.0 Tl JDU., 0.2 N max.; Balance '

., .:
1.0 Al max.
3,0 to 5.0 Cu, 0.15 to
Balance
,
0.45 Cb + Ta
l'

1.0 max.

Semlaustenltlc Types
17-7 PH
PH 15-7 Mo
AM 350
AM 355

0.09
0.09
0.12
0.15

max.
max.
max.
max.

1.0 max.
1.0 max.
0.90
0.95

1.0 max.
1.0 max.
. 0.50 max.
0.50 max.

16,0
14.0
16.0
15,0

to
to
to
to

18.0
16.0
17,0
16,0

6.5
6:5
4.0
4.0

to
to
to
to

7.75
7.75
5.0
5.0

.~

17-10P

HNM

0.08 max.

1.0 to 2.0

0.10 to 0.14 0.50 to 1.00

0,30
3. 50

0.40 to 1.00 13, 5 to 16,0 24.0 to 28.0

0.60 max.
0.50

16.5 to 17.5 9.75 to 10.75

. 18,50
9. 50
',

:,:.'

,' <

1.'
. ,'eX!

..

',,1.'~

t"

. ')8.

~h

0.75 to 1. 50
'
, ,. , - ' ~ , .' '-, :, Balance .' "~c;
0.75 to 1.50
,
2.0
to
3.0
.,"
x
:.t!'
:. .Balance i;' ,i:;
.
.l
~
.
. .
2,5 to 3.25
. 0. 10 N ". ;.'
" Balance
'1:.'
2.5 to 3.25
'. 0.10
Balance j,~.'

N:; ;: , "

: L: ;; F~ :,:::~1i: ffi \3~ ~t. '~ ; w:l~l,~:

Austenitic Types
A-286

.~

"

':

>:";~

0.33 max. :

...l..

UnIess Indicated otherwise, phosphorus and sulfur are nominally 0.04 or 0.03 max.

.1.0 to 1.~ TI, 0.10 to ;;, Balance . /:::'V:

::i" :~ ~~ 50 V' ~: : ' ,' ~.: :,:,.... ; '~i~ :~,.
~,:<J:'{~i;>
::. :' .:,;0.25 to 0.30P ' ", . ;~ ,."Balancet ~:'.?~
'.- . :. ~
.'~ 0.25 P !. .J) r .:. ..rBalance ...; :~ i: ~:.:,'.;
"

g;

. .'

"."

..

~~

...

' :~t;H\~~ '

.;,
( '

-'

" ,
.~ ,"

' .)

<,

~~ . ;.;

" .

r;. ;"".

.::. '."

~;. :

....:
1'1

,, '

:~~

., .

".('~\':r.
i" ,"

('-:-:-")'

"

~"

~ -:-"'.,

.J

T ~'~

...

;i ~i ,
", , <.1

""e:- .

--,

.:

.--

19

;' ';.~:-r~"~

..;-:::, .

<-.~. ~
;1 '

\
..\

Iftl

,J ~
I ..

In the ';ange 1375 to 1650~F. With one

rore; It w~s logical. to conclude that an
alloy, less than one hour at 1550F realloy might be ' precipitation hardened ; ' "
sulted In 100 per cent sigma. Annealing
after martensitlc transformation whereabove IB30F has restored ferrite iil all
as it could nof be hardened before
cases. The presence of sigma phase retransformation when It was in the ausduces the corrosion resistance In sultenitic state.
, furlc and nitric acids to an Important
Stalnless W is solution annealed by
degree, reduces ductility, increases
hardness, and drastically reduces imheatlDg to 1900 50F for a minimum
pact resistance. With one 317 alloy
of 15 minutes,coollng to room temperheated for four hours at 1550F, notch , .ature, and holding for tWo hoUrs. In this .
"
' lr'e atment,' some 6f the titanium and
Impact energy . dropped ' from 120 to '10
carbon are ' taken into solution with the
foot-pounds. Our IJresent understanding
of this phase has helped prevention of It
formation of austenite on heating. Approximately 10 per cent ferrite remalns
in wrought alloys. The problem of producing all-austenitic weld metal with
with the austenite. After cooling to room
temperature and holding two hours, the
good weldability and no tendency to
austenite transforms to martensite. Besigma formation, however, Is still not
cause the martensite is rather low in
completely solved.
carbon It is also low in strength, but
possesses
fair ductility. Typical propPRECIPITATION-HARDENrNG ALLOYS
erties of solution annealed stalnless
Ware:
It has been mentioned before that the
austenitic steels normally cannot be
Yield strength (0.2% offset)
75,000 psi
hardened by heat treatment, and It Is
Ultimate
Tensile
strength
.
120,000
psi
true that stable austenitic steels cannot
Elongation
in
2
inches
25%
be hardened by martensltic transformation. However, recent development
For maximum properties stainless
of the precipitation-hardening stainless
W Is then aged at 950F for 30 minutes.
steels have made hardening possible In
A wide range of properties can be obboth austenitic
and semiaustenitic
tained by averaging at temperatures
alloys.
The precipitation hardening
from about 1150 to 1250F for various
stainless steels can be divided Into three
times. During aging treatments it is
classes-martensltic,
semlaustenltlc,
believed that titanium carbide Is preand austenitic. CompOSitions of some of
cipitated. Because greater hardening Is
the more common alloys are given In
obtained when aluminum Is present, lt1s
Table 14:8.
probable that this element also plays a
part In precipitation, possibly as an
Martensitlc Alloys
aluminum-nickel
compound. Typical
aged properties of Stalnless Ware
The martensltlc stainless steels
shown In Table 14:9.
were the first to which precipltationhardening additions were made. This
Heat treatments for 17-4 PH are
was a reasonable choice because marsimilar to those for Stainle ss W. Solutensite Is a strong base for further
tion heat treatment Is usually 1900 .'
hardening. Also, the solid solubility of
25F for 30 minutes followed by cooling
many elements Is much less In ferrite
to gO F or below. This treatment, reand martensite, which are both bodyferred to ' as Condition A, takes the
centered-type crystals, than It Is In
principal hardening element copper Into
face-centered cubic austenite. Theresolution. Some carbides are largely un-

