Ecological Study

Prof Bhisma Murti

Masters Program in Public Health.
Graduate School,
Universitas Sebelas Maret

Ecological Studies
Ecological study is an observational study defined by the level at
which data are analyzed at the population (ecological, aggregate,
contextual, or group level), rather than individual level.
Ecological studies are inexpensive and easy to carry out, using
routinely collected data
But they are prone to bias and confounding
The most notable bias being the ecological fallacy, because an
association observed at the population level may not reflect an
association at the individual level

Ecological Studies
In ecological studies, there is no individual data.
We consider aggregates of individuals.
We examine the association between the occurrence
of a disease and the occurrence of an exposure and
disease
Both the disease status and exposure status are
measured at the aggregate, or ecological level.
Thus, in ecological studies, we deal with ecological
variable, instead of individual level variables
Individual level variables are properties of individuals,
and ecologic variables are properties of groups.

Definition of the Aggregates

Aggregates often defined by units e.g.
country, region, province (states), kabupaten
(district, regency)/ municipality, kecamatan
(sub-districts), school or health care facility.

Ecological studies are also

known as correlation studies
or aggregate studies

Ecological
Studies are
Also Known As
Correlation
Studies

Limitation of Ecological Studies

The ecological studies with the aggregate
data analysis is used primarily for hypothesis
generation as opposed to hypothesis testing.
The association observed between the
exposure and disease in the ecological
studies then need to be examined further by
more formal and rigorous analytical studies
such as cohort study and case control study

Another Advantage of Ecological Study

Although other study designs are generally considered more reliable,
particularly in the inference of causation, the population context of
individual characteristics has been shown to be a stronger
determinant of disease at population level than individual level risk
factors.

Example,
Ecological Study

Example,
Ecological Study

Types of Ecologic Variables

Ecologic variables are classified into three types:
1. Aggregate measures
Summaries (e.g. means or proportions) of observations derived
from individuals in each group (e.g. the proportion of smokers
or median family income).
2. Environmental measures
Physical characteristics of the place in which members of each
group live or work (e.g. air-pollution level or hours of sunlight).
Global measures
3. Attributes of groups or places
The attributes have no distinct analogue at the individual level.
(e.g. population density, level of social disorganization. or the
existence of a specific law).

Examples of Ecological Measures (Variables)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Disease rates (incidence, mortality, etc)

Birth rates
Exposure data: smoking rates
Geographic residence,
Air pollution data
Mean income, per capita
Consumption of saturated fats
Proximity to nuclear power plants

Ecological Fallacy
The ecological fallacy is a type of nias specific to ecological studies.
Ecological fallacy is a fallacy of the wrong level
An ecological fallacy (or ecological inference fallacy) is a logical
fallacy in the interpretation of statistical data where inferences about
the nature of individuals are deduced from inference for the group to
which those individuals belong.
It occurs when relationships which exist for groups are assumed to
also be true for individuals.

 Ecological fallacy is a fallacy of the wrong level

The opposite fallacy is the reductionistic fallacy,
also known as atomistic fallacy, or individualistic
fallacy

Strength
and
Weakness

Measures of Disease and Measures

of Risk Across Study Design