Children are often recognized as an evolving market segment in terms o f purchase power and

influence (Macklin 1994). McNeal (1998) estimates that children 4 to 12 years o f age influence
approximately $188 billion annually in family-related purchases. Advertisers also have realized
the potential influence o f younger market segments and increased their expenditures on
advertising directed to children. The amount o f money spent on advertising during childrens
network program s increased by 41.5% between September 1997 and April 1998 (Lamm 1998).
N ielsen Media Research (1997) estimates the average television viewing time for children aged
2 to 11 as 2.7 hours per day. In the course o f a one-hour program, children are exposed to
approximately 20 to 30 advertisements (Van Evra 1998). Thus, in an average viewing time o f
2.7 hours, the approximate number o f advertisements is between 54 and 81 television ads,
respectively.
The vast amount o f advertising children are exposed to on a daily basis has led researchers to
devote a significant portion o f their research to issues such as understanding the socialization
effects that advertising has on children (e.g., Carlson and Grossbart 1988; Carlson, Grossbart,
and Walsh 1990), as well as the knowledge and understanding that they have o f advertising (e.g.,
Boush, Friestad, and Rose 1994; Friestad and W right 1994; Blosser and Roberts 1985).
However, advertising affects not only children, but also parent-child interactions as advertisers
try to win the consumer dollar by appealing to children who then put pressure on parents to buy
the advertised products, (Van Evra 1998, p. 100).
Prior research in consumer behavior has utilized two basic approaches, cognitive development
and consumer socialization, to explain how children develop as consumers. The cognitive
development literature has generally focused on the capabilities o f children at different stages o f
development. Piaget identified several stages o f cognitive development (Flavell 1963; Piaget
1970). Subsequent authors have examined the information processing o f children (e.g.,
Peracchio 1992), the development o f consumer knowledge in children (e.g., John and Whitney
1986), and age differences in childrens responses to television advertising (e.g., Roedder 1981).
These studies have provided information critical to the understanding o f the capabilities o f
children at various stages o f development, rather than as a function o f their environment.

This is not surprising as evidence suggests that children constitute a major market for
commercial organizations (Nairn et al. 2008) and their roles in family purchases cannot be
trivialised (McNeal 1999; McNeal & Yeh 2003; Young 2003; Shoham & Dalakas 2005;
Gbadamosi 2007). As Chan (2006) notes, marketers are keenly interested in knowing whether
their advertising messages are effective, while policy makers are concerned about protecting the
interests of children. Integrating these two ends has been one of the major challenges in society
for a long time, especially as advertising now constitutes a war between brands and their
presence in the market (Barlovic 2006). For instance, it is reported that children spend 60% more
time watching television each year than they spend in school (Annenberg Public Policy Center
2001, cited in Lindstrom 2004) which tends to support the claim that they watch a great deal
more television programmes than those specifically created for them (OSullivan 2005). Thus,
television appears to be very popular among these young consumers. It is therefore not surprising
that extensive studies have been carried out in this area or related areas previously (see, for
example, Morley 1968; Fletcher 2004; Karet 2004; Barlovic 2006; Edmond 2006; Maher et al.
2006; Panwar & Agihotri 2006; Chan 2008; Lawlor 2009; Lawlor & Prothero 2011).
As has been shown several times in the literature (e.g. Butter et al. 1981; Donohue, Henke, and
Donohue 1980; Macklin 1983 and 1987; Robertson and Rossiter 1974; Stephens and Stutts
1982), some children are able to distinguish between programs and commercials and are aware
of the intent of TV advertising, whereas others are not. There is a general concern of parents and
other societal actors, that TV advertising may have a negative, intended or unintended, influence
on children (Burr and Burr 1977; Goldberg 1990; Goldberg and Gom 1978; Grossbart and
Crosby 1984). Specifically, TV advertising may lead a child to select material objects over more
socially oriented alternatives, potentially increase parent-child conflict and may lead to a more
disappointed, unhappier child (Goldberg and Gom 1978).
Boys and girls differ on a number of things. Such as information processing styles (see e.g.
Hendon, McGann and Hendon 1978). Most studies published in the literature, however, have not
found significant differences between boys and girls with respect to their ability to distinguish
programs and commercials or their comprehension of the selling intent of TV commercials (e.g.
Butter et al. 1981; Macklin 1987).

Parents are generally concerned about the (social) well-being of their children. This wellbeing,
from the parental point of view, might be adversely affected by marketing effort directed at their
children (see e.g. Burr and Burr 1977; Carlson, Grossbart, and Walsh 1990). In particular, TV
advertising on food causes parental concern (Grossbart and Crosby 1984). Visual stimuli or cues
may increase the ability of children aged 5 to 8 year to retrieve information substantially
(Macklin 1994; Roedder 198 1).