- -.' .~- .; ;? ~~-::~'~;~~~~;" .~ :~~if~~t:' ~:~:~~?:~:'~~~f~~~~}}.;~f{!~~q-t!}>~':'~;~2~~~~~~~~~'

~

. .

. :"

: .,.'

'

Table 14:11. Anneallng Cycles .and Typical Mechanlcil Properties of

Semlaustenltlc Precipitation Hardening. steels
'. 17-7 PH
Annealing Cycle

AM35Q

PH 15-7 Mo'

1950. 25'F for

30. min. per In. of
thickness. Cool
rapidly.

.. ., . . ',, -.

1850. to 195Q'F
for .45 min ; .per .
In. of thickness.
Coot' rapidly. " .". '
. ....
.. . .
~-~

0..2% Offset
- Yield Strength. psi . .
40.,0.00 - 55,0.00
Ultimate Tensile
strength, psi
'. 130.,0.0.0. ' 130.,0.0.0. '
'. Elongation In 2 Inches,
per cent
35
35

..

,~

"D

AM 355

~'.7

1875'F for
10. to 15 min.
Cool rapidly.

. -~ - .

'

56,0.00

63,0.0.0.
L";

149,0.00. '.

'. :

187,0.00
28.5

39
.:

'. 1.

Table 14:12. Austenite Conditioning Cycles . and Resultant Typical Mechanical

Properties of Semiaustenltlc 'Precipitation-Hardening Steels
1. For Alloys 17-7 PH and PH 15-7 Mo
Condition R-1QQ

Condition T

Heat to 1400. 25'F

Heat to 1750. 25'F
for. 90 .minutes. Transform
~.
for
10. minutes. Air cool.
o
......
by cooling to .60. F within
.
Transform by cooling to
1 hr. Hold 30 min'Jtes. .... .: . ", -IOOF. Hold 8 hours.
"1

-.,. ..:
'"''

0.2% OlIset
Yiel d st r engt h, psi
Ultimate Tensile
strength, psi
El ongatio n in 2 inches.
per cent

17-7 PH

PH 15-7 Mo

17 -7 PH

PH 15-7 Mo

100,000

90,000

115,0.00.

125,0.00

145,0.00.

145,0.0.0.

175,0.0.0.

180.,0.0.0.

( <:1

- -';

2. For Alloys AM 350. and AM 355

L annealed and sing l~ aged (Condition SA).
Condition SC - L annealed .
Heat to 1710 ' F for 10. min. Air cool to
subze ro cooled. Heat to
room temperature. Heat to 1375'F. Ho ld 3
171a'F for 10. min. Air cool
hours. Cool to room temperature (171a'F
to room temperature .
treatment optional fo r AM 350. but necessary Cool to -IOa'F for 3 hours.
for best properties In 355) .
AM 350
AM 350.
AM 355
(Conditio n SC)
(Condition SA)
(Condition SC)
0.2% Ollset Yield
strength, psi
Ultim ate Ten s il e
stre ngth . psi
Elongation In 2 inches. per cent
M~t.h E"ttln~~ri"tt 1""ll l u l~

110.,0.00.

105,0.0.0

20.0.,0.00

160.,0.0.0.

12

10.

.,

130.,0.0.0.

:-'.

~.-

~'~ :'

:-.. ._

'~>7,'j;":-~.:;.':~::<
" . - ' .. -

.. .. . :-'

.~.

. "~

. ~.

21

"

Table 14:9. Typical Mechanical Properties 'of

A~ed Stalnle~s W

'. i.

Property

, Aged at 950F ,
, for 30 minutes

, Overagedat 1150F
for 2 hours

0.2% Offset Yield strength, psi

Ultimate Tensile strength, psi
Elongation in 2 inches, per cent

, 180,000
195,000 '
3 fo 10

100,000
134,000
20
.

dissolved because columbium and tantalum carbides are quite stable, Like
stainless W, some delta ferrite also re'- ,
mains in 17-4 PH after the solution
treatment.
Typical solution treated ,'
(Condition A) properties for 17-4 PH
are indicated below:
Yield strength (0.2% offset)
Ultimate Tensile Strength
Elongation in 2 inches

. , t

. . '.

. ' .\.

' . ~' ..

parts, hone'y comb, skins, ' ducts, and

springs. Nonmilitary products include '
such ,uses as ' handsaws, garbage. disposal units, valve diaphragms, "compressor discs, and nuclear reactor
components.
When heated to about 1950F and
' cooled to room temperature, these': al~ ', '" ".,>
loys are soft and ductile because the
microstructure is either entirely or
largely austenitic. In th i s condition they
can be fabricated in a manner similar
to the other ductile austenitic stainless
steels. Typjcal annealing cycles and
mechanical properties that result are
shown In Table 14:11.

110,000 psi
150,000 psi
129'0

Also, like Stainle ss W, 17 -4 PH can

be aged at variouR temperatures to produce a range of mechani c al properties.
Some typical mechanical properties are
shown in Table 14: 10.
Principal applications of these alloys
have be e n in bar forms for various
hi gh- s trength corro s ion-re si s tant appi ic ations .
Se mi au s te niti c All oy s
The
s emi austenitic
pre cipitation
ha r denabl e s tainles s ste els have a
uniq ue co mbination of ' propertie s that
has made them incre asingly m or e popul a r in airc raft s truc ture s, missile

With all of these alloys , martensitic transformation Is made possible by

precipitating chromium carbides, thus
raising the M s and M r temp eratures.
With one treatment at about 1400 F, the '
M f is raised to room temp e rature; with
a second treatment, ne ar 1700 F, cooling to _100 F is required to reach the
M r temperature. Typical austenite-tomartensite transformation conditioning cycles with acc ompanying m echanicai properti e s are given in Table 14: 12.

Table 14:10. Typical Mechanical Properties Of Aged 17-4 PH

Property
Yi e id St r engt h (O.2% o[( se t), ps i
Ultim at e Ten s ile Str ength, psi
El ongation in 2 inches, per c ent

Aged at 900 F
for 1 hour
180,000
195,000
13

Aged at 1150 F
for 1 hour
125,000
145,000
19
M ~I .I. En lti n~ ~ ri n: tn 5 titUlf"

.__ . . -

--"

>

"': : ~' .

.:--.:.. ... .> ., . .

....

'

. '.. '

" '.." .... . c

.~"

1'

even make these alloys (and the mar, Alloy " HNM ' IIl -" represe,n tative ' of
another group' oC ':ilioys which .Includes
tensitlc alloys) nonhardening. Generally,
air Is a most satisfactory atmosphere ' 17-10P and contains 18 per cent chromium, ' 10 per, cent nickel and 0.25 per
'for " :tl1ese alloys. Vacuum, argon, helium,
and
dry
hydrogen
are
also
use'd.
A
cent
phosphorus. Each , of these groups
,.
further complication In the semlaustenof alloys is nonmagnetic and not hard- :
, Itlc types Is the volume Increase ac- ,,' enable by martensitic transformation.
companying martensltlc transform:l.tion.
~ I, ~
.
Allowance must be made for this in
The -' austenitic 'precipitation-hardparts which are held to accurate dienable, ~ alluys are ' hardened by first
solution annealing : and then aging at a '
mensions. In, these alloys, the expansion
lower temperature:' As ' might be examounts to about 0.0045 inch per inch.
Subsequent aging results In a contracpected, they are quit,e ductile in the
tion of about 0.0004 to 0.0005 inch per
solution
treated condition. Solution
Inch.
'
,
treatments and resultant typical mechanical properties are given in Table
Austenitic Alloys
14: 15.
There are a number of available
austenitic precipitation hardening "tain'less steels. In one group, consisting of
A-286, Discaloy, W-545, and J-1300,
each contain about 15 per cent chromium and 25, per cent nickel plus 2 per
cent titanium and various amounts of
other elements such as molybdenum.
chromium, etc. These alloys, which are
modifications of a German alloy called
Tinidur, have seen extensive use in jet
engine components because of their
moderately high strength at temperatures over 1000 OF and good oxidation
resistance at high temperatures.

i'

~.

'.

After solution annealing, A-286 is

aged at 1325 OF for 16 hours; HNM is
aged at 1350F' for 16 hours. Typical
mechanical properties after these aging
, treatments are shown below:
lIN~1

A-2a6
Yi('ld Strenf!,:th 0.2 '1 oUsct, pst
tntim3tr Ten.!iile Strength, ps't
Elong3t1on an 2 inc he s . '{

100. 000

124,000

156,000

168,000
19.5

25

As mentioned before, A-286 has been ,

widely used in high temperature applications. In general, its fabrication
properties are good. Some difficulty has
been encountered in welding, particu-

Table 14:15. Solution Treatments and Resultant Mechanical Properties for

Alloys A-28B and HNM
A-286

HNM

Solution anneal at 1650

25F or 1800 25F for '
90 minutes per Inch of
thickness. Cool rapidly

Solution anneal
2050 25 F for 60
minutes per inch of
thickness. Cool
rapidly.

Property
0.2% Offset
Yield Strength , psi
Ultimate Tensile
st rength. psi
Elongation in 2 Inches,
per cent
Met.!. Eng i neering Institute

37,000

56,000

91,000

116 ,000

47.5

57.5

.,r
. " /

I\

':

"

..

:.",

-- .. -:".-

..

' :

23 "
-

-I

. ~:-

Table 14:1 3. Typical Propertie s of 17-7 PH and PHi5-7 Mo in C c;mditioris

TH 1050 and RH 950
1" "

'

"

P roperty
0.2% Off s et
Yield strength, ps i
Ultimate Tensile
strength. psi
Elongation in 2 in- ,
ches. per cent

Condition RH 9 50

Condition TH 1050
17-7 PH

17-7 PH

PH 15-7 Mo

PH 15-7 Mo

o:!

185,000

200,000

220,000

200, 000

210,000

235,00,0
.
oj . "

".

7-

After martensite transformation, twocommon aging cycles are commonly

employed on PH 15- 7 Mo and 17~7 PH.
To achieve condition T H 1050, mate rial
in Condition T is heated to 1050F [or 3
hours. To achieve Condition 'R1:I 950,
stee~ in Condition R-l00 is heated to
950 OF for 60 minutes. Typical mechanical properties of these alloys are given
in Table 14:13.
Unlike 17 - 7 PH and PH 15-7 Mo,
AM 350 and AM 355 are aged in the
same manner regardless of prior martensite
transformation
treatment.
Treatment i s 850F for 3 hours. Typical
mechanical properties are shown In
Table 14: 14. Condition DA (dooble aged)
had the _prior SA treatment whereas
Condition' SCT . (subzero cooled, tempered) had the prior SC treatment.
In addition to the above treatments,
other treatments which involve substan-

,' ,

22 5,000
'

, :~ ;

-'

240; 000

tial cold reduction (40 to 60 per cent)

plus aging have been developed for all of
these alloys. In some of these treatments, tensile strengths in , exce,ss of.
300,000 psi with hardness ' values of 55 .
Rockwell C have been developed. These
alloys are promiSing materials for
rocket and high-speed-aircraft construction because of their high strength
and relatively good welding properties.
The molybdenum-containing alloys also
retain good strength to temperatures of
900 to 1000F.
There are numerous complications
that can arise in the rather involved
heat treatment of these alloys. It is vi,tal
that the martensitic transformation go ,
to completion if best properties are to
be obtained by aging. Heat treating
atmospheres are also important because
abso rption of carbon and nitrogen will
disturb the austenitic balance and may

Conditi on DA

---'

-. ..
, '

-"

-6

Table 14:14. Typical Mechanical Properties of AM 350 and AM 355 In

Conditions DA and SCT

~'

'

Condition SCT

., .:

~'I!e'1' B,,~" Or ::h;:h':~~IOY:'I,~:~'~";~r':!~~::~::Oo"F" :"B>!~Y:

10_'

~
' ,'0"

" ',
..

the 25% Ni steel does not transform t o '

100% martensite. at room temperaturl!;
the 18% Ni and 20% Ni steels do. Ausaging 4 hours at 1300 F followed' ,by

necessary for full martensite of the 25%

NI steel, or the steel ' should be cold
~workedat least 25% ,to induce complete
austenlte-to-martensite transformation
,

....

-,

. ---

, "

0,

_~
, ~\::'
,~

;".

Typical Properties of Maragtng Steels

18% Ni

";

.,

20%NI

. ;.
~

PROPERTIES

Annealed

Tensile Stre'ngth,
Ksi
Yield Strength,
Ksi
% Elong .
% RA
Re Hardness
Notched Ten s ile
Str. 0.3" bar

140

Mar

ed

250-275

95
17
75 '
28

240-268
10- 12
48- 58
50- 52
375

Annealed

153

Mar

25% Ni
Cond.Annealed Mar ed

: ! ' .

ed

255-268

132

260-290

243-262
12" 13
58- 59
50- 52

40
30
72
12

240-270
10- 15
40- 60
48: . 52

365

280-360

HEA T TREATMENT
Austenitize
Aus age

1500F, Air Cool

none

Recom mended
Marag ing Temp.
Recom me nde d
Mar ag ing Time

900
3 Hrs .

1500F, Air Cool ,

none

800 900
or
4 hrs . 1 hr

, 1500F, Air Cool

1300F, 4 hrs, Air
Cool; or CW 25%
800

900
or
4 hrs . 1 hr

-',

M ~t als E n e l n~('rln g

....

Ins tl lut e

..

-.

:.':'.,

" .'

.'

) , fU' ,

larly in welding sections over It Inches

thick. Alloy HNM Is even more troublesome in welding, probably because of the
formation of a low- melting phosphide at
welding temperatures.
Reduction of
phosphorus in this alloy minimizes welding problems but leads to a loss of me"
chanical properties.

>... :1..' .

,.

. 7. ~~ ..~

, eliminated. Newly-formed room tem- . . .. ,

-'I" perature '. martenslte Is not ' very haid'
(about Rc25), but It Is very tough; It can
be deformed. with comparative ease.
Reheating this martensite Is not temperlng; . but aging; In fact, It Is knownas .
. " maraging. Hardness rises to about R c52
. after 3 hours at 900F. This hardness is
retalned even when steel is maintained
These alloys do not require heat
for many hours between room temper~~ , "
ture and 750F. . ~. ~. _
.'
.
treating procedures'" as complicated as
those for the semiauslenitic types. Distortion is also. not a -problem. UnfortuIf welded, ' these sfeels can be uninately, the alloys of this type developed
formly hardened merely by aging again
thus - far possess considerably lower
at about 900F.
room temperature heat treated properties than the semiaustenitic alloys. At
temperatures over 900 to 1000F,' howSome New Terms
ever, A- 286 is in many cases stronger
ausaglng - (aus-aging) - aging at elevated
than the semiaustenitic alloys. It can be
expected that there will be further new
temperature to cause precipialloy development with this group of al- .
tation hardening in an austenloys because of their great potential
ite matrix
value.
ausforming - deforming metastable steel
while in austenitic phase
MARAGING STEELS
mar aging - 'aging at elevated tempe.ralure to cause precipitation.
A new class of Nickel-rich steel is
hardening in a martensite
now being us ed which has numerouS
matrix
unique characteristics:
marforming - deforming
steel
while
martensitic
Chemical analyses for three steels of
this class (the 18% Ni grade seems most
popular) are :
Transformaiion
Ni

18% Ni

20% Ni

25 % Ni

C
Co
Mo

0.03 max .

0.03 max.
0
0
1.5
0.2
0,5

0.03 max.
0
0
1.5
0,2
0,5

Ti

Al
Cb

5
0.2-0.7
0.1
0.0

Like ordinary steels, they transform

from fcc au s tenite (1500 F) to martensite
at temperatures of about 300F. Quenching is not r equ'ir ed, bec ause thi s class of
ste e l without much carbon, has no pearlite nose to by-pass; therefore, cracking
or distortion from thermal stresses are

The martensitic crystal structure of

maraging steels is body-centered cubic
(not body-centered tetragonal) when in
the as-cooled "annealed" condition. It
forms isothermally and athermally. This
martenslte work-hardens very little,
making it quite formable prior to max-aging. The mechanical properties can be
further improved with coldworking of. at
least 25% prior to the maraging treatment.
Recommended au s teniti zing is l500 F
(one hour per inch thickness) and special
atmospheres for any of the maraglng
steels are unnecessary.
Mellal. E:n alnttrlnr

- .------~--

- - -

._- - _.----...,.--

In&tltut~

.'

Co not wril.
In thla aplle.

.;.:.:",,;..'

.---~:.

A .

-.=. :

B.
C.
.... D;'

6.

-- -'. - - -

' "

....'_...--... .......... ..

"

"

Nickel maraging steels when fully hardened have a

microstructure of:
... - A;

..

deoxider
austenitizer
. ferritizer
carbide former

B.
C.
D.

austenite and bainite

aged martensite '
tempered martensite
,
.. ~_ .
retained austenite and . ferrite
, ; .. , I '

7.

c.
D.

'1-" "

c.
D.

..... "

t .:, -. '

. molybdenum

silicon
manganese
vanadium

-0

machinab ility
weldability
castability
hardenabi1ity

':1

In the AISI system of stainless steel type designations, the

various series numbers indicate that: '
A.

B.

c.
D.
10.

. ~ . .!

.- .

Sulfur and selenium in controlled amounts are added to some

types of stainless steels to improve:
A.
B.

9.

~ ~:'l~~( I~~~ '

A substitute austenitizer that can be used . to conserve nickel

. in the austenitic class of stainless steels is: .
A.
B.

8.

-- -... .

an alloy in the 400 series is alw~ys - m;~'~ ~nSitic

an alloy in the 300 series is austenitic
the a lloys in the 200 series have a manganese content
of 2.0%
the last two digits repres en t the ' carbon content

Copper is the principal hardening element used in the

martensitic precipitation hardening steel designated:
A.
B.
C.
D.

A-286
17-10 P
17-7 PH
17-4 PH

'

;
D
~\'-

'

;,-

;;

DWayne
1 February 1984
T2 .

,.
,
. -', .
'

.0..-.. _ __

,- ---- - --

..~ ~ ;:;~:rf{~'r:~.; -. ~
...F,',"
/. ... ;'" '!HIItl' .
.

,American Society for

..

:~ .I

....

Course 10

---.- .' ..

.~:... ~ : ~

...

M<tals Park, Ohio 4-

,.:.,.-:..: ."

Test,S

I.CONSSe;I~~T1~:;~~4~EAT 'TREAT~~~T -~; ;;;:I~LE~;i;;J~~;

PLEASE PRINT YO UR NAME AN D ADDRESS BELOW

,.
NAME ______________

______________________________

S TREET _____________________________________________
.

" !' ,..,

:,

"~ I '

CITY' __________________'-ST ..T "'-'-'-________

..
-2.11. ________

---_!._---------------------_._-------------------.. _--------------------.. -~~~---. .--------00 not write

, ..;, :
"

In ,hi pace

Place the appropriate answer (A, B, C or D) in the box. Only one

answer is correct and each question has a' value of 10 points .
.

1.

A.

.,

:,
1;;
t;)
., ,
'

,~::

-: "

B.
C.
D.

the nose of the TTT curves being shifted to excessively

long times
,
inadequate solution of chromium in the austenit~
retention of 100% austenite on slow cooling
cooling too slowly when a rapid quench' anneal is
specified

, \

:'

'.

.,.,

Annealing response is not obtained on 'slow cooling of

martensitic stairless steel types 414 and 431 from above the
critical temperature. This is caused by:

2.

3.

Parts have been precision machined from 17-7 PH stainless

steel in the solution annealed condition. After thermal
treatments of Condition T and Condition TH 1050 have been
completed, you would anticipate:

an increase in size

C.
D.

an increase in ductility
a decrease in yield strength

Annealing of a cold worked Type 301 stainless steel has

resulted in grain growth. Grain refinement can be
accomplished by:
A.
B.
C.

D.
4.

a decrease in size

A.
B.

process annealing

ausaging
cold working to full hard followed by controlled
annealing
transforming to 100% sigma phase

Sigma phas e is formed occasionally in austenitic alloys when

exposed to elevated temperatures. An alloying element that

tends to promote sigma phase is:

('\
'3" ,
.
,

.. ,

A.
B.
C.
D.

molybdenum
manganese

nickel
carbon

__

_____ _

- - _._- - - ---'---- _ .

',':..

' r - ..
l

, .

'

. ...

Do 'not writ.

".'-"

'

in

. ,,:

t~il

' poe.

:.

....

:. .

..'

4.

1 .

~ '~.~~=ff . - ,c

. ...

",\ ,:- ",,';' r ~' --

.'

:: "'J~_ { - -:

An important' 'f 'a ctor ' in harde'iling ' of steel by, thermal

treatment is: . ....

.. .

" - '--:",:,,"~',-

.;~ ::.:" t]

. . ) . :.: :.

. ~ '~ :. . ;. :~~ ::i :~'i: . ~ ~.~-...

.i

' ''! "_:.

...:--:- . - ~-.: . ""; ;--~ =="--- ".... ':. ::::::'-:~..,-;;,-.::...~.;.~-+ ..., ; ~ .. .;-..; .=-;..:.f. -.:::::.;..:-- -.::. :..- '. --. -

low carbon solubility ' in~' austeni te"~'. """ ." J;," -';h.
A.
B. : .; high modulus of elasticity
. ..: ... .
_.) _, C. ,;:: ability to retain austenite at low temperature
D.
low carbon ~olubility in ferrite
. .. .:. <:
-- ---,.. . - . .... ;--. - '- ..- . . - '- '
5.~"-,;. If " lron' ~~re 'to be alloyed with only 1% of an element,
the element would provide the greatest strengthening
effect is:
, '" . _ _ . .....i...__
~ .'

A.
B.

6.

silicon
nitrogen

-:.

.'

manganese
carbon

C.
.J

of:

_ ,;. _,_ .:! .:. ~.

When steel is slowly heated, the rearrangements of atoms

from body-centered cubic to face-centered cubic:

I.

A.
B.
C.
D.
7.

Aging occurs inlow-carbon steel due to:

A.
B.

C.

D.
B.

induces ferromagnetism
causes a dimensional contraction
inhibits diffusion
removes atoms from the crystal lattice

changing solubility of carbon in austenite

formation of supersaturated gamma iron
formation of spheroidite by heating to a temperature just below the austenitizing temperature
precipitation of carbides after rapidly cooling
or cold working

An advantage of austempering over quench hardening

is that it:

A.
B.
C.
D.
9.

is easier to control
is readily adaptable to hardening of larg e sections
tran s forms aust e nite into martensite instead of
b3inite
results in greater ductility and toughness

A steel microstructure that contains Fe)C is known as:

I

A.
B.
10.

austenite
martensite

C.
D.

ferrite
bainite

-I

The pressure in a vacuum furnace measur e d on e millimeter

of mercury.
The pref.erred vacuum pressure designation
wo uld be:
A.

one hundredth of an
atmo sphere

C.

B.

one micron

D.

--------

. one torr
one pascal

i,':

./

f.jf(:[Q]Vltl
, . j'

...

....~.

. .. e:- '

' .

'" ,mencan :society'ra!' Meta

- METALS - ENGI~EERING INSTITUTE .'

.!:.;": L.~

.!.

."
- "

..-: ~!~ ~., . '. ",.;

. ':":' <.." :-:'.",.,... " ~ ~. ':'.'

'. "'

Metals Park; Ohio 44073 ,.

-:"'

..:.=

He at Treatment o f Steel

, ,,1:

Co urs e , lO

'eries AA
)

Fina l Examination

PLEASE PRINT YOUR NAME AND ADDRESS BELOW

NAME ______________

_; ; ~_

. .-:, J : '-:- ' .

~
__________________________
. _f.;. 2.

".

-"
"

.,.! .' ...

: .. .
oJ _

Regle:. No.
.

STREO __________________________________________

f "

.,

- '- ,-

l.:. ,

_ "
"

CITy'-'-_______________STAT'EE__'__________.J.ZIP ____'--'-_
------- - - - - ------- -------- - - --- ---- -----------------------~
.-

Do not write
In this space

- ,.'

M1;1 l tiple Choice

.'

", ' .d :

., ' ,

-"

..'.

2.

" ,

", !

'-, '.,'
D
,

"

Mf
Arl

In se l ecti ng the tempe r ature sensing system for a heat

treating opera t ion , the choice between ,,: thermocouple
and a radiation device may be influe nced by the:
A.
B.
C.
D.

3.

C.
D.

')

The problem of retained austenite would be minimized

i f the following temperature was above room
terr:perature:
A.
B.

.;:
'

--.------- - -- --~-- ---- -

P l ace the appropriate letter (A,B, C or D) in the box. Only one answer is c orrect and h a s a value of4 points.'
1.

,,

rate at which the wo~k moves through the furnace

energy source, fuel gas or electricity
amount of energy transferred to the work
heat content of the workpiece

The phase dia g ram at the

right is typical of alloys
o f 88% iron and 12% chromium with varying carbon
con tent. If Type 416 stainless stee l containing 12%
chromium and 0.12% carbon
were heated to 2000 F and
rapidly cooled the
microstructure would
consist of:

A.
B.
C.
D.

100% martensite
ferrite and pearlite
martensite and
retained austenite
ferrite and
mArt",n"1",,,,

1600

800
L

2600

1400

2<CO

L+Y

200

1200

"-

2000
1000

';

1800 ;;

1600

SOO

...E

1400
200
10 00

800
1.0

.~.

,-: ;:.

.,

~. writ.
, poc~

'. '

18.

' j

1.!"-.

:"]'?)iff" "~:-.' :;,,: : ~;:~qr:t#:J. i. ...}' .. ~

,~:

The diameter _of a ,):ensi1e , test specimen "that would '", ; :;, :
'provide diree;t" stress ,' data ' for , ast,ress-s't,rain:diagram'

"l B
" / ",,' .,
..

. . ' .. ...:: . ... .

'

'-....;.. 1 ;,

-",

i:S~~

_~" ._.: : ;~ :~ f;-;; ~ .

:A.
B.

.' , C.

1.127 inches;", :,
1. 000 inch :: ; .. ,
~

'

D.

-. '..

0.505 , inch ' ';: ''':'I'',).::,I'l ;~

0.750 inch , ','.- ;, "
"' "

".,1. ;. ., - l

" ..

.;

... ;

19. i At;- Hl~"ho1; :, wC?rk " toci1 ~ s te,el hasbe ';ustenitizedand ,

'j,
a~r hardl'!nedto , 50 HRC.
After tempering at 1000 F . .
(540,9) , ' for . two :hours, the hardness is 52 HRC;
This '< ; '
incr~ase ' in ' hardness is known as:
.,.
.~
",,;:
, ~" ," )"',,
-.. . "' - .' "
,

A. , ,, temper ,brittleness
B . s t r a i n ,aging , ,
'

C.
D.

. ,

,.,[J "
. ~. .

, : ' ~ " .: .

secondary hardening
nondeforming
,;

.. . " :

20. ; AJf , effective ' means of minimizing evaporation of certain

!
metals ' in a vacuum is by:
, All '." , . " u :;ing heat shields
, ",-, b~ckglling

C.
D.

cycling the temperature

using graphite heaters

"

21. 1 l;n inc;luct,ion :,heating" as , the frequency is increased

the de'p tt. 6f heat penetration:
A.
B.
22. ,

C.
D.

increases slightly
increases r~pidly

Large gear teeth sometimes are hardened one tooth at

a time.
What feature characterizes an inductor used
for this purpose?
A.
B.
C.
D.

23.

, remains unchange,a,
becomes shallower

a flux concentrator
extra large quenching capacity
rugged construction
special material

To oil quench long and slender steel parts to avoid

distortion, it would be advantageous to select the
quench tank design as shown in:
A.
B.
C.
D.

Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure

15-35
15-30
15-34
15-37

D1
'\

,_) t'..,:, '"<r

r " , )

.~

.'

18.

~[;;: tensil::. ~es~~~~e~i~~o~fk~t"';~h1i~;~~~~~~::.

The diameter
'.
provide direct stress data , 'for: a:; str~ss'!stffiiri" d:iagr~~n

---1' .

is:
A.
B.

19.
,

1.127 inches
1.000 inch

"l;"~~~'=-~; " ~+c;~ll? rtd~ ';" , j!.

:.: . , ')
. ,' C. "';tg. 0.505 :rh~l!l" '; ""O-;'::';f
. < .,i'i i.' D.i:.(!:~0;750'~ irtch~, -, '; ~;: .

A~

~teel has ,/J~?~Hsi.~Ili~i~~4~~~~,~H:,~:

using heat shields

backfilling

C s:

' .' c. .~ '

. ' :D.

6YCiirig }P~e' tif~n\g~ra trite

using graphi,te"1le'a terS

. .

. '-

.I

is: !

remains unchanged .
becomes shallower

C.
D.

iricreas'e:s' s1'ighfTy
increases rapidly

,.

~: .

,
- ". ,
"

a flux concentrator
extra large quenching capacity
rugged construction .
special material

Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure

b
o

. .. .

To oil quench long and slender steel parts ' to '. avoid
distortion, it would be advantageous to select the "
quench tank design as shown in:
A.
B.
C.
D.

15-35
15-30
15-34
15-37

------------ -

Large gear teeth sometimes are hardened one tocith at

a time.
What feature characterizes an inductor used '
. : :.' .:
for this purpose?
A.
B.
C.
D.

"

"

In induction
the depth of
A.
B.

23.

.effective means of
metals in a vacuum is

B.

22.

. A.

21. .

cr!

. .~ :

Hllhot work tool

'. . (l}
au hardened to 50 HRC . After~elli~~l:~I\gL~:~-~ Rqo i ~: ~.:' ~~) "' .
(540 , C) for two hours"the ' hat'ane~s " isJl52>: i{RC~" '!' - ~~ '''r:' '
increase ' iri hardness is ' known:'as i-:" .'; . ,.<J ,':n7.J5n ,,: . '" .~3 ~ _' .~ L
. /1-,- ". :
L._~ . ~ t:. . secbr\aiii YC.hl1rdEiiilng ,
A. ' . temper bri ttlenes; ,. c," c.
!
,..
. ... ; D. i.,: .: :nondefciriilfng .:. 5 ,: , ,,
B.
strain aging ,
i
' , #"

20.

-- ---- ---

....

I'